Ex Libris
\ C. K. OGDEN
EX BIBLIOTHECA
CAR. I. TABORI S.
GENEEAL PEINCIPLES
OP THE
STRUCTUEE OF LANGUAGE.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
OF THE
STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE
BY
JAMES BYKNE, M.A.
DEAN OF CLONFERT
EX-FELLOW OF TREATY COLLEGE, DUBLIN
IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. IT.
LONDON
TRUBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL
1885
[All rights reserved]
-press
BALT.ANTYNE, HANSON AND CO.
LlJl.MtUKC.ll AND LU.--UO.N
CONTENTS.
BOOK II.
(Continued.}
INDUCTIVE PROOF OF THE CAUSES WHICH HAVE DETER-
MINED THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE.
CHAPTER L— PAET IL— (Continued.)
V. — THE CHINESE, INDO-CHINESE, TIBETAN, AND SYRO- ARABIAN
LANGUAGES — (Continued).
Syro-Ardbian Languages.
PAGE
., *48. Tendency to singleness of idea, with strong sense of verbal
process 1
*49. Consequent deficiency of derivatives ; supplied by combina-
tion of distinct words 3
Arabic.
50. Phonesis guttural, with strong pressure of breath from the
chest; accent 4
51. Personal pronouns, suffixes, and prefixes in the Syro-Arabian
languages ; Arabic pronouns and article .... 5
52. 53. Verbal stems ; high subjectivity 8
54. Active and passive perfect and imperfect of the various stem
forms 10
55. Moods 12
56. Object suffixes 13
57. Formations of substantives and adjectives .... 13
58. Gender of substantives 19
59. Number of substantives 20
60-62. Declension ; arthritic nature of final n and na . 25
63. Numerals ; their gender, declension, and construction . . 27
64. Prepositions, conjunctions, adverbial and negative particles . 28
65. Verbal expression of position in time 29
66. Weakness of comparative thought 29
67. Construction of verbal nouns seems to indicate strong sense of
process 3)
68-70. Weakness of correlation and of the substance of the noun 30
71. No abstract copula 32
72. Irregularities in the concord of the verb and its subject . . 32
73. Constructions for the relative pronoun 33
74. Examples 33
2000585
VI CONTENTS.
Hebrew.
PAGE
§ 75-77. Phonesis as compared with Arabic has less pressure of
breath from the chest, more softness, and a certain indo-
lence ; reduced vowel utterance ; accent ....
78. Pronouns and article
79. Forms of the regular verb 41
80. Object suffixes 44
81. Gender of the noun 45
82. Number of the noun 45
83. Trace of an accusative case ; construct state .... 46
84. Affection of the noun with possessive suffixes ... 46
85. Numerals ; elements of relation 47
*86. Inaptitude for thinking fine elements separately ... 48
87-92. Weakness of comparative thought, of correlation, and of
the substance of the noun ; construction of the numerals ;
substitutes for the copula ....... 48
93. Want of close connection of the verb with the objects and
conditions 51
94. Inaptitude for the passive conception of fact ... 52
95. Order of words 52
96. 97. Imperfect concords in number and gender ; two negatives
strengthen each other ....... 52
98. Examples 53
Syriac.
99. Syriac or Aramaic 60
100. Phonesis harder and fuller than Hebrew, with more pres-
sure of breath from the chest 60
101. Pronouns 62
102. Verbal forms 62
103. Object suffixes 63
104. Gender of nouns 63
105. Derived nouns; nouns in juxtaposition to express a com-
posite idea 64
106. Number of nouns 64
107. Construct state, and emphatic state of nouns ... 65
108. 109. Numerals, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions . . 65
110, 111. Adjectives more usual than in Hebrew ; constructions
instead of them ......... 65
112. Emphatic suffix of the noun compared with the definite
article 65
113. Irregularities of gender and number 66
114. 115. Genitive and construct state, the direct object, construc-
tion of numerals, adjectives, possessive suffix, object suffix 66
116. Substitutes for the verb substantive 67
117. More distinction of tense than in Hebrew; expression of
mood ; ad verbial uses of verbs ; irregularities of concord of
verb and subject ; constnictio prceynaiis; order of words . 67
Ethiopia.
118. Historical sketch of the language ..... 68
1 19. Makes less use of vowel changes than Arabic, and discrimi-
nates the vowels less 69
CONTENTS. Vll
§ 120, 121. Phonesis shows a tendency to utter with small pressure
of breath from the chest ; the syllable ; the accent . . 69
*122, 123. Pluriliteral verbal roots ; contraction of the object of
thought 72
124. Forms of the verbal stem 73
125. Tenses and moods ; reduction of subjective process in the
verb 75
126-128. Formations of nominal stems 76
129. Distinction of gender 79
130. Number in nouns ........ 80
131. Case ; construct state 81
132. Pronouns ; object suffixes ; affection of nouns and of adjec-
tives with possessive suffixes 82
133. Numerals ; their construction ...... 84
134. Elements of relation ........ 84
135. No article ; the suffix defines and connects .... 84
136. Adverbial expression 85
137. Connection of the construct state less close than in Arabic ;
pronominal expression of the genitive .... 85
138. Imperfect concords of substantive and adjective, and of verb
and subject ; substitute for the copula .... 86
139. Order of the words 86
140. Constructions for the relative pronoun .... 86
Amharic.
141. Phouesis softer than Ethiopia and with less pressure of
breath from the chest 87
142. Formations of nouns and adjectives ..... 87
143. Gender, number, and case . . s 88
144. Pronouns 88
145. Forms of the verbal stem ; tenses, moods, auxiliaries v. . 88
*146. Approach to the fragmentariness of African speech . . 90
147. Prepositions and conjunctions 90
148. Order of words ; concords and governments ... 90
149. Example 91
Tamachek.
150. Spoken by the Tuariks in the Sahara .... 92
151. Consonants and vowels 93
152. Distinction of gender ; formation of plural .... 93
153. The marks of case, genitive, dative, ablative are prefixed ; no
article ; numerals have feminine form with feminine noun 93
154. Pronouns ; suffixes
155-159. No adjective except participles ; person elements of
verb ; expression of tense ; vowel changes ; participles ;
derived forms ; negation ; interrogation .... 95
160. Object suffixes ; suffixes attracted by any particle which
affects a verb 96
161. Formation of nouns of the action and of the agent . . 96
162. Deficient sense of relation ; restricted use of adverbs . . 97
163. Mixture of African and Syro- Arabian characteristics . . 97
164. Example 98
viii CONTENTS.
Haussa,
PAOB
§ 165. Consonants and vowels 99
166. Formation of nouns ; various formations of the plural ;
gender principally expressive of sex ; cases expressed by
prepositions ; few adjectives ; order of words . . 99
167. Pronouns
168. Verb; a few instances of derived forms ; tenses
169. Very few prepositions or conjunctions .
170. Examples
100
100
100
100
*171. Reduction in Africa of the object of the act of thought in the
Syro- Arabian languages ; as in the Chinese group it is
reduced in approaching to India 101
VI. — THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
1. Characteristic difference from the Syro- Arabian . . . 102
Sanskrit.
2. Phonesis consonantal, indolent, and tenacious . . . 102
3. Three genders and three numbers of the noun ; formations of
nominal stems ......... 104
4. Case endings 105
5. Degrees of comparison of adjectives ; distinction of genders . 107
(5. Numerals 107
7. Declension of pronouns 107
8-14. Analysis of case endings 109
15. Verb ; strong sense of process ; ten conjugations . . . 113
16. Subjective process 114
1 7-23. Person endings of present, imperfect, potential, and impera-
tive, Parasmai and Atnuine 115
24. The perfect 120
25. Connective i in non-conjugational parts .... 120
26. Two future forms 121
27. Aorist formations ......... 121
28. Benedictive or precative form 122
29. Infinitive 123
30-33. Derived verbs, passive, causal, desiderative, intensive . 123
34. Formation of denominative verbs ...... 125
35-37. Participles ; gerunds 125
38. Prepositions; conjunctions ....... 127
3'J-41. Synthetic tendency ; compounds ; thought passes through
them 127
42-44. Features of syntax ; examples ...... 128
*45. Thought spreads in correspondence with the inferior readi-
ness of excitability 131
Zend,
40. Language of Bnctria 131
47, 48. Phonesis more vocalic than Sanskrit ; the words more
separate .......... 132
49. Three genders ; nominal steins, bubttantive and adjective . 133
CONTENTS. IX
PAGE
§50,51. Case endings ; degrees of comparison ; pronouns . . 133
52-57. Development of the verb compared with Sanskrit . . 134
58. Prepositions ..... . . 136
59. Composition less than in Sanskrit 136
Greek.
60. 61. Phonesis more vocalic than Sanskrit, harder, more active
and versatile ; distinct separateness of words . . . 136
62-64. Declension compared with Sanskrit ..... 137
65-75. Conjugation compared with Sanskrit ; person endings ;
secondary tenses : construction of infinitive with accusa-
tive ; difference of Greek and Sanskrit passive . . . 139
76, 77. Derivative verbal and nominal stems .... 144
78. Composition . . . . ~" 145
79. Accentuation 145
Latin.".
80. Phonesis less vocalic than Greek, softer, less versatile, Avith
more pressure of breath from the chest ....
81. Declension
82. Comparison of adjectives, Latin, Greek, Zend, and Sanskrit ;
ordinal numbers 148
83. Pronouns . 149
84-88. Conjugational element compared with Sanskrit ; person
endings ; formation of tenses ; participles, gerunds, supines ;
order of words 149
89. Derivative verbs and nouns 152
90. Compound verbs . . . 153
91. Accentuation . . . . 153
Celtic.
92-94. Irish and British. Phonesis of both vocalic in a high
degree ; that of Irish indolent, of British soft ; rule of
later Irish, broad vowel to broad, slender to slender ; diph-
thongal tendency in the south of Ireland ; infections of
the vowels ; Irish and British 153
95-105. Changes of the consonants, Irish and British . . 156
106-108. Comparison of Irish and British phonesis ; stronger
pressure of breath from the chest in Irish, and a more
vocal utterance 161
109, 110. The article in Irish and British 162
111-113. Irish and British declension; and degrees of comparison 164
114,115. Irish and British pronouns and pronominal elements . 166
116. Primitive system of the Celtic verb 169
117-119. Prefixed particles, Irish and British .... 170
120-126. Development of the verb, Irish and British ; impersonal
inflection 171
127. Elements of relation 176
128. Derivation and composition 176
129. 130. Order of words, and other features of syntax in Irish
and British . . 176
*131. Examples of Old Irish1; fragmentary character corresponding
to Celtic quickness ; intonation 178
CONTENTS.
Teutonic.
PAGE
§ 132. Teutonic languages. Grimm's law of the changes of the
mutes indicates an increase of breath in the utterance of
the consonants 183
133-136. This seems to have affected the vowels also . . . 185
137. Old High German more vocalic than Gothic . . . 188
138. Exceptions to Grimm's law 188
139. Signs of hardness in the phonesis of High German and of
Anglo-Saxon 190
140. The increased pressure of breath from the chest was accom-
panied in High German by a more guttural utterance, and
probably a reduced pressure in Swedish and Danish by a
more palatal utterance ....... 190
141. Influence of the accent . 190
142. The umlaut, its nature 191
143-148. The strong declension and the weak (the latter an
arthritic formation, 144) in Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and
Old High German 193
149. The strong and weak declension of adjectives . . . 198
150, 151. Both show a weakness of comparative thought . . 199
152. Formation of degrees of comparison in adjectives . . 202
153. Cardinal numerals ; their declension ..... 202
154-156. Pronouns; their declension analysed and com pared with
Sanskrit 202
157, 158. The Teutonic verb has only a present tense and a past,
each having an indicative and an ideal form ; their forma-
tion and person endings in Gothic 206
159. The weak conjugation due to the process not penetrating the
root; remains of passive in Gothic 209
160, 161. The strong and the weak conjugation In Anglo-Saxon
and Old High German 211
162. Anomalous verbs ; auxiliary verbs 212
1G3. Composition 213
164. Gender of nouns 214
165. Negation 215
166. Subjectivity of the verb in the Teutonic languages . . 216
167. Active infinitive and participle used for passive '. . . 216
168. Teutonic thought was not apt to think the subject as object ;
the infinitive less subjective than in Greek . . . 216
109. Gothic expression of Greek tenses; growth of compound tenses 217
170. Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse use the personal pronouns dual
and plural instead of copulative conjunction . . . 218
171. Use of the article in Teutonic ; suffixed in Old Norse . . 218
172. Order of words 219
*173. Spreading tendency of Teutonic thought, in correspondence
with slower excitability 219
Lithuanian.
174. Lithuanian dialects 220
175-178. I'hone.-is tenacious, with weak pressure of breath, and
indolent ; betrays Finnish influence, but more in the
northern dialect than in the southern .... 221
179. After a short vowel the consonant sounds double to a German
ear 223
CONTENTS. XI
PAGE
§*180. Lithuanian roots express changes of radical meaning by
changing the radical vowel, which indicates a tendency of
thought to spread corresponding to a degree of slowness in
mental action 223
181. Nominal stems 224
182. Compound nominal and verbal stems ; suffixes of kindred . 224
183. Cardinal numerals ; masculine and feminine gender . . 225
184-187. Declension of the noun; and of the pronouns and
adjectives 225
188. Person endings and tenses of the verb ..... 228
189, 190. Three stems of the verb distinguished by modifications
of the root or of its vowel 229
191, 192. Optative and imperative formations, participles, forma-
tions with dd, to do 230
193-197. Features of syntax ; attributive part of the substantive
weak ; article suffixed to adjective ; order of words . . 232
198. Strong sense of process in the verb, but little subjectivity . 234
199. The optative better called the ideal ; intensifying construc-
tions ; participles and gerunds used in preference to relative
and dependent clauses ; double negative .... 234
200. Examples 235
Slavonic.
201. The Slavonic race 236
202-204. Old Slavonic phonesis much less vocalic than Lithuanian,
with weak pressure of breath from the chest, indolent and •
tenacious .......... 237
205, 206. Nominal stems ; compound nominal stems . . . 239
207-210. Declension of nouns and pronouns .... 240
211. Declension of adjectives ; comparative degree . . . 245
212. Numerals, their declension ....... 245
213. The<verb has a present stem and a non-present ; formations
of the latter \ . 245
214. Formation of the non-present parts of the verb . . . 246
215. Present parts of the verb . ...... 247
216. Person endings ..• 248
217. Compound tenses 248
*218. Slavonic takes up into the root elements of thought
expressed by changes of its vowels ..... 249
219. Weak comparative thought ; strong sense of possession . 249
220. Weakened sense of gender ; tendency to drop the element of
living force 249
221. The dual number in the Slavonic languages. The plural
shows weakness in the thought of the attributive nature . 250
222. Cardinal numerals ; their gender 251
223. Article not carried out completely in its applications . . 251
224. Negation 251
225. Construction of prepositions ; of the comparative degree ; use
of cases 251
226. Expression of the passive and middle ..... 252
227. Forms of the verb indicating strong sense of process . . 252
228. Concord in number between verb and subject . . . 253
229. Use of parts of the verb 253
230. Construction of infinitive with dative ; verb thought in the
process of accomplishment ....... 254
xil CONTENTS.
Armenian.
PAGE
231. Three periods of the Armenian language . . r. 255
232. Consonants and vowels 255
233. 234. Declension of the noun ; apparent use of an arthritic
element 256
235. Adjectives ; comparative degree 257
236. Numerals ; their inflections 258
237. Declension of the pronouns 258
238. 239. Verb ; present stem ; formation of the parts of the verb 259
240. Few pure prepositions 262
241. Nominal stems -'^
242. Verbal stems 262
*243. No absorption of modifying elements into the root . . 262
244. Features of syntax 262
245. Comparative discussion of Armenian forms .... 263
Bask.
1. Where spoken • 265
2. Phonesis vocalic and tenacious 265
3. 4. Declension of the noun ; order of words . . . 266
6. Adjective ; construction with its substantive ; degrees of com
parison ; suffixes of degree ..... 267
6. Numerals 267
7. Pronouns 268
8-12. Remarkable development of the verb by auxiliary forma-
tions 268
13. Formation of verbal and derivative nouns .... 271
*14. Examples ; Bask does not seem to differ from the mean of
the Indo-European languages in respect of quickness of
thought 271
Conclusion.
* Concomitant variation through all the languages of quickness
of thought and contraction of object 272
CHAPTER II.
MENTAL POWER CONNECTED WITH UNIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTS OP
LANGUAGE, SUBJECTIVITY OF THE VERB, AND DEVELOPMENT OP
GRAMMATICAL GENDER.
1. Superior mental power of the Indo-European and Syro-
Arabian races 274
2. Unification of elements in their languages .... 274
3 Superior subjectivity of tlieir verb 275
4. Tlieir sense of grammatical gender 276
CONTENTS. Xlll
CHAPTER III.
THE FEATURES OP LANGUAGE WHICH ACCOMPANY THE HABITS OP
THOUGHT WHEREIN THE RACE HAS BECOME ADAPTED TO THE
REGION.
Introduction. Pursuit, search, production.
PAGE
§ 1. Necessary to notice the principal forms of activity by which
man supplies his wants 277
2. Eegions where pursuit, search, and production respectively
prevail 277
3. Eegions where they are less distinctly developed . . . 278
4. Their general effects on language 278
I. — The development of the subject and the power of self-direction
of the life.
1. Distinct expression of the subject as such hardly to be found
outside the Indo-European languages ; apparent exceptions
to this 279
2. The power of the Indo-Europeans over the conditions of their
life equally peculiar 280
II. — The nominative tends to follow the verb, if the race has little
habit of deliberation and choice.
1-6. Languages in which the nominative leaves its natural place
and follows the verb 281
7-9. Corresponding want of deliberation and choice . > . 283
III. — The sense of the personality of the subject in the verb is propor-
tional to the guidance of action by self-directing volition in the
mode of life to which the race has been adapted.
1. Evidences of weak subjectivity in the verb .... 285
2. The above correspondence traced through the Oceanic lan-
guages ..... 285
3. the Chinese group of languages .... 286
4. the nomad languages of Central and Northern Asia 287
5. the most northern languages of Asia and Europe ;
the Dravidian ....... 288
6-14. the American languages ; association of object with
subject in the verb ; the] person at the end, gene-
rally where the volition notes strongly the effect,
sometimes where the sense of the subject is
weakened by the realisation not being present or
the volition being weak, 11, 12 ; Bask . . 289
15-16. the African languages ...... 294
17. the Indo-European and Syro- Arabian . . . 296
18. Concomitant variation through the languages . . . 296
XIV CONTEXTS.
IV. — Tlie element of succession of being or doing in the verb is con-
nected with the root, as the needful processes of action are connected
with the accomplishment of their ends, in the mode of life to which
the race has been adapted.
PAGE
1-4. The above correspondence traced through the Oceanic lan-
guages 296
6, 6. the Chinese group of languages .... 298
7. the nomad languages 298
8. Dravidian language 299
9. - — the languages of Northern Asia and Northern Europe 300
10, 11. - — the American languages 300
12. — the African languages 302
13. - — the Syro-Arabian and Indo-European languages . 302
V. — The development of tense accompanies the sense of succession in
the verb and the full suppli/ of interesting events external to the
doings and beings of the speaker.
1. The languages which are most deficient in the expression of
tense belong to comparatively secluded regions . . . 303
2. The expression of position in time is separate from the verb,
where the verb involves little sense of succession . . 303
3. The element of tense appears in that part of the verb where
the sense of succession has the strongest attraction for it . 304
4. The principle traced in Latin compared with Sanskrit and
Greek, in Turkish, Turki, Yakut, Mongolian and Tungusian,
in Woloff, in Chilian and Quichua, and in African speech 304
VI. — Development of moods according to the tendency of the race to
watch for fortune or avail themselves of circumstance.
1 . The above correspondence traced through the African languages 304
2. - the American languages 305
.3. — — the Oceanic languages ...... 306
4. — - the Tamil 307
5. - — the languages of Central and Northern Asia and
Northern Europe 307
(>. - — the Chinese group of languages .... 308
7. - — the Syro-Arabian ....... 308
— the Indo-European 309
9. -• the Busk . 310
VII. — Development of the. pa#sive verb according to the tendency of the
nice to fit ink action in its end ; that of derivative verbs according
to what gives interest to doing and being in the life.
1-3. The first of the above correspondences traced through the
Oceanic languages . . 310
CONTENTS. XV
8 4. The first of the above correspondences traced through the
Syro-Arabian languages 310
5. the African languages ...... 311
6. the languages of Central and Northern Asia and
Northern Europe ....... 312
7. the American languages 312
8. the Chinese group of languages . . . . 313
9. the Indo-European languages and the Bask . . 313
10. The second correspondence traced through the African lan-
guages 314
11. the American languages 316
12, 13. the Polynesian and Melanesian languages . . 317
14. The radical element precedes the derivative element, according
to the scope and need there is for observation . . . 317
15. The second correspondence found in Tamil .... 318
16. thenoinad languages of Asia, and the more northern
languages 318
17. Japanese 318
18. the Syro-Arabian languages 318
19. • the Indo-European languages 319
VIII. — The verb tends to follow what it governs when action has to be
habitually suited with care to object and condition.
1. The above correspondence traced through the nomad languages
of Asia and the more northern languages .... 320
2. • the languages of the African nomads, of the industrial
Asiatic races, and the Indo-European . . . 321
3. the Syro-Arabian languages .
4. the Oceanic languages
5. the African languages
G. the American languages
321
322
322
322
IX. — Genitive and adjective precede when careful attention has habi-
tually to be given to the nature of things. The adjective is
developed according as qualities are supplied in the region which
are appreciated as useful.
1-4. The first of the above correspondences traced through the
languages 323
5. The second 326
6. Expression of personal possession 327
X. — The governing word or element is carried into close connection with
the governed, and elements of relation thought with a due sense of
both correlatives, according as skill is developed in the race. The
development of elements of relation in the language corresponds to
that of art or ingenuity in the race.
1-3. The above correspondences traced through the ; Oceanic
languages 328
XVI CONTENTS.
fPA<3E
§ 4. Postpositions used instead of prepositions where there is need
for careful adjustment of use in handling the objects and
conditions 330
5, 6. The correspondences of this section traced through the
nomadic languages of Asia, and the most northern lan-
guages of Asia and Europe . . . . 330
7-9. the American languages (arthritic constructions 8)
10, 11. the African languages
12. — the Chinese group of languages
13. the Syro- Arabian languages .
14. — — the Indo-European languages .
15. the Bask .
331
333
336
337
337
338
XL — Particularising elements are developed according as there is weak
concentration of practical aim. The plural number in the noun
is favoured by skill in use, and affects the objective part or sub-
stance of the noun. Interest in the nature of objects favours the
dual number. Concrete fulness of substantive idea renders neces-
sary auxiliaries in counting.
1-7. These correspondences traced through the American lan-
guages 339
8-10. - — the African languages (Kafir prefixes 8) . . . 343
11-14. - — the Oceanic languages 347
15-17. - — the Australian and Tamil, and the languages of
Northern Asia and Northern Europe ; the radical
part goes first as they have to give strong attention
to the nature of things and to the modes of action 349
18. the Chinese group of languages .... 350
19-22. - — the Syro- Arabian, Indo-European, and Bask lan-
guages 352
XII. — Is the inclusive and exclusive first person dual and plural con-
nected with need for help in the life of the race ?
The connection not quite traced through the languages so as to
answer the question 355
XIII. — Gender tends to be distinguished as masculine and feminine
the more the race in dominated by the powers of nature.
1, 2. The correspondence traced through the Syro- Arabian and
Indo-European languages ....... 358
3, 4. Genders of the Syro-Arabian and Indo-European numerals 358
5, G. The correspondence traced through the Egyptian, Bari,
Galla, and Hottentot languages 359
XIV. — The digrce of tojntltesis in tlie sentence corresponds to the interest
with which tlic race looks to results.
The correspondence traced through the languages . . . 360
CONTENTS. XV11
XV. — Utterance of the consonants with strong pressure of breath from
the chest corresponds to strength of purpose in the race, their hard
and full utterance to laborious and active habits respectively, their
unrestricted concurrence to versatility, their predominance over the
vowels to thoughtfulness.
PAGE
§ 1. The first of these correspondences traced through the languages 361
2. The second 363
3. The third 365
4. The fourth 366-
CHAPTEK IV.
DECAY OF INFLECTIONS ' AND FORMATIVE ELEMENTS, TENDENCY TO
DETACHED SINGLENESS OF STEM, AND DETACHED ELEMENTS OF
DEFINITION AND CONNECTION, PHONETIC DECAY. MIGRATIONS,
MIXTURES, PROGRESS IN KNOWLEDGE, ARTS, AND CIVILISATION.
1, 2. The above correspondence more or less observable in Greek
and Latin compared with Sanskrit ..... 368
3-9. In modern Greek compared with ancient Greek . . 369
10-20. In the Romance languages compared with Latin . . 372
21. In Celtic 376.
22. In Teutonic 376
23. In Lithuanian and Slavonic 377
24. In the Teutonic umlaut 377
APPENDIX.
COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN WITH THE INTELLIGENCE
OF LOWER VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.
Development as a fact independent of Darwin's theory . . 379
Development of the powers of thought in vertebrate animals in
connection with the development of their brain. The powers
of thinking things, facts, principles, seem to correspond respec-
tively to the development of the anterior, middle, and posterior
lobes of the cerebrum 380
The peculiar endowment in man from which language springs is
the amount of his cerebral energy ...... 395
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE.
BOOK II.
(Continued.)
INDUCTIVE PROOF OF THE CAUSES WHICH HAVE DETER-
MINED THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE.
CHAPTER I.— (Continued.)
PART II. — GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES, NOTING SPECIALLY THE MAG-
NITUDE OF THE ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE AND THEIR TEN-
DENCIES TO COMBINE, VIEWED IN CONNECTION WITH THE
QUICKNESS OF EXCITABILITY OF THE RACE.
Syro-Arabian Languages.
48. That which has always been noted as the peculiar feature of
the Syro-Arabian languages is their tendency to express modifications
of the verb by internal changes of vocalisation of the verbal stem.
In many other languages such internal changes are to be found, but
in none others is this form of expressing variations in the idea of
fact so largely used. There is a certain approximation to the Syro-
Arabian in this respect in the Tibetan, as may be seen by referring to
the remarkable formations given in 36. In these, however, we see a
greater singleness of expression ; as the verb with its variations does
not go beyond the one syllable, but is expressed in one act of utter-
ance which must be prompted by one act of thought. This singleness
belongs to the monosyllabic character which marks more or less all
the Chinese group of languages. The Syro-Arabian languages in
their original and native form, as seen in Arabic, have not a mono-
syllabic but rather a trisyllabic character ; yet all the syllables are by
the vocalisation united into an element of speech which is almost as
single in the thought which it expresses as the Tibetan monosyllables,
for the significance of each vowel in the Syro-Arabian stem belongs not
to the syllable which it sounds, but to the whole stem, which conse-
quently is modified, without being broken, by changes in its vowels.
VOL. II. A
2 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SYRO-ARABIAN. [SECT. v.
The singleness of thought indeed is, from causes to be mentioned
presently, less strict in the Syro-Arabian verb than in the Chinese
monosyllable, though in this, too, it is probably not absolute, for the
inflected tones (3) involve a change of utterance which probably cor-
responds to a change of thought within the idea. But in the Syro-
Arabian verb the divided vocalisation, the person, the reflex object,
the causative element, express different constituents of the idea. And
though they are all fused into a unity by the significance of the vowels,
referring each to the whole, they are distinctly present to the con-
sciousness. What is remarkable, however, is that each element, when
uttered with a vowel which belongs to the whole, must be thought
simultaneously with the whole; so that instead of each part being
thought and then combined, it is thought as combined. The mind, as
it thinks the whole, resolves it into its constituents, but refuses to
break the idea. It cannot be moved to concentrate itself on a part,
but shows a prevailing tendency to think the whole as a single object,
though that singleness is not so great as in Chinese.
The Syro-Arabian singleness is less than the Chinese also in
respect of external additions to the stem, which do not partake of its
vocalisation. But their not partaking of the vocalisation and the
connective elements that are used with them show that they are
outside the single idea, and only partially mingled with it as thought
passes to them (56, 80, 103). The radical idea itself, however, has re-
markable integrity ; and to this probably it is due that the Syro-Arabian
root seldom has the same consonant for the first and second syllables ;
for this would be a reduplication of the first consonant of the second
syllable, and would convey a sense of the second and third syllables, as
constituting the root, and of the root being strengthened by being first
partially thought and then thought entire. The doubling of the second
or third radical consonant, or the repetition of the second as third, does
not suggest the addition of a partial thought of the idea, but rather a
strengthening or extension of the single mental act of thinking the
idea. Generally when the third radical is the same as the first, it
expresses the beginning of a second thought of the radical idea, or
else the first radical expresses the end of a first thought of it ; and the
formation is due to a doubling of the root with a subsequent abbrevi-
ation by dropping the beginning or the end of it.1 Such doubling of
the root is permitted by these languages, but a partial thought of it
is contrary to their genius.
The vocalisation is the most characteristic feature of these lan-
guages, and its meaning must be studied before their essential nature
can be understood. In many languages a difference is to be seen
between verbal roots, which in their original use as verbs have taken
up into themselves a sense of the process of being or doing, and other
roots to which that process has to be added as an external element.
Such a difference has been observed in Japanese (45), and it exists
in Tibetan, distinguishing from the other verbs those which are
conjugated with internal change. This same difference must exist
1 Gesunius, Hebrew Grammar, sect. 30. 2, d. ; Fiirst, Lchrgeb. Arain., sect 161 ;
Dilluiauii, Gram. .Ethiop., p. 101.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SYRO-AHABIAN. 3
between the latter verbs in Tibetan, and all the verbs in Chinese, none
of which take up into the verbal stem any modification in the idea of
the verb, but all of them add this as a distinct idea, the stem being
thought with so little difference from a substantive that the verbal
idea of the root suggests no difference of expression from that of the
substantive idea. (See also III. 93 ; VI. 25, 159.)
Now, this sense of verbal process which in the degree in which it
exists in Tibetan causes the difference mentioned between Tibetan
and Chinese, existing in a still greater degree in the Syro-Arabian
languages, along with greater fulness of idea, causes the difference
between them and Tibetan ; that whereas Tibetan has a monosyllabic
character, they are in their native form trisyllabic. For it is this
abundant sense of the process of being or doing expressed in the
successive syllables that has enlarged the Syro-Arabian stem. And
that this sense of process has got expression without breaking the
unity of the stem or getting outside the limits of the root as an
external element is a striking evidence of the fulness of the mental act
in which the stem is thought, so as to take up this element, and at the
same time of the singleness, of thought with which the mind absorbs
the whole of the latter into the former, instead of spreading into it as
an additional part. This sense of process completed or going on has
in the life of the race become associated in one idea with that which
the root expresses, and is simultaneously thought with the latter in a
single act of the mind. It has a length, as of beginning, middle, and
end, which gives a corresponding length to the expression. And of
this incorporated sense of process the Chinese is destitute, while the
Tibetan has it without this fulness of succession. It is not only the
Syro-Arabian verb which has this pregnant singleness, it tends to show
itself also in the stem of the noun ; for, in truth, the noun, if a verbal
noun, involves the process which is in the verb, and if it be not
verbal, yet its attributive part may be thought in its substance (Def. 4)
as a process of being or doing or as part of such a process, and will
tend to be thought so when, as in these languages, such is the habitual
conception of the verb (81). Elements of gender, number, and case,
and even some derivative elements expressive merely of connection
with a substance, may belong to the noun as external adjuncts, but
they are so fine that they little affect its singleness. The pronominal
suffixes, objective and possessive, are quite external, the mind passing
to them with partial mingling in the connection, or with a connective
element And thus in both noun and verb the Syro-Arabian lan-
guages show a tendency to think the natural units of thought as un-
divided wholes, though not so strictly as Chinese (Book I., chap, i., 10).
49. This tendency to singleness of idea without separation of parts
contained in the idea, causes that comparative absence of roots as
distinct and separable elements of words derived from them, which
distinguishes these languages. Instead of such formations consisting
of a root and a derivative element added to it, there are in the Syro-
Arabian languages combinations of two distinct words which are not
unlike some of the so-called compounds in Chinese (5), and which
indicate a similar cause in the mental action of the race. Chinese
4 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. [SECT. v.
thought indeed is more objective than Syro- Arabian. The former
thinks substantive objects more in their concrete objectivity, the latter
more in their attributive nature (Del 4). And the Syro-Arabian
having more sense of the general, and less concrete particularity of
thought, does not find it necessary, like the Chinese, to join together
two nouns of kindred meaning in order to think a common nature.
Substantive objects are better distinguished from each other by
the roots in Syro-Arabian speech, because the nature which be-
longs to them is more fully thought. There is no need therefore
for the synonymous compounds which distinguish the meanings of
the Chinese monosyllables. But the fundamental similarity between
the two families in the singleness of thought which belongs to
both appears in the tendency to modify a radical idea with a dis-
tinct word, thought separately, instead of with a derivative element
thought as part of the idea. This is to be seen in the Syro-
Arabian languages as well as in Chinese (5), Siamese (19), and
Burmese (21). Tibetan has somewhat more power of thinking an
additional element without passing from the radical idea (38), and it
forms adjectives by adding derivative elements to its nouns (33), as it
also distinguishes tense and mood in some verbs by adding particles
(36). But the Syro-Arabian tends to use instead of a derivative
element a separate word connected with the radical word by syntax.
" The Arabs use several nouns with a following substantive in the
genitive as a substitute for adjectives. These quasi adjectives are
placed after the noun which they qualify, and in apposition to it."
Thus : possessor of learning for learned ; mistress of thorns for
thorny ; son of the way for traveller.1 The same feature may be
noted in the other languages of the family (86, 111); and it is
probably owing to the inaptitude for separating fine elements that in
these languages the verb to be, is thought so concretely, and not as the
abstract copula.
ARABIC.
50. The Syro-Arabian languages developed very deep gutturals ;
and in their most perfect form, the Arabic, utterance had retreated
from the lips, and brought into active service the root of the tongue,
speech being from the chest with strong pressure of breath ; which
facilitated and attracted guttural utterance.
This tendency to guttural utterance seems to have been favoured
by the characteristic structure of these languages. The Syro-Arabian
principle that the radicals should generally be consonants, and the
vowels only modifiers of the radical idea, tends to oblige every syl-
lable to begin with a consonant ; and this rule often required in roots
which had a radical vowel originally, the development out of the
radical vowel of a consonant to go before it and bear the radical
significance. Such consonant would naturally be a deep guttural
thickening of the vowel utterance. Thus Dillmann says of the
1 Wright, Arabic Grammar, Syntax, p. 138.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. 5
guttural spirants or aspirates : " From their middle nature between
consonants and vowels may be explained their extensive use in the
Semitic languages. They very often occur in the formation of roots
where roots having an initial middle or final vowel strive to get a
consonant element, and the weaker utterances first occurring are
thickened to the harder breathings, principally through the influence
of the other radicals." 1
It is, however, only in their pure and native form, Arabic, that
this guttural character of these languages has been preserved. In the
other languages the peculiar gutturals <j and y have been well-nigh
lost, and the preference of w to y as a first radical, which is in Arabic,
has in Hebrew and Syriac been reversed into a preference of y to w
(75, 121).
The Arabic consonants are : h, h, q, <j, g, %, It, g, %, y, t, d, £,
<f, s, t, d, s, z, r, I, n, 9, @, f, b, w, m ; h is the spiritus lenis denoted
by hemza ; y is (Jain c , described as a guttural cj ; <j is 'am c , described
^•" V_
as a strong guttural, unpronounceable to Europeans as well as to Turks
and Persians, uttered with a smart compression of the upper part of
the windpipe and a forcible emission of the breath ; t is td L, a strongly
articulated palatal t ; d is dad .J>, a strongly articulated palatal d; £ and
d1 are sad and zd^ Jj, the aspirates of t, d pronounced with a sibilation.2
The vowels being subordinate to the consonants, are in general
somewhat indistinctly enunciated. When preceded or followed by g,
r/, •£, or £, or by q, t, d, £, if. they are rather more open than with
the other consonants, but as distinguished in writing they are only a,
*, u, long and short, and the diphthongs are ai and au.3
The vowel of a shut syllable is almost always short, that of an open
syllable may be either long or short. A syllable cannot begin with two
consonants, nor can it end with two except in pause,* that is, at the end
of a period. The accent is on the penultimate when long by nature
or position, but when this is short the accent is on the antepenul-
timate.5
51. The personal pronouns in Arabic are given in the following
tables, in which a parenthesis denotes that the included letter is
eclipsed.
The pronoun of the first person, which in Egyptian is anok, seems
akin to the Egyptian root an%, life.6 And the hu of the third person is
akin to Hebrew haicah, to be. In the second person ant- corresponds
to Egyptian ent, and is demonstrative. The dual is stronger than the
plural, for it doubles the idea of the stern which the plural thinks
less distinctly. The slender vowel ?', and the breathless mute t, are
significant of the feminine. The t of the suffix of first person is of
different significance.
1 Dillmann, Gram. JEthiop., p. 36; Fiirst, Lehrgeb. Aram., sect. 100.
2 Wright, Arabic Grammar, p. 3-6. 3 Ibid. p. 7-9. 4 Ibid. p. 24.
5 Ibid. p. 25. 6 Bunsen's Egypt, i. p. 456.
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC.
Syro-Arabian Personal Pronouns separate.
[SECT. v.
Arabic.
Hebrew.
Syriac.
Ethiopic.
Amharic.
i.
hand
fcdnolz, flam
heno
ftana
Venl
•
2. m.
Canto
kaftt
ha(n)t
\anta
hanta, hantu rev.
J
D 1
hertawo more rev.
O
B
2. f.
hanti
M
>.<i(n)ti
''Hit'
hanti, *0ant'
3. m.
huwa
M
hu, hau
•AIM
hgrtu
3. f.
A if/a
Ai
hi, hoi
ythtti
fyrse'icd
J
C2.
/'untnnM
D
( 3.
humd
5
/!•
naxnu
Aanaxn*
Xnan
n?Xna
hJSnd
^
2. m.
' 2. f.
/antum
kantunna
hatem,
haten
ha(n)ttin
ha(n)ten
hantlmii
hanten
| httdnK
1
3. m.
hum
hem
lu>nun,henun,
£
1
henun
vthZtomv,
1
V 3. f.
hunna
hen
honen, henen,
herndntu,
> ertat awe
kenen
•rtyOSn
)
Objective and Possessive Suffixes.
Arabic.
Hebrew.
Sjriac.
Ethiopia
Amharic.
Obj.
Poss.
r i.
-m obj.,
-nt obj., -I
-nt,
-i,
-nt obj.,
-n)! obj., -e poss.
-i poss.
poss.
-ant
pi. -at
-ya poss.
2. m.
•la
-Id
-1,-oi
-ok,
-la
-A obj., -A poss.
pi
pi. -atl
-dt'eAu rev. \ ° i'
< and
J
-atco more rev. )
D '
(poss.
o
2
2. f.
-I-»
-1
-It,
-elt,
-11
-* obj., -; poss.
!»
•(Id
pl.-atlt
3. m.
-Au
-hu, -v, -o
-(Mi,1
-eh, pi.
-ha
-att>2or-*obj.,-uor-aw?
-eh
-au(A)t
poss., -d<'aw?rev.poss.
^ 3. f.
-Ad
-Ad, -A
-A, -oA
-oA,
-Ad
-at obj., -tod poss.,
pi. -eh
•dt'awS rev. poss.
•j
2.
-iumd
8
3.
•humd
a
1.
•nd
-nii
-n, -an
•an,
-na
-naperf. obj., -npres.,
pi. -a in
obj., -ti£?n poss.
2. m.
•kum
-kem
-kun
-kun,
-kemmu
\
pi.
I
•aikun
1 -atthu obj. and
-j
2. f.
-kunna
-ken
-ken
-ken,
-ken
? poss.
g(
pi.
• aiken
j
PL*
3. m.
-hum
-hem, -m}
•Awn,
-homu
•mo
PL
-aiJiun
-dt'awe1 obj. and
3. f.
-hunna
-hen, -n
hen,
•hdn
poss.
pi.
-nihen
i
1 -u(h)i, after y.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : AEABIC.
Subject Suffixes of the Verb.
PERFECT.
IMPEEFKCT.
IMPERATIVE.
d
Z
JO
•£
d
*
o
d
'£.
_o
$
d
1
2
a
§
0
1
!
\
•0
1
n
|
rj
o
a
J
S
1
1
=
3Q
1.
-<«
-«
-et
-ku
-ha
d
2. m.
-to
-«d
-t
-ka
-h
-w rev.
2
-u rev.
PI
~ctt chiL rev.
|
2. f.
-(i
-«
-ti
-kl
•s
-ina
-*,-*»
-in
-Z
-t
-t
-i
-t
IT.
3. m.
3. f.
-a«
-dh
-at
-at
-at'
-t
\
12
-<wmd
3im.
-d
-dni
-d
., .
3.f.
-aid
-dni
-d
/I.
-nd
-nu
-n
-na
-na
-nan1
URAL.
2. m.
2. f.
-turn
-tunna
-tern
-ten
-tun
-ten
-kZmmu
-kSn
id'ghu
•Una
-na
-u
-nah
-un
-on
-w
-d
I'"
-u
-na
~L
-ti
-en
PH
3. m.
3. f.
-u }
-na )
-u,-unl
-M2
-un
-i2
-u
-d
}'*
•una
-na
-un
-u
-nah
-tin
-On
•W
-d
}'"
1
-en
Subject Prefixes of the Imperfect.
d
i
i
'§
i
1
1
I
M
B
<
n
<n
H
<]
f 1
A.
h-
he.
¥•
W-
2 2
<-
t-
te-
tz-
tz-
g | 3. masculine
y-
y-
ne-
yt-
yt-
1 3. feminine .
t-
t-
te-
ts-
a-
!2
t-
3. masculine
y-
3. feminine
t-
f 1.
n-
n-
ne-
n-
h$n-
^ 2
t-
t-
te-
ts-
tt-
N
t* 1 n
V-
ne-
yg-
V 3. feminine
y-
t-
ne-
yg.
yg-
There is also in Arabic a feminine suffix na; and different from
this there is a plural suffix -na, and a dual suffix -ni (see 62).
The tendency to think the act or state ia its general associations
1 Rare. Sometimes dropped.
8 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. [SECT. v.
when thought as completed, i.e., in the perfect, causes the stem to
precede the person; but when thought in the imperfect as still
engaging the subject, the idea of it is limited by its inherence in the
personality of the subject, which it reduces by taking the place of the
subject's life (53), and follows the person in expression ; while number
and gender, when separable from the personality, follow the verbal
stem as not determining the idea of it (Def. 23).
The simple demonstrative pronoun in Arabic is §d, this, that, mascu-
line; @ay, tay, or td, feminine. In the plural of both genders the
stem is hul ; the pronoun is hulya, or huldhi, common gender. Closely
connected in its origin with §a is another monosyllable which is com-
monly used in the sense of possessor, owner, viz., @u masculine, Qatu
feminine nominative, 61, Odti genitive.
Stronger demonstratives are formed from the simple demonstrative
by subjoining to it the suffix of the second person in the gender and
number corresponding to the person addressed, and with or without
the demonstrative element li intervening.
The demonstratives, simple and compound, may be strengthened
also by prefixing lid, which has the same force as Latin -ce, and which
is called by the Arabs the particle which excites attention.
The definite article is hal.1
The relative pronouns are : hallaQl masculine, hallatl feminine, who,
which ; man, he who, she who ; md, that which ; hayyun he who ;
hayyuman, whoever ; hayyumd, whatever. The pronoun man, md is
indeclinable, and is never used adjectively; hallaQl forms a plural,
hallafjfina masculine, hallatl feminine, and a nominative and genitive
dual, kallaQdni, hallaQaini masculine, hallatdni, hallataini, feminine ;
hayyun masculine, hayyatun feminine, is regularly declined in the
singular (59), but has commonly neither dual nor plural.
The relative pronouns, with the exception of hallaOl, are also
interrogative, and to them may be added kam, how much ?
The interrogative man, who ? has the distinctions of gender, number,
and case only when it stands alone ; hayyun when constructed with a
gen.
following noun drops the final n ; as bayyu kitab'in, which book (quid
libri)?
52. The varieties of the verbal stem, or derived forms of the Arabic
verb, indicate a tendency to reflexive formations which express occupa-
tion about self ; they also show an attention to the whole subjective
process, including repetition or intensification, or direction to an end,
and they reveal a habit of connecting action immediately with the
object rather than by transition to the object, transitional or relative
thought not being favoured by the genius of the language.3
The simple and derived forms may be seen in the following example :
(1.) Fayala. "The vowel of the second radical is a in most of the
transitive, and not a few of the intransitive verbs. The vowel i in
the same position has generally an intransitive signification, u in-
variably so. The distinction between them is, that i indicates a
temporary state or condition, or a merely accidental quality in persons
1 Wright, p. 215-218. 2 Ibid. p. 219-223. 3 Ibid. p. 28-43.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. 9
or things ; whilst u indicates a permanent state or a naturally inherent
quality " l (see 79).
(2.) Fayyala; intensive, temporally extensive, numerically exten-
sive, iterative, causative, or factive.
(3.) Fay ala ; effort or attempt, act or state reaching to indirect
object, reciprocal.
(4.) Ilafyala ; causative ; sometimes expresses an intransitive state
thought too objectively to take up the subjective process in all its
strength, so that the realisation becomes causation.
(5.) Tafayyala ; reflexive ; experience by subject, of an action or
effect on self, whether this proceeds from subject or from another.
(6.) Tafayala; reflexive of third.
(7.) ginfayala; reflexive, never reciprocal, the subject being the
direct object of an action which he does or allows.
(8.) Hiftayala ; reflexive, the subject being the direct or indirect
object, reciprocal
(9.) gifyalla (rare) ; colours and defects thought as clinging
firmly.
(10.) Histafyala; reflexive of fourth, the subject being either direct
or indirect object.
(11.) g if y alia (very rare) ; same as ninth in a higher degree.
The following forms are not explained : —
(12.) jlifyauyala.
(13.) pifyauivala.
(14.) ^ifyanlala.
(15.) ffifyanlai.
The causative and reflexive elements are in the beginning, because
they determine the whole idea of the verb as causative or reflexive.
In the fourth form the causation is incorporated in the process of
the verb, taking up its first vowel.
In the seventh, eighth, and tenth forms, the reflex object is incor-
porated in the verb ; n, which is probably less objective than t, blends
into the verb more closely than t, just as in the meaning of the seventh
form the reflex object is more nearly related to the action than in the
others ; and t takes always a to express the movement to it as object ;
this a, however, being in the eighth and tenth forms the initial part
of the process.
In the fifth and sixth forms the verb is stronger, and the reflex
object more distinct.
In the ninth and eleventh forms there is no initial vowel of process,
because it neither goes to the subject nor from it, but only clings to
it. The initial s of the causative element, which has been dropped in
the fourth form, appears in the tenth.
The initial i in the forms after the sixth is euphonic, because two
consonants cannot begin a syllable.
53. The derived forms, as well as others of the characteristics of
the Arabic verb, spring from the high degree of subjectivity with
which it is thought.
For the verb being thought mainly in the subjective process is
1 Wright, p. 28.
VOL. IT. B
10 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. [SECT. v.
varied so as to assume a different form, if it involve a larger expendi-
ture of subjective energy, or a greater reaching of the subject to an
object, or a causation thought subjectively in the cause rather than
in the effect, or a reflex action on the subject, this last being different
according as the subject is more or less distinct in thought from the
subject as object, or the latter from the process.
For the same reason, the thought of the process as engaging the
subject is strongly distinguished from the thought of it as no longer
doing so; the latter tending to part with the sense of the subject
more than if the verb, instead of being thought as no longer engaging
the subject, were thought as an engagement of it in past time, and
the former determining the verb by the subject so as to limit the
thought of it to what it is in the subject. The abstract person,
therefore, or third singular masculine, disappears from the perfect ; and
in the imperfect the person element of all the persons is prefixed.
Moreover, this high subjectivity of the verb causes the thought of
the subjective process to take up a sense of the force of the subject as
masculine or feminine (Def. 16), which it retains even when thought
in the perfect as no longer engaging the subject.
And the verb with its subjective contents is thought in one act
which simultaneously embraces them all.
54. There are two voices, active and passive; and two tenses,
perfect and imperfect, which refer not to position in time, but to
completion or incompletion ; the completion or incompletion being
that of the engagement of the subject rather than of the accomplish-
ment of external fact.
The following are the perfect and imperfect, third singular, active
and passive of all the forms of the verb qatala : l
Active. Passive.
perfect. imperfect. perfect. imperfect.
1. qatala yaqtulu qutila yuqialu
2. qattala yuqattiln quttila yuqattalu
3. qatala ynqatiln qutila yuqatalu
4. haqtala yuqtilu huqtila yuqtalu
5. taqattala yataqattalu tuquttila yutaqattalu
6. taqdtala yataqdtalu tuqutila yutaqatalu
7. hinqatala yanqatilu hunqutila yunqatalu
8. hiqtatala yaqtatilu huqtutila yuqtatalu
9. hiqtalla yaqtallu
10. histaqtala yastaqtlln hustuqtila yustaqtalu
11. hiqtnlla yaqtdllu
If the vowels be taken as having the significance assigned respec-
tively to each in connection with the first form in 52, the vocalisation
of these perfects and imperfects may perhaps be understood as follows.
The vowel of the first radical, which in the active is a, in the passive
is 11, the former expressing motion outward, the latter motion inward.
In thinking the process of doing or being the mind starts from the
subject, and in the natural order of thought what comes first is a
1 Wright, pp. 240, 241.
SECT.V.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. 11
sense of the realisation as outward in reference to the world, or in-
ward as affecting the subject, and of these the former naturally suggests
a and the latter u, for the vowel of the first radical Still thinking
the process with a strong sense of the subject, the mind will have a
sense of it as in its nature passing from the subject or dwelling in the
subject, and in the latter case as on the one hand temporary or acci-
dental or on the other hand permanent or natural ; and these aspects
of it are suggestive respectively of a, *, and it, as the vowel of the
second radical (see 52).
The passive thought as a temporary or accidental state takes i. In
finishing this subjective thought of the process, whether active or passive,
when there is no suffix the mind has a sense of it, when perfect as hav-
ing passed from the subject, and when imperfect as still engaging the
subject, so that the last vowel is in the perfect a and in the imperfect u.
The y which is given above as initial of the imperfect is the prefix
of the third person singular masculine. In the simple form it takes
up the vowel of the first radical, because in the imperfect the realisa-
tion is thought so intimately in the subject. But in the derived
forms the idea of the stem being less simple tends to be more distinct
from the subject, and this takes a vowel of its own, which in the
non-reflexive forms of the active and all the passive is u to express
the continuing engagement of the subject ; but in the reflexive forms
it is a on account of the transition to the reflex object. In the ninth
and eleventh forms also it is a, for in these the verbal stem is thought
as clinging to the subject, and the person has consequently the vowel
which expresses reference to it.
The simple form, if it have a with the second radical in the perfect,
has u or i in the imperfect, the former probably when a transitive action
is thought in the imperfect within the subject as still springing from its
native energy, the latter when the verb in the imperfect is thought as
a temporary state of the subject. If the second radical have i in the
perfect, the verb is thought in the perfect as being in its nature a
temporary state, and this state is thought in the imperfect as passing,
and the i becomes a. But if it be u the verb is thought in the perfect
as a permanent state, and this abides also in the imperfect and u
remains. Verbs whose second or third radical is a guttural retain in
the imperfect the a which their second radical has in the perfect, the
gutturals having an affinity for a, which is uttered more entirely in
the throat than the other vowels.1
The derived forms being less capable, as has been said, of being
thought immersed in the subject, are more superficially involved in it
in the imperfect, and their second radical has i for its vowel. But in
the reflexive forms in which the reflex object is not blended with the
root the transition to it causes the second radical to take a.
The passive is a temporary state, and in the imperfect it is thought
as passing from the subject, and consequently the i of the perfect is
changed to a in the imperfect.
It is only in the third singular masculine of the perfect, which has
no person element, that there is a third stem vowel expressive of the
1 Wright, pp. 56, 57.
12 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. [SECT. v.
being or doing, as having passed from the subject. In the other
persons the suffix of the person is subjoined to the third radical with-
out an intervening vowel, the thought of the person itself as no
longer engaged being such as to render this vowel unnecessary.
So also in the imperfect ; it is only in those persons which have no
suffix of the person that there is a third stem vowel expressive of the
being or doing as still in the subject, this element in the other persons
being replaced by the fragment of the person which is subjoined, the
person being thought as still engaged.
The personal prefixes of the imperfect all take the same vowel as
that, of the third singular masculine.
55. There is a subjunctive mood in Arabic to express a fact as an
aim, or object, or result, or concomitant condition of another fact l (74,
Ex. 10, 15). It must in reference to the latter be future or con-
temporaneous, and cannot therefore be perfect, but is expressed as a
modification of the imperfect. Its difference from the latter is two-
fold ; the final u of the imperfect, which expresses the act or state as
still engaging the subject, is in the subjunctive changed to a, which
expresses it abstracted from such present engagement ; and the sub-
junctive having less vivid realisation in the subject, the suffixes of
person are reduced by dropping their second syllable when they have
one, for their first syllable sufficiently expresses their meaning.
Negation so reduces the realisation of the future that the negative
future is expressed by the subjunctive after the negative.2
There is also a jussive mood used also for what is a supposition or
what depends on a supposition (74, Ex. 13) and for a fact thought as
not in course of realisation yet, or not at a past time 3 (64). It drops
the final a of the subjunctive, being thought with still less realisation
in the subject than the latter (see 64). In the suffixed persons it is
the same as the subjunctive. With the preposition Zz, to, prefixed,
it is used for the imperative, generally in the third person.4 A prohibition
must be expressed by the jussive, as the imperative is always positive.5
The imperative, which is only in the active voice, the jussive being
used for it in the passive, drops the personal prefix of the jussive
with its vowel, and when this leaves two consonants at the beginning,
a vowel must be prefixed, as two consonants cannot begin a syllable.
This prefixed vowel is in the simple form hu-, when the second radical
has u : there being then a strong sense of subjectivity. In the third
or causative form it is ha-, on account of the transitiveness of causa-
tion ; but in all other cases it is hi, which is the vowel that is prefixed
merely for euphony.
Both in the jussive and imperative of the ninth and eleventh
forms, i is inserted for euphony between the third radical and the
repetition of it.
From the jussive are formed two energetic forms, one with -anna
suffixed to it, and the other with -an; and when the person ends in
-1 or u, the a is elided, and the i or u is shortened as being in a shut
syllable. In the dual, which ends in «, and in the second and third
1 Wright, Syntax, p. 18-24. 2 Ibid. p. 16. 3 Ibid. p. 25-27.
4 Ibid. p. 24. B Ibid. p. 28.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. 13
plural feminine, whose final a coalesces with the initial a of the suffix
into a, the final a of the suffix of the first energetic is weakened to i
by the strength of vowel utterance which a absorbs, and the n of the
second energetic begins a syllable and takes i to sound it.1
There are quadriliteral verbs, which are formed either from the
repetition of a syllable expressive of sound or movement, or from the
addition or insertion of a letter, generally a liquid or sibilant, in a
triliteral verb, or as denominatives from nouns of four letters, some of
them foreign words, or as combinations of the most prominent syllables
or letters in certain very common formulas. They also admit three
derived forms, as (1.) qamtara, (2.) taqamtara, (3.) hiqmantara, (4.)
hiqmafarra. The second of these agrees in signification with the
fifth of the triliteral verb ; the third is intransitive ; and the fourth is
intransitive, intensive or extensive.2 The four forms throughout their
inflection follow respectively the second, fifth, seventh, and ninth
forms of the triliteral verb.3
If the second and third radical of a triliteral verb be the same con-
sonant, they tend to unite in a double consonant, instead of being
repeated at the beginning of successive syllables.
And if any of the radicals be A, w, or y, they are variously absorbed
by the vowels. But the irregularities caused in these two ways are
merely euphonic.4
56. The Syro-Arabian verb tends to catch a sense of the persons
affected objectively by the doing or being, and consequently to take a
personal suffix of the object. These suffixes are the same as the pos-
sessive suffixes of the noun, except that the first singular objective is
-ni and the first singular possessive is -i, which seems to indicate that
the thought of self coalesces with what belongs to self more than with
what affects self, so that it is more strongly felt as an additional
element with the latter than with the former.
These suffixes, moreover, have no part in the vocalisation of the verb,
and are therefore external to its unity, though there is a slight ming-
ling sufficient to attach them as the mind passes to them.
A verb may take two object suffixes provided they are different
from each other, the first being the direct object and the second the
indirect, and the first person preceding the second on account of its
superior interest, and the second person the third for the same reason.
And if the more remote person is the direct object, then it is suffixed,
and the other is expressed separately. The personal object may also
be thought separately owing to emphasis. And in this case, as in the
former, it is expressed by the possessive suffix attached to hiyyd 5
(Ethiop. Jciya), which seems to be a demonstrative element brought
out by transition to the personal pronouns as objects and needed to
give objective substance to them when used separately as objects on
account of the subjectivity with which they are usually thought (see
IV. 38, 84, 86, 116).
57. There is this essential distinction between the verb and the
verbal substantive, that the being or doing is thought in the verb as
1 Wright, Syntax, pp. 58, 59, 241. 2 Wright, pp. 43-45, 240.
3 Ibid. p. 65. 4 Ibid. p. 65-95. 6 Ibid. p. 103-105.
14 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. [SECT. v.
an affection of the life of the subject (Def. 11), but in the substantive
as the fixed nature of a substantive object of thought (Def. 4), so
that the process of being or doing, which in the verb is like a part of
the fleeting consciousness of a subject, acquires when abstracted in a
substance of its own the fixity of that substance. Hence probably
arises the tendency of the Arabic verbal noun to lengthen that one of
the vowels of the verbal stem, whose significance is most strongly
involved in the substantive idea. Thus the noun of the agent thinks
the action issuing from its source, and lengthens the first vowel, which
expresses the first part of the thought of the process ; the noun of the
action generally thinks the action in its middle course, and lengthens
the second vowel. But if the noun express the whole process of the
act of state it will be thought with more of the movement of the verb,
and there will be no such prolongation, and if it express the effect, then
the sense of process, and therefore the vocalisation, will be reduced.
Moreover, the loss of movement in the noun as compared with the
verb tends, it seems, to cause the being or doing to be thought as
abiding in the subject, and consequently to make the vowels less open.
The third vowel of the verbal stem is suppressed by the substance
of the noun which is thought at the end.
The verbal nouns of the simple verb have many different forms,
but all these nouns cannot be formed from every verb. The majority
of verbs admit of but one form, very few of more than two or three.1
The first five of the following forms are the most frequently used.
The probable original significance of the various forms may be conjec-
tured as follows :
(1.) Fatjlun is the form of the abstract noun of action of transitive
verbs, the reduced vocalisation probably indicating that it is thought
rather in the object or effect than in the subjective process ; -un is the
nominal termination in the nominative case.
(2.) Fuijulun is the abstract noun of active intransitive verbs of
the form fag ala. The loss of subjective movement causes the action
to be thought as dwelling more deeply in the subject, so that a in
both syllables becomes u.
(3.) Fcufalun is the abstract noun of intransitive verbs of the form
fa/fila. These are temporary states (52) thought in their whole pro-
cess as they engage the subject ; and with the second radical they
take a like the imperfect of the verb to express the state as passing.
(4.) Fagalatun Kn&fugvlatun are abstract nouns of verbs of the
form fay ula. These are permanent states or qualities of a subject
(52) ; and being thought as nouns they take the feminine suffix to
express them as subordinate appurtenances of the subject. Being
thus connected with the subject they take a in their radical part,
probably when thought in reference to the outer world, and u when
thought as within the subject. Thus sahula, was smooth, makes
H'llialatun and suhulatun, smoothness, ease.
(5.) Fitful nn is the abstract noun of verbs of flight or refusal. The
strength of the idea is the course of action in reference to an object,
and the strength of this reference and the loss of subjective movement
1 Wright, p. 110.
SECT, v.j GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : AEABIC. 15
in the noun cause the verbal radical to be thought rather as pertaining
to the subject than as issuing from it, so that the first vowel is changed
from a to i.
(6.) Farjllun is the abstract noun of verbs of change of place
thought as an accidental condition (i) of the subject which has pro-
ceeded from (a) the subject. The same form is used for verbs of sound.
(7.) Fufjalun is the abstract noun of sickness or ailment; the
course of a passing condition (a) in which the subject is passive (u).
The same form is used for verbs of sound.
(8.) Facfalanun is the form of nouns expressive of violent or con-
tinuous motion. The strong element is an, which probably expresses
the doing with fixity in a substance.
(9.) Figalatun is the form of nouns of office, trade, or handicraft.
These are thought as subordinate appurtenances of the subject to
whom the course of action belongs, and take the feminine suffix ; and
the course of action is thought rather as a potentiality belonging to
the subject than an activity proceeding from him, so that the first a
is changed to i.
If a verb has several different significations without change of form,
it has often different abstract nouns, one peculiar to each meaning.
The nomina verbi are used both in an active and a passive sense, as
qatlu-hu, his killing, or his being killed.1
(10.) In the second form of the verb (52), the course of the action is
so increased by its intensity or its extension, that in the abstract
noun the thought of the action in its beginning is weakened ; and
the subjective movement of the verb being lost in the noun, the
action, instead of being thought as issuing from the subject, is thought
as pertaining to it like a neuter, so that the first vowel is i, and the
form of the noun is fitjgalun; or it is thought more (a) or less (i)
as affecting the subject reflexively, so that the form of the noun is
tafifalun or tiff/dlun.
The course of the action of the second form of the verb may even
be thought in the noun as a state affecting the subject reflexively with
or without subordination to the subject as an appurtenance, so that
the noun is tafyilatun or tafijllun ; the feminine element attracting
to itself the fixity of the substance, so that when, it is taken the
second vowel is not lengthened.
The reflexive element takes up the vowel of the first radical, and
then the second radical cannot be repeated, as two consonants cannot
begin or end a syllable,
(11.) In the third form of the verb, the effort or the reaching to
the indirect object is more or less taken up by the course of the
action when abstracted in a verbal noun, the first vowel being
shortened in the former case and left long in the latter ; and thought
is thereby drawn from the beginning of the process, so that with the
loss of subjective movement in the noun the sense of the process as
issuing from the subject is lost, and the first a is reduced to i.
Fiyalun orfufalun is therefore the form of the noun.
Moreover, the doing or being may be thought in its whole process
1 Wright, pp. 110, 111.
16 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. [SECT. v.
without taking into itself any fixity of . the substance, but this being
added in external elements. The subjective process of the verb
becomes the attributive nature of the noun by prefixing the indefinite
pronoun m with the subjective vowel u, and the substance takes the
feminine element to make it a subordinate appurtenance of the subject.
Mufdgalatun is then the form of the noun of the third form of the
verb ; and its meaning may be rudely expressed as what is the effort,
&c., of the subject.
(12.) In the abstract nouns of the other forms of the verb, the
course of the action thought as the principal part of the idea, and
therefore lengthening the vowel of the second radical, weakens the
sense of outgo from the subject, so that with the loss of subjective
movement in the noun the preceding vowels are changed from a to i.
The noun of the sixth form, however, is tafagulun, and that of the
fifth may be tafas/yulun,1 in both which the course of the action,
instead of being thought as the principal part of the substantive idea,
which takes the fixity of the substance and gives length to the vowel
of the second radical, is thought only with loss of subjective move-
ment so as to change its vowel from a to u, without any weakening of
the preceding vowels.
(13.) The quadriliteral verbs form their abstract nouns like those
forms of the triliteral verb with which respectively they agree in
their inflection.1
The nouns formed from verbs which have amongst their radicals £,
w, or y, are subject to euphonic irregularities like the verbs themselves.
(14.) Nouns which express the doing of an action once, if from
the first form of the verb, are faglatun, if from the second form they
are tafyilatun.2
The feminine suffix indicates the subordination of a particular
instance to the abstract noun of action. The feminine form of a
general noun denotes an individual of the genus.3
(15.) Fvjlatun* expresses a comparative, and therefore light
thought of a kind of action belonging to the subject.
(16.) If the pronoun ma be substituted for ya in the imperfect third
singular masculine, and the vowel of the second radical when it is u
be changed to a, otherwise left unchanged, and the final u be changed
to un, we shall have a nominal form which will mean what has the
passing action or the accidental state ; and it is used to express
nouns of time and place. Thus from sariba, he drank, yasrabu, he is
drinking, masrabun, time or place of drinking.4
The noun of time and place sometimes has the feminine suffix
because it is thought as a subordinate appurtenance of the action.5
But the idea of the action is then strengthened and the second
radical generally has u, as in the imperfect of active verbs.
The noun of place, mafyalatun or inafijalun, formed from the
stem of a substantive, and generally with the feminine ending,
denotes a place where the substantive object is found in large
quantities.3
1 Wright, p. 112.
4 Ibid p. 118.
1 Ibid. p. 117. 3 Ibid. p. 133.
5 Ibid. p. 121.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. 17
The nouns of time and place of the derived forms of the verb are
identical in form with the nomen patientis or passive participle.1
The strength of the verbal idea dominates the time or place, and
makes it be thought as passive recipient.
(17.) The noun of the instrument is mifyalun, mifyalun, or
mifgalatun.2 The action belongs only proximately to the instrument,
and therefore the first vowel is i. The first form takes up into the
course of action the fixity of the substance, the third expresses the
instrument as a subordinate condition. The noun of the instrument
formed on the stem of a substantive denotes what contains the sub-
stantive object.3
(18.) The noun of the agent is fdyilun,* in which the outgo from
the subject as principal part of the idea has taken up the fixity of the
substance, and lengthened the a of the first radical. The course
of the action is lightly thought, so that with the loss of subjective
movement in the noun, the vowel of the second radical becomes i.
The nomen patientis is mafyulunf in which the verb is thought as
facfula instead of furjila, ; that is, as if it were manifested by the
subject (a), as a state dwelling in the subject (u), instead of being
received by the subject (it) as a temporary state of the subject (i).
The passive state is thought, not in its reception by the subject, but
rather as belonging to the subject ; it may be past or habitual, but in
either case characterises the subject. The indwelling of it is the
principal part of the idea, and takes up the fixity of the substance, so
that u is lengthened ; and the first vowel is taken up by the pro-
nominal prefix m.
The verbal stems of the derived forms of the verb are so strong
that they maintain themselves in the nomen agentis and nomen
patientis, and do not take up the fixity of the substance. These
nouns are therefore the same as the third singular masculine of the
imperfect active and passive respectively, m being substituted for y,
and un for the final vowel ; except that in the nomen agentis m takes
u in all the forms because there is less subjective movement than in
the verb, and the second radical for the same reason takes i instead
of a in the fifth and sixth forms.5
(19.) The forms of some of the adjectives differ from those of the
verbs which have corresponding meanings, in their vocalisation being
less fully expressive of the process ; as if the verbs were derived from
the adjectives by taking the appropriate vowels. Some adjectives
differ from the verb in the perfect merely by having the nominal ter-
mination un instead of the final vowel of the verb. Other adjectives
are formed from the verbs by lengthening a vowel, generally that of
the second radical, as if with sense of the fixity of the substance to
which the adjective belongs, and sometimes changing the vowels so as
to be less expressive of the subjectivity or of the subjective movement.
Some adjectives take a suffix -dnu or -dnun, dropping at the same time
the vowel of the second radical, perhaps to express their abiding in a
1 Wright, p. 122. 2 Ibid. p. 123. 3 Ibid. p. 134.
4 Ibid. p. 124. 5 Ibid. p. 129.
18 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. [SECT. v.
substantive object ; as if their connection with it were not quite
taken up into the idea of them. Others take a prefix like that of the
causative form of the verb, dropping at the same time the vowel of the
first radical, as if to express a sense of the quality as an external
affection ; but generally this prefix denotes an eminent degree of
the quality as if it expressed a sense of an additional infusion
of it1
Adjectives of the forms fayilun, faylanu, or hafyalu, if the latter
denotes a colour or deformity, are chiefly derived from neuter verbs
fagila, whilst neuter verbs fagula generally give rise to adjectives of
the form faylun, fagilun.2 The former are thought as accidental
states (52), the second and third of them terminating in u like the
imperfect, as if engaging a subject, instead of in n as belonging to a
substance. The latter are permanent states (52), and the first of them
has lost subjective movement, and the second has taken \\p the fixity
of the substance, lengthening the vowel of the second radical, at the
same time losing subjectivity as being an adjective and changing
w to i.
Fayllun, when derived from transitive verbs, has usually a passive
sense ; and the same is sometimes the case with fagulun ; the sense
of state less or more subjective taking up the fixity as the principal
part of the idea. But these two forms, especially the latter, often
indicate either a very high degree of the quality or an act done with
frequency or violence,2 the course of the being or doing thought as a
state and as the principal part of the idea.
Fayydlun is an adjective of intensiveness or habit, corresponding
to the second form of the verb, and it gets additional force of mean-
ing from taking the feminine ending -atun ; 3 because this implies, that
the strength with which it is thought has partially detached it from
its noun and given it a substantive nature (see the Sanskrit numerals).
Other intensive forms less usual are fuyyalun, fiyyllun, fugalatun,
faggulun, fuygulun.
Except the adjective of eminence hafyalu, there is no form to express
degrees of comparison.4
(20.) Adjectives are formed from substantives to denote connection
with the substantive object, by subjoining -iyyun to the stem of the
substantive after having dropped any ending of gender or number,
and sometimes submitted to euphonic change. If the substantive be
a proper name 5 compounded of two words, that one which is the
more strongly thought takes -iyyun, and the other is dropped. The
feminine of the preceding form, -iyyatun, denotes the abstract idea of
the substantive on which it is formed.6
(21.) The form of the diminutive noun is fuyailnn, and in quad-
rilitcrals fuyaigilun? in which the u perhaps expresses imperfect
development of the nature, like the u of the imperfect of the verb,
and i is an element of weakness, like the feminine i. The weakness
1 Wright, pp. 125, 128. 2 Ibid. p. 126. » Ibid. p. 127.
4 Ibid. p. 12». 8 Ibid. p. 134-143. 6 Ibid. p. 145.
7 Ibid. p. 146.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. 19
falls on the part which expresses the continuing nature of the
noun.
Proper names consisting of two words form their diminutives on
the first word, the second remaining unchanged.1
58. In respect of gender Arabic nouns are divisible into three
classes, those which are only masculine, those which are only femi-
nine, and those which are both masculine and feminine.
That a noun is of the feminine gender may be assumed either from
its signification or from its form.2 The nouns which are feminine
by signification denote substantive objects whose attributive nature
(Def. 4) belongs properly to a feminine substance, and suggests this
without expression ; the nouns of feminine form are those whose
attributive nature needs to be embodied in a feminine substance by
an added element, that the noun may be feminine.
The nouns which are feminine by signification are those which
belong to the female sex; those which signify countries or towns
regarded as the mothers of their inhabitants ; fire or wind, which are
of a yielding nature ; certain parts of the body, especially those parts
which are double, for they are each more subordinate than the single
ones ; collective nouns which denote living objects destitute of reason,
and which do not form a noun of the individual by means of the
feminine suftix -atun (57), for collectives lose force with loss of indi-
viduality ; and certain other nouns whose nature, though thought as
feminine, cannot be brought under any feminine class.3
Nouns feminine by form are those which end in -atun, -ai, -a, or
-dhu.
From most adjectives and some substantives of the masculine gender
feminines are formed by subjoining one of the above endings.
The most usual termination, by the mere addition of which femi-
nines are formed, is -atun.
Feminines in -ai or -a are formed from adjectives of the forms
fagldnu, whose feminine is fag'lai, and hafgalu, superlative, whose
feminine isfuglai.
Feminines in -dhu are formed from adjectives of the form bafgalu,
which have not the comparative signification, whose feminine is
fagldku.*
It is to be observed that adjectives of the form fagldnu or hafgalu
differ from the others in not having the final n, which is characteristic
of the noun ; as if they had less sense of the substance to which they
belong (57). And to this their meaning corresponds. For fagldnu
denotes an accidental state, being formed from verbs of the form
fagila (57) ; and is not quite thought as part of the idea of a sub-
stantive object, but in some degree as rather affecting such an object
(129). And hafgalu, with the superlative meaning, has a comparative
reference to other objects which tends to draw thought from that
which it qualifies. Adjectives of the form hafgalu, which are not
superlative, express colour or defect, thought as external accidents
(57). These adjectives, having less sense of the substance, give
1 Wright, p. 148. ! Ibid. p. 153. 3 Ibid. p. 153-155.
4 Ibid. pp. 157, 158.
20 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. [SECT. v.
weaker expression to it in the feminine as well as in the masculine.
And as the weakly thought substance is less distinct, it blends with
a less distinct element of gender, which is taken up partly by the
adjective attribute; fasjlanu is weakened by dropping -an-, which
seems to connect attribute and substance, the weak substance and
attribute of the feminine combining without such connection ; and
hafgalu in the feminine drops the strong prefix ha-, which, like the
causative of the verb, seems to express an access of the attribute as
if from an external source. Does fiujlai convey a sense of passive
reception in having u for the vowel of its first radical 1
Fagulun when used adjectively with the meaning of the active
participle, fayllun when used adjectively with the meaning of the
passive participle, and mifg'alun, mifydlun, mifyilun, nouns of the
instrument, when used adjectively to attribute strongly a property
or action, as if the substantive was an instrument for its efficiency,
do not make a feminine,1 for they have a weak sense of the substance
to which they belong. They are of so verbal a nature that they are
not quite thought, like adjectives generally, as part of the idea of the
subject which they qualify (Def. 6), but in some degree as only affecting
it ; and they have not a substance of their own like the nomina
agentis, patientis, and instrumenti, which are substantives.
Adjectives which by their signification are applicable to females
only, do not usually form a feminine,1 for they receive no modification
in idea from being used with a female substantive.
Collective nouns denoting animals or plants which are thought with
such strength that they form a noun of the individual as a subordinate
part, also the names of the letters of the alphabet and words regarded
as words, and a considerable number of other nouns, are sometimes
masculine and sometimes feminine.2
59. Arabic nouns have three numbers, singular, dual, and plural.
The dual is formed by -dni (51), subjoined to the stem after drop-
ping -un ; certain euphonic changes taking place if the stem ends in y
or «7.3
There are two kinds of plurals in Arabic ; one which has only a
single form for each gender, and is called by the grammarians the
pluralis sanun, because the vowels and consonants of the singular
are for the most part retained in it ; the other, which has various
forms, and is called the pluralis fractus, because it more or less alters
the singular by the addition or elision of consonants or the change of
vowels.4
The pluralis sanus, nominative case, of masculine nouns, is formed
by adding -una to the stem, -un having been dropped ; that of femi-
nine nouns by adding -atun to the stem, or if the singular end in
-atun by lengthening the a. In taking these endings, stems with
final ?/ or w are subject to certain euphonic changes. And if the
middle radical of feminine nouns has no vowel in the singular, it
takes in the plural either a or the vowel of the first radical.5
1 Wright, p. 159. ! Ibid. pp. 155, 156. » Ibid. p. 160.
4 Ibid. p. 161. B Ibid. p. 161-163.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. 21
The pluralis sanus masculine is formed —
From proper names of men, not ending in -atu, their diminutives,
and the diminutives of common nouns denoting rational beings.
From verbal adjectives which form their feminine in -atun.
From adjectives of the form hafyalu, which have the comparative
or superlative signification.
From adjectives in -iyyun.
From the words hibnan, for banayun, a son, plural banuna ; ydla-
mun, one of the four classes of created things, plural ydlamuna ;
hardun, the earth, plural karaduna ; hahlun, a family, plural halduna ;
§u, the possessor of a thing, plural Ouuna ; and from the numerals for
the tens from 20 to 90.
All the above have, in the singular, a definiteness of idea, and
corresponding distinctness of substance (Def. 4).
Adjectives, however, have the pluralis sanus only when joined to
substantives denoting rational beings. With other nouns they have
less strength of individuality.
Plurales fracti also are formed from substantives and adjectives
that have the pluralis samis, but especially from adjectives used sub-
stantively, as these have less individuality.
Some feminine nouns, especially those which have dropped a third
radical h, y, or to, have a pluralis sanus masculine, with elision of the
termination -at,1 having apparently lost in the plural the sense of
subordinateness which they had in the singular.
The pluralis sanus feminine is formed —
From proper names of women, and such names of men as have the
termination -atu.
From feminine adjectives whose masculine has the pluralis sanus.
From feminines in -ai or -dhu.
From the names of the letters, which are generally feminine.
From the names of the months.
From the feminine verbal nouns and all verbal nouns of the derived
forms ; but those of the second and fourth derived forms admit also
a pluralis fractus.
From nouns of foreign origin, even when they belong to men.
These suggest only the thought of the object or substance, but in the
plural that thought is reduced to what is common to the individuals,
and is thereby so weakened as to be feminine.
From a good many masculine nouns which have no pluralis fractus,
and some feminine nouns which have not a feminine termination.
From verbal adjectives which are used in the plural as substantives,
and from non-rational diminutives, even when masculine.2
All the above have a distinct sense of the singular substance, but
the reduction of the stem in the plural to what is common to the
individuals weakens some masculines, so that their plural is thought
like that of feminines.
The more usual forms of the pluralis fractus of substantives and
adjectives with three radicals are the following, with the correspond-
ing singular forms :
1 Wright, p. 164. - Ibid. p. 164-166.
22
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC.
[SKCT. V.
Pluralis Fractus.
1. fugalun
2. fuglun
3. fugulun
4. figalun
5. figalun
6. fugulun
7. fug g (dun
8. fug g dlun
9. fagalatun
10. fugalatun
11. figalatun
12. figlatun
13. hafgulun
14. hafgdlun
15. hafgilatun
1C. fawdgilu
17. fagdhilu
18. figldnun
19. fugldnun
20. fugaldhu
21. hafgildhu
22. /a</'/a£
23. faynlin
24. /ay' ali/a
Singular.
faglatun, figlatun (rare), fufflatun, fuglai.
hafgalv, not comparative or superlative ; its
feminine, fagldhu.
fagalun, fagilun (rare), fagalun, fig dlun, fugdlu ??,
fagll-un, fagllatun, faguhin.
figlatun.
faglun,figlun,fuglun,faglatun,fuglatun,fagdlurt,
fagalatun, fagulun ; also the verbal adjectives
« M
faglun, fagldnun,fagldnuj fagilun not passive,
and their feminines, and fagilun, verbal adjec-
tive.
fdglun, figlun, fuglun, fagalun, Jigalun, fdgilun,
verbal adjective (rare).
fagilun, verbal adjective ; its feminine, fdgilatun.
fagilun, verbal adjective.
fagilun, verbal adjective, denoting rational beings.
fagilun, same derived from verbs with w or y for
third radical
faglun, figlun (rare), fuglun.
f aglunj'uglun, fagalun, fag dlun,fiig dlun, fag linn,
faglun, fagalun, figlun, fuglun, feminine quadri-
literal, not ending in -at, with radically long
vowel to second radical,
triliterals of all forms, but rarely fag' lun and/M</'-
lun ; fagilun, fag'ilun (rare).
fag lun fig lun fuglun (rare),/o/f o/Mtt (rare), nouns
with radical long vowel to second radical.
fdgalun;fdgilun, substantive, also masculine verbal
adjective (rare), also verbal adjective with signi-
fication applicable only to females ;fdgilatun.
feminines with vowel of second radical, radically
long, with or without -atun.
fuglun from roots having w for second radical,
fa/falun, fug'alun, fug dlun, fagilun (rare).
fag' lun, fagalun, fagilun, fdg'ilun verbal adjective
used as substantive, hafgalu not comparative.
fagilun, verbal adjective, applicable to rational
beings and not passive, fdgilun, some masculine
adjectives rational not passive.
fo/filun, masculine adjective like preceding, derived
from verbs whose middle radical is y, w, or
double.
fagilun, fagilun, fagilun, hafg'alu, being verbal
adjectives of injury, defect, &c.,fagldnu.
fagldhu,faglai, figlai, fuglai feminine adjective,
same as 23, fagldnu, fagilun, verbal adjectives,
fagilatun, feminine substantives from verbs
with third radical y or w.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. 23
Pluralis fractus.
25. fagilun
(rare)
26. fuyulatun
(rare)
27. fay'dlatun
(rare)
28. fayalun
(rare)
29. faylun
Singular.
fag1 lun, fiy dlun, fay ilun.
fay* lun.
fatfalun, fay1 ilun.
faylatun, fafjalatun, fay1 ilun.
fay ilun.
(rare)
Quadriliteral substantives and adjectives, with four radicals, or
formed from triliteral roots by prefixing A, t, or m, have a pluralis
fractus of the form fa/J alii.
Quinqueliterals,MDf which the penultima is a long radical vowel,
have pluralis fractus faydlilu.
Substantives and adjectives of five or more letters, generally of
foreign origin, of which the penultimate is a long radical vowel, or of
four or more letters without long radical vowel, have pluralis fractus
faydlilatun.1
The above correspondences between forms of the pluralis fractus and
forms of the singular are subject to many exceptions. The dictionaries
also give many forms which have not been noticed in the above table.2
Many forms of the pluralis fractus seem to be derived from obsolete
forms of the singular, as futfalahu, plural of fay ilun, from an obsolete
One singular may have several forms of the pluralis fractus ; as
ba^run, the sea, ba%aritn, bu%urun, hab%urun; yabdun, a slave,
yibddun, yabidun, haybudun, yubddnu.
One singular may have several plurales fracti and a pluralis sanus
besides. And in such cases, if the singular has several meanings, it
often happens that each of them has one or more forms of the plural
which are peculiar to it or used in preference to the rest ; as baitun,
a house, plural generally buyutun; baitun, a verse, plural always
habydtun ; yainun, an eye, plural generally yuyunun or hayyunun ;
yainun, a fountain, plural the same ; yainun, a peculiar nature,
hayydnun ; batnum, the belly, a valley, a tribe, plural generally
butunun or habhinun ; batnun, the interior, plural butiidnun.3
"As regards their meaning, the plurales fracti are totally different
from the sound plurals ; for the latter denote several distinct individuals
of a genus, the former a number of individuals viewed collectively,
the idea of individuality being wholly suppressed.
The plurales fracti are consequently, strictly speaking, singulars
with a collective signification, and often approach in their nature to
abstract nouns. Hence, too, they are all feminine, and can be used as
masculine only by constructio ad sensum." 4
And being a singular noun, the plural is fractus sometimes admits the
formation of a plural from it.5
1 Wright, p. 166-187. " Ibid. p. 182. 3 Ibid. p. 183.
•» Ibid. p. 189. 5 Ibid. p. 188.
24 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. [SECT. v.
" The pluralis sanus and the plurales fracti of the twelfth,
thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth forms are used only of persons
and things that do not exceed ten in number (three to ten). But
this applies of course only to such nouns as have also other plurals,
for if one of the forms alone be used, it is necessarily employed
without any limitation as to number." l
The formation of the plural of Arabic nouns is a remarkable and
instructive feature of the language. Only a limited portion of the
nouns form the pluralis sanus, expressing thereby a sense of the mani-
fold individuality ; and many of these, if not the most, form it only
when the individuals do not exceed ten ; the individuals, if they
exceed ten, being lost in an aggregate. The pluralis sanus, as its
name implies, preserves that part of the noun which expresses in the
singular its attributive nature; and in the masculine the plural
ending is external to the stem. But [in the feminine the plural
element enters into the stem, lengthening the a which belongs to its
final syllable. And also feminine nouns whose middle radical has no
vowel in the singular, suffer extension in the pluralis sanus by taking
a vowel with that radical. The individuality of a feminine is weaker
than that of a masculine ; and it is natural therefore that it should be
less distinctly preserved in a plurality. In the pluralis fractus the
individuality is lost, yet not so completely as in a collective noun.
The latter is thought with an attributive nature which is irrespective
of the different individuals. The former is thought with the attri-
butive nature altered by the individual to which it belonged being
merged in an aggregate. The sense of multiplicity or repetition not
being preserved in the substance (Def. 4) tends to be taken up by
the attributive nature ; and various stems are variously altered by
such repetition, according to the idea which they express. It is not
possible to account for the changes ; but it may be said generally that
the attributive nature is thought less strongly when it is merged in a
large aggregate, because it is weakened by the different manifestations
of it in different individuals. And to this may perhaps be attributed
the tendency of the pluralis fractus to weaken to i or u the a of the
singular stem, and sometimes to take the feminine ending when there
is sufficient sense of the individual to bring out the weakness of the
plural as subordinate to it. But there are other changes of quite a
different nature which may concur with the preceding. The repeti-
tion of the attributive nature in different individuals seems often
to give a sense of extension which shows itself sometimes in an
increase of syllables, and more open vocalisation, and sometimes in
a lengthening of vowels. In others the repetition seems to have
the effect of doubling the middle radical The twelfth, thirteenth,
fourteenth, and fifteenth forms arc especially worthy of note, because
they are generally limited, like the pluralis sanus, to pluralities
not exceeding ten individuals. The twelfth form is reduced in the
stem, and subordinated by the feminine ending, and involves
no expression of increase ; and perhaps such an expression of
1 Wright, p. 189.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: AKABIC. 25
plurality, with sense of subordination to the individual, would not be
compatible with a larger number than ten. The other three forms have
an external element in the prefix ha, as if there were a partial separation
of an element of plurality, which would imply a corresponding distinct-
ness of the thought of the individual which could take place only
with a small number. The ha of the twenty-first form is perhaps due
to the weak or doubled middle radical combining with the first radical.
All such explanations, however, of the various forms are mere guesses.
The Ethiopia formations (130) seem to depend mostly on the
extension of the stem by additional vocalisation. What is certain is
the weak sense of the individual object, which is disclosed by the
great development and use of the pluralis fractus.
60. Arabic nouns are declined in the singular either as triptotes
or diptotes, but in dual all agree ; and in the plural the only difference is
that of masculine and feminine pluralis sanus. The case endings are :
Singular. Pluralis sanus.
triptotes. diptotes. dual. masculine, feminine.
Nominative -un -u -dni -Una -atun
Genitive, dative, ablative -in } . - -..
A \ -a -aim -ma -atin
Accusative -an j
The expression of the subject with a case ending appropriated to it
is a notable feature in Arabic. Yet it is a weak sense of subjectivity
that the nominative ending expresses; for when a dependent verb
is expressed as a verbal noun, its subject is often in the nomina-
tive (74, Ex. 20), though oftener in the genitive.1 In such a use of it
there is no subjective realisation (Def. 13) ; but only a thought of the
subject as the seat or source of the fact (67). It is only when the
nominative follows the verb that it is thought properly as subject ;
when it precedes, as it may from emphasis or special strength of
idea,2 it is thought as that of which the fact is stated,3 as mdta
Zaid-u-n, Zaid is dead; but Zaid-u-n mdta, Zaid he is dead;
Zaid'u'n mata habu'hu, Zaid his father is dead.4
Dual and plural nouns as objects of a relation are less distinct than
the singular, and the relations to the former are consequently less
distinctly thought than the relations to the latter, so that all nouns
are diptote in the dual and plural. The two individuals also confuse
the sense of subject in the dual, so that the subjective vowel u does
not appear in the nominative dual ; but in the plural the individuals
coalesce more than in the dual, and the sense of subject is strong
enough to get expression. The general relation to the diptote nouns
in the singular is the element of transition a ; but dual and plural
nouns prefer the element of proximity i. Transition is thought as
having only one direction ; proximity can exist with many objects.
The pluralis fractus is declined as a singular noun triptote or dip-
tote 5 (59). The diptote nouns are apparently those of which the idea
is so strong that in the conception of the fact they partially detach
themselves from the combination in which they stand, so that their
1 Wright, Syntax, p. 42. - Ibid. pp. 180, 185, 186. 3 Ibid. pp. 177, 178.
• Ibid. p. 180. 5 Wright, p. 190-193.
VOL. II. C
26 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. [SECT. v.
connection with it is weakened. They are the quadrisyllable plurales
frdcti (16 and 17), which have inserted a syllable between their first
and third radicals, thereby expressing an extended thought of the
stem ; distributive numerals expressing as they do so heavy an idea,
as two by two, three by three, &c. ; nouns and adjectives, whether
plurales fracti or not, which end in -dhu, -ai, or -a, and their pluralis
fractus (23) ; also the adjectives hafyalu, fa/flanu ; these all have,
as already noted, weak sense of substance (58), as if the stress of
thought was on the stem and little on their outward connections.
Also those proper nouns which not only tend, by their own concrete
and independent nature as proper, to be less immersed in the com-
bination of fact, but which also suggest by their formation a fulness of
original meaning on which the mind would dwelL Their concreteness
is increased when they are of foreign origin, because they are then
more strictly limited to individuals ; and their form invites attention
when similar to that of native words with full meaning. Such are
foreign names of men which are not monosyllabic, names of women
which are of foreign origin or consist of three or more syllables, names
which have a feminine termination or the termination -an, names which
are like an imperfect, or which have the form of the second derived
form or passive of a verb (feu)' gala, fuyild), names which are actually
or seemingly derived from common nouns or adjectives.1
Stems ending in yor w are subject to irregularity in their declension
owing to euphonic change.2
If a noun, whether of itself diptote or triptote, have the article, it
is declined as a triptote, but does not take the final n in the singular
or in the pluralis sanus feminine (74, Ex. 4, 7, 11, 12, 18) ; and if it
govern a genitive it is declined as a triptote, and drops not only the
final n in the singular and pluralis sanus feminine, but also the final
ni of the dual, and the final no. of the pluralis sanus masculine.3
Triptote proper names drop the final n, when followed by hibnu, son
of ; 3 and hibnu is shortened to l)nu 4 (74, Ex. 2).
The particularisation with the article and the correlation with the
genitive draw thought from the attributive part of the substantive
idea, which is the general part of it (Def. 4), and cause the noun to
be thought more in its present instance as involved in the combination
of fact. This strengthens the sense of the case relations, and leads
the noun to be thought in the combination of fact without the help of
any mediating pronominal element, so that final n is dropped in the
singular and in the pluralis sanus feminine.
61. For that the final n of triptote nouns singular, or of the pluralis
vanus feminine, is of a pronominal nature, is rendered probable by its
being displaced by particularisation whether with the article or with
a genitive ; and that it helps the connection of the noun with the
fact, by referring to it as connected, is indicated by its not being used
when the sense of that connection becomes stronger in the thought of
the noun, or the connection itself is weakened by the concreteness of
diptote nouns singular. Otherwise the element of case is not sufficient
J Wright, p. 196-199. - Ibid p. 200. 8 Ibid. p. 201-203. « Ibid p. 21.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. 27
to express the connection of the noun as that connection is thought
in the conception of the fact ; and n is used to supplement it. If this
be so it is an arthritic element (Def. 7) such as has been observed in
so many languages (II. 33, 77, 88, &c. ; III. 3, 103; IV. 11, 71;
V. 24, 32 ; VI. 144).
62. But the final na of the pluralis sanus masculine differs from
the final n of the pluralis sanus feminine in involving a sense of the
plurality. For even if it be partly due to the tendency of the lan-
guage to avoid shut syllables with a long vowel, such as un would be,
yet the distinction between -na of the plural and -ni of the dual
implies a sense of number (51). They are, however, both probably
to be regarded as pronominal like ?z, and being so, they act arthriti-
cally ; they are both dropped when the noun is correlated with a geni-
tive on account of the closeness of that relation.
With the pronominal possessive suffixes also, the final n, ni, and na
of the nouns are dropped ; and the final vowel of a pluralis fractus or
of the 2>luralis sanus feminine is elided before the suffix of first
singular -I.1
63. The cardinal numbers for 1 and 2 in Arabic agree in gender
with the noun which they affect, and the numeral for 2 has the dual
ending. They are light thoughts, which take up, like adjectives, a
strong sense of the noun. The numerals from 3 to 10 are singular
substantives, either following the noun in apposition to it, or govern-
ing the noun in the genitive and followed by it.2 In the latter case
the noun is in the pluralis fractus,3 because the plurality is massed
into an aggregate. In either case the numeral takes the feminine
form when it is connected with a masculine noun, i.e., whose singular
is masculine, and which is not governor of a genitive denoting a
female object;4 because then and then only it is thought as a
subordinate appendage. The mental action of counting feminines is
greater because their individuality is weaker (59) and less readily
noted as the unit, and the number of them consequently is a stronger
thought. The numerals for 1 to 10 are declined as triptotes ; for,
owing to their abstractness, they have the more distinct sense of cor-
relation with the rest of the fact.
The numbers from 11 to 19 are expressed by the units followed by
the 10, and the 10, which, when it is by itself, is feminine with mascu-
line nouns, in these numbers agrees in gender with the noun.5 This
is probably due to the compression of thought in reckoning, whereby
the 10 having been reckoned takes up a strong sense of the noun
in being carried on and added to the remainder. With both the 10
and the units, the noun is connected as with a diptote genitive of
apposition, so that they both end in a (66).
The cardinal numbers from 20 to 90 are abbreviated expressions of
so many tens, and they engage thought too much to be felt as sub-
ordinate appurtenances, so that they are always masculine pluralis
sanus, the tens being too distinct to be massed into a pluralis fractus.
1 Wright, p. 204. 2 Ibid. p. 206-208. 3 Ibid. Syntax, p. 161.
4 Wright, p. 207 ; Syntax, p. 166.
28 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. [SECT. v.
In the abbreviation of counting the multiples above 20, the stem of
the 10 was dropped, and only its plural ending remained; but in 20
the stem of the 10 remained and took up with its first radical the i
of duality, dropping the rest of the numeral for 2. It is remarkable,
however, that the numeral for 20 has not the dual ending but the
plural, the sense of the plurality of the number overpowering that of
the duality of the tens.1
The numerals from 20 to 90 take the noun after them in the
accusative singular, being too heavy to combine with them in the
nearer relation of the genitive. Sometimes, however, the noun follows
them in the genitive, and then, like other nouns (62), they drop the final
no.1 Multiples of 100 govern the noun in the genitive singular.2
Units and multiples of 10 are united by wa, and ; both being
declined,1 as they are thought substantively.
The ordinals of 2 to 10 affect the first radical of the cardinal with
<7, dropping an initial elif(ha, hi), and change the vowel of the second
radical to i.
The ordinals 1 to 10 are declined.
In the ordinals of 11 to 19, the units take their ordinal form, but
the 10 remains the same as in the cardinals ; and the unit ordinals
are declined when defined by the article.
The ordinals of the multiples of 10 are the same as the cardinals.3
The distributive adjectives two by two, &c., are expressed by
repeating the cardinal numbers once, or by numerals of the form
fugalu and mafgalu, either singly or repeated.
The multiplicative adjectives double, threefold, &c., are expressed
by nornina patient is of the second form mufayyalun, derived from
the cardinal numbers.
Numeral adjectives expressing the number of parts have the form
fugaLiyun.
The fractions from a third to a tenth have the forms fwj'lun,
fuijulun, &nd fayllun.
A recurrent period, as every third, is expressed in the form./fy/Vwf.4
64. There are in Arabic four inseparable prepositions, bi, in ; li, to ;
fa and ?ra, by, used in swearing ; and six separable prepositions, ilija,
t° J "/nttai, till, up to; (/an, from; fl, into; ladunladai, with; in in,
of, from ; and there are also nouns used for prepositions.5 All the
prepositions govern the genitive.
The inseparable conjunctions are, wa-, and; fa-, and so, and conse-
quently.
The most common separable conjunctions are, hi@, hiffa, when ;
hammd followed by/«, as regards; han, that; kin, if; hanna, that;
fiati, or; Oumma, Biunmata, then; kai, in order that; lakinna, but;
lammd postquam ; lau, if ; mil, as long as.0 •
The.ro are three inseparable adverbial particles, ha- interrogative, sa-
prefixed to tho imperfect of the, verb to express real futurity, and la-
nfFirmative.7
1 Wright, p. 2<W. - Ibid. Syntax, p. 164. 3 Wright, pp. 211, 212.
* Ibid. pp. 213, 214. 5 Ibid. p. 224-227. 6 Ibid. p. 231-234.
7 Ibid. p. 227.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. 29
There are three negative particles ; Id negatives what is thought as
only part of a fact, being connected by iva with another verb, also the
ideal, namely, the future, the indefinite present, which is thought
irrespective of position in time, and the jussive, which it makes pro-
hibitive ; mil negatives the real, namely, the definite or absolute pre-
sent, and the perfect ; lam negatives the ideal-real, namely, the present
of past time, expressed by the jussive (74, Ex. 9, 12), whose want of
the final vowel gives unreality to the imperfect or incomplete tense.
There are also two compound negatives, Ian compounded of la, and
the demonstrative n pointing to a fact as an object or result, and
which consequently negatives the subjunctive ; and lammd not yet,
compounded of lam and ma denoting duration, which, like lam, is
followed by the jussive (55 ; 74, Ex. 10, 11).
65. The small sense of position in time, together with a considerable
sense of process, leads the Arabic mind to think facts, not as placed
in the past, present, and future, but as completed or not completed
(74, Ex. 10, 18), the latter as incomplete being either a present or a
future. This involves the necessity of determining their successions,
not by the time of each, but by concatenating them as complete or
incomplete at the time of the fact last mentioned (79). Thus the plu-
perfect is expressed by a perfect following another perfect (74, Ex. 1) ;
an imperfect following a perfect denotes an act or state whicli was future
or present in the past (74, Ex. 6, 7), and a perfect following an imperfect
may denote what will be past in the future. Sometimes the first of
the two verbs is the perfect or imperfect of the verb Jcana, was ; and is
immediately followed by the other so as to express a corresponding
tense by the help of kana as an auxiliary l (74, Ex. 2, 8). The nomen
agentis and nomen patientis involve no thought of position in time.2
66. There is a striking weakness of comparative thought in
Arabic, in consequence of which those qualifying elements which
result from, the comparison of a particular with a general are not
thought as adjectives or adverbs (Def. 6, 17), with a sustained act of
comparison, in which the general is present to the mind when com-
pleting Avith a comparative element the thought of the particular.
But the mind having made the comparison by thinking the general
side by side with the particular, passes from the general and thinks
the comparative element as an entire object of thought (Def. 4), con-
necting it in a correlation with the general to complete the thought
of the particular. Hence there is a small number of adjectives in
Arabic, and a noun is often qualified by the genitive of another noun
man
where in other languages an adjective would be employed, as ragulu
badu ,'ss gen.
sauh • in, man of badness, for bad man.3 So, too, the place of an
adverb is apt to be supplied by a noun in the accusative (74, Ex. 11, 16,
18) ; the accusative in Arabic denoting either that to which an action
tends as its object, or in reference to which a fact is realised, or that
according to which a being or doing proceeds as its manner or kind.4
This habit of expressing a quality as a governed noun leads some-
1 Wright, Syntax, p. 1-15. * Ibid. p. 130. 3 Ibid p. 137. « Ibid. p. 30.
30 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. [SECT. v.
times to the expression in a similar way of what in other languages
would be an apposition ; l the object denoted by the first substantive
not being retained as identical with the object which is denoted by
the second, but correlated with it as belonging to it, or participating
mount gen.
of it, as turn sinlna, Mount Sinai.8
The noun which is used in the adverbial accusative with a verb
may be a verbal noun derived from itself ; either its own abstract
noun (nomen actionis) or the noun which expresses a single realisation
of it, or the noun which expresses the kind of its realisation. The
first by itself expresses intensity of the verb (74, Ex. 18), and with an
adjective or denning element qualifies or defines the verb (74, Ex. 19) ;
the second and the third are used respectively for enumeration and
specification.3 All three show a want of comparison, as they do not
qualify the verb with a truly comparative element, but supplement it
with a second thought of what it denotes (see III. 8).
The adverbial accusative is used after verbs of being or becoming
where Latin uses the nominative (74, Ex. 8, 21, 22). It is also used
to designate time, place, state, or condition of subject or object, cause
or motive, and various other determinations and limitations of the
verb ; and if the limitation be another fact, the verb of {,he latter
may become the abstract noun in the accusative, and its subject will
follow it in the nominative.4
The accusative is used also after the negative 7o, meaning there is
not ; and the noun when taken indefinitely drops the final «.6
67. The abstract verbal noun, when governed in the objective
accusative, or through a preposition, by another verb, may govern its
own object in the genitive (74, Ex. 2) unless this be separated from it
by one or more words, when it must be put in the accusative. If its
subject be expressed it is generally genitive, and the object accusative ;
but often the subject is nominative when the object is a pronoun in
the genitive, and sometimes the subject is nominative and the object
accusative 6 (74, Ex. 20).
The nonien agent is, when it has a strong sense of process like the
imperfect, may govern an object in the accusative.7 It is probably the
strong sense of process which causes the verbal nouns so often to have
a subject and to govern an accusative ; the former being the source,
and the latter the end or determinant of the process of doing or being.
68. As the weakness of the act of comparison shows itself in the
mind dropping the general idea when it passes to the comparative
element which distinguishes the particular object of thought, so the
weakness of the act of correlation shows itself in the weak sense of
the antecedent which the mind has in thinking the consequent.
Hence arises the strange peculiarity in Arabic that the consequent in
a correlation is often expressed as such without any expression being
given to the antecedent.
Thus it has been already mentioned (55) that the imperative is
sometimes expressed by the jussive with the preposition h, to, prefixed
1 Wright, Syntax, p. 158. a Ibid. p. 159. 3 Ibid. p. 37-40.
4 Ibid. p. 75-SO. : Ibid pp. 68, 69. 6 Ibid. pp. 41, 42. " Ibid. p. 46.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : AKABIC. 31
to it (74, Ex. 14), the antecedent of this relation, namtely, the impulse
of command, being left unexpressed. So also the objects of a strong
direction of thought, as in praise, blame, welcome, warning, strong
address, are apt to be put in the accusative without any word to
govern them. And propositions introduced by hinna, certainly, or the
conjunction hanna, that, which are both of a demonstrative nature, or
by conjunctions compounded of these without restrictive -ma, have
their subject put in the accusative l without anything to govern it
except the directed attention which a demonstrative involves (Def. 7 ;
74, Ex. 3, 9, 11). This construction gives a further illustration of the
same principle ; for the verb has no expressed antecedent with which
as subject it is correlated except whatever element of person it may
contain.
69. The Arab (chap. i. V. 5) has, as compared with other races, small
practical interest in external things ; doing or being as thought in its
own subjective process has more attraction for him. And he tends to
think the noun weakly in its connections with the fact, and rather in
the general idea of it than in the particular instance which has those
connections (60). He has a weak sense of the individual object or
substance (59) ; and in consequence of this when a substantive object
is thought as part of another, its substance is merged in that other.
The substantive thus governing another in the genitive, and thought
as part of that other, loses its generality, the idea of it being limited
to what is part of the other object. It is particularised by the
genitive, and consequently thought more in its present instance and
present connections in the fact (60). The governing substantive thus
becomes triptote, but loses the final n, ni, or na,2 which expresses it as
the object of attention (61, 62). If, however, the relation expressed
by the genitive be not quite so close as that of a part to a whole, as
when the genitive is governed by an adjective or by a participle not
thought substantively, and which cannot therefore be part of a sub-
stantive object, the genitive does not define or limit its governor;3
and the latter consequently, if it is to be limited, takes the definite
article.4 But always the governor drops the final n, ni, or na (74, Ex.
2, 3, 8, 16), and the genitive follows it immediately.5
The close connection of the governing noun with the genitive is
called by the Arab grammarians the proper annexation, the other the
improper annexation.3 In the former, the substance of the governing
noun is so merged in the genitive, that it cannot be particularised by
the definite article, except through the particularising of the genitive,
and that the particularising of the genitive always afl'ects it also ; thus,
daughter king gen. art.
bint'u malik-rn, is a daughter of a king; bintu 7 ' malik'i, is the
daughter of the king. A daughter of the king cannot be expressed
by the genitive except with the intervention of a preposition, bintwn
to
li'l-malik'i, a daughter (belonging) to the king.6
An extremely remarkable and perfectly independent coincidence
1 Wright, Syntax, p,
4 Ibid. p. 151.
. 55-63. - Ibid. p. 133-135. 3 Ibid. p. 134.
8 Ibid. p. 41. 6 Ibid. p. 153.
32 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. [SECT. v.
with the Syro- Arabian annexation of a genitive is to be found in the
Woloff language (see I. 26; see also IV. 112).
70. If a noun be defined in any way, an adjective qualifying it must
be defined also (see 89) ; and if an adjective connected with it be not
defined, it must be a predicate.1 A pronominal possessive suffix, being
by nature definite, cannot in general refer to any but a definite noun.-
When both subject and predicate are defined, they do not easily
combine, the sense of the correlation in any case being weak (68) ;
and the pronoun of the third person is frequently used as an abstract
subject to represent the subject, and facilitate its connection as such
with the predicate ; it is used in this way even with the first and
I _ the way and the truth
second personal pronouns; as hand huwa ab'farlq-u wa • 7 • ypqq'u
and the life these
wa ' 7 • %ayawtnu, I am the way, and the truth, and the life ; huldhika
they fuel the fire gen.
hum waqud'u 7 • nar ' i, these are fuel for the fire.3
When the definite article limits the subject only to a class possess-
ing an expressed attribute, the auxiliary pronoun is not used.4
71. The Arabic language has no abstract verb substantive to
express the mere copula ; this being too fine an element to be thought
separately by the quality of mind which habitually embraces full
ideas in its single acts (49). The verb kdna denotes existence, and
governs a predicate in the accusative case * (66).
A similar fulness of idea is to be seen in such expressions as, the
sayer says, meaning the same as on dit?
The reflex object, when separate from the verb, is expressed by the
nouns for soul (74, Ex. 8), eye, spirit, with possessive suffix.6 These
nouns are also used in the sense of ipse, governing in the genitive the
noun which they affect.
72. The feminine persons of the verb are a remarkable feature
of the Syro-Arabian languages ; but in Arabic they are not always
used when the subject is feminine, the sense of gender being often
dropped, and the person having no generic designation, as if the sub-
ject was masculine. Neither is there always agreement in number
between verb and subject. The following rules are given :
If the subject be feminine by signification and singular, the verb is
singular feminine when the subject follows it immediately; but may
be singular masculine if one or more words intervene before the sub-
ject, though feminine is preferable.7 If the subject be feminine
merely by form, the verb may be either masculine or feminine, whether
the subject follows immediately or not.8
If the subject be a jtlnralis saint* masculine, or if it bo a pluralis
fractus denoting persons of the male sex, the preceding verb is usually
singular masculine, particularly when one or more words intervene
between it and the subject.8
If the subject be a plural in fractus, not denoting persons of the
1 Wright, Syntax, p. 182. J Ibid. p. 197. * Ibid. p. 183.
4 Ibid. p. Ib7. • Ibid. p. 190. • Ibid. pp. 194, 198.
7 Ibid. p. 205. " Ibid. p. 20C.
SECT.V.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. 33
male sex, whether it come from a masculine or feminine singular, or if
it be a feminine plural, the preceding verb may be masculine or
feminine singular (74, Ex. 7, 18). But if the subject \>c,pluralis sanus
of the female sex, the preceding verb should be feminine.1
In general, when once the subject has been mentioned, any follow-
ing verb must agree with it strictly in number and gender.1
If the subject be a substantive in the dual, the preceding verb
must be singular, but must agree with the subject in gender.2
The verb frequently agrees in gender, not with the grammatical
subject, but with a genitive annexed to it 3 (74, Ex. 22).
The nominative follows the verb, but emphasis or a strengthening
adjunct may put it first ; the object also follows verb.4
73. Every interrogative clause takes the direct form of question.5
The relative pronoun requires for its antecedent a defined noun.
If the antecedent be indefinite it is represented in the relative clause
by a personal pronoun whether separate or affixed (74, Ex. 8, 22),
or it is not represented at all. If the antecedent be definite it is
generally connected with a relative pronoun which commences the
relative clause, and agrees with it not only in gender and number but
also in case ; 6 and when this case does not suit the relative clause
the antecedent is represented in the latter in its proper relation by a
personal pronoun or affix 7 (74, Ex. 23, 24).
It shows weak sense of relation that the copulative conjunctions wa
and fa are often used for adversative relations and others of a different
nature 8 (74, Ex. 2). sat where sat father his
74. Examples: (1.) Galasa "Xflydu galasa habu • hu, he sat where
died art. nom. at gen. and
his father had sat9 (see 65). (2.) Mdta V • Rasld • u bi' Tus • a wa'
was went out to gen. to combating gen. gen. geu.
kdna %araga hilya %urdsdn • a li'muydrabat ' i Rafiy ' i 'bn • i
art. gen. and was this art. nom. already went out and cast off
'I'LaiO • i wa • kdna hd§d 'r'Rdfig • u qad %araga wa'yalaga
art. allegiance accus. and gained victory over * gen.
hat' • fay' at ' a u~a ' tagallaba </' alya Samarqand 'a, ar 'Rash eddied
at Tus after he had set out for Khorasan to combat Rafig' ibn el'Leit
who had rebelled and cast off his allegiance and taken forcible posses-
sion of Samarkand ; 10 the proper nouns are all diptotes except Rdfig1
al'LaiB (60) ; kdna followed by a perfect expresses a pluperfect (65) ;
wa expresses several relations of facts (73) ; mu^drabat is nomen
actionis of the third form (57) of xara^a spoliavit (see Golius, from
whom all the radical meanings are taken), it governs its object in the
genitive (67), dropping its final n before the genitive which it
governs (69). Rdfiyin drops the final n before bni (60), which has
dropped it before the genitive which it governs (69) ; tagallaba is
fifth form of galab, conquered, and means conquered effectuaDy for
and if that people accus. art. towns believed 3d pi. and
himself. (3.) Wa'lau hanna hahl 'a 'I ' qurai aman • u wa-
1 Wright, Syntax, pp. 207, 208. 2 Ibid. p. 209. 3 Ibid. p. 212.
4 Ibid. pp. 30, 180, 185, 186, 311. 5 Ibid. p. 220. 6 Ibid. p. 228-231.
7 Ibid. 231-234. 8 Ibid. p. 240. 9 Ibid. p. 4. 10 Ibid. p. 6.
34 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. [SECT. v.
feared 3d pi. certainly bestowed 1st pi. on them blessings accus. from
'ttaqa ' u la ' fay ax. ' tia yalai ' him barakdt • in mina
art. heaven gen. and art. earth gen.
's'samd • i wa ' 'I ' £ard ' i, and if the people of those towns
had believed and feared (God), we would have bestowed upon them
blessings from heaven and earth ; l haJila the subject is put in
the accusative after hanna (68), and drops the final n before the
genitive (69) ; qurai is given by Golius as the irregular plural, i.e.,
fluralis fractus of qaryatun or qiryatun ; hittaqau is the third plural
perfect of the eighth form of waqay cavit, y being dropped before u,
and w assimilated before t, its meaning is cavit timuitque sibi ; the
suffix hum becomes him after the i of yalai, yalya and hilt/a become
yalai, hilai before the suffixes ; the verbs are all in the perfect without
distinction of mood or time ; the preposition mm takes a from the
following article,2 and governs the following nouns in the genitive,
respond 2d pi. imper. to God gen. and to the apostle gen. when has called
(4.) Histaglb • u li'lldh'i wa ' li'r'rasul •»' hi§d day a •
you to what 3d sing, vivify you
kum, U • md yu ' yjji • kum, respond to God and to the apostle
when he calls you to that which can give you life ; ' histagibu is
second plural imperative of the tenth form of gdba secuit ; the article
hal suffers elision of its first letters and assimilation of its final ;
rasulum passive adjective (57) from rasala nuncium misit ; n being
dropped on account of the article (60) ; yu%ijikum, third singular
imperfect of fourth form of "Xflyya or yayai vixit ; with objective
if did 2d sing, this perished 2d sing.
suffix of second plural (5.) gin fayal ' ta Qalika halik • ta, if
you do this you will perish, the verbs are both in the perfect. If
the perfect after conditional particles is to express past time, the
verb kdna or a verb of kindred meaning must be prefixed to the
were 3d pi. if 3d pL attained 3d pi.
correlative clauses ; as kdn • u hin bdlay ' u balay ' u, if they
exerted themselves to attain (an object), they attained (it) ; 4 bdlaya is
came to him 3d sing, visit him
the third form of balaya. (6.) Gdhahilai'hi ya ' yudu'hu, he came to
him to visit him ; yayudu third singular imperfect of ydda, visitavit ;
came 3d sing, laugh
f/dha Zaid'un ya ' d-^aku, Zaid came laughing ; 5 ya/Jyaku third singu-
and followed 3d pi. what 3d sing. fern,
lar imperfect of dayjka risit. (7.) Wat'ttabay • u md ta '
follow art evil spirits on reign gen. gen.
tlii 's ' saij'ltlnu y alya mulk • i Sulaimdn'a, and they followed
what the evil spirits taught in the reign of Solomon;6 hittabayu is
third plural perfect of the eighth form of tabaya secutus fuit ; tatlu
is third singular feminine imperfect of told secutus fuit ; saydtlnun is
pluralis fractus of saitjinun, it drops the final n, having taken the
article (60) ; (atlu agrees with plurulis fractus in singular feminine (72)
and expresses what was present at the time of the preceding verb ;
and fut. I
Sulaimana is genitive of the diptote proper name (60). (8.) Wawha'
1 Wright, Syntax, p. 7. * Wright, p. 20. 3 Ibid. Syntax, p. 8.
4 Ibid. p. 10. • Ibid. p. 13. ° Ibid p. 15.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. '65
hire persons accus. 3d pers. carry 3d pi. 3d sing. obj. to house my
stahgiru haqicdm ' an ya ' ymil ' una ' hu hilya inanzil • I
and I be I last accus. 3d pi. suff. and not 3d pers. be remained
wa ' ha kunu hand hd^ir • a ' hum tea ' Id ya ' kunu baqiya
behind 1st sing. suff. thing 3d pers. occupy mind 1st sing. suff. with doing gen.
waraah • 1 saih'im yu ' sgilu fikr ' 1 l>i 'fitji'i'
3d sing. suff. and removing and I be already get help 1st sing, for soul
hi wa ' naql ' i'hi wa'ha'kunu qadi hstad'har ' tu li ' nafs
my unto relief gen. body my from art. labour gen. with small gen. pay gen.
• 1 fl hird^at'i badan ' i gani 7 • kadd ' i bi • yasir • i hugrat'in
1st pers. give 3d fern. obj. to 3d pi. suff.
hugtl ' ha la • hum, and I shall hire some people to
carry it to my house, and I shall be the last of them, and there shall
not have remained behind me anything to give occupation to my
mind with the doing or removing of it, and I shall have got help for
myself (71), even to the relief of my body from the labour with a
small pay which I shall give to them ; l sa- expresses real futurity
(64), hastahgiru is the first singular imperfect of the tenth form of
hagara mercedem dedit, haqwdmun is pluralis fractus, fourteenth form
(59) of qaumun populus ; ya%rmluna third plural imperfect of yainala
portavit ; manzil derived from nazala habitatum venit ; hakunu, first
singular imperfect of kana extitit ; hayira accusative after hakunu
(66) ; baqiya is third singular perfect, and following yakunu it
expresses a future past (65) ; the person in yusgilu serves for relative
pronoun (73) ; yusgilu is third singular imperfect fourth form of
sagala occupavit ; qad takes i before the following hi, which drops the
i ; histatfhartu is first singular perfect of tenth form of ffahara juvit ;
hira%cdun is the nomen actionis feminine of the fourth form of ra-^a
quievit, it drops the n before the genitive which it governs (69) ; (fan
takes i before the article, as words ending in a consonant do generally
before an initial h ; 2 frugratun, derived from hagara mercedem dedit ;
hugtl is first person singular imperfect of fourth form of gatd manu
accepit (Golius) ; -hd serves for relative pronoun (73) ; li becomes la
interrog. not 2d sing, know that God
before the pronominal suffix.3 (9.) Ifa • lam ta • glamhanna'Hdh'
accus. to him sovereignty art. heavens gen. and art. earth gen.
a la'hu mulku 's'samdwdt'i tea ' 'I ' hard • i, didst thou not
know that God has the sovereignty of the heavens and of the earth ? 4
tag lam is second singular jussive of galima scivit ; the jussive after
lam is past present, i.e., Indo-European imperfect (64) ; alldha is
interrog.
accusative after hanna (68) ; there is no verb to have. (10.) Ham
think 2d pi. that 2d pers. enter art. paradise accus. and not yet 3d sing, come
•Xasib'tum han ta ' d\ulu 'I • gannat • a wa ' lammd ya ' hti
2d pi. obj. likeness nom. who pi. pass away 3d pi. from before you
hum maBal • u 'lladl'na yala ' u min qabl'i'kum, do ye think
that ye shall enter Paradise before there shall have come on you what
came on those who passed away before you ; 4 •^asibtum is second
plural perfect, though translated as present (65) ; tadxulu is second
plural subjunctive (55) of da\ala intravit ; yahti is third singular jus-
1 Wright, Syntax, p. 15. 2 Wright, p. 21. 3 Ibid. p. 225.
4 Wright, Syntax, p. 16.
36 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARABIC. [SECT. V.
sive of hatai venit (55, 64) ; it seems from maOalu not having the
final w that it governs hallaffina in the genitive ; \alau is third plural
perfect of xalii recessit ; gabli is genitive of qablun pars anterior,
approach art. departure nora. other accus. that
governed by min. (H-) Jfaziba 't ' tara-gxiil • u <jair • a hanna
camel accus. our not yet 3d sing. fern, move off with saddle our
rikdb'a * nd lamina ta ' zul bi'rt'%'11 •/ -nti, our departure
is close at hand save that our camels have not yet moved off with our
saddles;1 tara-/^ulun is the nomen actionis of the fifth form of
ra-xpla instruxit camelam sella, profectus f uit ; the final n is dropped
after the article (60) ; yaira adverbial accusative after haziba (66) ;
rikdband accusative after hanna (68) ; tazul is third singular feminine
jussive (64) of zaicala dimovit e loco, the imperfect would be tazCdn,
but the final syllable being closed in the jussive the short vowel is
preferred ; the singular is used for the plural in rikaband and ri\dlijid.
not 3d sing, was 3d sing, enamoured art. poetry accus. and art. poets
(12.) Lam ya ' kun yu ' %ibbu 's'siyr • a ^ca•'s • suyarah-
accus.
a, he was not fond of poetry and poets ; * yakun is third singular
jussive of Jidna extitit, « being short on account of closed syllable,
used after lam (55, 64) ; yu^ibbu is third singular imperfect passive
of fourth form of %abba amavit, contemporaneous with yaJmn ; suydrah'
un is pluralis fractus, twentieth form of sayirun poeta, n being
if 2d pers. conceal what in breasts
dropped after the article (60). (13.) Qin tu • \fu m>l fi £u<lilr-
gen. 2d pi. or 2d disclose 3d sing. obj. 3d sing, know God nom.
t • hum hdu tu • bdu • hu ya ' ylam ' hu 'I • Idh • v, whether
you conceal what (is) in your breasts or disclose it, God will know it ; -
tu'Xfu is second plural jussive (55) of fourth form of \afd celavit, and
tubdu is the same of badawa apparuit; fudurun is pluralis fradus
sixth form of i'adrtm pectus ; yaylam is third singular jussive (55)
to 3d sing, spend possessor wealth gen.
of yalima scivit. (14.) Li ' yu • nfiq §u say at • in, let the
jxjssessor of wealth spend ; 3 yunfiq is third singular jussive of fourth
form of iiafaqa vendibilis fuit ; li prefixed makes it imperative (55).
only said thin that not 3d sing, be despised in art. knowledge gen.
(15.) IJinna'md gala Qdlika li'hal'ld yu ' stayaffa bi''l • yilm ' t,
lie said this only that learning might not be despised ; * yusta%affa
is third singular subjunctive (55) passive of the tenth form of "Xfiffii
those who fought 3d pi. among us surely 1st pi. guide
levis fuit. (1G.) Ilallafana ydhad ' il fl • nd la ' na'hdiyanna'
3d pi. obj. paths our
limn subiila'nd, those who have fought in our cause we will surely
guido in our paths ; 5 ydJtada is third singular perfect of the third
form of gaJuula laboravit ; nahdiyanna is first plural energetic imper-
fect of liatlai n-cte duxit ; sulnila is accusative of third form of pluralis
j'ractus of sabllitn via, the n being dropped before genitive suffix (69) ;
not 2d pen.
it is an adverbial accusative according to our paths (66). (17.)L« ta '
die pi. if not and ye pi. masc. nom.
inut'u'nna iild wa'hantumniuslim • itJia, do not die without you
1 Wright, Syntax, p. 1C. - Ibid. p. 1". 3 Ibid. p. 24.
4 Ibid. i>. '.'O. 6 Ibid. p. 27.
SKCT.V.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARABIC. 37
are Muslims ; l tamutunna is second plural of the first energetic of mdta
mortuus est ; muslimun is nomen agentis, and hisldmun nomen actionis
•when is shaken 3d fern,
of fourth form of salama pacem fecit. (18.) $i@d rugga ' ti
art. earth nom. shaking accus. and is shattered 3d sing. fern. art. mountains shattering
'i'kard'u ragg ' an wa ' bussa ' ti 7 • gibdl'u bass '
accus.
an, when the earth shall be shaken with a shaking, and the moun-
tains shattered with a shattering ; 2 ruggat is third singular feminine
perfect passive of ragga agitavit, it takes i according to the rule that
words ending in a consonant take i before £ ; 3 bussati is the same from
bassa miscuit ; they express the event as completed though thought
in the future ; the accusatives are adverbial (66), and give intensity
(66) ; gibdlun is pluralis fractus fifth form of gdbalun mons, n dropped
beat ina
after article (60), verb is feminine singular (72). (19-) Daraba'nl
art. beating accus. which not 3d pers. is unknown on thee
'd ' darb ' a 'llaQi Id ya ' xfai galai'ka, he beat me the beat-
ing which is not unknown to you ; 2 ya\fai is third singular imper-
came me divorce nom. art. day gen.
feet of \afiya latuit. (20.) JBalaga^nl tatEqu 'yyaum'i Zaid'
nom. accus.
un Hind • an, I have heard that Zaid has to-day divorced Hind ; *
fatflqun is nomen actionis of second form of talaqa repudiata fuit
(uxor) ; zaidun is nominative case to a verbal noun (60), and this
he who wishes that 3d sing, be son his
governs an accusative (67). (21.) Man hardda han ya • kuna 'bnu'hu
learned accus. 3d sing, is required that 3d sing, provide for art. poor accus. of
y'dlim ' an ya ' nbagl J>an yu ' rdyiya 'I 'fuqardh • a mina 7*
wise gen.
fuqahdh-i, whoever wishes his son to be learned must provide for the
poor among the learned ; 5 hardda is third singular perfect fourth form
of rdda petiit (pabulum) ; yakuna is third singular subjunctive of kdna
extitit; ydlimun is nomen agentis of yalima scivit, it is accusative
after yakuna (66) ; yanbayl is third singular imperfect seventh form
of bagd quaesivit ; yiirdyiya is third singular subjunctive of third form
of ragai pavit (gregern) ; fuqardhu is pluralis fractus twentieth form
from faqirun pauper, and fuqahdhu the same from faqihun sapiens ;
are 2d pi. good accus. people gen. was produced
min takes a before h. (22.) Kun'tum %air ' a hummat'in hu\riga '
3d sing. fern, for art. mankind
t li • n • nds'i, ye are the best people that has been produced
for mankind ; yaira is accusative after kuntum, the second plural
perfect of kdna (66) ; hujy-igat, third singular feminine perfect passive
of fourth form of \araga prodiit ; it agrees in gender with the genitive,
which is governed by the grammatical subject (72), and the personal
visit 1st sing. art. old man accus.
suffix serves for relative pronoun. (23.) yud • tu 's • saix ' «
who he sick
'I'laOl liuwa marvj'un, I have visited the old man who is sick ; yndtu
art. thief nom. who
is first singular perfect of ydda visitavit. (24.) Has'sdriq-u 'l-ladl
1 Wright, Syntax, p. 28. 2 Ibid. p. 39. 3 Wright, p. 20.
4 Ibid. Syntax, p. 42. 6 Ibid. p. 71.
38 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. [SECT. v.
killed him son my
qatala-hu 'bn • t, the thief whom my son killed ; in both these sentences
hallaQl agrees with the antecedent, and this is represented in the rela-
tive clause by the third personal pronoun (73).
HEBEEW.
75. There was a weakness of utterance in Hebrew compared with
Arabic arising from reduced force of breath from the chest pressing on
the organs in speaking. Thus g was so imperfectly uttered that it was
represented in Greek by * or by,' and will here be written small ; x and
tc, instead of being uttered strongly with breath from the throat, was
uttered weakly with breath from the mouth, in ejecting which the
mouth closed, and the breath became sensible, passing between the lips
as v. The ante-palatal sibilant s was in some words uttered with less
pressure of breath from the chest so as to sound like the dental «.
For when the breath is pressed not from the chest, but rather by com-
pression of the hinder part of the mouth, the utterance tends to be
made in a more forward position. This mode of utterance, with pres-
sure from the mouth rather than from the chest, favours the surd
rather than the sonant, for the sonancy is in the larynx ; and so p
was developed in Hebrew in addition to b, and the weak pressure of
breath in the reduced force of utterance at the end of a word being
insufficient for the guttural aspirates or spirants, was reinforced by
putting before them the open jet of the vowel a on which the organ
closed.8
It was probably also owing to weaker pressure of breath from the
chest that Hebrew was less guttural than Arabic ; for though this
does not hinder guttural utterance if the guttural be followed by w,
which marks a jet of breath beginning after the utterance of the
guttural (I)ef. 26), it does render difficult the utterance of a guttural
with breath passing on direct to a vowel. This gave to Hebrew
utterance a palatal tendency, so that it took y for first radical where
Arabic has w (50, 121). And to the same cause is to be attributed
the weakness of the post-palatal and guttural aspirates and spirants,
and of 7i, as it appears in the irregularities of the verb, which has the
former among its radicals, or the latter for its first radical. Such
verbs are regular in Arabic and Ethiopia
Owing to a softness of utterance also, /»•, t, p, g, dt and b were
softened with an aspiration when they followed a vowel ; 3 t and q
were too strong to be affected by this influence.
Thero was also an indolence of utterance in Hebrew compared with
Arabic, in consequence of which the distinctions of utterance were
less observed. The distinction between \ and ;£, and that between
<)' ami </, w«>re not sullidont to be marked by different letters. The
ante-palatals were not clearly distinguished from the dentals. The
1 Gesenius, Hebrew Grammar, sect. 6. 3 Ibid. sect. 22. 2.
3 Ibid. sect. 21.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: HEBREW. 39
ante-palatal t was represented by Hebrew teth, and its aspirate by
Hebrew tsadde, but the medials in this organ were not distinguished,
so that d and rf disappeared. And in the other organs, the aspiration
being less decided, was not discriminated from the relaxation due to
a preceding vowel.1
The vowel utterance was reduced in Hebrew, so that short vowels
which were pronounced in Arabic according to their proper sign were
sometimes reduced in Hebrew to mere sheva,2 whose sound was in-
definite, and which, after a guttural spirant or aspirate, was opened,
not to a short vowel, but only to a half vowel or composite sheva.
A reduction of vowel utterance in Hebrew compared with Arabic
appears also in its want of diphthongs, the ai and au of Arabic being
either contracted in Hebrew to e and o,3 or resolved into vowel and
consonant as ay and av,3 and in permitting a syllable to end in two
consonants at the end of a word.4
76. Every syllable, as in Arabic, begins with a consonant (50),
whether it be h or another, with the exception of the copulative vet
when it becomes u. If the syllable be closed with a consonant it has
a short vowel, unless it be accented ; but if accented, a closed syllable
may have a long or short vowel.5 When a closed syllable with a
short vowel becomes open by losing the final consonant, the vowel is
lengthened.6 A short vowel is also lengthened by the accent in the
last word of a clause.6
The accent is generally on the last syllable, sometimes on the pen-
ultima, never on the antepenultima ; 7 a difference from Arabic which
perhaps is due to the greater habitual sense of relation in Arabic.
For the thought of a relation tends to give unity to each correlative,
the mind thinking each as a whole as it thinks the relation of one to
the other. And the greater the unity with which a word is thought,
the more will its accent tend towards the beginning of it (Def. 27).
The strength of meaning of a prefix sometimes draws back the
accent to the penultima. And the accent of the last word in a
clause tends to go back from the last, syllable to the penultima,8 for
it belongs partly to the clause, and is attracted back by it.
When a word increases at the end, and the accent is shifted
forwards, any of the vowels — long or short — may, according to the
division of syllables, either pass into sheva or wholly fall away.9
A guttural spirant or aspirate at the end of a syllable takes a half
vowel or composite sheva when it is followed by an accented syllable,10
because the utterance of these consonants is eased by giving voice to
part of the breathing ; and the tendency to do this is brought out by
the volition to utter the accented vowel which is about to follow.
When the vowel of a syllable is merely sheva simple or composite,
there is almost concurrence between the consonants which sheva
separates. This, however, is not suffered in two successive syllables ;
1 Gesenius, sect. 9. 3. 11. 2 Ibid. sect. 26. 4. 3 Ibid. sect. 7. 1. 5.
4 Ibid. sect. 26. 7. 5 Ibid. sect. 26. 6 Ibid. sect. 27. 2.
7 Ibid. sect. 29. 8 Ibid. sect. 29. 3. 4. B Ibid. sect. 27. 3.
10 Ibid. sect. 22. 4.
40 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: HEBREW. [SECT.V.
but to prevent it the first sheva is strengthened into a short vowel,
and sometimes also the second is dropped.1
77. The vocalisation of Hebrew as compared with that of Arabic
can be understood only by taking into account a disyllabic tendency
which may be observed in the former, instead of the trisyllabic ten-
dency which prevails in the latter. This difference is probably due in
part to the weaker sense of the subjective process of being or doing
corresponding to a less degree of attention given to it where life was
easier than in Arabia, and there was more of material objects of
interest. Such weakening of the sense of process would tend to
reduce the vocalisation which expresses it ; so that two vowels might
be sufficient instead of three. And'a disyllabic tendency springing
from this cause would be favoured by the weak sense of relation
which has been already mentioned as characterising Hebrew. This
would cause the loss of the case endings of nouns, reducing them
from trisyllables to disyllables ; and it would also favour the loss
of the final vowel of the stem or radical part of the verb, making it
too a disyllabic, and giving to the language in general a disyllabic
tendency. For the deficient sense of relation would weaken the
thought of the subjunctive which expresses in Arabic the aim or
result or condition of another fact, and the distinction between it
and the imperfect would disappear. The original final u of the
imperfect would lose, from its significance, its i contrast with the
final a of the subjunctive, and both these vowels would be weakened.
The weakening of the final u of the imperfect would throw the stress
of the distinction between the imperfect and the perfect on the other
differences of their formation, and the final a of the perfect would be
weakened along with the final u of the imperfect. And this, coupled
with the curtailment of the process, would destroy these vowels. The
loss of the final vowels, owing to these causes, would reduce those parts
of the verb to which they belonged from trisyllables to disyllables,
so as to bring the stem of the verb as well as the noun to the
disyllabic form, and to give that form generally to the less composite
words of the language.
Now the three vowels of the verb in Arabic express the process
of the engagement of the subject with the being or doing (48) ; and,
so far as the reduction of these vowels in Hebrew is due to a cause
different from the weaker sense of the subjective process, there will
be an additional significance of that process thrown on the remaining
vowels, and each of these will naturally have a fuller meaning and a
larger utterance. The second of them, however, is left in a closed syllable
when the original third vowel has been dropped ; and the additional
vowel utterance would f;ill rather on the first syllable, which is open,
making tin; open syllable generally long. This would affect not only
verbs, but also nouns, for, in truth, the attributive nature of the noun
(I>ef. 4) is in these languages thought like the process of the verb, only
that it is fixed in a substance instead of animating a subject (48, 57).
And the length of the open syllable being thus established in the
1 Gestnius, sect. 28. 1.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. 41
radicals of verbs and nouns would spread through the language as a
general habit of utterance,1 and would tend to become more marked in
the solemn reading in the synagogue, to which the vowel points cor-
respond.2
Now, along with this tendency to have the open syllable long,
there exists an apparently opposite tendency to have it excessively
short, its vowel being only simple or composite sheva. But this is
reconciled with the former when it is seen to result from the same
disyllabic tendency which coincides with the former. Gesenius says
that modern grammarians do not regard these as true syllables, but
always reckon them as part of that which immediately follows.2 And
if they be regarded in that light, they cease to be an exception to the
length of open syllables, and they carry out the dissyllabic tendency
which arose from the diminished sense of process and of relation.3
3d sing. 3d sing. fern. 2d sing. fern.
Thus the persons of the Arabic perfect qatala, qatalat, qatalti,
3d pl^ 2d pi. 2d pi. fern.
qatalu, qataltum, qataltunna become in Hebrew qdtal, qatdah, qatalt,
qdfelu, qetaltem, qetcdten, the accent being on the last syllable. In
the first person singular and plural and the second singular masculine,
the person element is less absorbed into the verb in Hebrew than the
other persons, so that the accent falls on the preceding syllable, as if
the word were ending there ; and the verb being then a more com-
2d. sing^ 1st. sing. 1st pi. 2d sing.
posite word is trisyllabic, qatdltd, qdtdltl, qdtdlnu, like Arabic qatalta,
1st sing. 1st pi. _
qataltu, qatalnd. So also the feminine plural in the imperfect is felt
as an added element tiqtolend, the other persons being dissyllabic ; and
the feminine plural of the imperative is the same. In Hiphil also in
the imperfect -I and -u are felt as added elements ; taqtili, taqtilu,
78. The personal pronouns and the personal affixes are given in the
table in 51. They have no dual number either separately or as
affixes.
The demonstrative pronoun is zeh masculine, zoO feminine, this;
helleh or hel, these. Another form of it is zu, which stands mostly for
the relative.4
The article is ha or hd for both genders and all numbers.5 It
doubles the initial consonant of the noun, as Arabic hal does by
assimilation of its I.
The relative pronoun for both genders and all numbers is haser,
sometimes abridged to se or sa.6
The interrogative and indefinite pronouns are : ml, who ? whoever ;
mah, what? whatever.7
79. The forms, according to their technical names, and the con-
jugation of the regular verb, giving third singular of perfect and
imperfect, and second singular of imperative, are as follows :
1 Gesenius, sect. 26. 3. 2 Ibid. sect. 26, note. 3 Ibid. sect. 26. 4.
4 Ibid. sect. 34. 6 Ibid, sect 35. 6 Ibid. sect. 36.
7 Ibid. sect. 37.
VOL. II. D
42 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES I HEBREW. [SECT. v.
Perfect. Infinitive. Imperative. Imperfect. Part. act. Part. pass.
TT 1 / qatal ) ,.j ( qttpl yijtol ) qotel qatul ; sim-
\ kdbed ] %e-c \ kebad yikbad } pie verb.
Niphal niqtal hiqqdtel hiqqdtel yiqqatel niqtal; reflexive, re-
ciprocal, passive.
Piel . . qittel qattel qattel yeqattel meqattel; intensive,
iterative, causa-
tive, effective.
Pual . quttal quttal ... yequttal rtuquttal ; passive
of PieL
Hiphil . hiqtll haqfil haqtel < ^ ^' 1 . > maqfil ; causative,
\ tfClQiC '• I USS. I • » •
' transitive.
Hophal . hoqfal hoqtal . . . yoqtal moqtal ; passive of
Hiphil.
Hithpael hiOqattel hiOqattel hiOqattel yiOqattel miOqattel ; reflex-
ive of Piel, to or
for self, recipro-
cal.
The nature and uses of the perfect and imperfect are the same as in
Arabic.1
The verbs which have e or o in the second radical have generally an
intransitive meaning, and denote states or qualities (52). Sometimes
both forms, the transitive and intransitive, exist together, as mdldfr, to
fill ; mdleh, to be full.2
Although there are in Hebrew some unusual forms of the verb cor-
responding to the third, sixth, ninth, and eleventh Arabic forms,3 the
derived forms on the whole show less thought in Hebrew of the
process reaching towards an end as in the third Arabic form, or main-
tained as in the ninth, and less tendency to reflexive formation express-
ing occupation about self. The only passive of the simple verb is the
reflexive form Niphal.
There was not enough sense of action on an object to think self as
an object with much distinction, or to support a passive of the simple
form of the verb ; it was only when the action was intense or
causative that it was so thought as affecting the object that a passive
was formed to give subjective expression to that affection.
The infinitives given above are those which are thought with less
sense of the subjective process, which accounts for the abbreviation of
the first vowel in Kal. The fuller infinitive of Kal is qdtol ; those
also of Niphal, Piel, and Pual have u with the second radical, and
those of Hiphil and Hophal have e ; Hithpael has only the one
infinitive.4 These fuller infinitives are more verbal in their meaning,
the others more nominal ; 5 and o expresses a deeper subjectivity than
c, which is taken by the less subjective forms (see below).
The passives Pual and Hophal have no imperative (55). 6
1 Gesenius, sects. 123-125, 126 b. s Ibid. sect. 43. 3 Ibid, sect 54.
4 CJeseniuH, Paradigm, &c., sect. 52. 8 Ibid. sect. 45. ° Ibid. sect. 4(5.
SECT.V.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: HEBREW. 43
In the imperfect the personal prefixes all have the same vowel as
that of the third singular, except the h of the first singular, which in
Kal, Niphal, and Hithpael has e, and in Piel and Pual has a according
to euphonic rule instead of « (75).
The o of the second radical in the imperfect is long only on account
of the accent.1
There is also a cohortative form of the imperfect which subjoins -dh,
expressive probably of motion to (55), accented except in Hiphil ; but
it is used only in the first singular, and is not found in the passives ;
and a jussive form or rather abbreviated utterance of the imperfect
second and third persons, which shows itself by dropping h when third
radical ; but the jussive has a distinct form in Hiphil,2 in which the
second i is relaxed to e by the reduction of utterance of the last
syllable.
The imperative also takes -all, and is shortened also, but not with
such significance.2
The perfect expresses what is thought as completed, and the imper-
fect what is thought as not completed, whether in present, past, or
future (see 98, the examples).
In continued narrations of the past, only the first verb is in the
perfect, the others being in the imperfect ; and in continued descrip-
tions of the future, the first verb is in the imperfect, the others in the
perfect (65).
This connection is usually expressed by the copulative v, which in
this use of it has such strength of meaning when prefixed to the
imperfect that it takes a instead of «, strengthens the first consonant,
and sometimes draws back the accent also in the perfect 3 (76).
The second radical syllable is stronger in Hiphil than in the other
forms, owing to the strong meaning of that form ; it consequently has
an attraction for the accent ; and in the perfect its i becomes a when
the consonant of the person concurs with the third radical.4
On comparing the Hebrew formations of the verb with the Arabic,
Niphal with the seventh form, Piel and Pual with active and passive
of third, Hiphil and Hophal with active and passive of fourth, and
Hithpael with hitqattala, a form of the fifth, a close correspondence
will be found when it is observed that Hebrew e corresponds to Arabic
i, being probably a relaxed utterance of it (75), and similarly Hebrew o
to Arabic u, and when it is remembered that the open syllable is long
in Hebrew, and that the final syllable is apt to be lengthened in
Hebrew by the accent which in Arabic falls on the antepenultima.
Yet, after all this has been taken into account, there still remain
differences which are probably due to the reduced sense of the sub-
jective process in Hebrew (77). These are the reduced vocalisation
of the personal prefix in the Hebrew imperfect, except in Hiphil and
Hophal, in which it takes up the strong significance of causation, and
the closer vowels in the perfect of Piel and Hiphil and in the last
syllable of the perfect of Hithpael.4
1 Geseniua, sect. 47. - Ibid. sect. 48.
3 Ibid, sects. 48 b, 124, 125. 4 Gesenius, Paradigm.
44 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. [SECT. v.
•
In Piel and Hiphil the subjective process is thought more weakly
than in Kal, because they are both thought more in the effect and
less in the subject. And in consequence of this, the first vowel in
both is reduced to i in the perfect ; but in the other parts of both forms
a remains in the corresponding syllable, the sense of subjective pro-
cess being less in the perfect or completed fact than in the other parts.
In Hithpael, however, the sense of the subject strengthened by the
reflexiveness maintains a with the first radical even in the perfect.
The weakening of the sense of the subjective process is greater in
Hiphil than in Piel, because the verb is thought more in the effect,
and therefore less in the subject in the former than in the latter ;
and accordingly the second vowel, which in Kal is a when the verb is
transitive and expresses the action passing from the subject (54), is
more reduced in Hiphil than in Piel. In both, however, the sub-
jectivity of the first and second persons affects the second syllable of
the stem when thought in immediate connection with it, and there-
fore in those persons of the perfect that syllable has a.
In the passives of these forms the strong sense of the effect leads
thought to the subject instead of from it ; for in the passive the effect
is in the subject. And the passive being thought in Hebrew as the
realisation of an effect, rather than as that of a temporary state like
the Arabic passive (54), the sense of subjective process in Pual and
Hophal is that of the subject receiving into itself an effect which
has come from an external source ; and while the sense of internal
reception suggests for the first vowel u or o, that of an affection from
outside suggests a for the second vowel.
In the verbal infinitive of Pual which is more subjective than the
nominal infinitive, and more recipient than the verbal infinitive of
Hophal, which is partly active (being made to act), the second vowel
becomes 0, because the subject not being thought with the infinitive
the subjectivity enters into the effect, and is thought more deeply in
the experience of the subject. Hophal has a verbal infinitive with e
for its second vowel, which expresses an abiding in the subject less
deep than u or o.
The u of the active participle of Kal corresponds to a of the nomen
ageniis in Arabic. The passive participle of Kal has similar vocalisa-
tion to the Arabic passive participle (57. 18) ; and the other participles
are formed after the Arabic rule, except that of Niphal, which only
lengthens the second vowel of the perfect.
The participles involve no position in time.1
There are, as in Arabic, irregularities caused by euphonic prin-
ciples, when one of the radicals is a weak consonant ; or by the con-
tractions of indolent utterance (75), when first radical is n, or when
second and third are the same.
80. In subjoining to the verb the personal suffixes of the object,
the initial consonant of the suffix is attached immediately to the verb
if the verb end in a vowel ; but if the verb end in a consonant the
sullix is joined by a connective vowel which for the perfect is a, and
1 Gesenius, sect. 131.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. 45
for the imperfect and imperative is e1 (98, Ex. 17); a expresses that the
action is gone to the object ; e, which gives less sense of motion forth,
expresses that the action is not yet completely gone to the object.
But before the suffixes of the second person singular and plural the
connective vowel is reduced to sheva or a half vowel, as if it was
partly absorbed by the softening aspiration of k. When the object
suffix is more strongly thought, it is strengthened by having prefixed
to it a demonstrative element n. But the plural suffixes of second and
third person are themselves so strong that they do not require this.2
These object suffixes are taken into such close combination with the
verb that they cause abridgments of its vocalisation.3
81. There are two genders, masculine and feminine ; and nouns are
distinguished in this respect just as they are in Arabic. The
feminine termination of nouns is -ah, accented, or -eO unaccented ; *
the strength of the vowel in the former, which is the most usual,
having softened 0 to h. The feminine ending is most used in adjectives
and participles, as they strengthen the sense of the substance by their
reference to it. The nouns generally involve a verbal idea 5 (48) ; and
verbal nouns have forms and meanings corresponding to infinitives and
participles; most frequently, however, deviating from the regular forms
of these.6
But there are also nouns formed from other nouns, by prefixing in-
to denote its place (57), by subjoining -on, -un to denote diminutives,
by subjoining -I to denote what is connected with the object denoted
by the root (57), by subjoining -uO and -W to express the abstract idea
of the root, and by subjoining -on, -an to denote that to which the root
belongs as an attribute,7 as qadm'on, eastern, from qedem, east,
haxaT'on, hinder, from hax<*r, hinder part, livydOan, serpent, from
livydh, winding.
82. The Hebrew noun has not only a plural number but also a
dual ; the use of which, however, is confined chiefly to such objects as
are by nature or art in pairs, so that it is suggested by the idea of the
noun. The plural involves a weak sense of the manifold individuality,
as appears from its use in expressing mere extension or greatness ; but
a stronger sense of that individuality than is in Arabic, as appears
from the absence of the pluralis fractus. The plural element is -Im
masculine, -50 feminine, the former akin to m, the masculine plural
ending of the second and third personal pronouns in Arabic and
Hebrew, the latter to at, the feminine plural element in Arabic. The
dual ending for both genders is -dim, a being a dual element in Arabic
too (51). In feminine nouns the final h becomes 0 before the dual
ending.
A considerable number of masculine nouns form their plural in -59,
while many feminines have a plural in -Im (59). It is chiefly only in
adjectives and participles that we find the plural endings regularly
and constantly distinguished acccording to the gender.8
1 Gesenius, sect. 57. 2 Ibid. sect. 58, Rem. 1.
3 Ibid, sects. 58-60. * Ibid, sects. 79, 105. 5 Ibid. sect. 81.
6 Ibid. sect. 82. 7 Ibid. sect. 85. 8 Ibid, sects. 86, 86 b, 106.
46 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. [SECT. v.
The masculine plural ending -im is external to the stem of the noun,
as if the idea of the individual remained in the plural The feminine
-oB is an alteration of the final syllable of the stem, as if the idea of
the individual was in some degree merged in the plurality (59). But a
masculine noun may be so thought that different individuals denoted
by it correspond imperfectly with each other, and that consequently
a plurality so weakens the individuality by reduction to what is
common to them all, as to suggest for the plural the feminine form.
On the other hand, a feminine noun may in the plural lose the sub-
ordinate nature which it has as thought singly, and be so strengthened
in its individuality as to suggest for its plural the masculine end-
ing (59). Thus father is originally a very special thought, and is
weakened by plurality, so that the plural of ab is aboO. On the
contrary, word is less subordinate when thought in the plural, and
millah makes milUm.
The adjective and participle supplement the substantive idea, which
is pluralised, and in doing so they strengthen the sense of the indi-
vidual and of its gender, so that the plural ending proper to the
gender is taken by them.
83. Hebrew has no case endings except some remains of the accusa-
tive -a, signifying towards or to a place, sometimes also, but very
rarely, to a time. The genitive relation is indicated by a close con-
nection between the two nouns (69) ; the genitive following its
governor and remaining unchanged, while the governor is generally
shortened by changes, partly in the consonants, but chiefly in the
vowels, while the tone hastens on to the genitive. The governor,
when thus changed, is said to be in the construct state ; the endings
aim of the dual and Im of the plural are changed to ei, the a of the
feminine singular is reduced to a, and the h returns to 6. The femi-
nine plural ending is not changed.1 The connection between the two
nouns seeins to have been in older times expressed by subjoining I or
-u to the governing noun,2 an application of the connective signifi-
cance of these vowels quite different from their use in Arabic as case
endings, -i of the genitive, -u of the nominative, and which seems to
indicate the ancient absence of these case endings from Hebrew (see
131).
84. The singular noun, in taking the possessive suffixes singular
and plural if it ends in a vowel, subjoins them immediately; but
if it ends in a consonant it takes a vowel before them all except first
singular, which vowel for the third person is usually a, forming -o
singular, -dm plural ; for the second person and first plural it is usually
-e ; a indicates the third person as the more remote, e the other as
the less remote.3
Dual nouns are suffixed like plural nouns.
The suffixes of plural nouns all take i before them (132), which,
though feebly sounded, is present, and seems to be a connective element
not needed with singular nouns by reason of their simplicity and the
comparative facility with which in consequence they take up an element.
1 Geaenius, sect. 87. J Ibid. sect. 88. 3 Ibid, sect 89.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. 47
With the singular suffixes, the plural nouns take a before the i, but this
a is weakened when the singular suffix is an additional syllable after
the i. With the plural suffixes, the plural nouns change this a to e ;
both a and e expressing an extension of the stem by plurality, but e
being a weaker expression of it, because it is less distinctly thought
in the effort of connection with the heavier plural elements ; thus
sus'l, my horse; sus'cfl, my horses; sus'o, his horse; siis'a'i'v, his
horses ; suse-Jcem, your horse ; sus'e'i'kem, your horses ; sus'ad'i, my
mare ; susoO'ci'i, my mares ; sus'dd'o, his mare ; sus'dQ'a'i'v, his mares ;
sus-aOe -kern, your mare; sus-oQ-evkem, your mares;1 see the Syriac
suffixes to plural nouns (51).
It seems from this that the ei, which is the termination of the
construct state of the masculine plural and of the dual, consists of
two parts, e denoting the number, and * the connection, as in the old
forms referred to above (83). This element ei, though it served to
connect feminine plurals with the plural suffixes, beginning as they
do with a consonant, and requiring, therefore, a connective vowel,
was not needed in forming the construct state of feminine plurals ;
for not only was the plurality which it expressed already expressed
in the noun, but it was also connected with the genitive by the
abbreviated utterance of the noun ; whereas when the masculine
plural in the construct state dropped the plural ending, there was no
expression of its plurality, and this had to be expressed and connected.
That the masculine plural ending should be dropped, was due probably
to the same cause which in Arabic required that na of the masculine
plural and ni of the dual should be dropped before a genitive (60).
In consequence of this the masculine pluralis sanus in Arabic loses
the expression of its plurality before a genitive, while the feminine
retains it ; but there is no connective element needed by the former,
because the genitive has its case ending to express the connection.
The various vowel changes which nouns experience in Hebrew in
the construct state, and in taking the personal suffixes and the
elements of number, are due mainly to the euphonic laws which
depend on the nature of the syllable and the position of the accent.2
And the extent to which such laws determine the vowels in Hebrew
makes a great and far-reaching difference between it and Arabic.
For it shows that Hebrew had lost the fine sense of the significance
of the vowels which still lived in Arabic, and which must have been
present when this family of languages came into being.
85. The Hebrew numerals agree in form and use with the Arabic
(63), the cardinals 3 to 10 having a feminine form with a masculine
noun, and not with a feminine.3
Hebrew has still fewer pure elements of relation than Arabic,
scarcely more than six proper prepositions ; with which nouns are often
used to denote relations, e.g., which the Lord commanded, beyad
Moseh, by the hand of Moses. There are hardly any conjunctions
except the copulative. The proper adverbs also are very few.4
The interrogative prefix ha- seems to correspond to Arabic Aa-4 (64).
1 Gesenius, sect. 89. 3 Ibid. sect. 90. 3.
3 Ibid. sect. 95. 4 Ibid, sects. 97-102, 150.
48 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. [SECT. v.
86. In the derived nouns mentioned in 81, as in some similar for-
mations in Arabic, there is an analysis of ideas into a root and an
added element But such formations are few in either language, the
tendency being to express ideas as single wholes. In consequence of
this tendency, what in other languages is expressed by an adjective or
substantive which is formed from a substantive by means of a deriva-
tive element, is in these languages often expressed by a substantive
master of dreamy
governed as genitive by another substantive (49), as bag'al ka%fdomo9t
man master of hair
dreamer ; his bafjal eetfar, hairy man.1 Here we have a governing
substantive instead of a derivative element, the mind being inapt to
think such an element as part of an idea. The same inaptitude for
thinking fine elements separately may be seen in the use of substan-
tives to express self as a separate element, as nefes, soul, qereb, inner
part, &c.2 (see 92, 111, 116). None of these are appropriated to this
meaning so as to be reduced to it by use, but all retain their other
applications and consequently their native fulness of idea.
87. In Hebrew, as in Arabic (66), there is a want of adjectives, the
quality being apt to be expressed as a substantive governed by that to
garments of art. holiness
which it belongs, as bigd'ei ha • qodes, the holy garments.3 Not
unfrequently also the genitive construction stands in the place of
virgin of daughter people my
apposition (66), as beviilaO bath jjamm ' \ virgin daughter of my
people.*
The adverbial accusative (66) cannot be distinctly made out in
Hebrew, probably because the sense of relation was so weak that this
use of the noun was not distinguished in thought from its use as
object or effect,5 the connection of the verb with the noun not being
distinctly thought. But an infinitive following the verb as an accusa-
tive is used to affect it adverbially (92), supplementing it 6 with a
thought of what it realises, or a verb preceding another verb is used
as auxiliary, supplementing the latter with an antecedent subjective
process. The first verb may govern the second in the infinitive or be
only connected with it (98, Ex. 11-13).
88. The governing noun is so far merged in the governed that
sometimes its plural is expressed by the plural of the latter ; and a
possessive suffix referring to the whole idea is attached to the genitive,
mount holiness my
as har qods • I, my holy mount.7 And, as in Arabic (69), it is
man of
made definite by affecting with the article the governed noun, as his
war men of art. war
milymmiih, a man of war ; hansci ham'mil'xamahy the men of war ;
word of art. prophet
dtbar han -nnhl, the word of the prophet 8 (98, Ex. 18). In general,
as always in Arabic, the article is inapplicable to a noun governing a
genitive or affected with a possessive suffix ; but sometimes it is so
1 Gescnius, sect. 104. 2. 3 Ibid. sect. 122. 1. » Ibid. sect. 104. 1.
4 Ibid. sect. 112. 3. s Ibid, sects. 116,135. « Ibid. sect. 139.
7 Ibid, sects. 106. 3, 119. 6. 8 Ibid. sect. 109.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. 49
3d sing. suff. art.
used to give demonstrative force, as yet'y • 5, a half thereof ; ha'
xefyo, the (other) half thereof; and when the genitive is a proper
art. altar of Bethel
name, as ham'mizbax beidhel, the altar of Bethel.1 These exceptional
applications of the article to a governing noun show that the noun is
not so merged in the genitive as it is in Arabic (69). This appears
art. altar of art. brass
also in such constructions as ham'mizbax han'nexoseO, the altar of
bearing of art. ark art. covenant
brass ; nosehei hdhdron hob • beriO, bearing the ark of the covenant ; l
in the former of these, if not in the latter, the second article must
refer to the governing noun to connect it with the genitive. In rare
instances a word is found to intervene between a genitive and its
governor, which is not permitted in Arabic. Also the constructions
part of art. field man of art. tilled ground
XelqaO has'sddeh, a part of the field, and his hd ' haddmdh, a hus-
bandman, though exceptional, like the preceding, indicate that the
governing noun is less merged in the genitive than in Arabic, the
correlation not being thought as so close. The usual construction
when the governor is indefinite and the other noun definite is, as in
Arabic, to prefix to the latter the preposition le 2 (69).
89. When a substantive has the article, or governs a genitive which
has it, or is affected with a possessive suffix, it needs to be represented
by the article before an adjective or demonstrative which agrees with
art. city art.
it in order that it may be connected with these (70), as hatj'gir hag'
great
gedoldh, the great city (98, Ex. 4, 8).
When a substantive is particularised either by the article or by a geni-
tive or suffix, the unparticularised idea is in these languages merged
in the particularisation, the general substantive not being thought
strongly enough to be maintained with the particularisation of it.
So when a substantive is distinguished by an adjective or a demon-
strative, the undistinguished substantive is in these languages merged
in the idea as limited by the distinction.
But the particularisation is of the general substantive idea, and it
cannot therefore in these languages be applied to the limited sub-
stantive in which the general idea is merged.
And the distinction is of the general substantive idea, distinguish-
ing from the whole extension of the noun, and it cannot therefore in
these languages be applied to the particularised idea in which the
general idea is merged.
The particularisation, therefore, must be made with the general
substantive. The adjective or demonstrative must also be thought
with the general idea, and having been thus thought is connected
with the substantive already particularised by means of the article
representing the latter.
The substance of nouns (Def. 4) being weakly thought in Hebrew,
those nouns which are thought abstractly and therefore with weaker
1 Gesenius, sect. 108. 2. 2 Ibid, sects. 109. 1, 112. 3, 113. 2.
50 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. [SECT. v.
substance than other nouns, are apt to take the article to give them
though be sins your like art. scarlet like art.
definite substance, as him yihyu \<&_ahei'kem k • as'sanim k • as'
snow they shall be white
seleg ya • lelnn ' u, though your sins be as scarlet they shall be white
as snow.1
90. The adjective follows the noun which it qualifies.2
There is no adjectival expression of degrees of comparison.3
When a noun is qualified by another noun with a preposition pre-
fixed (98, Ex. 19), or by a relative clause, it takes the construct state
(83) ; also in other cases where close connection is to be expressed,4
as qiryad \andh David, the city where David dwelt ; qiryath is
construct form of qirydh, city.
91. The numerals 3 to 10 have the noun in the plural even when they
precede it and govern it in the genitive ; 5 in which case the Arabic
uses always the plural is fractus (63).
The multiples of ten, 20 to 90, take the noun after them in the
singular, as in Arabic. But they may also follow the noun in apposi-
tion to it, the noun being plural, which construction is not in Arabic.
The former is the more usual construction, and the plural may be used
in it ; the singular never occurs in the latter.5
Numerals, compounded of tens and units, take the object numbered
either after them in the singular, or before them in the plural, as in
the later books of the Bible (Dan. ix. 6), or the object is repeated, in
the plural with the smaller number, in the singular with the larger.6
The greater use in Hebrew than in Arabic of the plural form of the
noun in counting seems to indicate a stronger sense of the unit, and
greater power of counting.
92. The pronoun of the third person frequently serves to connect
the subject and predicate, and is then a sort of substitute for the
copula (71). In this use it may, as in Arabic (70), represent a subject
thou king my
of the first or second person, as hatdh huh malk\ thou art my king.7
The pure copula is rather too fine an element to be thought
separately in these languages (71), hence hayali generally has a
thought of existence or other more concrete realisation ; and hence
the copula takes up a sense of presence, and is then expressed by
yes existentia, and of negation, being then expressed by hein defectus
(see 116).
The weak sense of relation is seen in the use of pronominal con-
nectives instead of proper elements of relation ; as of heO before the
accusative,8 and also of object suffixes, though the object follows;
and she saw him art. child
va't'irc'hn hcO hayyeled, and she saw the child;9 also in the
general inability of the relative pronoun to stand in a relation in the
relative clause.
The pronoun A«s?roften serves merely as a sign of relation td give a
relative signification to nouns, pronouns, or adverbs (73), as haser
1 (lesenius, sect. 107. 3. 2 Ibid, sect 110. 8 Ibid. sect. 117.
4 Ibid, sect 114. 8 Ibid. sect. 118. 2. • Ibid, sect 118. 3.
7 Ibid, sect 119. 2. * Ibid. sect. 115. 9 Ibid. sect. 119. 6.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. 51
to him
I'd, to whom ; but the accusative whom may be expressed by haser
alone1 (see 98, Ex. 2, 21).
The weakness of the sense of relations, greater in Hebrew than in
Arabic, shows itself in the absence of the subjunctive mood from the
Hebrew verb (77), the imperfect being used instead 2 (98, Ex. 6). It
appears also in the more verbal nature of the Hebrew infinitive ;
for that which reduces the subjectivity of the verb so as to make it
infinitive, is that it is thought in a relation external to its subject
which withdraws thought from its subjective realisation in the
subject (Def. 13). And the more strongly such relation is thought,
the more is the subjectivity of the verb reduced, and the idea of the
verb assimilated to that of a noun. In Hebrew the sense of relation
is weaker than in Arabic, and accordingly there is in Hebrew a more
verbal infinitive as well as the less verbal, the former used as an
accusative after transitive verbs which have the same subject as itself,
and therefore in a relation not altogether external to its subject (Def.
13), the latter used when such relation is more strongly thought, or
when the relation is external to the subject of the infinitive, that
subject being in the second correlative and not in the first. But even
this more nominal infinitive has more sense of subjective realisation
than the verbal noun which is used in its place in Arabic.
The more verbal infinitive as accusative to a transitive verb of the
same subject is used adverbially in Hebrew ; and it is used, like the
nomen actionis in Arabic, to express either intensity or continuance,
preceding the verb in the former sense as strengthening the idea of it,
and following it in the latter sense as adding to it in continuation s
(see 98, Ex. 14, 15). For there is in Hebrew the same want of
comparative thought as in Arabic (87), and the same inaptitude for
adverbial expression.
The weak sense of relations in Hebrew appears also in the use of
the more verbal infinitive after a verb with which it is very closely
connected in thought ; the connection being implied by referring it to
the tense and person of the principal verb, rather than expressed by
the relation which connects it 4 (see 98, Ex. 6, 1 6).
The weaker sense of relations in Hebrew is also partly the cause of
its having fewer derived forms of the verb than Arabic. For there is
a less distinct sense of the subject as object ; so that Hebrew has
only one reflexive form, and that form is the one in which the subject
as object is thought least distinctly (52, 79), the reflexive signification
passing into the passive. The full explanation, however, of this
difference from Arabic must include the weaker sense in Hebrew of
the engagement of the subject.
93. The want of close connection of the verb with the objects and
conditions, arising from its being thought so much in the subject
(53), causes a relation which governs a fact to be thought with the
verb rather than with the sentence of which it is the verb. And
1 Gesenius, sect. 121. - Ibid. sect. 125. 3.
3 Ibid. sect. 128. 4 Ibid. sect. 128. 4.
52 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. [SECT. v.
hence it is that the verb is so apt to be reduced to the infinitive
when it is object of a relation, its subject generally following imme-
diately, sometimes as a genitive (98, Ex. 17), but generally in the
to lay the king to heart his
nominative (98, Ex. 18), as Id'sum liam'melek hel lib • J, that the king
should lay it to his heart.1
And because the verb is thought in the subject (53) rather than as
affecting the object, it does not compound, with prepositions which
would carry it to the object, but these are used after it with the noun.2
And there is often a gap between the verb and the objects and con-
ditions, the verbal process not being carried the whole way to these,
as in the constructio prcegnans 3 (see 98, Ex. 20).
94. Hebrew shows an inaptitude for the passive conception of fact,
not only in the substitution of the reflexive Niphal for the simple
passive, but also in the strange constructions by which the passive is
sometimes imperfectly expressed ; as when an active in the third person
governs what would be the subject of the passive (98, Ex. 21), or
when the passive is impersonal in the third singular masculine, and
the subject follows like an accusative with heO before it.4 In this
construction hed may be taken as preceding a nominative, which it
sometimes does,5 and connecting it as in apposition with the abstract
subject of the verb. But to take.it as accusative would accord with
the Arabic idiom, in which verbs of being or becoming, instead of
being followed by a nominative in apposition with their subject, are
and 3d pers. made known to
followed by an accusative (66) ; as vay • yuggad le'ribqah hed-
words of
dibrei gesdv, and was made known to Rebecca the words of Esau ;
yuggad imperfect Hoph. of ndgad. Sometimes also the subject pre-
cedes the passive verb, and the verb, instead of agreeing with it in
number and gender, is in the third singular masculine, as if imper-
sonal.
95. The usual arrangement of words in calm discourse is the natural
order, subject, verb, object, but any member of the sentence can at
pleasure get prominence by being put first. (If the object or an
adverbial expression goes first the verb follows next. The adjective
as predicate generally precedes its subject. The arrangement, sub-
ject, object, verb, which is common in Aramaean, is seldom found in
Hebrew, and only in poetry.6
The adjective follows its substantive, and the genitive its governor.
The greatest prominence is given to any substantive in the sentence
by putting it absolutely at the beginning of the sentence, and then
representing it in its proper place by a pronoun.7
96. There is often in Hebrew, as in Arabic, imperfect agreement
between the verb or predicate and the subject, in number and gender.
Collective nouns singular are usually constructed with the verb or
predicate in the plural, the personality which is in the latter bringing
out a sense of the individuals which are massed in an aggregate in the
1 Gesenius, sect. 130. - Ibid. sect. 137. 3 Ibid. sect. 138.
* Ibid. sect. 134 note, 140. B Gesenius, Hebrew Lexicon.
6 Gesenius, Gram., sect. 142. 1. 7 Gesenius, sect. 142. 2.
SECT, v.] GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBKEW. 53
former ; and those individuals may be masculine though the aggregate
be thought as feminine l (58).
The subject may be plural to express extension or greatness, though
denoting only a single substantive object ; and the verb thinking only
the personality without the greatness may be singular. Or the subject
may be feminine as signifying an office though denoting the officer,
for the office as a subordinate appendage is naturally thought as femi-
nine ; 2 and the verb thinking the personality will be masculine.3
The verb in the plural may be predicated individually of an aggre-
gate which is singular ; or it may be singular, being predicated in the
aggregate of a plurality thought as such.4
When the verb or predicate is at the beginning of the sentence it
often takes its simplest form, the masculine singular, the subject,
which is feminine or plural, not having been yet mentioned. But if
the construction is continued after the introduction of the siibject,
a verb subsequent to it must agree with it in gender and number.5
If a feminine substantive is subject to .more than one verb or pre-
dicate, the feminine form is generally given only to the one nearest
to the subject.6
When the subject is a substantive constructed with a genitive, the
verb sometimes agrees with the genitive, the subject being merged
in it.7
There is in Hebrew a strange variability in apprehending the
gender of a substantive object when directing attention to it in a
pronominal element. Not only is a feminine substantive sometimes
represented by a masculine person or by a masculine pronoun, which
might be supposed to arise from its gender being unnoticed in thinking
the pronominal element, and the masculine form of this element being
used as the simplest and most general, but also a masculine sub-
stantive, even one denoting a man, may be represented by a feminine
pronoun ; and the gender may be different in pronominal elements
representing the same substantive object in the same compound sen-
tence8 (98, Ex. 22-26). In this case not only is the gender of the
substantive dropped out of view, but the pronominal element takes
the special feminine gender, which must be due to a weakness in the
part which it has in the fact.
All these imperfect concords show a weakness of attention to the
very object itself in forming the substantive idea of it (Def. 4), or in
noticing it afterwards, so that the one mental act may vary from the
other.
97. In consequence of want of cohesion and close construction in
the Hebrew sentence, two negatives do not destroy but strengthen
each other, as neither of them properly denies the whole.9
and thou take to thee of all food which
98. Examples: (1.) Vt'hatdh qa\-le ' kd mi ' kol-mahakdl haser
3d pers. isjsaten and gather 2d sing. perf. to thee and has been to thee
ye ' dkel Ve • hdsap ' ta helei • kd ve ' hdydh le ' kd
1 Gesenius, sect. 143. 1. 2 Ibid. sect. 105. 3. 3 Ibid. sect. 143. 2.
4 Ibid. sect. 143. 3. 4. 5 Ibid. sect. 144. 6 Ibid. sect. 144, Rem. 1.
7 Ibid. sect. 145. 8 Ibid, sects. 119, Rem. 1, 134.
9 Ibid. sect. 149. 2.
54 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. [SECT, v
and to them for food
ve ' Id ' hem It • hdkddh, and thou take to thee of all food which
is eaten, and gather (it) to thee, and let it be to thee and to them for
food (Gen. vi. 21) ; qa\ is an abbreviated form of leqa\ the impera-
tive of Idqax cepit ; kol is shortened to Ml when joined as above to a
following word ; yehdkel is third singular imperfect Niphal of hdkal
edit ; the imperative sense is carried on by the copulative ve to the
two verbs in the perfect, the command going on in thought to the
completion of what is commanded (79) ; hel takes the suffixes as a
and 3d pers. say
plural noun, as if it meant regions, directions. (2.) Vay • y • homer
to me who walk 1st sing, at face his 3d sing, send
held'y, yehovah haser-hiO'hallak ' tl It ' pdndi ' v y ' islax
angel his with thee and succeed way thy and take 2d sing. perf.
malhdk'd hittd 'k Ve'hi ' flia\ darke'kd ve ' Idqax ' ^a
woman for son my from kindred my and from house father my
hissdJi li ' bn • I mim • mispa%t 'I u • mi ' berth hdb ' I ; and he
said to me, Jehovah, before whom I walk, will send His angel with
thee, and prosper thy way ; and thou shalt take a wife for my son
of my kindred and of my father's house (Gen. xxiv. 40) ; yhomer is
third singular imperfect of hdmar, if it were less closely connected
with what follows it would be yhomar ; the copulative strengthens
the initial because it connects it strongly with what has gone before,
making it contemporaneous therewith (79) ; hiOhallaktl, first singular
perfect, Hithpael of halali, I have ordered my walk ; the relative
haser begins the relative clause, and the antecedent is represented
in the proper relation in it by the possessive suffix of third singular
(92) ; hittdk is the preposition hed, which is contracted from heneth,
and has the second singular suffix, which is -dk in pause, i.e., when
accented at the end of a sentence or member of a sentence ; the
two following verbs are perfect, being thought as future completion
and
(79) ; hifliax is Hiphil of t'alax, has caused to succeed. (3.) Vay
3d sing, say to all sons of evening and know
y ' homer Mo sell ve'Haharon el-kol - b<nei Yisrdel g'ereb v ' ida§~
2d pi. perf. that hath brought accus. you from land of Egypt
tern kl Yehovah hoflh. hed • kem me • heref Mit rdim;
and Moses and Aaron said unto all the children of Israel, At even then
ye shall know that Jehovah hath brought you out from the land of
Egypt (Exod. xvi. 6) ; bmei is the plural of ben in the construct
state (84) ; vulaijtem is contracted from veyadagtem ; thought goes
to the evening, and their knowledge is thought as then complete;
and
hoflh is the perfect third singular Hiphil of ydfdh exiit. (4.) Vay '
3d sing. say because said 1st siug. absolutely there's no fear of
y • homer Abraham kl hdmar • tl raq he>n — yirthad
God in art. place art. this and slay 3d pi. me on account of woman my
htlohlmb'am'mdqom haz'zeh ra 'horny • u • ril ijal d<bar hist ' %;
and Abraham said, Because I thought surely the fear of God is not in
this place, and they will slay me for my wife's sake (Gen. xx. 11);
kl is a relative particle, which among other uses often means because,
like Latin quod; bammaqom hazzeh (89); the effect hardgunl is
thought as complete in the perfect ; yirthaO is the construct state of
SECT. V.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. 55
and 3d sing, say Esau there is to me
yirehdh, and debar of ddbdr. (5.) Vay ' y • homer g'esdv yes -I ' I
much brother my 3d sing, be to thee what to thee Jacob nay
rdb hdx'l ye • hlle - kd haser Id'k vayy'omer Yagaqdb hal-
emph. if emph. find 1st sing. perf. favour in eyes thy and take
ndh him -ndh mdfdh • tl yen be'g'enei ' ka ve • ldqa\'
2d sing. perf. present my from hand my for on account see 1st sing perf.
to, minydO ' 1 miy ' ydd ' I H g'al -ken rdhl ' 61
face thy as seeing of face of God and 2d sing, be pleased me
pdnei'ka ki'rhoO penei hddhim va 'ti ' rfe ' m; and Esau said,
I have enough, my brother ; keep that thou hast unto thyself. And
Jacob said, Nay, I pray thee, if now I have found grace in thy sight,
then receive my present at my hand, for therefore I have seen thy
face, as though I had seen the face of God, and thou wast pleased
with me (Gen. xxxiii. 9, 10) ; ydil is the third singular imperfect of
lidydh fuit ; lak instead of lekd in pause, i.e., accented at the end of a
sentence ; gal-ken is used for therefore, ken means straight, $al-ken on
the level ; the Hebrew for face is plural pdnim, its construct state
penei, ; rehoO is the verbal noun reholi in the construct state ; tirt'eh is
second singular imperfect of rdfdh delectatus fuit ; v*ldqa\ta is con-
nected as consequence with what precedes, and as such is thought in
its completion in the perfect ; vatirfenl is connected as contempo-
give cohort. 1st pi. descend cohort, and confound
raneous with rdhldi. (6.) Hdb • dh n ' hered ' all ve ' ndbel '
cohort, there lip their that not 3d pers. understand pi. man lip of friends his'
dh sdm sepdd'dm haser loh yi • smecf ' u his s«paO reg'e 'hu,
go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they
may not understand one another's speech (Gen. xi. 7) ; hdb is the
imperative of ydhab dedit, and takes cohortative -dh (79) ; nered is
first plural imperfect of yarad descendit, ndbol is infinitive of nabal,
and both verbs change their second vowel to e before -ah; the infinitive
receives the tense and person of the verb with which it is connected
(92) ; yismtgu is third plural imperfect of sdmag' audivit, the
imperfect being used where Arabic would have the subjunctive (92).
for what not from womb 1st sing, die from cunnus come out 1st sing. perf.
(7.) Ldm'mdh loh me're%em hd ' mud mib' beten ydfdh ' 61
and 1st sing, expire
ve • he • gvdg', why died I not from the womb ? (why) did I (not)
give up the ghost when I came out of the belly ? (Job iii 11); why was
1 not dying from the womb, expiring as soon as (ve) I had come out
of the vulva ; hdmu6 and hegvdtj are both first singular imperfect ; the
first letter of mdh is doubled by the strength with which the preposition
and 3d sing. _say 1st sing, go aside cohort, empb.
is thought. (8.) Vay ' y ' homer Mdseh hd • sur ' dh-n ' ndh
and 1st sing, see accus. art. sight art. great art. this wherefore not 3d sing.
ve • he ' rheh he6-ham'marheh hag'gddol haz'zeh ma'duag1 loh -yi •
be burnt art. bush
bg"ar has'seneh ; and Moses said, I will now turn aside and see this
great sight why the bush is not burnt (Exod. iii. 3) ; hdsur is first
singular imperfect of sur, and herhch of rahah ; the adjective gdddl
and the demonstrative ^take the article because the noun has it
(89) ; maduag" is contracted from ma, what, and yaduag the nomen
paiientis of yddag' vidit, quid edoctus ; yibg'ar third singular imper-
56 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. [SECT. v.
and 3d sing, call for and for Aaron
feet of batfar. (9.) Vay ' yi • qrdh Pargoh If Moseh u~le -J/aharon
and 3d sing, say entreat pi. to and 3d sing. Hiph. go away art.
vay ' y • homer ha$tir-u hel YJwvah w ' y ' a • ser ha~
frog pi. from part me and from people my and 1st sing, let go emph. accus.
t'pardtg' ' lm mim'men'nl u • me ' gam ' ml va ' ha ' salle^ • all hed-
art. people and 3d pers. sacrifice pi. to
hd'tjdm ve ' yi zbe\ ' u la ' Yehovdh ; and Pharaoh called for
Moses and Aaron and said, Entreat Jehovah that He may take away
the frogs from me and from my people, and I will let the people go
that they may do sacrifice unto Jehovah (Exod. viii. 8) ; yiqrdh is
third singular imperfect of qdrdh vocavit; the copulative becomes
u before a consonant with sheva and before labials ; hagfiru is impe-
rative plural of Hiphil of tjdOdr suffivit ; ydser is third singular of
the short or jussive imperfect Hiphil (79) of sur recessit; hasalle\
and art. man
is first singular imperfect Piel of sdla\ misit. (10.) Vfhd-hdddm
knew accus. Eve wife his and 3d fern, conceived 3d fern, bring forth accus.
yddatj heO-havvdh hist'o va ' ta • har va • te ' led hed-
Cain and 3d fern, say get 1st sing. perf. man
gain va ' t ' homer qdnl ' (fi his hed-Yehovdh; and Adam knew
Eve his wife ; and she conceived and bare Cain and said, I have gotten
a man from the Lord (Gen. iv. 1) ; the three verbs with va are imper-
fects, and va has the strong vowel a because it connects them strongly
with yadag", making them imperfect in reference to it (79) ; heO-
and 3d sing, say
Yehovdh is not direct object but a condition. (H.) Vay • y • homer
Isaac to son his what this hasten 2d sing, to find son my and 3d sing, say
yi?xakhel-benfo mah-zeh mihar ' td li'mfoh bwi vay • y -homer
because Hiph. meet God thy to face pi. my
kl hi • qrdh Yehovdh helohei'ka le'pdn'd • y ; and Isaac said unto his
son, How is it that thou hast found it so quickly, my son 1 And he said,
Because Jehovah thy God brought it before me (Gen. xxvii. 20) ;
mihartd limt'uh, thou hast hastened to find, i.e., hast found quickly
(87) ; met' oh is the more nominal infinitive of mdfdh invenit ; pdnim,
face ; mihartd second singular perfect Piel of mdhar festinavit. (12.)
and 3d sing, add and 3d sing, take woman and name her
Va ' y ' yosep' Habrdhdm vay ' yi ' qqa\ hissdh u ' 'sem ' dh qeturdh,
then again Abraham took a wife, and her name (was) Keturah (Gen.
xxv. 1); yosep vayyiqqax, third singular imperfect of hdsap and
not 2d pers. multiply pi.
ndqa\, adds and takes, for takes again (87). (13.) //aZ- t • arb -u
2d pers. speak pi. high fern. 3d sing, proceed arrogant from mouth your for
te ' daiiber'ii gebohdh gebohdh ye • feh (ja&dq mip • pi ' kem Jci
God knowledge pi. and by him Niph. weigh pi. actions
hel dccj ' oth Yehnrnh Ve'l 'o ni ' Oken'u (falil'oth ; talk no
more exceeding proudly, let (not) arrogancy come out of your mouth ;
for Jehovah is a God of knowledge, and by Him actions are weighed
(1 Sam. ii. 3) ; tarbu is second plural imperfect Hiphil of rdbdh
multiplicatus est ; tflnbberu is second plural imperfect Piel of
ddbar locutus est; both used imperatively, and the former taking
the place of an adverb (87) ; g'bohah is feminine because it is thought
as a subordinate appendage of the verb ; the negative is carried on
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: HEBREW. 57
unexpressed to the second clause ; yefeh is third singular imperfect of
lo eyes of Lord on art kingdom
yatah exiit. (14.) Hinneh g'ewei hadondy yehovah, b • am'mamldkdh
art sinful fem. and destroy 1st sing, accus. 3d sing. fern, from surf ace of face of art.
lia~ \attah' ah vt'hismad ' tl hod • ah me ' gal pen'ei ha'
earth save that not destroy 1st sing, destroy accus. house of Jacob utterance of
haddmdh hep'es Id loh hasmid ha • smld heO -beiO yagaqob nehum
yehovah; behold, the eyes of the Lord God are upon the sinful
kingdom, and I will destroy it from off the face of the earth, save
that I will not utterly destroy the house of Jacob, saith Jehovah
(Amos ix. 8) ; hadondy is supposed to be the plural of excellence (82),
with possessive suffix of first singular ; the adjective \att_ahah has the
article, because the noun with which it agrees has the article (89) ;
hismad'tl is first singular perfect Hiphil of sdmad, which is not used
in Kal ; hepes means stop or limitation, hasmid is infinitive and
hasmid first singular imperfect of Hiphil of samad; the former
intensifies the latter (92) ; g'einei, penei, b&O are the construct forms
of gemaim, pariim, bayid ; nehum is the construct form of ndhum, the
and 3d sing, say go and
nomen patientis of ndham mussitavit. (15.) Vay ' y • homer lek ve •
say 2d sing. perf. to art. people art. this hear pi. hear infin. and not 2d pi.
hdmar • td I'd • gam haz'zeh simg ' u sdmoag' Ve'hal -td'
understand pi. and see pi. see infin. and not 2d pers. perceive pi.
bin • u u • reh'u raho ve'hal -te • ddg' • u ; and he said,
Go and say to this people, Hear continually and understand not, and
see continually and perceive not (Isa. vi. 9) ; lek is imperative of
yalak, simgu and rehu imperative plural of sdmag' and rdhdh; the
command is carried from the first to hdmartd, and in it is applied to
completion, the two latter get continuation in their verbal infinitives
(92) ; tdblnu and teddg'u are second plural imperfect of bin and
and 3d pers. juss. Hiph. ride accus. 3d sing, in chariot art.
yadag. (16.) Vay • y ' arkeb hoO ' 5 be'mirkebeth ham'
second which to 3d sing, and 3d. pers. cry pi. at face his and give
misneh haser - 1 • o vay • yi ' qre'hu le'p'dn'div hdbrek ve ' nddon
accus. 3d sing, over all land Egypt
ho6 • o gal tiol-heret' mit'rdlm ; and he made him to ride in the
second chariot which he had, and they cried before him habrek, and
he put him over all the land of Egypt (Gen. xli. 43) ; ndOon is the
verbal infinitive of ndBan, being so closely connected with what
precedes that the tense and person are carried on to it, and it is
and 2d pers. Niph. murmur pi. in tents your and
infinitive (92). (17.) Fa • t • e ' rdgm ' u be ' hdhalei ' kem ra'
2d pers. say pi. in hating of accus. 1st pi. Hiph. go forth us from land
t ' hdmeru be'sintha6 yjiovdh hoO • d ' nu li'o • t'ihd'nu me'heref
Egypt to give accus. 1st pi. in hand of art. Amorite to ^iph. infin. destroy
mit rdlm Id'OeO hod • d • nu be • yad hd'temorl le ' ha-smld-e'
us
nu ; and ye murmured in your tents and said, Because Jehovah hated
us, He hath brought us fortli out of the land of Egypt to deliver us into
the hand of the Amorites, to destroy us (Deut. i. 27) ; terdg^nu is the
second plural imperative Niphal of ragan murmuravit ; sinehdh is a
nominal infinitive of sdneh odit, its construct form is sinJiaO (93) ;
hot'ih is third singular perfect Hiphil of ydfdh prodiit ; ted is the
VOL. II. E
58 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. [SECT. v.
nominal infinitive of nadan dedit ; I takes a before a monosyllable ;
yad is the construct form of ydd. On the connective vowels of the
and 3d pers. be rel. hear art. king aocus.
object suffixes see 80. (18.) Fa • ye • hi ki-smoatf ham-melek heO
word of man art. God who cried against art. altar in Bethel and 3d pers.
-debar fiis -hd'helohim haser qdrdh gal -ham"mizbea\ be'beid'hclvatj ' yi '
put forth Jeroboam accus. hand his from top art. altar to say hold pi.
slax ydrdbegam hed -ydd'o me' gal ham 'mizbea\ le~ hmor tips • u'
him and 3d sing. fern, dry hand his which he put forth against 3d sing, and not
hu va ' t ibash ydd ' 5 haser sdlax gdl'di • v ve • loh
3d pers. effect to Hiph. return it to him
yd • kdl la ' fia'slb • ah hel'di'v ; and it came to pass, when the
king heard the saying of the man of God who had cried against
the altar in Bethel, that Jeroboam put forth his hand from off
the altar, saying, Lay hold on him ; and his hand, which he put
forth against him, dried up so that he could not pull it in again to
him (1 Kings xiii. 4) ; yehl is third singular imperfect of hdydh fuit ;
ki is the particle of correspondence in quality or in time, he, which
becomes ki before sheva ; semdacf, the infinitive of sdmacf audivit, to
which hammelek is nominative (92) ; debar is construct state of ddbdr ;
his is denned by the article with helohlm (88) ; yisla\ is third singular
imperfect of sdlax misit ; hemdr is infinitive of hdmar dixit ; tipsu is
second plural imperative of tap as prehendit ; tlbas is third singular
feminine of ydbds exaruit, agreeing with ydd, which is feminine ; gal
and Kel take the suffix like plural nouns ; ydkol is third singular
imperfect of kdlal perficit ; hdslb is the nominal infinitive Hiphil of
sub redire, to cause to return, it is shortened in taking the suffix.
multiply 2d sing. art. nation to him made great 2d sing. art. joy
(19.) Hi'rbl • Od hag • fjuy I • oh hi • gdal ' td has • sim\d1i
rejoice 3d pi. perf. at face thy as joy of in art. harvest as which 3d pers. exult
sdmex ' u le'pdnei'kd ke'simyad b • aq ' qaflr ka'haser yd • gll '
pi. in divide their spoil
u be'xall«2 ' dm sdldl ; thou hast multiplied the nation to him, thou
hast made great the joy, they have rejoiced before thee according to
the joy in harvest, as how they exult in their dividing spoil (Isa. ix.
2) ; hirbldd and hiydaltd are second singular perfect Hiphil of rdbdh
multus fuit, and yddal magnus fuit ; sim\ad is the construct form
of simxdh, connected with bagqaf-ir as if with a genitive (90) ;
ydr/ilii is third plural imperfect of yil exultavit ; \alleq is infinitive
Piel of \alaq divisit ; a subordinate fact is apt to be governed in the
save me from mouth of lion and from horns of
infinitive. (20.) Ilu'sifj ' <i ' nl mi ' pi haryeh u ' miq • qarnSi
buffaloes hear 2d sing, me
rernim ij<ml ' Od • nl ; save me from the lion's mouth and from horns
of buffaloes hear (and deliver) me (Ps. xxii. 22) ; husiatj is impera-
tive Hiphil of yd say, which is not used ; qarnci is the construct form of
(jfriiniiit, plural of qcrcn horn; (janWd is translated byGesenius as impera-
tive, the prayer being thought in perfect as accomplished ; the last clause
nedum dwellers of
is an example of the conntructio prcegnans (93). (-!•) H<i]> subnet
houses of clay wlio in dust foundation their 3d pi. crush pi. them at face of
iuttci -\oiner haser be'tjnji iir ijfxnd ' <IH> //< • dakkeh'u 'm li'jftnii
BECT. v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HEBREW. 59
moth
-g'ds ; much less them that dwell in houses of clay, whose foundation
is in the dust and whom they crush before the moth (Job iv. 19) ;
sokenei is construct form of sokemm, plural of participle of sdkan
habitavit ; bottei construct of bottlm, plural of bayiO ; the active third
plural is used for passive, are crushed (94) ; at face of = before.
and 3d pi. say Naomi to two daughters in law her go pi. fern.
(22.) Va • t ' Corner ndfjomi li'stei IcalloO • ei'hd lek'e ' nah\\
return pi. fern, woman to house of mother her 3d pers. do with
sob's ' nali hissdh le ' beiO him -m'dh ya ' cfaseh yehovdh cfimm-
2d pi. masc. kindness as how do 2d pi. masc. with art. dead pi.
d ' kem xesea ka'haser tfasi ' Bern tfim ham'med'im vt'
with 1st sing.
gimmdd • 1; and Naomi said to her two daughters-in-law, Go,
return each to her mother's house; Jehovah deal kindly with you, as ye
have dealt with the dead and with me (Ruth i. 8) ; setei is the construct
form of setaim, which is feminine of senaim, two ; lek is imperative
of ydlak ivit, and sob is imperative of sub redire ; yagaseh is third
singular imperfect of gdsdh fecit ; g'asWem is second plural perfect of
the same, and is masculine though addressed to women, as also is the
suffix in g'immdkem (96) ,• meO participle agentis of mud mori. (23.)
and 3d pers. be because fear pi. art. part. Pi. bring forth pi. accus. .art. God and
Va ' ye ' hi ki -ydr'h'uha ' me ' Called • 08 heO-hd ' helohim vay
3d pers. make for 3d pi. masc. houses
ya • g'asld • hem bottlm; and it came to pass because the midwives
feared God that he made for them houses (Exod. i. 21); yatjas is third
singular jussive of gdsdh fecit, the suffix in Idhem is masculine (96).
and 3d pers. come pi. art. shepherds and 3d pers. drive away 3d pi. masc. obj.
(24.) Vay • yd • bofru hd • rocf'im va • ye • gdres • um
and 3d pers. stand and 3d pers. save 3d pi. fern. obj. and 3d pers. water accus.
vay ' yd • qom Moseh vay ' y ' dsitj ' an vay ' y ' asqt heO
flock 3d pi. masc.
-fohn • dm ; and the shepherds came and drove them away, and
Moses stood up and helped them and watered their flock (Exod.
ii. 17) ; the verbs are all imperfect, ydbohu third plural from boh venire,
yegdresu third plural Piel from gdras pepulit, ydqom third singular
jussive of qum surgere, yosiag third singular Hiphil of ydsag' not
used, yasqe third singular jussive Hiphil from sdqdh bibit ; the suffixes
-um and -dm refer to the daughters of Reuel mentioned in the pre-
ceding verse, and spoken of throughout it in the feminine gender ; -an
thinks them as feminine because helped by Moses as weak (96). (25.)
go pear thou and hear accus. all that 3d pers. say God our and
Qerab hatdh u'samag heO kdl -haser y . homar yihovah helohei'nu Ve'
thou fern. 2d speak__to 1st pi. accus. all that
hat te'dabber hel'ei • nu hed kdl -haser ye'dabber ythovah helohei'nu
to 2d sing, and hear 1st pi. perf. and do 1st pi. perf.
hel'ei ' kd ve'samag ' nu wijasi ' nu ; go thou near and hear
all that Jehovah our God shall say, and speak thou unto us all that
Jehovah our God shall speak unto thee, and Ave will hear it and do it
(Deut. v. 24) ; fcdabber is second singular imperfect Piel of ddbar
locutus est, hat feminine, though addressed to Moses perhaps as in
contrast to Jehovah (96) ; the perfects are future completions. (26.)
and 3d pi. fern, demon, came pi. into middle of art. house takers of wheat' and
Ve • hen • ndh bah • u gad -tok hab'bayiO loqe^'Si \ittlm vay
60 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SYRIAC. [SECT. v.
3d pers. smite him at art. fifth and and brother his Niph. escape
y • akku'hu hel -ha'xomes vl'rekdb u'ba^andh hdxi ' v ni • nddt '
3d pl_. perf.
u; and they came into the midst of the house (as if) fetching
wheat, and they smote him at the fifth (rib), and Kekab and Baanah
his brother escaped (2 Sam. iv. 6) ; yakku is third plural imperfect
Hiphil of ndkdh not used ; henndh, they there, is feminine, perhaps
because they are thought as coming in with fear and caution (96).
SYKIAC.
99. Syriac, called also Aramaic, was the language of Syria or Aram,
the highland country to the north-east of Palestine, as far as the
Euphrates ; and was spoken there until the Mahommedan conquest
caused it to be supplanted by Arabic. It is still represented by some
Neo- Syriac dialects in the neighbourhood of Lake Urumiyah ; l and
is preserved as a liturgical language by the Maronites and Jacobites,
though the knowledge of it is said to be dying out.2 It was a sister-
language to Hebrew. And though it is known to us principally in
Christian writings, in Avhich it was subject to a strong Greek influence,
from the New Testament and the Greek Fathers of the Church, it
is not affected in its essential character by this influence. "The
Christian influence," says Fiirst, "shows itself in the adoption of
Grecisms or entire Greek words or phrases ; and in the modification
of the existing materials of the language into an accordance with
Christian ideas, distinguishing a spiritual meaning from the natural
meaning, and forming many abstracts with religious signification. But
all this has not made the Syriac an idiom distinguished by peculiarity
of structure from the other Aramaic," 3 which was exempt from this
influence. Similarly Renan remarks : " On comparing the Chaldee of
the fragments of Esdras, which represent to us the Aramean of the
fifth century before the Christian era, witli the Syriac which is still
written in our day, we can hardly discover between texts composed at
so long an interval any essential differences. A slight tendency to
analysis, the more frequent employment of prepositions, a richer
system of particles, a great number of Greek words introduced into
the language, — such are the only points on which innovations are to be
observed. One might say that the Aramean language between the
two limits which have been indicated has varied no more than the
language of Cicero from that of Ennius." 4
100. The Syriac alphabet is the same as the Hebrew, though the
characters differ. But the utterance was stronger in Syriac both in
respect of muscular tension and of pressure of breath from the chest,
so that it used the harder and more guttural consonants more than
Hebrew, and sounded the vowels more fully. Thus very frequently q
in Syriac corresponds to k in Hebrew,5 and sometimes k in Syriac to
1 Sayce, Introduction to th« Science of Language, vol. ii. p. 171.
- Kenan, Hist, des Languea Semitiques, p. 277.
3 Lehrgebaude dor Aramaischen Idioine, p. 6.
4 Kenan, pp. 277, 278. B Furst, sect. 32.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SYRIAC. 61
g in Hebrew.1 Often q in Syriac corresponds to g in Hebrew,2 t in
Syriac to t in Hebrew, t in Syriac to d in Hebrew,3 p in Syriac to b
in Hebrew,4 s in Syriac to the weak s or sin in Hebrew,5 t or cj in
Syriac to t in Hebrew,6 t in Syriac to s in Hebrew,0 d or s in Syriac
to z in Hebrew.6 In Syriac the t- utterance prevails over the s- utter-
ance, in Hebrew the latter over the former.7 There is no distinction
in writing made as in Hebrew between the hard state of b, g, d, k, p, t,
and their soft state after a vowel. N occurs in Syriac for Hebrew m,
I or r for n, r for L8
In Syriac also d corresponds to Hebrew d, i or i to Hebrew e, u or
u to Hebrew 6 ; 9 and, unlike Hebrew (75), Syriac has diphthongs ; 10
but sometimes two vowels represent a long vowel intermediate between
the two.11
The guttural spirants or aspirates have an affinity for a.11 In Syriac
g' was uttered so softly as to be often treated like A,12 owing probably
to foreign speakers.
The peculiar feature of the Syro- Arabian languages is the opening
of the root and the incorporation in it of the vowels which denote the
process of the being or doing. In consequence of this mode of expres-
sion it is contrary to the general habit of these languages that a syllable
should begin with two consonants. And when at the beginning of a
word two consonants are not separated by an intervening vowel, a
syllable is apt to be prefixed which takes up the first of them as its
final consonant. Syriac, however, admits two consonants at the begin-
ning of a syllable, never at the end. But to foreign words beginning
with two consonants it often prefixes a syllable beginning with A, some-
times with h or s, or even with \ or 9- Syriac carries this habit of
prothesis farther than Hebrew or Arabic, for it sometimes prefixes a
prosthetic syllable to a word beginning with a single mute, and this
sometimes has the effect of doubling the initial mute.13
The object of this in the latter case seems to be to give more energy
to the utterance of the initial by making it stop the voice, for it can-
not be regarded as a softening of the initial when in fact it often
hardens it by doubling it. It is an effort to utter that consonant with
more fulness by strengthening the beginning of it, and corresponds to
a tendency to utter with force so as to give both tension and fulness
to all the elements. Such superior energy of expression would account
for the consonants having more tension and the vowels more fulness
in Syriac than in Hebrew. But this is accompanied also by a ten-
dency to save the consonants from being impaired by compression.
The latter effort led Syriac to avoid doubled mute consonants, though
they sometimes arose from the strengthening of an initial mute by a
prosthetic syllable or from assimilation, as hettaqtal from hethaqtal, by
assimilation of h. The first of the two was mostly replaced by a nasal,
usually n, or a vibratile, usually r, or by the lengthening of the pre-
1 Fiirst, sect. 33. 2 Ibid. sect. 34. 3 Ibid. sect. 35. 4 Ibid. sect. 36.
5 Ibid. sect. 38. 6 Ibid. sect. 39 ; Cowper, Syriac Gram., sect. 24.
7 Fiirst, sect. 40. 8 Cowper, sect. 24. 9 Fiirst, sect. 84.
10 Cowper, Syriac Gram., sect. 15 ; Fiirst, sect. 86. " Fiirst, sect. 87.
12 Cowper, sect. 38. 13 Fiirst, sects. 56-58, 60 ; Cowper, sect. 52.
62 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SYRIAC. [SECT. v.
ceding vowel.1 The same effort led to that transposition and assimila-
tion of consonants which is a feature in Syriac,2 and by means of
which collisions are avoided and the consonants interfere less with
each other's utterance. Such an effort would be the natural effect of
that compression of the roots which is a distinguishing characteristic
of this language ; and while, on the one hand, the habit spread of
facilitating the utterance of the consonants by such euphonic changes,
on the other hand, weak consonants would be liable to be lost 3 in the
habitual compression. There seems also to have been in Syriac a
decay of affixes 4 by reason of the weakness with which they came to
be thought.
101. The personal pronouns and affixes are given in 51. The
demonstrative pronouns are hon, hono, masculine singular; honun,
masculine plural; hode, feminine singular; honen, feminine plural;
holen, hailen, common plural.5
The interrogative pronouns used also for indefinites are man, who?
mo, mon, mono, what? haino masculine, \aido feminine, are some-
times used for who ?
The usual relative is d, sometimes de for both genders and numbers.'
102. The primitive verbal stem, so long as it has only three con-
sonants, is always monosyllabic, the first two consonants having only
sheva between them. But there are verbal stems formed from nouns
and particles for which this does not hold.7
The vowel between the second and third consonants of the triliteral
verbal stem is generally a, but may be u or e ; the e is more frequent
in intransitive verbs ; 8 u is less frequent than e, and not clearly
distinguished from it in significance.9
There are many derived forms to be met with, but the principal
are two, the intensive (Heb. Piel) and the causative (Heb. Hiphil) ;
and these, as well as the ground form, have each a reflexive. Peal (Kal)
qt_cd, reflexive hetqtel, the vowel of the root being changed to e, which
corresponds to reduced movement of the action as passing from the sub-
ject (54) ; Pael (Piel) qafel, reflexive hetqatal, the last vowel in qatd
being reduced to e as in Hebrew, and that of the reflexives of Pael and
Aphel corresponding to what it is in Hebrew Pual and Hophal (79), the
other vowels being broader than in Hebrew (100) ; Aphel (Hiphil),
haqtel, reflexive hettaqtal ; sometimes h remains instead of the second t.
There is also a form called Shaphel, causative like Aphel, viz., saqtel,
reflexive hestaqial, but in most grammars and lexicons it is treated as
a quadriliteral stem.10 For there are quadriliteral and pluriliteral
formations analogous to the triliteral.11 The verb has a perfect and
imperfect like Hebrew, an imperative, infinitive, and participle. It
expresses a present active and passive by using the personal pronouns
in their full form after the participle agentis qotel and the participle
patientis qtcl. The perfect of the verb to be, after the participle
1 Furst, sect. 62. * Ibid, sects. 54, 55, 70.
1 Ibid, sects. 61, 66 ; Cowper, sects. £8, 29. 4 Furst, sect. 79.
8 Cowper, sect. 69. « Ibid, sects. 70-74. 7 Fiiret, sect. 103.
9 Cowper, sect. 78. 9 Furst, sect. 112.
10 Ibid. sect. 147 ; Cowper, sects. 79, 95. 4. " Furst, sect. 106.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SYKIAC. 63
agentis expresses the Latin imperfect, and after the perfect it expresses
a pluperfect.1 The participial formations express the verb less sub-
jectively than the tenses ; and the auxiliary coming last shows that
the verb is thought in its general associations as an outer fact rather
than under subjective limitations. The personal affixes are given in
51. The stem vowel a changes to e before the person endings -et
and -at in the first singular and third singular feminine of the perfect
of (Peal, as the tone falls on the person ending.2 The stem vowel a
becomes u in the imperfect Peal ; but in intransitive verbs the vowel
of the imperfect is generally either a or e.3 The stem of the impera-
tive Peal is the same as that of the imperfect.4
The infinitive Peal is mostly formed by prefixing me- to the verbal
stem. The infinitive of the derived forms ends in uf There is no
distinction of nominal and verbal infinitive.6
The participle patientis of intransitive verbs may have a merely
intransitive meaning ; but it often has a after the first consonant in
intransitive verbs, as if these when thought as passive got a sense as
of issuing from an external source, and it sometimes has this a from
euphony, as in verbs beginning with h.
The reflexives are used for passives,7 there being little sense of
the affection of the object (79).
The personal prefixes of the imperfect of Pael and Shaphel and
other unusual conjugations have no vowel, and take a prosthetic
syllable with A.8
103. The objective personal suffixes are given in the table, 51. T"
The objective suffix of a verb cannot be of the same person as the
verb except in the third singular. A verb ending in a vowel takes a
suffix without one, and a verb ending in a consonant takes the suffixes
with a connecting vowel as given in the table, except that all forms
of the verb ending in n have o for the connecting vowel.9
In the imperfect the forms which end in the third radical, when
taking the objective suffixes, reject the vowel of the last syllable, except
with the objective suffixes of second plural, before which it remains ;
for these being heavier, the verb does not take them up so readily or
run into them. Forms ending in n remain unchanged, but connect
the suffix by o.10
The imperative masculine singular inserts i as a connective vowel
between the verb and the objective suffixes.11 In the imperative
singular feminine and plural masculine i and u are lengthened before
the objective suffixes, and in the plural the vowel is transposed from
the second to the first radical.
The infinitive Peal drops its last vowel before all the suffixes except
kun and ken. In the other derived forms the infinitive adds t after u
before the suffixes.11
104. The genders of the noun are masculine and feminine. Some
nouns are either masculine or feminine.
1 Cowper, sect. 82. 2 Ibid. sect. 86. 2; Fiirst, sect. 109.
3 Cowper, sect. 87. 4 Ibid. sect. 89. * Ibid. sect. 90.
6 Fiirst, sects. 113, 130. 7 Cowper, sects. 79, 92. 8 Ibid. sect. 93. 7.
9 Ibid. sect. 101. 10 Ibid. sect. 103. " Ibid. sect. 105.
64 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SYRIAC. [SECT. v.
Names and appellations of men are masculine. So also are those of
nations, mountains, rivers, and months.
The names and appellations of women, regions, cities, islands, and
such members of the body as are double are feminine.
Other nouns are known to be feminine, not by their signification,
but by their having a feminine ending. This is o, u, I, ot, or in the
emphatic state to ; but nouns may have these endings as part of the
expression of the substantive idea without being feminine. The
feminine ending forms abstract substantives from verbs and adjectives.1
Some names of animals, the numerals from twenty to a hundred,
and some other nouns, are either masculine or feminine ; and their
gender can be ^determined only by the connection in which they
stand.1
105. Nouns have so much of a verbal nature that, as in Arabic
and Hebrew, they seem to be very generally derived from verbs,2 and
the compression of the stem of the verb by reducing or dropping the
vowel from between the first two consonants, extends to the stem of
the noun also.
But there are also nouns derived from other nouns. Thus diminu-
tives are formed by adding the termination -un or -us, or by inserting
u before their termination.3
Nouns are used in juxtaposition with each other to express a
composite idea.4
106. Nouns have a plural ending, which, for masculine, is -in, the
last letter of the stem being dropped if it be h, v, ort// for feminine,
-on, a final i or u becoming y or w.b The feminine plural ending has
a distinct element n like the masculine, and is not a mere lengthening
of the vowel as in Hebrew.
A dual ending -en still remains in four nouns.5
Some masculine nouns have their plural of feminine form (82).
Some feminine nouns have their plural of masculine form ; and of
these some drop the feminine ending altogether, others retain the tin
the plural.
Some nouns have plural of both masculine and feminine form.
Juxtaposed nouns with composite meaning form their plural on the
first noun, or on the second, or on both.
Some nouns insert i, or u, or h before the plural ending.
When a final radical n is dropped before the feminine ending in
the singular it generally reappears in the plural.
Some nouns have no plural form, others no singular ; some are
alike in singular and plural, except in the vowel pointing.
The plural of foreign, and especially of Greek words is regular,
but the termination used is not decided by the gender of the original
noun ; it is commonly the masculine, seldom the feminine.
Greek terminations of number are not only sometimes adopted in
Greek words, but even affixed to Syriac words.6
1 Cowper, sects. 132, 177. 2; Fiirst, sects. 131, 181.
* Cowper, sects. 135-144. 3 Ibid. sect. 147. * Ibid. sect. 148.
• Ibid. sect. 149. « Ibid, sects. 150, 151.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SYRIAC. 65
107. Nouns have not only a construct state as in Hebrew (83), but
also an emphatic or demonstrative state, formed in singular masculine
by adding -5 with or without change of vowels ; in the plural masculine
by changing -in to -e, the n being dropped, and the vowels coalescing
into e ; in singular feminine, ending in o, u, i, by adding -to, -5 being
dropped, and various changes made in the vowels ; in plural feminine
by changing -on to -oto.1 In the feminine singular and plural t
belongs to the noun, 5 is the emphatic suffix. * There is no nominative
ending.2
The construct state is almost like the original form of the noun,
and in the singular masculine it is the same ; but in plural masculine
it changes -in to -ai ; -en becomes -yai ; in singular feminine -u and -i
become -ut and -it, and -o becomes -at (83) ; in plural feminine the
ending is -ot.1
The stems of nouns undergo various changes in assuming the
various endings and suffixes.3 The possessive suffixes are given
in 51.
108. The system of the numerals is like Arabic and Hebrew. The
masculine forms of the cardinals, except one and two, go with feminine
nouns, and the feminine forms with masculine nouns.4
Fractions may be expressed by peculiar forms of the cardinals, as
rubg'o, a fourth, from harbag', four.4
109. Adverbs of quality from nouns, adjectives, and participles end
in ohit.s
Syriac has the prepositions b, d, I, men, and many nouns used as
prepositions. Some prepositions take the personal suffixes like
plural nouns.6
Its conjunctions are similar to those of Hebrew, except that it has
adapted many from the Greek, as 'aX\a, yag, (j^v, &C.*
110. Adjectives are more usual in Syriac than in Hebrew, but sub-
stantives governed in the genitive are very often used instead, as
spirit rel. holiness I rel. flesh I
ru\o de • qudso, Holy Spirit ; beno d' a ' bsar hand, I am carnal ;
law emph. rel. spirit 3d masc. indef. pron. pi. rel.
nomus ' d d' ru\ (h)u, the law is spiritual ; hail • en d •
God emph.
halloh • o, divine things8 (114).
There is no adjectival expression of degrees of comparison ; but
sometimes the emphatic state expresses the superlative.9
111. Adjectives of possession, custom, likeness, &c., are generally
denoted by a periphrasis, the element of possession, &c., being
expressed by a noun, and that which would be the root of the adjec-
tive being another noun, governed by the former, as in the geni-
tive 10 (86).
Self also is often expressed as in Hebrew by a noun.11
112. The emphatic suffix of the noun in Syriac differs from the
definite article in Arabic and Hebrew. The article affects the sub-
1 Cowper, sect. 153. 2 Ftirst, sect. 184. 3 Cowper, sects. 154-164.
4 Ibid, sects. 165, 166. 5 Ibid. sect. 169. « Ibid. sect. 170.
7 Ibid. sect. 171. 8 Ibid. sect. 176. 2. 9 Ibid, sects. 188, 189.
10 Ibid. sect. 176. 5. " Ibid. sect. 202.
66 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SYRIAC. [SECT. v.
stantive idea, limiting it by defining or particularising it ; the emphatic
suffix merely strengthens the idea with additional attention to it. The
noun in Arabic and Hebrew is thought more generally than in Syriac,
more in the attributive part and less in the substance (Def. 4) ; and
when a definite or particular idea is to be expressed, the general idea
having been first thought, is then affected with the limitation, and
then thought as limited ; and the interest of the last thought over-
powering the first, the first does not get expression, but the limita-
tion of the article is followed in expression by the limited noun
(Def. 23). On the other hand, the noun in Syriac, thought more
particularly, does not, after having been emphasised, differ sufficiently
from the noun in its simple state to overpower the latter, but this
gets expression in its natural place, being followed by the emphatic
element, and the emphasised idea is supplied without expression.
A noun governing a genitive can be emphatic, but the genitive
then generally has the relative d prefixed.1
113. Nouns used figuratively are often treated as of the gender of
beast wild
those which they represent (96), thus \ayut send, wild beast, though
feminine, when it stands for Antichrist is masculine ; so melto, word,
which is feminine, when it means Christ is masculine.2
An abstract noun put for a concrete may take its gender. Thus a
feminine noun signifying an office may be treated as masculine when
it stands for those who fill the office.2
An adjective sometimes appears in a different gender from its
noun ; and the same is true of pronouns.3
The quality, instead of agreeing with the substance of the noun, is
sometimes expressed by an adverb, which sometimes precedes, with
relative between.
Nouns which are plural only are represented by pronouns, sometimes
singular and sometimes plural. A plural pronoun masculine may
follow a feminine collective when it applies to men.
The plural of excellence does not properly belong to Syriac. Some-
times, however, the poets use the plural for the singular to give
intensity to a word.4
114. The apposition of a proper name to its general noun is some-
country
times expressed like a genitive with the relative d prefixed, as hatro
d-musla, country of Mysia 5 (66).
The genitive may be denoted by following a noun which is in the
construct state, but is more frequently expressed by prefixing to it d ;
and with this prefix it may follow a noun which is in the construct state.6
The construct state is often used when followed by a noun with a
preposition prefixed to it 7 (90).
The noun in construct state, followed by the noun which it
governs, serves to express a variety of relations, about, among, by,
for, &c.8
1 Cowper, sect. 178. 2. = Ibid. sect. 179. * Ibid. sect. 192. 3.
* Ibid, sects. 22, 71, 99, 180. b Ibid. sect. 181. 6 Ibid. sect. 183.
7 Ibid. sect. 184. 8 Ibid. sect. 185.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SYRIAC. 67
The objective case is occasionally denoted in the Old Testament by
the word oit1 (92).
Verbal nouns may govern an object like the verb.2
Cardinal numerals from 3 upwards either precede or follow their
noun. If the noun precedes, it generally takes the numeral in the
emphatic form, but if it follows, in the absolute ; but this rule is not
uniform.3
115. Adjectives and participles follow their nouns, but demon-
strative pronouns are wont to precede. Where an adjective and
pronoun are both used, the common order is, substantive, pronoun,
adjective ; but even this is not uniform. When an adjective is
emphatic it often precedes the noun.4
A possessive suffix which is thought as affecting a substantive
object expressed by a noun governing a genitive, is generally attached
name rel. holiness my
to the genitive, as smo de ' quds ' i, name of my holiness ; for my holy
name 5 (88).
The object suffix is very often used with the verb though the object
follows (92), and the possessive suffix frequently with the noun or
in name his rel. Jesus
preposition though the governed noun follows, as bo," sm-eh d'yasug',
in the name of Jesus.6
The relative d prefixed to demonstrative pronouns and adverbs,
makes them relative (92) ; and is used like haser in Hebrew.7
116. The pure copula seems to be too fine an element to be thought
separately as a verb (92) ; and it often coalesces with the thought of
a personal pronoun as subject, being expressed by the pronoun. The
pronoun thus involving the copula may combine with the predicate
being subjoined to it, and the union is then so close as to impair the
initial of the pronoun.8 Formations of this kind with the participles
are much used (102).
For the same reason also (86, 92, 111), the verb substantive takes
up an objective thought of existence which is expressed by the sub-
stantive hit, which corresponds to Hebrew yes existentia. This sub-
stantive, with possessive suffix of the various persons, and involving
the copula, is often used for the verb to be.8 It takes the suffixes of
a plural noun.
117. The uses of the perfect and imperfect are similar to Hebrew,
except that the present and the Greek imperfect are more frequently
expressed by the participle and personal pronoun than by the imperfect,
and that the imperfect is very rarely used for the past.9 There is thus
more distinction of present, past, and future in Syriac, than in
Hebrew or Arabic.
The imperfect, as in Hebrew, is used for the subjunctive.9
The infinitive gives intensity to a verb, and generally precedes it (92).
The infinitive Peal is not prefixed to the derived forms, but a noun or
1 Cowper, sect. 186. 2 Ibid. sect. 185. 3 Ibid. sect. 190.
4 Ibid. sect. 192. 5 Ibid. sect. 197. 2. 6 Ibid. sect. 198.
7 Ibid. sect. 200. 8 Ibid, sects. 196, 226. 9 Ibid, sects. 205, 206, 212.
68 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ETHIOPIC. [SECT. v.
adjective is sometimes used in the same sense. The infinitive is very
rarely used as a noun.1
The imperfect, with d prefixed, is often used as the object of another
verb. Occasionally, however, d is omitted ; and sometimes this imper-
fect precedes its governing verb.2 This corresponds to the English
translation of gaudeo te valere, I rejoice that you are well.
Certain verbs often precede another verb in the same gender,
number, and person, to affect it adverbially 3 (87). The second verb
may be in the infinitive.4
The irregularities in respect of concord of verb and subject, in gender
and number, which have been mentioned in 96 as existing in Hebrew,
are much the same in Syriac.5
The const-radio prcegnans (93) also is used.6
The arrangement of the parts is for the most part as in Hebrew ;
but the order, subject, object, verb, which, Gesenius says, is common
in Aramaic, is seldom found in Hebrew, and only in poetry.7
ETHIOPIC.
118. In Tigre", the northern province of Abyssinia, the Ethiopic
language was spoken ; and with the predominance of the people who
spoke it, it spread from Tigre and its chief city Axum, so as to be the
principal language of the kingdom, and to reduce the languages of
other tribes to mere popular dialects.8 It came originally from Yemen,
the region which forms the south-western corner of Arabia, and was
brought into Abyssinia by the Glieez or free wanderers, as the immi-
grants were called.9 The ancient language of Yemen, the Himyarite,
is described by all the Arabian writers as so different from the Arabic
of Central Arabia that often the speakers of the two were unintelligible
to each ether.10 And Yemen is in fact quite a different region from
Central Arabia, being within the province of the half-yearly rains.
It is covered about Mareb and Sana with ruins, in which Himyaritic
inscriptions are found in great abundance, supposed to have been
written in the third and fourth centuries of our era.11 The alphabet
used in these inscriptions appears evidently to be the prototype of the
Ethiopic alphabet, being identical Avith that of the inscriptions of
Axum of the fifth century ; 12 and they are both so different from the
other Syro-Arabian alphabets, that if all had a common source in the
Phenician, the Himyarite-Ethiopic must have separated from the
others in a remote antiquity.13
Notwithstanding this similarity of the characters, the language of
the Himyaritic inscriptions is quite distinct from the Ethiopic 14 as
known to us in writings. The earliest of these writings is a version
of the Bible, written probably in the fourth century ; w and the
1 Cowper, sects. 209, 210. 2 Ibid. sect. 210. 4. 3 Ibid. sect. 210. 6.
4 Ibid. sect. 224. 5 Ibid, sects. 214-216. 6 Ibid. sect. 225.
7 Gesenius, Hebrew Grammar, sect. 142. 1. 8 Dillmann, Gram. ^Ethiop., p. I.
9 Ibid. p. 2. 10 Kenan, Hist, des Langues Semitiques, p. 308.
11 Ibid. pp. 310, 315. '- Ibid. pp. 316, 328. « Ibid, p. 316.
14 Dillmann, p. 8. 15 Kenan, p. 333.
SECT. V.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ETHIOPIC. 69
Ethiopic must have separated at a much earlier date from its sister
languages of South Arabia.1
The Himyarite language is helieved to be still spoken by the
Ekhili between Hadramaut and Oman, and especially in the region of
Mahrah, Mirbat, and Zhefar.2
The Ethiopic language, after having been the medium of a con-
siderable Christian literature, consisting principally of translations
from Greek, but including also original hymns after the model of the
Psalms, followed the fortunes of the race to which it belonged.
When the south-western provinces of Abyssinia rose in importance,
and the seat of government (about A.D. 1300) was moved south of the
Takazze towards the Sana lake, the Amharic became the language of
the court ; but still Ethiopic remained the literary language, in which
all books and all official documents were written, and into it transla-
tions were made from Arabic, and sometimes from Coptic. At length
the repeated incursions of the Gallas, beginning about the end of the
sixteenth century, gave it its death-blow, and with the culture and
literature of the country the old language perished. It has continued
indeed even to the present day as a sacred ecclesiastical language, and
up to the last century books were written in it, especially the annals
of the country, but it was understood only by the learned, and even
they wrote more readily in Amharic.3
119. Ethiopic makes less use than Arabic of vowel changes to
express modifications of the radical idea, and it takes less note of the
differences of the vowels. In its alphabet there is no distinction
made between e, ?, and u, and the same character serves for a con-
sonant which has one of these vowels, and for the same consonant
•without any vowel at all. It distinguishes, however, e and o, as well
as a, u, i, and a ; and in some cases an originally short » or u has
been lengthened so as to preserve it on account of its significance.4
As in Arabic, a often stands for o.5
This loss of discrimination of the vowels must have already taken
place when their notation in the alphabet was first used, which was
about the fifth century after Christ ; for though there are small Ethiopic
inscriptions in which there is no trace of the notation of the vowels, in
the Axumite inscriptions copied by Ruppell it is half developed.4
In later pronunciation ve and ye came to be sounded as u and », so
that these vowels reappeared in the spoken language.6
The vowels of a word are not subject to change, as in Hebrew, in
consequence of additions or reductions in the word, or alteration in
the position of the accent.7
In respect of the tendency to vowel utterance, Ethiopic is about on
the same grade as Hebrew.8
120. In early times the language had given up the Arabic con-
sonants 6, 0, and d'.9
But these consonants have characters appropriated to them in the
Himyarite alphabet,10 and the loss of them as well as the other
1 Dillmann, p. 8. - Renan, pp. 309, 311.
3 Ibid. pp. 334, 335 ; Dillmann, pp. 1, 2, 9. 4 Dillmann, pp. 20, 28.
5 Ibid. p. 29. « Ibid. p. 30. " Ibid. p. 32.
8 Ibid. p. 33. 9 Ibid. p. 34. lu Ibid. p. 13.
70 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ETHIOPIC. [SECT. v.
peculiarities of the Ethiopia consonants compared with the Arabic
were developed in Abyssinia, and have all an African character.
That character (see I. 8, 24, 25, 35, 57, 74 ; III. 126, 161) exhibits
generally the tendency to utter the consonants without that tension
which is given to them by pressure of breath from the chest, and
this is apt to detach the consonant from the vowel which follows it
(Def. 26). This tendency is to be seen in all the changes which the
Arabic consonants have undergone in Ethiopic.
The failure of the tension from the chest rendered it necessary
either to speak with breath from the chest without tension or to utter
the consonants with the breath that was in the mouth or above the
larynx, pressing this on the seat of the utterance by contraction of the
parts behind. The latter tends to give hardness by the compression,
the former to reduce the consonant to a breathing. Both tend to
cause the decay of those gutturals, which require for their due utter-
ance tension from the chest. The tenuis q indeed can be uttered
with compression of the cavity between the larynx and the root
of the tongue ; and the utterance of the post-palatal k in the same
way tends, in the effort to contract the space behind, to move the
closure of the tongue backwards so as to produce q; and thus some-
times this consonant was favoured, k being restricted to a weaker
utterance. l But y was reduced so as to approach to A ; and x and x
gradually gave up their tension, and came to be uttered like A,2
though in some cases the effort to give tension without pressure
from the chest hardened these consonants to q, k, or g.3
The effort to compress the breath in the mouth, in order to make
the utterance sensible, was unfavourable to the soft consonants fT, 0,
and £?, and these were early given up ; but t and £ were strongly
uttered, the former " with a raising of the root of the tongue against
the hinder part of the gums," 4 the latter with a dental sibilation ; d
was preserved as well as d ; but £ tended to prevail over it. And
though there are many exceptions, the more usual correspondences
are t or t to d in the other languages, t to d* and 0, £ to <£ § d z s
or s, and d or z to $.5 It is better in Ethiopic to write t' instead
of t'. For in Amharic there is a true t' in addition to the t1, though
t' originally was ante-palatal.6
The same tendency to compression produced, among the labials,
p uttered explosively with compression of the mouth, and an aspirate
p in which the aspiration is sent over the tongue to the lips producing
an accompanying sibilation.7 In the Ga also (I. 62) there is a labio-
lingual/.8
The dental sibilant s tended to prevail over the ante-palatal s,9
because it admitted a larger cavity between the tongue and the palate,
by contraction of which a sibilation was more easily produced.
The detachment of the consonant from the vowel which follows it,
appears in the peculiar utterance of p, in which " the breath puffs off
from between the lips before the vowel is heard;"10 and also in the
1 Dilhnann, p. 39. - Ibid. pp. 34, 38. 3 Ibid. p. 40.
4 Ibid. p. 43. 5 Ibid. pp. 44, 4?, .V2. 6 Gesenius, Hebrew Lexicon, p. 778.
7 Dillniann, p. 45. H Zimmermann, p. 5. " Dillmann, p. 51.
lu Ibid. p. 4f>.
SECT, v.] GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ETHIOPIC. 71
tendency of the gutturals and post-palatals q, \, k, and g, to incorporate
w before any vowel except u or 5. This w sounds breath which would
be lost to vocal utterance in the beginning of the vowel if this were
uttered through open organs after a consonant which involved little
pressure of breath from the chest (Def. 26). Being close it lets little
breath pass, and it produces a compression of breath, the removal
of which reinforces the vowel following.1 This feature is found in
many African languages, which also tend to insert y in the same way
by reason of their palatal nature.
The vowels u and o combine more closely than the others with the
post-palatal and guttural consonants, so that probably the breath for
their utterance presses on the organs before the closure is opened.
The tendency to incorporate w is brought into action generally where
an original u has been either changed into another vowel or v, or
absorbed by the consonant as w on account of the affinity of the con-
sonant for it. And this may take place not only when the u follows
the consonant immediately, but even when it follows a preceding or
following consonant. But sometimes the w is taken by g when g
with 10 takes the place of k, <j or q without it, and sometimes by k,
when kw takes the place of q or x, X 5 the w making the softer con-
sonant harder and more guttural, and therefore less different from the
consonant for which it stands. Sometimes also the w is taken when
such occasions for it are not present ; as, on the other_ hand, some-
times w is not taken when such occasions might seem to invite it.2
121. Ethiopic, like Arabic, admits open syllables with a short
vowel accented or unaccented ; and, like Hebrew, it admits closed
syllables with a long vowel without requiring, as Hebrew does, that
the vowel should be accented. It also admits two consonants at the
end of a word. And every syllable must begin with a consonant, and,
as originally formed, only with one.3 The general rule is that before
two consonants at the end of a word the vowel must be short. But
when the first of the two is a guttural or post-palatal spirant, an a
preceding it must be long ; and when it is y or v it may sustain a
long vowel before it.4
The concurrences ti + i and & + u generally form the diphthongs ai,
au, but often the long vowels e, o, which may also arise from ia, ua.
If the first vowel be long the second becomes a semi-vowel. 6
The post-palatal and guttural spirants are helped in their utterance
by a vowel preceding or following them. The vowel for which they
have most affinity is a ; but if they have another vowel than a, then
an a preceding is, by attraction of the spirant with this vowel, apt to
be changed to e. They tend to lengthen a preceding vowel, giving
their breath partly to it, and are themselves weakened thereby, and
may be lost ; but instead of giving breath to the vowel they may
take breath from it and reduce it to e. When uttered with an a
following them they have an attraction for the accent.6
The semivowel v, which was probably uttered from the throat as
1 Dillmann, p. 67. - Ibid. p. 41-43. 3 Ibid. p. 55-57.
4 Ibid. p. 58. 5 Ibid. pp. 63, 64. 6 Ibid. p. 68-74.
72 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ETHIOPIC. [SECT. V.
well as from the lips, is in Ethiopia much weaker than y, and the
vowel u than i (see 75) ; the muscular action of the organs in uttering
y and t being much the stronger. Yet as a first radical, y is very
rare, and v very frequent, the language being kept guttural by the
tendency to combine ic with the gutturals and post-palatals.1
A final q of a verbal stem assimilates to itself an initial k of the
person ending ; and a final / or d of a noun assimilates to itself t of the
feminine ending ; t and d before s become «.2
The accent is most frequently on the penultimate syllable, more
frequently on the antepenultimate than on the ultimate. A vowel
long by nature or position has an attraction for the accent, as well as
a syllable with a strong meaning. There are many enclitic mono-
syllables.3
A long vowel in a syllable tends to reduce the vowels in the
adjacent syllables ; d and u prefer e, but i, which takes less breath, is
content with d.*
122. Pluriliteral verbal roots are formed by repeating a whole
root, generally reduced to a monosyllable, or the last two radicals
of a root, or by inserting n, sometimes r, after a first radical. The
duplications express ideas which involve repetition, movement, dura-
tion, intensity, completion ; but generally the simple roots from which
they were formed are no longer found. Sometimes in a root consist-
ing of a closed syllable repeated, the second consonant is assimilated
to the third, so as to double it, and thus (and thus only) roots are
formed whose first and second consonants are the same.5
Verbal roots also consist sometimes of a trilateral root with a for-
mative prefix, being originally derived forms, which came subsequently
to be thought as simple verbs ; and sometimes they consist of a trili-
teral root or short noun with ya, ra subjoined, which as final syllable
of a root, whether triliteral or pluriliteral, has generally a causative or
transitive significance.6
Less frequently a guttural spirant is added instead of y or v.
Nominal stems also are turned into verbal stems without dropping
their nominal formatives.
Roots with more than three letters are so numerous in Ethiopic that
they form a sixth or seventh of all the roots of the language.7
123. This large development of roots having more than three
radicals is a remarkable feature of the Ethiopic language. Their
mode of formation is for the most part quite according to the genius
of the Syro-Arabian languages. Many of them, as has been said, are
regular derived forms from triliteral roots. And the reduplication
which shows itself in others is not only to be seen in the second, fifth,
ninth, and eleventh derived forms of the Arabic verb and in some of
the Arabic quadriliterals. but is in agreement with a tendency which
may be observed in these languages to strengthen an idea by repeti-
tion rather than by a comparative element, owing to their weakness
in comparative thought (66, 92, 117). The formation, however, of a
1 Dillmann, pp. S2, 104. " Ibid. p. 84. * Ibid. p. 90. 4 Ibid. p. 91.
5 Ibid. p. 101. * Ibid. pp. 105, 111. ' Ibid. p. 107-113.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ETHIOHC. 73
root with a transitive or causative significance by subjoining an
element instead of prefixing one, does not agree with the true Syro-
Arabian subjectivity. For the original root to which this addition
was made, being placed first, must have been thought in its general
associations among the facts of the world, showing the predominance
of an external interest, instead of being limited by a subjective prefix
to the thought of it as launched from a subject to an object But
the most noteworthy character of these plurilaterals is that they are
thought as roots, not as derivative stems, the roots from which they
were originally formed having for the most part disappeared from the
language.1
Now, in the process of this displacement, the original roots must
have become quite merged in the new formations ; for if they had
continued to be felt in these in their integrity they would have still
remained in the consciousness of the race. The new formations, as
they were used in speech, must have become abbreviated and reduced
in meaning, and the original roots been thereby so weakened as to
lose their original significance. So that in this feature of the language
we have evidence of a contraction of the object thought by the mind
in a single act such as might be expected from African influence (see
II. 3).
The old roots in these formations might be regarded as having an
analogy to Indo-European roots, which are not found separate. But
it is only in these formations which have added elements either before
or after the roots that such analogy is apparent. The reduplicated
roots are not agreeable to the Indo-European genius, which affects its
roots not so much with reduplication as with relative or comparative
elements.
This tendency to contract the single acts of thought would be
favoured by any weakness of the sense of the root or of the derivative
element in the ideas which the formation was used to express. And
only in those formations which had such weakness would it show
itself by reducing them to a radical idea. But the extent to which it
prevailed in Ethiopia compared with the Asiatic members of this
family, and the extent to which the derived forms of the verb sup-
planted in the same way the simpler forms, show the reality of its
operation. To this cause also is due the prevalence of the formation
of causative of reflexive, which was facilitated by the reduction of the
reflexive.
124. In the Ethiopic simple triliteral stem, the vocalisation of the
third singular perfect is the same as in Arabic, except that in
intransitive verbs the i and the u of the second radical 2 have both
become e, showing weakness of subjectivity.
The second form of the Arabic verb is in Ethiopic also, with the
same significations, but generally the simple form is not retained
along with it. And when the simple form is retained along with it
there is scarcely any difference of meaning. The two last radicals of
a root are sometimes repeated to express continuance or periodical
1 Dillmann, pp. 107, 109, 111. - Ibid. p. 116.
VOL. II. F
74 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ETHIOPIC. [SECT. v.
repetition, or the play of colours. Less frequently the last radical
is j doubled to express continuance or completeness, or a clinging
state.1
The third form also is in Ethiopic, but it is not very frequent, and
is partly replaced by its own reflexive form. And those verbs which
have the third form either do not occur in the simple form or in the
second, or if they do, the meaning does not differ.2
A fourth or causative form is formed in Ethiopic from each of the
three preceding ones, in the same way as in Arabic from the simple
stem. Often enough the simple stem is no longer in use along with
its causative, but only the second form ; 3 the simple stem having
been weakened by being merged in the causative.
The causative of the second form is much more uncommon than
that of the first or simple form. It rarely has the same meaning as
the second form. Sometimes it exists along with the causative of
the first form, and generally with a different meaning, though some-
times with the same.4
The causative of the third form is very rare, as that form itself is
little used.5
There are reflexives of the first, second, and third forms, all, like
the Arabic fifth and sixth, formed by prefixing to. The reflexive
formations are the only expression of the passive ; there not being
sufficient sense of the verb in its effect in the object to maintain the
passive 5 (79, 102). The reference to the reflex object being direct,
the verb may often govern an indirect object.' As the third form is
used to express an action reaching to an object, its reflexive may
either have the same meaning or may express reciprocity.7
Causatives are formed on the three reflexives by prefixing has ; but
as the first two reflexives difler less in meaning from the first and
second forms than the third reflexive from the third form, the causa-
tives of the first and second reflexives are much oftener replaced by
the causatives of the first and second forms than the causative of the
third reflexive by that of the third form. This last causative is
consequently much more frequent than the others. It expresses
causation of the reciprocal, even though the third reflexive be no
longer in the language ; or causation of gradual completeness or pre-
paredness, though the third reflexive either does not occur or is found
only in quite another signification.8 For the derived form tends to
put out the simpler form corresponding to it, by reducing it to a mere
part of an idea.
Thus of the twelve verbal steins almost every one may be formed
independently of the others from a verbal root or from a nominal
stem. Hut it is not to be supposed that any root has the twelve
stems. The richest is gabra, which has six in ordinary use. The more
prolific roots have five, namely, a first, second, or third, a causative,
a reflexive, a causative of reflexive, and a reciprocal. The most have
only an active, a reflexive, and perhaps a reciprocal or a causative of
1 Dillmann, p.J117-119. - Ibid, pp. 119, 120. 8 Ibid. p. 121.
* Ibid. p. 1*2. B Ibid. p. 123. « Ibid. p. 124.
7 Ibid. p. 120. » Ibid. p. 127-130.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ETHIOPIC. 75
reflexive. The first or third form may be in use, and yet the
causatives and reflexives not be formed from it, but generally they
are formed from the second if it be in use ; l for owing to its
strength the weakening which it undergoes in the derived forms is
not sufficient to put it out, so that it can be in use along with its
derived forms.
The pluriliteral stems have a causative form, a reflexive, a reciprocal
or reflexive of third form, a causative of reflexive and causative of
reciprocal, and a reflexive formed with han-, the other reflexives being
formed with ta-. This last, however, is almost confined to redupli-
cated roots expressive of motion hither and thither, or of light or
sound; and han- being less distinct as reflex object than ta-, the
formation is almost a mere intransitive.
In the simple form, the second radical of the pluriliterals is always
without a vowel; and there is no distinction of transitive and
intransitive.
Most of the pluriliteral causatives are formed on stems of nouns.
In the reciprocal (reflexive of third form), the a, which is the
characteristic of the third form, follows the second radical of quadri-
literals, the third radical of quinqueliterals.
The causatives of reflexive, and of reciprocal, of pluriliterals, are
extremely rare. Dillmann knows only one example of the former,
and two of the latter.
From some of the formations with han-, reflexives are formed by
dropping ha and prefixing ta- ; as if ha were causative, or as if the
distinctness of ta as object gave a transitiveness.2
125. The two tenses, the perfect and imperfect, are the same in
signification and use in Ethiopic as in Arabic. But there is a slight
difference in compound tenses formed with the help of the verb
substantive Jialava. The constructions in Arabic with the perfect or
imperfect of the verb kdna, and the perfect or imperfect of other
verbs (65) are used to define positions in time, that which in the past
was present, future, or past, and that Avhich in the future will be past.
The Ethiopic constructions with halava express subjective process going
3d pers. imp.
on in the past or future, or being about to commence ; as ye •
pi. 3d pi. perf.
t\agual-u halav • u, they shall descend, they are = they shall be
3d pers. imp.
descending; ye • mat* -e halava, he is about to come, perfect =
realised present.
In the continuing future, the auxiliary in the perfect generally pre-
cedes, but may follow the principal verb in the imperfect, the verb
being thought in the former arrangement with more subjective limita-
tion than in the latter. In the continuing past or the immediate
future, the auxiliary in the perfect precedes the verb in the imperfect,
and for the continuing past kdna may be used as well as halava.3
This use of auxiliaries to express elements of subjective process shows
how this has been reduced in the verb itself, as appears also in the
1 Dillmann, pp. 130, 131. • Ibid. p. 131-135. « Ibid. pp. 138, 139.
76 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ETHIOPIC. [SECT.V.
reduction of the vocalisation. Subject to the condition that Arabic i
and u are represented in Ethiopic by e, the vocalisation of the Ethiopic
verb follows that of the Arabic, except that the imperfect has dropped
the vowel of the third radical at the end and taken a after the ante-
penultimate radical, and that some reflexives have in the perfect e
with the second radical.1 The a, which is taken by the imperfect
after the first radical of triliterals, and after the antepenultimate
radical of pluriliterals, probably expresses the going on of what is not
completed, and is an imperfect substitute for the indwelling sub-
jectivity of u which has been lost (54).
The subjunctive and jussive moods agree in form with Arabic
jussive, save so far as the person elements differ (51) ; and the im-
perative differs only in rejecting the prefix of the second person.1
The third person singular of the imperfect in the simple form has
ye-, in the causative yd-.'2
126. The nominal stem, like the verb, has as a general rule dropped
the final voweL3
(1.) The simplest nominal stem formed from the verbal root
corresponds to Arabic 1 (57), and has a short accented vowel a or 8
after the first radical, and no vowel after the second or third. Its
meaning is the abstract of the verb, which, however, was often trans-
ferred to things or existences to designate them by their most striking
attribute.4
The second formation of nominal stems is with an accented vowel
after the second radical, either short or lengthened by the accent.
These nouns are either formed from the imperfect, and correspond to
infinitive nouns of the other Syro- Arabian languages; or they are
formed from the perfect, and correspond to the participles and verbal
adjectives of the other languages.5
(2.) Of the former kind, those which have e after the second radical
take the feminine ending -at or -a, and signify the action or property,
being rarely used as appellatives to denote things. When nouns of
the first formation spring from the same root these signify the pure
doing.6 Those which have intransitive a after the second radical,
sometimes have it long a ; and these are less verbal than when it is
short, being substantives rather than infinitives, denoting the result of
the being or doing rather than the being or doing itself, and generally
appellatives7 (57). Of the latter kind, the only formation which is
usual represents the passive participle, the others are few ; and as the
vowels of the perfect are lengthened, there are here not only a, but
also i and u in the second syllable.
(3.) The formation with a in the second syllable is scantily
developed ; the first vowel being e in adjectives, which, however, are
few, and tend to be used ns substantives.
(4.) The formation with Z in the second syllable is the most frequent
for pure adjectives, and they come from roots of intransitive meaning;
their first vowel is a, to distinguish them from participles.
1 Dillmann, p. 141-143. ' Ibid. pp. 143, 151. 8 Ibid. p. 172.
« Ibid. p. 173. * Ibid. p. 176. 6 Ibid. p. 177.
7 Ibid. p. 179.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ETHIOPIC. 77
(5.) The formation with u in the second syllable, e in the first, is far
the most frequent, and can be formed from most roots, even from
nouns ; its meaning being that of a passive participle or an adjective
of state.1
(6.) The third formation of nominal stems is of those which have a
in the first syllable, e in the second, corresponding to the active parti-
ciple, but formed from only a few roots and used only as adjectives or
substantives ; 2 and of those which have a in the first syllable and I
or very rarely u in the second, this being the most usual form for
verbal infinitives which are scarcely ever used as substantives.3
(7.) Besides the above formations with three radicals, there are
nominal stems formed with doubling of the second radical, and
with a in the first syllable, a accented in the second ; which are either
adjectives denoting qualities of a more essential and permanent nature
or properties of a higher degree, or are substantives denoting the
habitual doer, the latter often subjoining -i.4 There are also adjectives
formed with repetition of the last two radicals, as t'agadg'id, whitish ;
to denote colours and tastes with an expression of being like what is
denoted by the root.5
(8.) Nominal stems corresponding to the second of the trilateral
formations, are formed from the derived verbal stems ; 5 but most of
their participles or what serve for such are formed by elements pre-
fixed or suffixed ; the passive participle, however, being formed from
some with u after the second radical.6
The pluriliteral roots for the most part originate only substantives
which are principally appellatives ; and being so long, they seldom
take a feminine ending except a ; their two syllables having both e,
or both a, or the last a and the first a or e.7
(9.) The quadriliteral verbal stem with a in each syllable is used
adjectively, and if it be more strongly distinguished as an adjective
it takes a after the second radical, so as to be trisyllabic ; or the last
syllable takes a and the first e or more frequently a ; but the most
frequent form is that of the passive participle with u in the last
syllable and the shortest possible vowel in the preceding one.8
(10.) Nouns of the action are formed from pluriliteral roots by a
in the last syllable, a in the preceding ones.9
(11.) The relative prefix ma- is used to form participles from certain
active derived verbal stems, used partly as adjectives and more
frequently as personal appellatives ; the last syllable having e before
the last radical for the active participle, a for the passive;10 they some-
times add the adjective ending I, which makes them nouns of the
doer.11
127. (1.) This prefix ma, taking up the first radical into a closed
syllable, is used to denote that whereon the radical object of thought
is manifested, the place, the instrument, the production, the doing • the
1 Dillmann, p. 180-183. 2 Ibid. pp. 183, 184. 3 Ibid. p. 184.
4 Ibid. p. 185. 5 Ibid. p. 186. 6 Ibid. p. 188.
7 Ibid. p. 189. 8 Ibid. p. 190. 9 Ibid. p. 191.
10 Ibid. p. 192. » Ibid. p. 200.
78 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ETHIOPIC. [SECT. v.
noun of place having a after penultimate radical, which shortens ma
to me ; the other nouns having a or less frequently e.1
The nominal stems which are formed by subjoined elements are
mostly from other nouns, and they are generally qualifying words or
abstracts. The ground of most of the suffixes is the Syro- Arabian
adjective ending t.2
(2.) This element -I forms nouns of the doer, from other nouns ;
but also many adjectives ; and from the derived verbal stems, adjec-
tives which serve for participles, and have a accented with their
penultimate radical, a with the others.3
(3.) The stronger ending -d'vl may be joined to any word without
changing the vowels to form an adjective ; but usually in prose the
construction with a genitive is preferred.4 The shorter form -dl is in
only a few words.5
(4.) The feminine ending subjoined to these adjectives forms their
abstract substantive of quality ; the endings thus formed are -yd', -I't,
-u't, -et, -e', -ot, -o, -at; -ot and -5 are much used for formation of the
infinitive.5
(5.) There are also abstract endings -d'n and -no! ; -an is used, as a
rule, with nouns of the first simple formation ; -nd is more frequent.6
128. In consequence of the reduction of the sense of subjective
process (125) in the Ethiopic verb there is not enough sense of the
succession of the being or doing to maintain the participles as such
(Def. 13) ; so that these are formed only from some verbs, and have
in general quite lost a participial meaning, and become either adjec-
tives or substantives of the doer. Hence it is that so many of them
take the external ending i,7 to connect them with the substance to
which they belong, the root having so largely lost the sense of this
by losing the succession of being or doing which belongs to it.
The Ethiopic, like the Arabic, uses for an infinitive a verbal noun ;
but it forms also a more verbal infinitive with I' after the second
radical, a after the first ; which takes a personal possessive suffix to
represent its subject, and is governed in the accusative case by the
verb to which it supplies a supplementary verbal idea (92) like a
gerund.8
The nominal infinitive in the simple form of the triliteral verb
adds -ot to the verbal infinitive ; and in the other forms of the tri-
literal verb, and in the quadriliteral, it subjoins -ot or -o to the
subjunctive after having stripped it of the person elements with no
change of the vowels except that in the reflexive forms, after the
second radical a is changed to e, and 1 after the second radical is not
permitted ; with a possessive suffix the ending is -ot.9 The nominal
infinitive has less sense of the subjective process penetrating the
verbal root, and the succession of the doing or being is thought
rather as fixed in a substance which is 7iaturally feminine, because
the substantive object of thought (the infinitive) is an inherent, subor-
1 Dillmann, pp. 194, 195. - Ibid. p. 198. 3 Ibid. p. 199.
4 Ibid. p. 201. B Ibid. p. 202-205. « Ibid. pp. 205, 206.
1 Ibid. p. 208. 8 Ibid. pp. 209, 210. 9 Ibid. pp. 212, 213.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ETHIOPIC. 79
dinate to that in which it inheres ; thus perhaps we may understand
the external ending -ot, consisting of 6 joined to the feminine element t.
129. The feminine ending for abstract verbal nouns is -at, for con-
crete substantives it is -t.1 Perhaps there is this difference, because in
abstracting the verbal idea as a substantive the mind thinks it as an
entire object (Def. 4), and instead of passing to the subject, dwells on
the succession, which is expressed by a, as in English by -ing. When
it is thus abstracted the mind passes to the objective thought of it as
a subordinate thing which is expressed by the feminine substance t.
But abstracts from the derived verbal stems have generally the ending
a,2 probably because the thought of them is so heavy as to weaken
the sense of the substance by withdrawing from it the mental energy,
and t is consequently given up, and a lengthened by absorbing it.
Other abstracts also which have become appellatives of persons and
things have lost sense of substance as an added element, and having
absorbed it into their idea, they absorb t in their expression, and end
in a.2
On the other hand, concrete substantives take -t for their feminine
ending,3 having no intermediate element, because the mind can pass
directly from the general idea of them to the thought of them as
feminine. And adjectives and participles being by their nature
combined with the substantive to which they belong (Def. 6),
take its substance without a connective element, and form their
feminine by subjoining t.* Some of them, however, are not so
closely combined in one idea with the substantive, but are rather
themselves thought in reference to it as intransitive states of it (58),
and these tend to take up into their own idea a sense of gender which
affects their vocalisation, for the feminine may be expressed by the
reduced force of utterance when the organs are relaxed by a long open
vowel. Such are the adjectives of the second formation (126), which
have 1 with their second radical, and which form their feminine by
changing I to e or a.4
The formation of a nomen unitatis from a nomen generis by the
feminine ending (57. 14) is little carried out in Ethiopic, but seems to
exist in the names of animals and plants with that ending.5
Many substantives are thought as feminine without having any
feminine ending. Those which signify men are always masculine,
and those which signify women are always feminine, whether they
have a feminine ending or not. Some nouns may be applied indif-
ferently to men or women, but most nouns when applied to women
take a feminine ending. The female of animals is distinguished by
the feminine ending only in those most frequently spoken of.
Any substantive of abstract meaning without a feminine ending
may be used as feminine, and though it has a feminine ending it may
be used as masculine. Nouns of multitude also and collectives may
be |used as feminine or not. Nouns of countries and cities are
generally feminine. Those of parts of the body, instruments, dwell-
1 Dillmann, p. 216. ^2 Ibid. p. 217. 3 Ibid p. 219.
4 Ibid. p. 221. 5 Ibid. p. 227.
80 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ETHIOPIC. [SECT. v.
ings, trees, are of either gender ; natural objects and means of suste-
nance, masculine.
The distinction of gender is more impaired in Ethiopic than in any
other Syro- Arabian language.
By far the most of nouns, whether they have a feminine ending or
not, may be used as feminine or not. But the later manuscripts, as
if from foreign influence, try to avoid the arbitrary variation of gender
in the same sentence or section.1
130. The number of nouns is either singular or plural ; there is no
dual except a trace of it in the word kdhe, two.2 Only collective
nouns and universal appellatives, as gold, snow, honey, form no plural ;
yet many of these may be so applied as to be capable of. a plural.3
There is also a plural of eminence, fulness, or totality.4
The formation of the plural is, as in Arabic, either outer or inner.
The former is -d)i, masculine ; -at, feminine ; -an is annexed to the
last radical ; -at often takes the place of -at, but generally is annexed
to the stem whether it end in -at or not.
But even nouns, which have not the feminine ending in the
singular, are apt to take -at in the plural 5 on account of the natural
weakness of the plural (59).
In fact, -an is taken only by personal nouns, yet not by all of these,
and by adjectives and participles, but these take also -at for femi-
nine.5
All proper names, whether of men or women, form the plural in -at.
Nouns of male persons having an office, business, or situation, form
the plural in -at ; and this plural is also the abstract of the employ-
ment.6
All nouns which have a, before the last radical form the outer
plural ; and most of those which end in a long vowel, some also
of the simpler stems which end in a consonant, and a few of those
which are formed with ma-.7
The inner plurals are of the following formations, besides remains
of other formations still retained in Arabic :
Inner plural. Singular.
1. gtbar
gebr; old abbreviated nouns, hdk father, he\ue
brother, he'd hand, &c., which form this plural
as of the form gebr, having taken v for a third
radical ; many nouns (gSbr) denoting parts of the
body.
( hagbar
gabar, gabr, gebr, oftener than first.
2. < hagbdre't
( (very rare)
3. hagbur (not
many personal nouns of a masculine nature.
much used)
4. hagber (still
less used
than 3).
1 Dillmann, p. 224-226. 5 Ibid. p. 226. 3 Ibid. p. 228.
4 Ibid. p. 229. 8 Ibid. p. 230. • Ibid. p. 233.
7 TI_:J _ noj oo &
Ibid. p. 234-236.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ETHIOPIC. 81
Inner plural.
5. hagberet (this
and 2 the
most used)
6. gabart
7. tabdden
Singular.
gebr seldom ; usually from gubar or gdbr.
gaban; gabir, 126. 4.
tabdan; all stems with more than three consonants,
or formed with external additions; several tri-
literal stems with long vowel after second or
third radical, equivalent to another radical;
some of these stems, mostly personal nouns, add
t to the plural, dropping t if they have it in
singular.
The feminine singular abstract ending (127. 4) is also used to
express a collective idea.
Many nouns form two or three inner plurals without any difference
of meaning. From these inner plurals other plurals can be formed
by adding to them -at, seldom -an ; and this formation is used more
frequently in Ethiopic than in any other Syro-Arabian language.
Some of the inner plurals thus treated express only a singular con-
ception ; others an aggregate of parts. Sometimes the double plural
is used to denote multitude, or totality, or dignity ; sometimes to
express gender by the masculine or feminine plural ending.
This treatment of the inner plurals shows that they involve still
less sense of the individuals in Ethiopic than in Arabic, and approach
more nearly to the nature of singular collectives ; x expressing this by
additional vocalisation (59).
131. The only case ending retained generally by the noun is that
of the accusative -a ; but some few nouns have a vocative in -o.2
Proper names when they form the accusative form it in -ha,3 which
is pronominal and arthritic (Def. 7), because proper names are so
concrete and independent that they are less immersed than common
nouns in the combinations of fact (60).
Common nouns form the accusative in -a, this being added to a
final consonant, and blended with a final vowel, changing I to e, and
being absorbed into e, 5, and a, without making any change in these.
If there be several accusatives, the ending is apt to be dropped
with the latter ones ; as also when the noun has the relative prefix
za-, or when it has a pronominal suffix.4
The governor of a noun in the genitive relation takes -a to connect
it in construction; before a pronominal suffix a noun takes -1 5 (83, 84).
The -a is taken by the noun in this construct state as by the accusa-
tive ; but proper names are not capable of the formation. No word
can intervene between the construct governor and the genitive.6
The genitive is also expressed by prefixing to the noun the relative za
to represent the governor ; and if the governor be feminine, the
prefix may be the feminine relative henta, and if plural, the plural
relative hela. The genitive with this prefix may either precede or
1 Dillmann, p. 237-251. 2 Ibid. p. 253. 8 Ibid. p. 255.
4 Ibid. pp. 255, 256. 8 Ibid. p. 257. « Ibid. p. 258.
82 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ETHIOPIC. [SECT. r.
follow the governing noun. This mode of expressing the genitive
has quite prevailed over the use of the preposition la for that
purpose.1
132. The demonstrative pronoun of the near is :
masc. fern. masc. fern.
Stem ze zd ) . kellu helld ) ,
Accus. za zd] su*%' same. / P
Its singular stem is generally attached as a prefix or suffix to the
word to which it refers.
This demonstrative is strengthened by subjoining the demonstrative
element t with different vowels of gender and case, so that the usual
demonstrative of the near is :
masc. fern. masc. fern.
Stem zentu zatl ) . o hellontu helldntu ) ,
Accus. zanta zdta J °' hellonta helldnta / "
3 remote is :
fern.
iteku \ .
} sing.
The demonstrative of the remote is
masc. fern. masc. and fern.
zeku henteku \ c-^n helku, pL
Accus. zekua
Also :
masc. fern. masc. and fern.
zekuetu or zgktu hentdkti ) . %elkugtu or helketii ) , 2
Accus. zekueta or zgkta hentdkta { helkueta or helketa / ^
The pronoun of the third person when used adjectively in the sense
of avro: or that, is declined : ^
maso. fern. masc. fern. masc. fern.
Stem vehetu yeheii} . hemuntu h&mdntu vefyetomu veheton) , ,
, /-sing.'- or: VpL3
Accus. veheta yeheta) ' no accus. no accus. jr
The relative pronoun is, in the singular, za masculine, T^enta femi-
nine, in plural hella masculine and feminine ; the final a has relative
significance ; za is used for feminine, and for plural, when the ante-
cedent is expressed in the relative sentence either by a noun or by a
suffixed pronoun ; za is almost always attached to another word,
usually to the next word in the relative sentence which it introduces,
sometimes but seldom suffixed, as it is to a preposition.4
The interrogative pronouns used substantively are, manu, who?
accusative mana, whom 1 of both genders and numbers ; ment, what 1
mi-, what ? manu and ment are indefinite with the negative prefix At,
but then generally take -hi or -rii, which signifies also, and may at the
same time prefix m-, and; thus himanuhl, nobody.5 There is another
interrogative haye, what 1 used adjectively, and forming an accusative
singular haya, and feminine plural haydt.6
For the personal pronouns, separate and affixed, see table (51).
When a personal pronoun is emphatic, as object of a verb, it is
expressed separately by means of a pronominal stem, kiyd, to which it
is attached as a possessive suffix (56) ; and if it be separated as a
genitive, the possessive suffix is attached to the relative, which repre-
sents the governor, and agrees with it in gender and person, the
1 Dillmann, p. 260. 3 Ibid. p. 260-263. 3 Ibid. pp. 266, 267.
4 Ibid. pp. 263, 264. 5 Ibid. pp. 264, 265. « Ibid. p. 266.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ETHIOPIC. 83
relative z, hent, hel, being joined to the suffix by iha, and the formation
being preceded immediately by the governing noun in the construct
state, as behesit'a hent'lha'ka, thy wife ; but if the governing noun has
a suffix of its own, or govern a genitive, the possessive formation is
independent, and may precede it ; when used adjectively these pos-
sessives take an additional relative prefix, as behesit za'hent'ikct'ka.1
A demonstrative pronoun may be made emphatic by subjoining to
it vehetu yehetl ; and both demonstrative and personal pronouns may be
emphasised by being followed by Jcema, even. Self, when nominative,
is expressed by lala, with the possessive suffixes joined to it by I ;
self when not nominative is expressed by rehes, head, with the posses-
sive suffixes ; 2 ?iefes, soul, is less used (86).
The object suffixes of the verb may be indirect object of it. They
are connected with it by a ; but if the verb be in a person which ends
in a vowel this may suppress the connective a. The four suffixes of
the third person drop their h and then contract the concurrent vowels.
The subjunctive drops a before the four suffixes of the second person,
for the subjunctive has less sense of process than the indicative, and
the second person in the plural attracts to itself the accent and in the
singular leaves it with the verbal stem,3 so that a being weak and not
strengthened by the accent is dropped.
Ethiopia, like Arabic, can attach two object suffixes to the verb, a
direct and an indirect, the first person preceding the second or third,
and the second person preceding the third 4 (56).
A plural noun, whether of the outer or of the inner form, in taking
the possessive suffixes inserts before them the connective vowel I
(84), which may be changed toe before -yaand-ki; -i- always has the
accent J except when the suffix itself has it, viz., the second and third
plural. The suffixed noun has no accusative ending.5
Singular nouns ending in a, e, or o, annex the suffixes immediately,
as also do singular nominatives in 1; but these preserve the a of
the accusative before the second person. If a singular noun end
in a consonant and be in the accusative case it has no connective
vowel, this being overpowered by the a of the accusative, except
that before the suffix -ya the connective e overpowers the accusa-
tive a.
In the nominative case these stems take e, which before the first
person only is accented, and before the third is absorbed by the vowel
of the suffix, h having been dropped.6
The short old nouns hab father, ha\ue brother, -/am brother-in-
law, haf mouth, have before the suffixes u in the nominative, a in
the accusative.7
The possessive suffixes are used with an adjective when it needs to
fled naked his
be connected with what it qualifies, as gueya geraq ' u, he fled naked ;
empty 1st sing, sent away thou me
g'erdq ' ya hamfanav ka'ni, thou hadst sent me away empty.8
1 Dillmann, pp. 270, 271. 2 Ibid. p. 272. 3 Ibid. pp. 273, 274.
* Ibid. p. 277. B Ibid. p. 278. 6 Ibid. pp. 279, 280.
7 TKirl t-> oai 8 TK;^ nn OQQ or?
iwa. p. ;jyy. • ibid. p. 278.
7 Ibid. p. 281. 8 Ibid. pp. 283, 377
84 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ETHIOPIC. [SECT. v.
F The words kuel kuelat, whole, and bd%tit, lone, always have a pos-
sessive suffix.1
133. The cardinal numbers for 3 to 10 are originally substantives.
They take the feminine ending with masculine nouns, as in the other
Syro- Arabian languages. But they are generally used, not as construct
governors of a genitive, but in apposition. The Ethiopia numerals
ha\ad one, and kelfre two, agree in gender with their noun, ha\adu
masculine, haxatl feminine, and in the accusative ha\ada masculine,
ka\ata feminine ; kglhetii masculine, kelhefi feminine, and in the accusa-
tive kflheta masculine and feminine ; -u, -tu, -ti, -ta being pronominal ;
kelhe means a pair. The numerals 3 to 10 with a masculine noun take
-tu, accusative -ta, t being feminine of numeral, u representing the
masculine noun. With a feminine noun, these numerals remain in
their ground form or shorten their vowels, and in the former case 6,
7, 9, 10 take -u, which is retained in the accusative and before the
suffixes. Now, samani, 8, has the Arabic dual ending, and u is pro-
bably the plural ending (51) appropriate to the higher units. The
multiples of 10 have dropped the final consonant of the plural end-
ing. The ordinals have the form of an active participle, and the
rnultiplicatives of a passive participle.2
134. The only true simple prepositions are ba in, la to, and hemtn
or hgm from ; if indeed the last be so. " Except the pair of preposi-
tions which express the cases of the nouns, and which are very fre-
quently used, and extraordinarily shortened, most of the prepositions
are derived from nouns and still retained in their original form."
" Every preposition governs like a noun in the construct state, and
therefore takes -a." " Most of the words used as prepositions are not
used otherwise. " 3
The simplest conjunctions are ra- and, hav or, -hi -ni also, -sa but,
hold but, -ke so that.
The prepositions as being words in the construct state may govern
a sentence, and they may thus become conjunctions. Many conjunc-
tions have this origin, but most have come from the relative pronoun
or from a demonstrative used as relative.
Some conjunctions are immersed in the sentence which they intro-
duce, others more loosely precede it.4
The lighter particles of relation are in Ethiopic suffixed to other
words, more frequently than in the other Syro-Arabian languages.
They do not in general cause any change in the utterance or accent of
the word to which they are subjoined. Almost always franka so,
hangd uga, bd\tu only, are subjoined, often also ddhemu much more,
and always the following : kama as, heska till that, hi also, rii for
his, &c., part seinerseits, Av7 thus, ma when, if, sa but, and others.6
Ethiopic has formed a rich supply of words of relation : 6 but they
seem to be in a great degree of a nominal nature.
135. There is no article in Ethiopic. But as in the Syro-Arabian
languages, a genitive defines its governor (69) ; so a possessive suffix
of the third person, when it refers to a substantive object identical
1 Dillmann, pp. 285, 236. - Ibid. p. 288-293. 3 Ibid. pp. 305, 306.
4 Ibid. p. 322-325. 5 Ibid. p. 330. • Ibid. p. 393.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ETHIOPIC. 85
with that which it affects as suffix, serves to define the latter like a
definite article. Thus :
dream 1st sing. perf. dream accus. and as this dream its
(1.) •/alam ' ku \elrn ' a va • kama-z \elrn • u, I
dreamed a dream and such was the dream.1
The genitive and its governor do not always coalesce as readily in
Ethiopia as in Arabic and Hebrew, and when the substantives are
thought with definiteness, the genitive may need to be connected
with its governor by means of a possessive suffix to the latter to
represent it in connection.
The object of a verb also, if it be emphasised as object, either to
distinguish it as such or to connect it as such because of its being
partially detached by connection with a demonstrative or a genitive,
may need to be represented with the verb by an object suffix, to
express the sense of connection.
When a governed word is thus represented by a suffix, it has the
preposition la prefixed to itself. Thus :
beginning 3d sing. fern. wisdom
(2.) Qaddm'l • lid la • tbak, the beginning of wisdom,
and called 3d sing. obj. _God light_ day
(3.) Va • samay ' u hegzlhab%er la ' brehdn gelata, and God
called the light day.
see 1st pi. perf. him Lord_ our
(4.) Rehl • nd ' hu la'hegzlfce'nd, we have seen our Lord; the
first na lengthened by h.
If there be more than one governed word the suffix may be such as
will represent all or only the first.2
136. The accusative governed by a verb may define the latter
adverbially (66) ; and its own verbal noun in the accusative may be
used with a verb as in 66.
A verb 'may be qualified adverbially by juxtaposition with another
verb in the same tense, mood, number, and person 3 (87), or by being
governed in the nominal infinitive by another verb 3 (87) ; or it may
be defined by a verbal infinitive governed by it4 (92), or by an imper-
fect in juxtaposition with it 5 (74, Ex. 6). A verb may govern its own
nominal infinitive and express thereby either continuance or intensity
(66, 92), the infinitive generally preceding, but in the former use
sometimes following,6 or it may govern the nominal infinitive of
another verb constructed with its own object, as in 67.6
The subjunctive is used as in Arabic 7 (55).
137. A noun in the construct state is not thought in Ethiopic in
such close connection with the genitive as in Arabic or Hebrew. It
is therefore not abbreviated, but preserved entire, and takes the
relative element -a to connect it with the genitive ; and thus con-
structed, it may govern an entire sentence in place of a genitive.8 Yet
if it is to be affected with a possessive suffix,8 this must be attached to
the genitive, as nothing can intervene between the construct noun and
the genitive (88) ; and if it is to be expressed as plural, the plural
1 Dillmann, p. 334. 2 Ibid. p. 335. 3 Ibid. p. 352.
« Ibid. p. 353. 8 Ibid. p. 354. 6 Ibid. p. 355
1 Ibid. pp. 358, 359. 8 Ibid. p. 363.
86 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ETHIOPIC. [SECT. v.
element is sometimes attached to the construct noun, and sometimes
to the genitive l (88).
The genitive relation can be expressed by prefixing to the genitive
the relative pronoun za, 'enta, 'ella, to represent the governing noun.
This construction is used when the governing noun is a proper noun,
or when it is denned by other words, or already governs another
genitive, or when the genitive is a demonstrative or interrogative
pronoun.2
138. Every plural substantive, of whatever form, can be connected
•with a plural adjective of the same gender as belongs to the substan-
tive in the singular, or with a singular adjective which is then for the
most part masculine (i.e., without an element of gender), but may be
feminine ; singular substantives with a collective meaning may have
a plural adjective in the gender which belongs to the individual sub-
stantive object. Adjectives which have an inner plural are apt to
use it when the substantive is an inner plural.3
When a noun has a cardinal number connected with it, it is
generally singular, but may be plural.4
The pronoun of the third person is sometimes used to connect the
subject as such with the predicate even when the subject is first or
second person (70, 92). It has the gender and number of the subject.
The verbs halava and kana are both used in a sense more concrete
than the copula, the former to be present, the latter to come to pass.5
The verb to have is expressed by a preposition governing the possessor
(sum for habeo) 6 (74. 9).
The agreement of the verb or predicate with the subject is as
variable as that of the qualifying adjective with the substan-
tive 7 (96).
139. The arrangement of the words is much freer than in the
other Syro-Arabian languages, almost as free as in Greek.8 The
genitive, which is formed with a relative prefix, is as little confined
in its position as any Indo-European genitive.9 And the adjective,
though tending to follow its substantive, has similar freedom of
position, especially if it has a possessive suffix to represent the
substantive.10
The normal order of the sentence is verb, subject, object'; but any
member of the sentence may get precedence from emphasis, and is
attracted by members of the sentence or by relative clauses which
define it.11
140. Kelative sentences which, without using a relative pronoun,
refer to a word in the principal sentence, are rarer in Ethiopic than
in the other Syro-Arabian languages.12
The relative pronoun may involve a demonstrative in its meaning
(he who), and it then distinguishes gender and number, its case being
that which the demonstrative should have.13
1 Dillmann, p. 364. \y Ibid. p. 366-368. » Ibid. p. 374.
4 Ibid. p. 381. s Ibid. pp. 389, 390. e Ibid. p. 343.
7 Ibid. p. 391. • 8 Ibid. p. 393. 9 Ibid. p. 366.
lu Ibid. pp. 375, 377. " Ibid. p. 393-397. 12 Ibid. p. 412.
13 Ibid. p. 413.
SECT, v.] GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES : AMHARIC. 87
Ethiopic likes to bring the antecedent or an adjective which agrees
with it into the relative sentence (as in classical attraction).1
Usually the relative pronoun, though it takes the gender and
number of the antecedent, does not stand in the relation which
belongs to the antecedent in the relative sentence unless this be
subject, but the antecedent is represented in that relation by a
demonstrative element. The relative pronoun can also be constructed
as in Indo-European in the proper relation, and may even be followed
by a preposition like quoctim.2
The relative construction is much used in Ethiopic. It supplies
participles and adjectives, and connects adjectives with substantives,
and subsidiary denning elements with a noun.3
AMHARIC.
141. The Amharic language is that Abyssinian dialect which is
spoken by the greater part of the population of Abyssinia. It
prevails in all the provinces of Abyssinia lying between the Taccaze
and the Abay or Abyssinian Nile, and in the kingdom of Shoa. Its
nearest cognate is the Tigre" language ; and both Amharic and Tigre*
are modifications of the ancient Ethiopic. But the Tigre^ has preserved
a greater similarity to the Ethiopic, and received much less mixture
from other languages than the Amharic.4
The Amharic consonants have a still more African character than
the Ethiopic. From k, t, d, z, n, have arisen softer consonants uttered
with the. tongue in a more relaxed condition, and which co-exist in the
language with those consonants, viz., Jc, t, d, z, n. The old t, which
was uttered strongly with pressure of breath from the chest, has come
to be uttered with mere strength of pressure of the tongue, and an
interval between it and the breath of the following vowel (120). In
the same manner f , t\ p, and q are uttered, there being also a £ uttered
with breath, and followed without interval by the vowel ; and, as in
Ethiopic, q, x, k, and g may take w before the following vowel. There
are, as in Hebrew, two letters uttered s, and an s besides / the van
is w in Amharic ; h, %, and £ are pronounced alike, and g like ', but
in Tigre" these consonants retain their true utterance.5
The written vowels i, u, and o, which are long in Ethiopic, may be
long or short in Amharic ; e is sometimes sounded, sometimes not.6
The African tendency to utter consonants without pressure of breath
from the chest led to the insertion of w after a long vowel to close the
jet of breath 7 (I. 57).
142. Nouns with two radicals and ending in u correspond to
Ethiopic verbal adjectives (126. 5) ; those which end in i generally
signify an agent.8
Nouns of the form fagdli are active substantives or adjectives ;
1 Dillmann, p. 414. 2 Ibid. pp. 415, 416. 3 Ibid. pp. 417, 418.
* Isenberg's Amharic Grammar, p. 1. 6 Ibid. p. 2-8.
6 Ibid. pp. 9, 10. 7 Ibid. p. 16. 8 Ibid. p. 24.
88 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: AMHARIC. [SECT. v.
those of the form fefjali are passive; j "eg 'die, abstract nouns of quality;
fegel, essence, quality, action, or concrete substance ; fag el, quality,
concrete substantive, adjective ; fetful, passive participial adjective.1
Compound nouns are formed from the Ethiopic status constructus,
and also from Amharic words, combining noun with noun, or with
any other part of speech.2
Adjective stems of intenser meaning are formed by repetition of
any of the radicals.
The prefix ma- is used for infinitives, and retained in nouns derived
therefrom.
The addition of -dm to substantive stems forms adjectives and
substantives of fulness, intenseness, &c.
Substantives are also formed by -md.
By -na, -an, are formed substantives of quality from verbs.
By -nd, -nat, are formed abstract substantives from adjectives, sub-
stantives, and particles.
By -nd substantives of office, habit, or quality, are formed from
adjectives and substantives.
By -awl similar substantives are formed, and also Gentile nouns.
By -yd joined to infinitives or simple roots are formed nouns of
agency, instrument, locality, object, &c.3
There is no adjectival expression of degrees of comparison.4
143. Gender is either masculine or feminine. The names of
females and of female ranks and offices are feminine, also those of the
moon, the earth, countries, towns, &c., plants, collectives, and several
abstracts ; the sun and the stars are masculine. Feminines are
formed by -t, -td, -tu, also by -nd and -nat.5
The plural ending is -of ; there is no dual. Sometimes the
Ethiopic ending -an is used, and -at for feminine; derivatives in
-an and some others make plural in -at.6
An accusative case is formed by adding -n, a genitive by prefixing
ya-y which is relative pronoun. The genitive is also expressed by the
status constructus, the governing noun adding a to a final consonant,
and giving up its accent so as to compound with the genitive.7
144. For the personal pronouns and affixes see table (51).
The demonstrative of the near is ych singular, helzih or frenzih
plural.
That of the remote is yd singular, helziyd plural.
The interrogatives are man singular, helmdn plural, who1? which?
what sort of 1 men, what ? yat, what 1 mender, what ?
The nouns bdlahut, ran, and nafcs are used for self.8
145. The verb has nine derived forms corresponding to those of
Ethiopic and Arabic, besides other variations of stems with repetition
of radicals.9 The Arabic forms which it has are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10,
and 11. The only passive is the reflexive.
For the person elements, suffixed and prefixed, see table (51).
The imperfect in Amharic is what Isenberg calls the contingent,
1 Isenterg, pp. 26, 27. 2 Ibid. pp. 29, 30. 3 Ibid. p. 32-35.
4 Ibid. p. 35. 5 Ibid. pp. 36, 37. « Ibid. pp. 38, 39.
" Ibid. pp. 40, 41. 8 Ibid. p. 43-50. ' 9 Ibid. p. 53-55.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: AMHAEIC. 89
having become in this language an abstract verbal conception, in
which the subjective process is so reduced that it often needs to be
supplemented by external verbal elements. Its vocalisation, as that
of the Ethiopia imperfect, is a, e, e. That of the jussive, which
in Ethiopia is e, e, e for transitives, and e, a, e for intransitives, is
in Amharic e, a, e ; and, as in Ethiopia, the imperative stem is the
same as the jussive. But several verbs in Amharic have no jussive,
and use the imperfect for it. The infinitive (a, e, e), with possessive
suffixes of the subject, is used as a gerund, as in Ethiopia (128) ; it
takes a before the suffixes, which unites with u in o, and is dropped
before other vowels ; and it changes third singular feminine from
-awa to -a, third plural from -dtlawe to -awe, first plural from -afen to
-an, and second singular reverential from -awo to -awe.
A more nominal infinitive is formed by the prefix ma-, and the
vocalisation e, a, 8, or d, a, e.
There is an active participle (a, a, £) which may govern its object
either as a genitive or an accusative, and a passive participle (e, a, £).
But the more verbal participles are supplied, as in Ethiopia, by the
relative prefixed to the verb in its various persons, ya- to the perfect,
and yame to the imperfect. These formations may be declined not
only by taking prepositions, but even by taking the accusative ending
-n.1 Whereas a noun ending in a consonant takes u before this -n,
probably to represent the substance, a relative participle ending in a
consonant takes a before n to express the life of the person, and this
is closed euphonically by w before -en. If the relative participle ends
in u this belongs to the person, and is to be distinguished from the
substance ; so t is inserted before -en to express the substance.2
The passive reflexive forms drop t after a personal prefix of the
subject, the passive or intransitive nature showing itself by a with
second radical.3
The Amharic language has developed greatly with the auxiliary
verbs hala and nabara, the Ethiopia constructions with the imperfect
and verbal infinitive of another verb (125, 136). The verb, hala,
is translated is (Ethiopia, lialava vorhanden ist), nabara, was ; nabara
remains distinct as an auxiliary verb ; but hala coalesces into one
word with the imperfect and suffixed infinitive of the principal verb ;
hala and nabara are both used only in the perfect, and they follow
the verb with which they are used.4
The simple perfect of the verb is used as in the Syro-Arabian
languages generally.5
The simple imperfect has so lost sense of subjective process that it
is used only when governed by a conjunction or turned into a parti-
ciple by yam- prefixed to it.6 To state a fact it needs the help
of hala ; and it is to be observed that in the third singular masculine,
hala drops the final a, as if its subjective process were in some degree
taken up by the principal verb.7 When hala is subjoined to the
suffixed infinitive it is reduced to hal, not only in the third singular
1 Isenberg, p. 65-73. 2 Ibid. p. 169. 3 Ibid. p. 79.
4 Ibid. pp. 66, 67, 70. 5 Ibid. p. 174. 6 Ibid. p. 67.
7 Ibid. p. 66.
VOL. II. G
90 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: AMHARIC. [SECT. v.
masculine, but in all the persons except the first singular and the
third singular feminine,1 perhaps because these two have weaker
suffixes than the others with the infinitive, and therefore have more
need of expression with Kola.
When the object suffixes are taken by these formations they are
inserted before AoZo.2
This verb hala, combined with the imperfect of a verbal root hon,
is used as an auxiliary verb, which, constructed with the suffixed
infinitive of a principal verb, expresses a potential3
In these formations appears the African tendency to separate the
process of being or doing from the stem of the verb ; and the same is
seen in the facility of forming verbs by subjoining to adverbs kola, to
say; or kadaraga, or hasana, to make* (I. 11, 17, 19, 20, 28, 33, 37,
50, 53, 69).
146. The combination also in a compound of the construct noun
with the genitive is a departure from the singleness of Syro- Arabian
speech ; and the development of a copula n used with object suffixes
as a separate word,5 is a distinct approach to the fragmentariness of
African speech. The nature of this element is most obscure, for the
personal suffixes which represent the subject express the subject as
object, as if being were an operation of the subject on himself. This
difficulty does not occur with no, or ni in Vei (I. 37), nor with no in
\Voloff (I. 28), nor with ni in Oti, in which n seems to be pronominal
referring to the predicate, and i to connect this with the subject (I.
53). To make the predicate in Amharic the true subject of w, sup-
posed to affect the subject as its object, would be contrary to two
habits of the language, that of using a suffix with the verb to corre-
spond with its subject as such, and that of using with the object an
earth spacious 3d fern. obj.
accusative ending. Thus, in the sentence, meder soft n ' at, the
earth is spacious ; 6 -at corresponds to meder, which is a feminine
noun, and if soft taken substantively were subject it should be repre-
sented by a subject suffix with the verb, and if meder were the object
it should have the accusative ending ; n cannot be regarded as a
preposition, for the prepositions take possessive suffixes (see II. 97,
102, 107). The contraction of idea of the verb is shown in the large
number of biliteral verbal stems.
147. There are about six pure prepositions, and rather more con-
junctions.7
148. The order of the sentence is subject, predicate, copula ; the
adjective precedes the noun, and the governed word the governing;8
suffixes and prepositions are no exception, as they are not words, but
inseparable parts of words.
The adjective often agrees with its substantive in gender and
number, often does not ; but the adjective participles formed with
relative prefixed agree in gender and number; adjectives are oftener
singular than plural, and masculine than feminine.9
1 Isenberg, p. 71. 2 Ibid. p. 142. » Ibid. p. 72.*
4 Ibid. p. 148. * Ibid. p. 65. « Ibid. p. 161.
7 Ibid. pp. 154, 153. 8 Ibid. pp. 162, 178. » Ibid. pp. 163, 165.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: AMHARIC. 91
Nouns thought abstractly, and several denoting parts of the body or
faculties of the soul, are seldom used in the plural.1
When an accusative governs a genitive, the genitive precedes and
takes the accusative ending instead of the governor.^ It is charac-
teristic of Amharic to think a relation in connection, not with the
substantive itself, but with the substantive determined by its accom-
panying words.
When a genitive lias several adjectives qualifying it, the ya- of the
genitive is prefixed to each adjective, and may or may not be prefixed
also to the substantive.3
When an accusative is qualified by an adjective, the -n is generally not
affixed to both, but sometimes to one and sometimes to the other ;
when by several adjectives, each of them, and not the noun, has -n ;
when it is a relative participle that agrees with the noun, the participle
has the -n. in apostle pi. time in house constr. Christian so
149. Example : Ba~\awdrydt zaman ba 'bet 'a Krestiydn hendeh
which was 3d sing;, fern, uuion fern, was 3d fern, in her all 3d pi. poss. one body
y ' ala • £ hande'nat nabara 't'e • ba 't hul • afawe hande segd
one fern, soul and so that were they far Christian) pi. and all 3d sing. poss.
hand-it nafse'm heski • hon ' u ' deras ; Krestiyan'dte "m hul • u
in Christ wholly neg. reflex, separate 3d pi. neg. all 3d pi. poss. rel. Adam child
ba'Krestos kato hal • t • alayu • m; hul • at1 awe ya'Hadam led'
pi. as were 3d pi. in body all 3d pi. poss. and to self 3d pi. poss. without
of henda nabar'u ba~segd hul'dt'aive ' m la'rds ' afaice ydla
Christ rel. be lost 3d pi. sinner pi. as were 3d pi. so also by
Krestos ya ' taf ' u xa&^'an henda nabar'u; hendehu'm ba'
faith all 3d pi. poss. in one Christ be safe they all 3d pi. poss. and in
hdyemdnot hul • dfawe b'dnde Krestos dan • u hul • dt'awe • m b'
one calling pass, reflex, call 3d pi. in one blood and be just 3d pi. in one
dnde mafrdt to. ' t'ar ' u b'dnde dame'm t'adak • u b'dnde
Spirit and be pure 3d pi. reflex, sanctify 3d pi. and Peter and to believers
ma'nfase'm nat' • u ta ' qadas 'u • in; Petrose'm la'miydmen
all 3d pi. poss. said ye rel. kingdom _ rel. priesthood people copula
hul • u hala, heldnt ya ' mangestend ya ' kehen'at wagan n •
3d pi. obj. rel. reflex, elect 3d sing. fern, and rel. reflex, sanctify 3d sing. fern, and
at'ehu ya ' ta ' marat ' afe • m ya ' ta • qadas • afe • m
generation 2d pers. manifest pi. that from darkness unto marvellous his unto
teiceled te ' gait ' u zand Jca't* alama wada miydsdaneq'awe Mcada
light his rel. call 2d pi. obj. accus. work
berhdn'u ya'far ' dfehu ' n sera. In the time of the Apostles
there was such an union in the Church that they were all one
body and one soul. All Christians were quite unseparated in Christ.
As all of them were Adam's children after the flesh, and as in
themselves and without Christ they were lost sinners, so also by
faith they were saved in one Christ. They were all called witli
one calling, justified by one blood, and purified and sanctified
by one spirit. Peter also said to all believers, Ye are a royal,
priestly people, and a chosen and sanctified generation, that ye
should show forth the works of Him who hath called you out of dark-
ness unto His marvellous light ; 5 ba governs ya%awdryat zaman (147) ;
ya is elided after ba ; 6 xau'^ 1S an active substantive (142) ; beta is
1 Isenberg, p. 166. 2 Ibid. p. 167. 3 Ibid. p. 168.
4 Ibid. p. 169. 5 Ibid. p. 14-16. 6 Ibid. p. 18.
92 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: AMHARIC. [SECT. v.
the construct state of bet (142) ; krestiydn seems to be the word
Christian ; hendeh yalaf, what was so, expresses such ; -not is
formative of abstract substantives, hande, one; handenat, oneness, union
(142) ; l the tendency to subjoin the lighter conjunctions as enclitics
to the first object which they affect shows that the relation is so weakly
thought that it needs adaptation to its object to give it vividness ; the
simple prepositions are prefixed, but those which are compounded of a
preposition and a noun insert between their two parts the object which
they govern, for it is, in truth, dependent as a genitive on the second
part, and should therefore precede the latter. Thus heski deras means
to the length ; 2 hon seems to correspond to Hebrew kun stetit, Arabic
and Ethiopic ktina extitit fuit. The verb may be negatived by the
negative hal prefixed and the negative ra suffixed ; 3 Tienda precedes the
verb which it affects ; hdyemdnot seems to be a compound word ;
the verb hamana means he believed,4 and from this root in Ethiopic
comes the nominal infinitive haminot, faith ; 5 mat1 rat is a verbal noun
from t'ara ; ydmen is the third singular imperfect of fyamana; from this
the relative'participle is formed by prefixing yame. (145), which becomes
yami before the y, so that yamiydmen is, he who believes ; 6 and as
ya is dropped after the preposition, lamiydmen is, to him who believes ;
mangestend seems to be an abstract noun formed by ma-nd from a
root akin to Hebrew negrid ante, ndgld princeps; kehenat is the
abstract of the noun for priest, corresponding to Hebrew kohen, Ethiopic
Jcdhan ; for nafehu see 146 ; teweled is concrete nominal essence (142)
of tawalada, the passive reflexive of walada genuit, tegaltu, second
plural imperfect of galafa; hasdanaqa is causative of danaqa, which
doubtless means he wondered ; of this the third singular imperfect
ydsdaneq, and the relative participle of this would be yamiydsdaneq,
which causes to wonder ; this drops the ya after wada, and takes
third singular suffix awe ; yat'ardt'ehu is, he who hath called you ; it
seems not to take a second ya- to put it in the genitive, but lets this
be expressed by its position ; it takes the accusative ending from its
governor (148).
TAMACHEK.
150. The Berber dialects may be studied as an appendix to the
Syro-Arabian languages, exhibiting as they do throughout their struc-
ture traces of affinity to those languages, but subject to African
influences which have obscured the Syro-Arabian features. Of these
dialects that one will be described here which, being most remote from
external influence, may be supposed to have preserved the native
structure of the language in its greatest purity. Such is the Tama-
chek 7 spoken by the Tuariks in the Sahara from the south of Tripoli,
Tunis, and Algiers to the Niger, and to the kingdoms of Haussa and
JJornu, and from the longitude of Timbuctu and the oasis of Tuat on
the west to Fezzan and the country of the Tibbus on the east.8 In
this great region, which not only has its wells and oases, but is said
1 Isenberg, p. 34. " Ibid. pp. 156, 157. 8 Ibid. p. 152.
4 Ibid. p. 55. 8 Dillmann, p. 212. 6 Isenberg, p. 94.
7 Uanoteau, Grain. Tamacbek, pp. xxvii. xxviii. 8 Ibid. p. viii.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TAMACHEK. 93
also to have water almost everywhere not far beneath the surface, and
in rainy years to be covered with herbage,1 the Tuariks live as
nomads,2 with their camels, asses, and goats.3
151. Tamachek has h, q, x, f, k, g, g, y, t, d, s, z, n, t, d, s, z, z, r,
I, n, b, f, w, m, a, i, u, I, it, e; g and z are weak utterances of g and z.4
The letters are very liable to euphonic change ; the spirants espe-
cially are imperfectly distinguished from each other;5 e is often
sounded like French eu, especially before the last letter of a word ;
and the vowels are often changed for one another, being subordinate
to the consonants ; formative consonants take vowels when required
for facility of utterance.6
152. Nouns have two genders, the masculine and the feminine ;
two numbers, the singular and the plural.
In general the singular of masculine nouns begins with a vowel,
a, e, i, or u ; the plural of masculine nouns begins with i, but u or e,
when initial of singular, is retained in plural ; feminine nouns both
singular and plural begin with t.
Exceptions to these rules are not numerous. Yet there are some
masculine nouns, as well singular as plural, which begin with a
consonant, some masculine plurals begin with a, and some feminine
nouns singular or plural do not begin with tJ
In forming a feminine singular noun from a masculine, t is usually
put before the initial vowel, and also at the end ; but many f eminines
have not the final t. Use only can teach the gender of a noun.8
A nomen unitatis, or noun of the individual, is formed from a collec-
tive by the feminine formation ; and in the same way a diminutive
is formed from a masculine noun.9
Masculine plurals may be divided into two classes, those which
take final n, and those which take a either instead of a final vowel of
the singular, or instead of the vowel before its last letter. These two
forms are sometimes combined. But the final n is the most general
mark of the plural, it becomes for facility of utterance an, en, or in.
If a or i occur before the last syllable of a singular noun, it is
generally changed to u in the masculine plural.10
Feminine plurals prefix t to the masculine plural
If a masculine plural end in n or en, the plural of the feminine will
end in -in ; if in -an, the feminine often ends in atin.
Feminine singulars ending in a or i generally make plural in -uin ;
sometimes, but rarely, in -Ma.11 ,
153. The marks of case are placed before the noun, n, en, or ne for
genitive, i for dative, s for ablative ; there is no element for the
accusative 12 or for the nominative.
There is no article ; but the demonstrative, followed by n of the
genitive, may be used to represent a preceding noun in apposition
with a following one.13
1 Hanoteau, p. ix. note. 2 Ibid. p. xxi. 3 Ibid. p. xiv.
4 Ibid. p. 3-10. 5 Ibid. p. 11-13. 6 Ibid. pp. 10, 13.
7 Ibid. pp. 15, 16. 8 Ibid. pp. 17, 18. 9 Ibid. pp. 19, 29.
10 Ibid. p. 19-23. u Ibid. pp. 24, 25. 12 Ibid. pp. 27, 28.
13 Ibid. p. 29.
94 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TAMACHEK. [SECT. v.
The cardinal numbers take a feminine form when connected with a
feminine noun.1
154. The separate personal pronouns are :
In the singular, nek, kai masc., Teem fern., enta masc., entat fern. ; in
1 2
the plural, nek kenid masc., nekkenetid fern., kawenidm&sc., kametid fern.,
3
entenid masc., entenetid fern. The first and second singular may be
strengthened with -u, -unan, or -udef, and the third singular masculine
with -der.2 1 2 3
The possessive suffixes are, in the singular, -i, -k masc., -ra fern., -s; in
12 3
the plural -nef, -nuen masc., -enkemet fern., -nesen masc., -nesenet fern.
The initial n, en in the second and third plural suffixes, seems to be pro-
nominal connective. The first singular -i may be preceded or followed
by n, which seems to be part of the first person ; the second and
third singular suffixes may be preceded by enne, which is probably
connective, the third singular being -ennes or -ennit.3 The possessive
suffixes may be preceded not only by n but also by in, the first
singular becoming -u ; they are then inu, innek, innem, innes or innit,
innener, innuen, innekemet, innesen, innesenet.*
1231 2
The object suffixes of the verb are -i, -k -m} -t -tet; -nef, -wen -kemet,
3 12312
-ten -tenet ; the indirect object suffixes are -i, -k -ra, -s; -ner, -un -kemet,
3
-sen -senet ; of these latter the second and third persons take before
them a or ha, sometimes in the singular, always in the plural.5
The simple demonstrative is in the singular wa or a masculine, ta
feminine ; in the plural, wi masculine, ti feminine ; the stronger
demonstrative is aioa this, awin that. The preceding may all be
strengthened with a demonstrative element -re? or -def ; 8 there are
also separate demonstratives didef there, da here, din there, nericin
masculine, mi-tin feminine, void. The demonstrative is used for a
relative, and it then precedes a preposition which governs it.7
The reflexive pronoun is the separate personal pronoun followed by
iman, with the possessive suffix, as nek/cu iman'in, myself, which
Hanoteau translates mot personne de inoi ; when it is governed by a pre-
position this is inserted before iman, as nekku, siman'in, from myself.8
The interrogative for persons and things is ma; its substantive is
connected with it in the genitive; it precedes a preposition which
governs it.u
1 Hanotean, p. 1'27. - Ibid, p. 32. 3 Ibid. pp. 32, 33.
4 H)i'i. p. 34. » Ibid. p. 35. « Ibid. p. 37.
7 ibid. pp. 38, 46. 8 Ibid. p. 45. 9 Ibid. pp. 46, 48.
f
Plural.
1
d
2. masculine .
2. feminine
3. masculine .
3. feminine
. t —
m
mt
n
nt
SECT.V.] GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TAMACHEK. 95
The demonstratives tea, ta, wi, ti, may take the possessive suffixes
and express le mien, &C.1
155. The adjective is included within the verb, being expressed by
a participle,2 and having no forms for degrees of comparison. It
agrees with its noun in gender and number, except that in the plural
it has only one form for both genders.3
The subject affixes of the verb are :
Singular.
1 —
2 t
3. masculine . i
3. feminine . t
The verbal stem with these person elements is an indefinite tense
which expresses the fact thought as completed without defining the
time.4 It is sufficiently analogous to the Syro-Arabian perfect to be
called the perfect.
It is changed into an actual present in certain verbs, generally
those which have more than two radicals, by a before the last radical,
which becomes i when negatived ; in others a derived form expressive
of habit gives duration to it.5
It is put in the past by being preceded by Jcelad, which, followed
by actual present, expresses imperfect, and by perfect a pluperfect ;
and it is put in the future by having ad prefixed, or to make it
stronger lia or fa.6
The second singular imperative is the stem of the verb ; the second
plural is -t masculine, -met feminine.7
156. Verbs having one or two radical consonants often begin with
a vowel which appears, from its changeableness, not to be radical.
When this vowel is a in the imperative and future, it is generally u
in the perfect ; in a few instances it is i in the imperative and future,
and u hi the perfect.8
A very great number of verbs having one or two radical consonants
take i at the end of the root in the first and second singular, and a in
all the other persons ; which, however, generally changes to i when
the verb is negatived, and often, when in the third singular or first
plural, it takes an object suffix of the third singular, sometimes also
with that of third plural, the t of the suffix being then dropped ; 9
the vowels a, e, following in the imperative a doubled radical, some-
times change to u in the tenses.10
157. A participle is formed by subjoining, for the masculine singular,
n to the third singular masculine of the perfect, for the feminine
singular, t to the third singular feminine of the perfect ; a plural for
both genders is formed by adding to the masculine singular the termi-
nation of the plural as in substantives. This participle thus formed
1 Hanoteau, p. 33. J Ibid. p. 50. 3 Ibid. p. 50-54.
4 Ibid. p. 55. 5 Ibid. pp. 57, 58. 6 Ibid. pp. 58, 60.
7 Ibid. p. 56. 8 Ibid. pp. 60, 61. 9 Ibid. pp. 61, 62.
10 Ibid. p. 63.
96 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES I TAMACHEK. [SECT. v.
from the perfect is past, when similarly formed from present or future
it is present or future.1
158. The verb has several derived forms with elements prefixed or
suffixed to the verbal root.
1, s-, causative; 2, tu-, passive; 3, m-, reciprocal when used with
causative, passive, neuter ; 4, nm-, mm-, reciprocal ; 5, -t, become ;
6, t-, habitual ; 7, second radical doubled, habitual ; 8, a before last
radical, habitual, used generally with causatives and passives ; 9, u
before the last radical, habitual, used with causatives; 10, -a, -i, -u,
habitual, used with causatives and with combinations of 1, 2, and 3.2
There are the following combinations of these forms, 2, 1 ; 1, 4; 3, 1 ;
8, 1 ; 9, 1 ; 8, 2 ; 6, 3 ; 6, 4 ; 6, 5 ; 10, 2, 1 ; 10, 1, 4 ; 6, 3, 1, 8.3
The conjugation of the derived forms differs in nothing from that
of the simple verb.4
The habitual forms express the frequentative, the continued.6
The second form and the sixth do not generally admit the vowel
changes of 156.6
In the third form a changeable a (156) becomes i after m, and the
other vowel changes of 156 generally take place.7
159. AVith a negative the future is expressed by an habitual per-
fect, and the imperative by an habitual imperative.8
The reflexive verbal idea is expressed by the verb, followed by
iman, soul, person, with the proper possessive suffix.9
There is a verb emus, a copula, and a verb el, to have.10
An interrogation is expressed with mif after the verb, whether
immediately or not.11
A verb is negatived by being preceded by our or ou, and a in the
last syllable then becomes i1'2 (155, 156).
A future past (shall have) may be expressed by the future of emus,
followed by the perfect of the verb, each with its person. But such
relative tenses are little used.13
The verbal infinitive is generally expressed by the future, and the
nominal infinitive by the verbal noun.1*
160. "\Vhen personal suffixes are employed both for the direct
object and the indirect, the indirect precedes the direct; and when
the verb is affected also with the adverbial d (here, hereupon), this
follows the object suffixes.15
Any particle affecting a verb attracts to itself from the verb an
object suffix, the adverbial suffix d here, hereupon, or the subjoined
n which forms the participle.15
The particles a, ax, fa, ha, before a verb strengthen the assertion,
a and as being used before the past, fa and ha before the future ;
they seem each to involve a demonstrative element.16
161. Verbal nouns of the action are formed from the verbal stem
1 Hanoteau, pp. 63, 64. " Ibid. p. 66. 3 Ibid. p. 67.
4 Ibid. p. 158. 8 Ibid. p. 76. • Ibid. pp. 71, 77.
7 Ibid. p. 72. 8 Ibid. pp. 76, 91. 9 Ibid. p. 82.
10 Ibid. pp. 83, 85. » Ibid. p. 87. 12 Ibid. pp. 87, 88.
13 Ibid. p. 91. 14 Ibid. pp. 92, 93. 15 Ibid. p. 94-98.
16 Ibid. p. 99.
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TAMACHEK. 97
as follows : 1, a- ; 2, a-, with a between the radicals ; 3, a-, with
u before the last radical ; 4, t -t ; 5, t -aut ; 6, t -i. The first for-
mation is used with causatives and with some passives and reciprocals ;
some nouns of this formation end in i. The second formation belongs
to verbs of three radicals, and these verbs have generally at the same
time nouns of action of the third and fifth forms. The sixth form is
the most frequent, its t is generally followed by i, and a changeable a
(156) becomes u.1
Nouns of the agent are formed by prefixing a to the verbal stem,
and inserting a before its last radical, or by prefixing an, am, or anm,
often also with insertion of a before the last radical.2
162. " The number of the particles which correspond to our preposi-
tions, adverbs, and conjunction is restricted enough in Tamachek ; and
each of them may be translated into French by many different words,
according to the sense of the phrase. The prepositive, adverbial, and
conjunctive expressions are formed either by means of verbs or by
pronouns and particles, or by the help of substantives verbal for the
most part and denoting a state or manner of being." 3
The prepositions in accordance with their nominal nature take the
possessive suffixes.4
This deficient sense of relation is accompanied by a remarkable
tendency to connect related objects by means of pronominal elements ;
he said to him to father his of young man
thus i'nna'ha ' s i • ti ' s n'abarad, he said to the father of the
young man.11
It is also probably the reason that any particle preceding a verb as
relative to it attracts to itself from the verb any element suffixed to
the latter ; for owing to the deficient sense of relation the mind fails
to think a relative element transitionally, and tends to take up into it
the consequent, omitting the transition. When an element is relative
to a fact it tends to take up what the verb passes to in the conception
of fact, omitting the transition, that is, the verb itself.
163. There is in this language a singular mixture of African and
Syro-Arabian characteristics. And the African characteristics are
different from those which show themselves in Ethiopia and Amharic.
In the latter languages there is evidence of a tendency to contract
the act of thought by limitation of its object (123, 146), and also of a
tendency to detach from the verbal stem the process of being or doing
(125, 145), both which characterise African speech. But in Tamachek
the principal African feature is the tendency which distinguishes the
Kafir languages to express as a prefix the substance of the noun and
the subject person of the verb. The rules given in 152 in reference
to the initial letters of nouns are strikingly suggestive of the structure
of Kafir nouns, or rather of this in its reduced form as it appears in
West Africa in Oti, Bullom, and Woloff, and the tendency to put the
person before the verb led to the application to the perfect of the per-
sonal prefixes which in Syro-Arabian belonged to the imperfect, so as
to abolish the distinction between these two tenses. Such a part
of the verb, indefinite as to position in time, is found generally in
1 Hanoteau, pp. 101, 102. - Ibid. p. 105. 3 Ibid. p. 108. 4 Ibid. p. 36.
98 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TAMACHEK. [SECT. v.
African languages. It is the action of African influence on a Syro-
Arabian language which seems to be indicated in the Tamachek for-
mations. Indeed, it is remarkable that these retain so much of that
essentially Syro-Arabian feature, internal vowel change, not only in
the verbal formations, but also in the plural nouns. The grammatical
elements also are to a great extent Syro-Arabian ; t for the feminine
gender and for the nomen unitatis ; the nasal for the plural, the broad
vowel a for the plural (130), the elements of the personal pronouns,
the elements of the derived forms of the verb ; a expressive of the
stronger process of being or doing, differently applied, however, in
Tamachek, in which often it expresses an actual present or a future,
and absorbed by the first and second singular, so as to be reduced to
t, while it has to be supplied with the other more objective persons,
changed into i also in the last syllable after a negative, as in the pre-
sent tense of Kafir verbs.
lion with panther with with jackal past
164. Example: Awaqqas d • ahar et'tdhuri d ' abeggi Jcelad
be 3d pi. pi. comrade pi. day one hunt 3d pi. find 3d pi. sheep kill 3d pi.
emus ' en imidaw ' en ; aliel Hen geddel • en egraw • en tehali enfa ' n •
her 3d sing, speak lion 3d sing, say to them who to us 3d sing, divide
tet ; i • siul awaqqas i ' nna'ha 'sen, ma'ha'ner i • zzun •
part. pi. meat pi. these say 3d pi. jackal he that 3d sing, be little part, among
en isa • n wi'def ; enna ' n abeggi enta wa i ' nderr • en de '
us 3d sing, divide jackal pi. meat pi. 3d sing, make four fern, parts 3d sing.
nef ; i • zzun abeggi isa ' n i ' go, okkoz • et teful ; i
say to them come] 2d pi. imper. each one fut. 3d sing, take part of it
nna'ha • sen aiau • t ak Hen ad i ' etkel tafult'vnn'it ;
3d sing, come hereupon lion 3d sing, say to him to jackal which of all
i ' usa ' d aicaqqas i • nna'ha • s i ' abeggi ma n'eket
part, my among them 3d sing, say to him jackal be like 3d pi. fern. take one
tafult ' i n ' d ' esenet ; i ' nna'ha ' s abeggi ula ' net etkeliie'
fern, that to thee 3d sing. fern, pleasing becomes 3d sing, say to him lion not
t ta'ha'k t • egraz • et ; i • nna'ha ' s awaqqas ur
2d pers. know sing, division 3d sing, strike him 3d sing, kill him when 3d sing, die
t • essin'ed ta'zzun't i ' iuit ' t i • nra't; as i ' mmut
jackal seek 3d pi. that fut. 3d. sing, divide part, meat pi. 3d sing. fern, say to
abeygi egmi ' en wa ha i ' zzun 'en i'sa'n; t ' enna ha'
them I dem. fut. 3d sing, divide part. 3d. sing. fern, mix meat pL of
sen tahuri neklru ha i ' zzun ' en t • eserti isa'n n'
jackal with meat pi. of sheep 3d sing. fern, begin division 3d sing. fern, make
abeggi d ' isa • n en'tehali t ' ulvs tazzunt t ' ega
six fern, parts they three of them when 3d sing, see lion that 3d sing.
xedis ' ct teful entcnid kerad ' esen ; as i ' ni awaqqas aicin i
say to 3d sing. obj. we three of us parts these fern, six fern, who
nna'lia • s nrkkenid kerad-rnef teful ti ' def sedis ' et ma'
them fern, be part. 3d sing. fern, say to him this of lion this
tenet Han; t • mna'ha's tahuri taref n'awaqqas, ta'ref
of chief of us that of three fein. of eye pi. dem. pi. fern. 3d pers. be red part.
irameqqar'nc-ner ta' s'ktiraij -ct en'titt'awin ti i ' segger • u •
pi. fern. 3d sing. fern, say 3d sing. obj. lion who 2d pers. pron. fern. 3d sing. caus.
in; i ' nna ' .s airaqqasnta kcm i • s '
learn part, division this 3d sing. fern, say to him stroke that fern, kill
elrned ' ni ta::zun'f fin-'-r ; t ' enna ha ' s t'iui't ta inra'
part, jackal it to me 3d sing. cans, learn part, division this
n abcyyi entat'h'i i • * • eltned'cn ta'zzunt tarer. Lion and
SECT, v.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : HAUSSA. 99
panther and tahuri and jackal were comrades ; one day they hunted,
they found a sheep, they killed her ; lion spoke, and said to them,
Who is to divide to us these meats ? they said, Jackal, he that is least
of us. Jackal divided the meats ; he made four parts ; he said to
them, Come, each one shall take a part of it ; hereupon lion came,
said to him, to jackal, Which of all is my part among them 1 jackal
said to him, They are alike, take one that is pleasing to thee ; lion
said to him, Thou knowest not division ; he struck him, he killed
him. When jackal died they sought (one) that would divide the
meats ; tahuri said to them, Here am I to divide ; she mixed meats
of jackal with meats of sheep ; she began division ; she made six
parts, they (being) three ; when lion saw that, he said to her, We (are)
three, these six parts, who owns them ? tahuri said to him, This for
lion, this for our chief, the third for the eyes that are red ; lion said
to her, Who taught thee this division 1 she said to him, The stroke
that killed jackal, it taught mp this division ; l imidawen is masculine
plural of amidi,2 the feminine plural is timidawin ; 3 mahanef, the
interrogative and relative pronouns, are amongst those particles which,
preceding a verb, attract suffixes belonging to the verb, though not
the participial -n (160, 162) ; a relative or interrogative pronoun is
followed by a participle ; 4 teful is the plural of tafult ; 3 aiaut is
imperative of an obsolete verb ; 5 eyrazet seems to be a derived verb
of the fifth form (158) ; tittawin is plural of tit; a personal pronoun
as subject attracts the object suffixes from the verb, thus entat'hi.
HAUSSA.
165. The Haussa language, which borders on Tamachek to the
south, shows traces of affinity to it, and through it to the Syro-
Arabian, but so faint and uncertain that one might say that Syro-
Arabian features vanish in Haussa.
Its consonants are h, k, g, «, y, t', t, d, f, s, z, r, I, n, /, to, b, m ;
f/b is a double consonant, characteristic of these parts of Africa ; kw
also occurs. The vowels are a, e, i, 0, u; the diphthongs are ei
and oi ; other concurrent vowels get each its full sound ; n becomes
m before b.6
166. Abstract nouns of action or quality are formed by -ta; nouns
of the agent by ma-, mai- singular, masu- plural ; diminutives by dalir
singular, yaya- plural.7
Nouns have two numbers, singular and plural. The plural is
formed so variously as to be scarcely reducible to rule ; sometimes by
-una, -ua substituted for last vowel ; sometimes by -i, or by -i preceded
by the same consonant as that which begins the last syllable, changing
also the final vowel into uo or o or a/ sometimes by inserting a before
the last syllable.8
There are two genders, masculine and feminine, which, however,
seem to be principally sexual ; the termination -i belongs chiefly to
the masculine, -a to the feminine.9
1 Hanoteau, p. 133. 2 Ibid. p. 23. 3 Ibid. p. 24.
4 Ibid. p. 64. 3 Ibid. p. 126. 6 Schon, Gram. Haussa, p. 1-3.
7 Ibid. p. 4. 8 Ibid. p. 5. 9 Ibid. p. 6.
100 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: HAUSSA. [SECT. v.
Cases are expressed by prepositions. ; n- belongs to the genitive, but
is more frequently omitted. The genitive follows its governing noun ;
the object without mark of case follows the verb, and the subject
always precedes the verb.1
Adjectives are few, and may either precede or follow the noun.
They sometimes have the endings -i masculine, -a feminine ; but are
sometimes formed with the connective pronominal prefixes na- mascu-
line, ta- feminine, or ma-, mai- singular, masu- pluraL Sometimes,
instead of an adjective qualifying a noun, another noun is used, either
in apposition to the former or governed by it2
There is no adjectival expression of degrees of comparison.3
167. The personal pronouns are, in the singular, first, ina masculine,
nia or ta feminine ; second, ka or kai masculine, ki feminine ; third,
si, ya, or sa masculine, ta, ita, or tai feminine ; in the plural, first
mu, second ku, third su, sometimes uttered with final n.* In Vei
also the first plural is mu. The reflexive element is Jean, as kanka,
thyself ; but with the first singular it is kai*
The demonstrative elements are wa, no, na, da, which may be
variously compounded with each other ; the interrogative and relative,
mi, meh, wonne, iconna, ena, kaka, ica, da, tcodda, wonne; the indefinite,
kowha, wosu.6
168. The verb has in some few instances the following derived
forms, inceptive -ua, completive -o, passive -u, little used. Some verbs
are formed with -sie, which is changed to -sa in the third singular
masculine and feminine.7
An actual present is expressed by na between the subject person
and the verb, and sometimes a perfect by ka in the same place ; a
future is expressed by repeating before the verbal stem the final
vowel of the subject person ; the subject person followed by the
verbal stem expresses a perfect.8
There is a verb of existence present or past, na, neh, keh, or with
feminine subject t'e; of existence future, samma, with the final vowel
of subject person prefixed.9
169. There are very few prepositions or conjunctions.10
which be certainly little by seed all
170. Examples: (1.) Wondda keh gaskia karami ga iri duka,
and foes man
which is in fact the smallest of all seeds." (2.) Da makiya mutum
they be men gen. him
su neh mutani n • sa, and a man's foes are his own people ',11 da
is the same as Tamachek de or d ; makiya is plural of makiyi, and
man good from good gen.
mutani is plural of mutum. (3.) Mutum nagari daga keao n'
treasure gen. heart he bring out things •which pi. good bad man
surukumi n • suf'ta ija kao irose abubua masu • keao, mugu mutum
from bad gen. treasure he bring out things bad
daija mugu n • surukumi ya kao wose abubua miagu, a man that is
1 Schon, pp. 6, 7. - Ibid. pp. 8, 9. 3 Ibid. p. 10.
4 Ibid. p. 14. 5 Ibid. p. 15. 8 Ibid. p. 16-18.
7 Ibid. p. -20. " Ibid. p. 23-25. 9 Ibid. pp. 21,22.
10 Ibid. pp. 29, 30. » Ibid. p. 7.
SECT, v.] GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES: HAUSSA. 101
good from the good treasure of his heart bringeth forth things which
are good, a bad man from the bad treasure bringeth forth bad things ; l
not that
abubua is plural of abu, miagu plural of mugu. (4.) Ba wonnan
which be go inside gen. mouth
da keh sua fiki m • lahki, not that which goeth into the mouth ; 2
they fut. allow to teach any who be
fiki means belly. (5.) Su u ' berri ga koya kohwa woddanda keh
wish learn
soh koyo, they shall be permitted to teach any who is willing to
learn ; 3 koya and koyo do not tally with the meaning given to -o in
168 ; woddanda is a remarkable compound of demonstrative elements.
any he fut. do will father gen. me
(6.) Kohwa si i ' yi yirda oba n • a, whosoever shall do the will
of my father.4
171. In the fourth and fifth examples, as well as in the actual
present (168), may be observed a tendency to detach from the
verbal stem the process of doing or being; and in such a word as
masukeao there is an openness of texture, as of parts imperfectly
combined. But there is nothing which can be properly regarded as
the fragmentariness of pure African speech. The inner plural is still
retained ; and some of the grammatical elements still betray a Syro-
Arabian affinity. That affinity explains the small degree in which
the natural integers of thought are broken into parts, compared with
what takes place in the adjacent Negro languages. When Haussa is
compared with Arabic and Hebrew there may be observed, along with
other much more striking differences, a comparative smallness in the
separate thoughts. Such a reduction is to be seen also in Ethiopic
and Amharic. For just as the Chinese family, when in Burmese it
approaches the quicker thought of India, exhibits in that language a
reduction or limitation in the object which the mind thinks in a single
act (21, 38), so does the Syro- Arabian manifest the same tendency
in Ethiopic and Amharic, as it comes under the influence of African
excitability (123, 146) ; a tendency also to be seen in Haussa, whose
affinity to the Syro- Arabian is more remote. Tamachek or Berber is
less affected, being spoken by a race which is partially separated by
the desert from the genuine African influence.
Throughout the five groups into which the races and languages of
mankind have been put in this chapter, everywhere the tendency to
think small objects in the successive acts of the mind has been found
proportional to the readiness of excitability of the race, or, in other
Avords, to the quickness and mobility of their mental action, while
the tendency to think large objects has been found proportional to the
slowness and persistence of their mental action.
The same concomitance of variation of thought and language will
be found to prevail in the great family which remains to be studied.
1 Schon, p. 10. - Ibid. p. 16. 3 Ibid. p. 17. 4 Ibid. p. 18.
102 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. [SECT. vi.
VI. — The Indo-European Languages.
1. The Indo-European languages, in their most ancient and original
form, differ from the Syro-Arabian in this characteristic principle of
their structure, that while the latter take into the thought of the
root elements which are closely combined with it in the conception of
fact, the former generally add such elements externally to the root,
thinking them in a succession of mental acts of Avhich the thought of
the root is one ; and they scarcely ^ever think the root except as part of
an idea to which the other parts are added externally to form the idea.
Now this characteristic difference receives its explanation at once
from the law which has been traced in the preceding sections through
the languages of the world. For the Indo-European structure is a
partial breaking into fragments of integers of thought which Syro-
Arabian keeps entire, a narrowing of the momentary field of view, so
as to resolve the idea into a succession of parts which the Syro-
Arabian embraces in one view. And the quicker excitability of
mental action which, according to our law, should correspond to this
tendency to resolve speech into fragments, is found in fact to exist in
the nature of the European compared with that of the Arabian and
the Chinese (chap, i., Part I., Sect. V., 1, 5).
In the Syro-Arabian family of languages, when affected, as in
Ethiopic, with the ready excitability of Africa, there is an approach
to the Indo-European treatment of the root as a mere fragment of
an idea (V. 123). And in the Chinese family the same is to be
observed in Burmese, in which thought is quickened by Indian
influence (V. 21). And on the other hand, in those Indo-Euro-
pean languages which were spoken by races of slower mental action,
the root tends to be thought with more fulness as a complete idea.
For in every case the magnitude of the object which the mind thinks
in its single acts varies inversely as the quickness of its action.
This, however, remains to be set forth in full in the Indo-European
languages, in connection with the other features of their structure ;
which, however, may be more briefly stated as to those languages
which are familiar to every scholar.
SANSKRIT.
2. Sanskrit developed the consonants more than the vowels. It
had the four mutes and nasal of the post-palatal, palatal, cerebral,
dental, and labial orders. The ante-palatals are not in the written
alphabet; and though the dentals are often followed by ?/, they still
retain their own character. Of the spirants it had the faucal //, the
palatal, ante-palatal, and dental spirants, but no medial spirants except
// and K ; of the vibratilcs it had r and /. To these should bo added j*
to represent the vowel r; for though r cannot be properly uttered as a
vowel, it may be uttered with a sustained sonancy (202). The San-
skrit vowels r are described as involving a very short and a long i; l
1 Williams, Sanskrit Grain., p. 7 ; Bopp, (Jratn. Sans., sect 12.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. 103
if this be so they ought to be written ri and ri. The cerebral / also
occurs in the Vedas.1
It is to be observed that the cerebrals and sonant vowel r, Sanskrit
has in common with the Dravidian languages, except that the latter
is not properly a vowel in the Dravidian languages, as it cannot with-
out a vowel form a syllable. There are euphonic affinities between
ante-palatals and cerebrals which might suggest the supposition that
the cerebrals were ante-palatals more or less changed in their utterance
by Dravidian influence ; thus s is ante-palatal, yet its euphonic affinities
are cerebral, and the affinity of i for n seems to prove it to be n, yet
the other affinities of n are cerebral.
The only simple vowels which Sanskrit has are a, i, and u, short
and long ; but i or I, and u or u, may each be compounded with a,
making what is called the Guna of those vowels, namely, e, o, or with
a making what is called their Vriddhi, namely, the diphthongs di and
an. In the same way ri and ri make Guna ar and Vriddhi dr.
There is no Guna for a, but a is Vriddhi for a.
M is a weak nasal, and at the end of a word after a vowel becomes
a mere nasalisation called anuswara ; any of the nasals following a
vowel and coming immediately before a spirant or vibratile in the
same word is weakened to this nasalisation.2 The nasal is partly
absorbed by the vowel (202), and its breath partly taken by the spirant
or vibratile. F, when immediately preceded in a word by any other
consonant than r, is pronounced w.
The cerebral consonants are rarely found at the beginning of
words.'
There is no accent in ordinary speech,4 and each word runs into
the next, a final vowel of the former either combining with an initial
vowel of the latter or becoming a semi-vowel before it ; but if a as
initial of a word follows a final e or o it is dropped ; if a final e or o
comes before any other initial vowel but a, e is changed to ay, o to
av, and the y or v is dropped if the initial be that of another Avord,
but retained if it be that of an affix.5
Sanskrit utterance was indolent, and deficient in versatility, as appears
from the extent to which it weakened the consonants and slurred over
the transitions of utterance by changing concurrent elements.
The tenues, as well as x'» s, and s, being called hard, and the other
consonants soft, a tenuis at the end of a word or stem generally becomes
unaspirated medial before a soft or vowel initial ; and a medial at
the end becomes unaspirated tenuis before a hard initial, throwing
back its aspiration if it be aspirate on an initial g, d, or b ; but a
nasal initial generally turns into a nasal a preceding final consonant ;
t or d at the end of a word is assimilated by an initial A:', g', or I ; t
or d at the end of a word being followed by an initial x', both the final
and the initial become k'; k' or g' at the end of a stem before t, t1, or
s, becomes k; d1 at the end of a stem becomes d, and b1 becomes b
before t or f, and these become d'; if n at the end of a word is
followed by an initial k', t, or t, then \'t s, or s, is inserted between
1 Williams, p. 8. 2 Ibid p. 5. 3 Ibid. pp. 9, 10.
4 Ibid. p. 14. * Ibid. p. 22-24.
104 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. [SECT.VI.
(177), and n becomes anuswara; 8 or r at the end of a word becomes
a mere breathing before an initial k, k\ p, p, \ or s, or at the end of a
sentence ; s at the end of a word, preceded by a, becomes u before a
soft consonant or a, and combines with the a precedingjit into o, but
before any vowel except a it is dropped ; also if the initial is a instead
of a soft consonant this a is dropped ; « at the end of a word, pre-
ceded by a before a soft consonant or a vowel, is .dropped ; s at the
end of a word, preceded by any other vowel but a or a, and followed
by a soft consonant or a vowel, becomes r, unless the following initial
be 7-, in which case the 8 is dropped, and the preceding vowel is
lengthened; the pronouns sas and esas drop the final s before any
consonant ; h at the end of a stem beginning with d becomes g before
t or t\ and the t or tl becomes cT ; h at the end of a stem not begin-
ning with d or n is dropped before t or t1, and the radical vowel
lengthened, t or t' becomes d' ; r at the end of a word before a tenuis
becomes spirant ; r at the end of a word preceded by a, and followed
by r, is dropped ; x' a^ the en(i °f a stem before t or £ becomes s, and
the t or t* becomes cerebral ; x' or £ at the end of a stem before d*
becomes rf, and the cT becomes eT / « at the end of a stem before cT
becomes d, s before s becomes t. At the end of a word, or at the end
of a stem before an affix beginning with a consonant, concurrent con-
sonants are not permitted, an aspirated consonant drops its aspiration,
h becomes k or f, a palatal becomes guttural or cerebral, x' and £
become either k or f.1
3. The noun has three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter,
and three numbers, singular, dual, and plural.
Nominal stems ending in a are apt to express the feminine gender
by lengthening a / the feminine gender is also expressed by -I ; some
stem endings, as -ti, are exclusively feminine, others, as -ana, -twa, -ya,
-tra, neuter ; others of all genders.
The Sanskrit root, in becoming a nominal or verbal stem, often affects
its vowel with Guna or Vriddhi, that is, combines with it a or a (2).
This change cannot be explained on euphonic principles. It is no
doubt expressive of a greater fulness in the thought of the root when
embodied in certain stems than as thought in the abstract or in other
stems. The vowel a is suggestive of strength by reason of its large
volume of breath and the additional action of the chest which its
utterance brings into play ; whereas i reduces this to a minimum, and
if used on account of this property will express weakness. A long
vowel or Vriddhi may bring into notice the quiescence of the organs
of the mouth while it is being uttered, and is then expressive of
quiescence or relaxation.
Nominal stems may bo divided into the following eight classes,
comprising different formations, which may be illustrated by single
examples :
I. Masculine and neuter stems in -a, feminine in -a and -i.
(1.) From roots: din shine, (leva a deity, yurf join, yog'a joining ;
x'ulS shine, \ub'a beautiful, \iiVd fern. ; kri do, kdraka doer,
1 Williams, pp. 26-38, 124-126 ; Bopp, Gram. Sans., p. 36-62.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SANSKRIT. 105
kdrikd fern., nrit dance, nart'aka dancer, nart'dkl fern., tap burn,
tap'dka inflammatory, tap'dka fern.; nl guide, nayana the eye; swap
sleep, swap-na sleep ; x'ru tear, ^rd'tra, neut., organ of hearing ; pu'tra
son,puftri daughter; also others in -ra, -la, -ma, -va, -ka; sprih desire,
sprihd fern., desire.
(2.) From nominal stems : purusa man, purusaiwa neut., manli-
ness ; suhrid friend, sauhrid-ya neut., friendship; purusa man,
paurusa manly ; ddru wood, ddrava wooden ; venu flute, vainavika
flute-player, vainavikl fern. ; purusa man, purusleya (-eyl fem.)
manly ; suUa pleasure, sauk'iya pleasurable ; -ina, -vala, -tana, -ka,
-ita, adjectives ; -maya full of, -daglna -matra measuring, -de-^iya
-kalpa like, purusa man, purusa'ta fem., manliness ; Indra, Indranl
wife of Indra.
II. Masculine, feminine, and neuter stems in -i.
(1.) From roots: ku sound, kavi masc., poet; kris plough, leris'i
fem., ploughing ; vak' speak, uk'ti fem., speech ; g'n'd (g'an be born),
g'n'd'ti masc., a relation.
(2.) From a few nouns in -a: patronymics, Dusyanta, Dausyant'i,
son of Dusyanta.
III. Masculine, feminine, and neuter stems in -u.
From roots : kri do, kar~u masc., artificer ; tan stretch, tan'u
fem., the body; sic ad taste, swdd^u sweet; 6'a shine, b'd'nu masc.,
the sun ; dfe drink, d'e'nu fem., a cow ; ksi perish, ksayisnu perish-
ing ; also -ru, -lu, -yu, &c.
IV. Masculine, feminine, and neuter stems in ri.
From roots : ksip throw, ksep'tri thrower ; nouns of relationship,
pitri father ; mdtri mother.
V. Masculine, feminine, and neuter stems in t and d.
(1.) From roots : kri do, krrt doer ; sri flow, sar'it a stream. '
(2.) From; nominal stems: d*ana wealth, d'ana'vat possessed of
wealth ; d'l wisdom, d'rmat wise.
VI. Masculine, feminine, and neuter stems in -an and -in.
(1.) From roots: taks cleave, taksan masc., a carpenter; Tcri do,
karman neut., deed ; drix' see, dri\'-van seeing ; kri do, kdr'in, doer.
(2.) From nominal stems : kdla black, kdl-iman masc., blackness ;
dlana wealth, cTan'in, wealthy (fem. -ini) ; medld intellect, medd'vin
intellectual (fem. -vim}.
VII. Masculine, feminine, and neuter stems in -as, -is, -us.
Sri, go, saras neut., water ; us glow, us'as fem., dawn ; Jiu offer,
liavis neut., ghee.
VIII. Masculine, feminine, and neuter stems in any other conso-
nant but t, d, n, or s.
These are for the most part compound stems ending in a root ; but
there are a few roots used by themselves as stems, like yud' battle,
vak' speech.1
4. The following are the case endings for the different stems in the
three numbers :
1 Williams, p. 44-53.
VOL. II. H
106
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT.
[SECT. vi.
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SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SANSKRIT. 107
A few feminine stems in -I take -s in the nominative singular, and
change I to iy before a vowel. Feminines in -i and -u sometimes
make genitive singular in -yds, -was.
The above endings, except where the cases are given in full, are
added in accordance with the laws of combination of vowels and con-
sonants to the final of the stem as given in the first line, except that
stems in -tri take the above endings instead of ri, nouns of kindred
in -tri shortening the a of the accusative singular, the nominative
accusative dual, and the nominative plural. Stems ending in -n drop
the n before &' and s, and in nominative singular n and s are dropped ;
and the preceding vowel is lengthened in the nominative and accusa-
tive singular and dual and the nominative plural if the stem ends in
-an, but only in nominative singular if it ends in -in.1
In the vocative singular the -i combines with -a into -e, and the -a
with -i into -e, with -u into -o. The vocative involves a personifica-
tion of the noun with an element of life less strong than the masculine
or feminine subject ; and the 4 may perhaps be regarded as a weak
substitute for feminine -a, but with more life than neuter -m, and the
-a as an increase of breath to give life to the stem. The masculine -a
needs no increase of strength ; and the consonant stems are incapable
of any. A few masculine stems in -a, 4, and -u, monosyllabic femi-
nines in -I and -u, and stems in -at, -o, and -au take -s in the vocative
singular,2 as in the nominative, perhaps because, owing to the long
vowels, they need a stronger element than other stems.
5. Adjectives form a comparative degree in -tara, a superlative in
-tama, or comparative in -lyas (nominative 4ydn masculine. 4yasi
feminine, -lyas neuter), superlative in -ist'a2 (see 13, 82).
Present participles, and adjectives and participles in -vat, -mat,
form the feminine in 4.
6. The first four cardinal numbers, eka, dwi, tri, k'atur, are
adjectives agreeing with their noun in gender, number, and case, the
third tri taking tisri for its stem when feminine ; those from five to
ten inclusive, pantfan, sas, saptan, astan, navan, dayman, are reduced
to the root, dropping -n, in the nominative and accusative, but they
take the plural case endings in the other cases.
The units are prefixed to the tens when added to them. The
multiples of ten, vl\ati, tri\'at, k'atwdn\'at, pankd\at, sasti, sap-
tati, a\lti, navati, are feminine substantives singular up to \ata 100,
which, as well as sahasra 1000, is declined as a neuter singular sub-
stantive.4
The ordinals are pra't'ama, divi-fiya, tri' fly a, k'atur-fa, pan'k'a-ma,
gcu'fa, sapta'ma, asta'ina, nava'ma, dax'a'ma, eleventh to nineteenth
are formed by dropping -n of cardinal, twentieth to fiftieth drop final
ti or t of cardinal or add -tama, sixtieth to ninetieth add -tama, or
change -ti to -ta, 100th and 1000th add -tama or decline the cardinal
as an adjective.6
7. The following are the declensions of the pronouns : 6
1 Williams, p. 56-79. 2 Bopp, Gram. Sans., sect. 136.
s Williams, p. 88. * Ibid. pp. 91, 92.
8 Ibid. pp. 93, 94. 6 Ibid. p. 95-100.
108
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT.
[SECT. vi.
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SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SANSKRIT. 109
The final m of the nominative singular, dual, and plural of first and
second personal pronoun doubtless expresses personality.
There is a modification of the pronoun sas, rarely used, which has
y after the initial consonant in every case ; there is a feminine and
neuter of esas, declined by prefixing e to the cases of sa and tat, n
being interchangeable with t where it is interchangeable in the
masculine.
The variety of stems of the above pronouns is very curious, and the
strengthening of them with sma masculine and neuter, sya femiuine,
which is doubtless a demonstrative or identifying element. The
relative pronoun substitutes y, and the interrogative k, for the initial of
sas throughout its declension, masculine, feminine, and neuter ; kim is
also an interrogative stem ; k'it, api, and Tc'ana suffixed to the cases of
the interrogative makes an indefinite pronoun; -diya makes possessive
pronouns ; sica is the stem for own.
8. The declensions of the nouns and pronouns present some notable
features. Of the former it is only masculine and neuter stems ending
in -a which distinguish iu the singular the ablative from the genitive.
The difference between these two cases is that between of and from
(chap. iv. 13), that is, between what is still a part of another thing
and what has quite parted from it. The genitive corresponds to the
beginning of the parting, the issuing from, the ablative to its com-
pletion; and if these be not distinguished, they will meet in an
intermediate degree of partition thought as going on. Now, those
substantives to which the mind passes with a more distinct sense
of the relation in which they stand must be thought more strongly
than others as objects, and this element in their idea, which in Def. 4
has been called the substance, must be stronger than it is in other
substantives. It is probable, therefore, that such a strong sense of the
substance is expressed by the -a of these stems, and with these the
genitive [is distinguished as an issuing forth (sya, 26, 27) from the
ablative t. The a of the feminine sterns refers not so strongly as a of
the masculine to the substantive as object, because it is lengthened to
express another thought, namely, relaxation or weakness (3), and the
endings of the other stems are either weaker than a, or they belong in
whole or in part to the attributive part of the substantive idea (Def. 4).
And with all these the ablative is undistinguished from the genitive,
being thought as partition going on, and expressed by -s instead of
by -t, in which the motion has ceased. There is a similar cessation of
motion in t of the passive participle (35), and in t of the superlative
-is fa contrasted with the comparative -lyas (5).
The genitive singular of the first and second personal pronouns is
peculiar in this respect, that it does not involve an element of relation,
but is expressed by a reduplication of the stem as if it were connected
without sense of transition with what governs it, the mental act of con-
nection, however, involving a second thought of the person (155). An
immediate connection with the personal pronoun of that which governs
it in a genitive relation is frequent in language. It is in truth mani-
fested in the tendency to express that relation by affixing the personal
genitive to the noun, and thus particularising the idea of the latter as a
110 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. [SECT. vi.
personal possession. But in Sanskrit it is only those pronouns \vhose
personality is strongest, namely, the first and second singular, which
thus tend to impart themselves to that which is connected with them
by the genitive relation ; and when that connection is thought less
closely their dative is used for the genitive. In whichever way the
genitive is expressed in these two pronouns it is thought quite dif-
ferently from the ablative, and this gets its own proper expression
in -at.
9. The two genitive endings -sya and -as might suggest the conjec-
ture that the genitive element had originally a fuller form syas ; and
such a supposition would be supported by the Latin genitive -iust
which would correspond to -yas, also by the old genitive of second per-
sonal pronoun r«oD; (64). There may possibly be also a trace of an
original n in the genitive plural in Sanskrit, in which n takes the
place of the s of the genitive (13), and this would lead to the supposi-
tion that the original form was -syans, which would be very similar to
the Sanskrit comparative ending -lyans, and would probably have a
similar significance of production or increase. But the n of the
genitive plural is more probably due to weakening and softening of
the inflection in the noun by the preceding long vowel (209).
The inflection of the nominative plural, like that of the genitive
singular, involves -i as well as -as, which may be seen in the a- stems
of the Sanskrit pronouns, and in all the corresponding stems in Greek
and Latin. And this would lead to the supposition of an original
ending -yas (164). Xow this supposition is countenanced by the old
Latin nominatives vt'reis, gnateis, populeis, ministris,1 and by the
Greek r,fiil^ i>,u.i7$, from the a stems asma, yusma,
The Vedic nominatives also in -sas,1 to which the Zend correspond,
suggest a further addition, and lead to the conjecture that the original
ending was -syas (see also 113),
The genitive ablative ending of the feminine stems ending in d and
I involve a thought of the noun, or, in other words, a pronominal
element referring to the noun, for the a is evidently lengthened by
the gender of the noun. This renders it probable that the a of the
ablative ending at is pronominal also.
10. Just as the genitive and ablative relations are thought more
fully with -a stems masculine and neuter than with the others, so is
the instrumental relation, which gets with them in the singular its
fullest expression ina. With all the other stems it is reduced to a,
which seems to absorb the prolongation of feminine -a. The use of
the instrumental case ending in adverbs, which express direction of
motion, suggest that perhaps its original meaning is along of (225),
motion according to the way defined by the stem. It expresses not
only the instrument, but the manner.
11. The dative ending also has in the singular its strongest form
-aya with the masculine and neuter -a stems. The dative singular
of the second personal pronouns suggests that the original form per-
haps was ab'yam, m denoting the object, and ab'ya tho proximate, akin
1 Bopp Vergl. Gram., sect. 223 b.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. Ill
to Skr. dlfi to, <f>i by ; and this is confirmed by the dative dual, in
which also the masculine and neuter -a stems have the strongest
forms, for the a- and -i of the feminine is not case, but gender.
Feminine stems in -a take y before all the case endings which
begin with a vowel in order to preserve their final vowel ; and neuter
stems in -i and -u take n for the same purpose, the quiescence of n
suiting their lifeless nature. But masculine and feminine stems in -i
ind -u do not seek to preserve these vowels ; what they add to the
ladical or attributive part being perhaps a less important and weaker
element, while the neuter attaches to it an important element, a sense
cf a lifeless thing.
Feminine stems ending in a vowel which they lengthen in the
nominative and accusative singular to express feminine gender, lengthen
also the dative and locative case endings, as well as those of the genitive
and ablative (9), showing that these case endings also are thought
vith attention directed to the substantive so as to take up its gender,
tfie a of ai, am, au, being pronominal The close implication of the
case ending with the substantive stem is highly characteristic of these
languages. Thus the plural case endings end in s, except the genitive
and locative and some of the nominatives and accusatives, and this *
is evidently expressive of the plural, so that the case relation affects
not the plurality but the individual, and the individual as affected
with that relation is pluralised. In the dative ablative plural the i
is probably due to y assimilating to itself the vowel which precedes
6'. In the instrumental dative ablative of dual, the a is peculiar to
the dual, and must be expressive of it, so that the first and strongest
part, ably, of the compound case relation ab'yam, penetrates to the
individual, and is followed by the dual prolongation of the vowel.
This is like what is found in the Hyperborean languages of Europe
and Asia.
12. The element of duality, -4 or -au, is similar to the element of
locality -i, -dm, or -au, and both involve a common element of thought,
juxtaposition.
The dual au is doubtless akin to dwa, the stem of the second
numeral (184). And the essential element of coupling in dwa is u,
the a being the substance (Def. 4) of the couple.
It has been already said (11) that in the instrumental, dative,
ablative, a expresses duality (V. 51), and in the Veda a occurs as the
ending of the nominative dual instead of au, probably pronominal ; but
u added to d expresses it more fully, just as in Arabic the element of
the second numeral n is added to a to express duality. The vowel i
is itself significant of juxtaposition or proximity, as may be seen in
the Sanskrit prepositions ad'i, api, ab'i, pari, prati. And in one
application of this idea i might be a dual ending, while in another it
is a locative ending, the dual requiring always its final vowel to be
long or diphthong. In the locative of some of the pronouns it is
strengthened with n, the ending being -in, which reminds of the
preposition in tiv. Another locative ending appears in its full form
-sica in the locative plural in Zend. In some old words of kindred
sica or x'ica appears as if it were a preposition signifying with, and akin
112 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. [SECT. vi.
tosam, x'am) which signify with; thus in Sanskrit swag' ana cognatus,
\wa\ura socer, Goth, swaihra vt>6tp6s, Sanskrit swasri soror, Lat.
sobrinus. From swa a locative ending du might come, and from the
other form, sam, might come another locative ending -am. For the
case endings take the most essential element of roots which best
express the relation with the nominal stem. And a pronominal a
prefixed as in genitive and ablative would give au and dm.
Now, as in the dative dual, the duality is between two particles of
relation; so in the locative dual of the a- stems, the locative i gets
between the stem and the dual o, but needs to be confirmed bjr
the addition of s, a fragment of sica. In Sanskrit the locative relt-
tion to a dual noun coincides with the genitive. In the locative
plural the plurality s is similarly between the particles of relatior,
namely, the more general particle i and the more particular swa ; bit
it destroys the locative expressiveness of s, and this has to be supplied
by wa or u.
Bopp derives the Greek dative plural -mi from the Sanskrit looa
tive -isu, but ?/i/>, 6/iTv, a$>iv, afoaiv, indicate a nasal, such as belonged
to the Sanskrit dative, not only in the dual, but originally also in the
singular (11) ; and it would be analogous to the dative dual to suppose
that the original ending of the dative plural was b'yasam, the weight
of which caused an abbreviation, and afterwards an obliteration of the
second syllable with nouns ; and the Latin dative -bus is from the
Sanskrit dative. Bopp admits that the dative singular in Latin
corresponds to the Sanskrit dative, though he strangely supposes the
dative singular in Greek to be the Sanskrit locative.1 But both are
in Greek, as o/xo/= Sanskrit re\'e locative, lhup**v&xaytl dative.
13. The ending of the genitive plural of the demonstrative pronouns
is -sam, which corresponds to Latin -rum, and in the substantives it
is -nam or -dm. In the first and second personal pronouns the ending
is -kam, in which perhaps, as Bopp suggests, k is borrowed from a
possessive formation, but it cannot be the neuter of such a formation
as he conjectures.2 If k is possessive in -kam then probably s is
genitive in -sam, and -dm is plural, the a being lengthened by strong
sense of plurality ; the final a of masculine neuter demonstrative stems
being changed to ?, seems to indicate sydm (11, 156). This analysis of
-sdm may be confirmed by an analogy. The ordinals of the higher num-
bers are formed with -ma or -tama, expressing that special one of the
number reckoned, which completes it as an aggregate (82). Also
Sanskrit Ikatara means one of two, ckatama means one of many, -tar
being expressive of the step of transition from one to another in an
alternative of two, as in uter, alter, &c., or in a relation of kinship,
-tarn expressing the step from many to one, in thinking which, the
many are massed in an aggregate, which m expresses as in 6,aoD, «,<*«,
&c., Skr. t*wn with, cam a all whole. Another analogy is in Latin
multcsimus, one of many parts, a small fraction.
If this analysis of the ending of the genitive plural be correct, then
in it too case has got inside number; the genitive element being
1 Bopp. Vergl. Gram., sect. 177. - Ibid, sect 340.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. 113
reduced to s or n, and the reduction compensated by lengthening the
final vowel of the stem, and the plural being dm.
14. In the nominative, vocative, and accusative plural of neuter
stems the plural ending is i, and there is a tendency to lengthen the
preceding syllable as if to increase the substance by massing into an
aggregate rather than by noting the individuals.
It is to be observed that in some substantives and adjectives,
masculine and feminine, the stem has a fuller form in the nominative,
accusative, and vocative singular and dual, and in the nominative
and vocative plural than in the other cases, because in these other
cases thought is attracted from the stem by the stronger subjoined
element so as to reduce the sense of life in the stem.
There is less distinction of case relations in the dual than in the
plural, and in the plural than in the singular. For the relation is
less distinctly thought when the transition is to different objects at
the same time ; and in the dual this cause of indistinctness is greater
because the twofold individuality is fully thought, whereas in the
plural the individuals are more merged in the plurality ; in neither
is the relation so distinct as with a single object.
It is to be observed that the nasal which expresses the accusative
relation, -m singular, -ns plural, is in the plural preserved only with
the masculine -a, -i, -ri, and -u stems ; because the relation is more
strongly thought with masculine nouns (143), and with these stems
it is expressed only by n, with the other masculines by a for
euphony.
15. The Sanskrit verb shows a remarkable sense of the process
of the being or doing ; for this is what the conjugational elements
express. They are confined to the present parts of the verb, namely,
the present tense, the potential, which is a potential present, the
imperative, which is an imperative present, the imperfect or past
present, and the present participle. These differ from the other parts
of the verb in thinking the act or state as going on or in its process,
and it must be this element variously thought according to the idea
of the act or state, which the various conjugational formations express
(III. 93). Now in about two-thirds of the primitive verbs of the
language this element is taken up into the root, so as to suggest a
comparison with the Syro-Arabian languages whose special character-
istic is their expression of the process within the root. The difference,
however, between these languages and Sanskrit is at once apparent
when it is seen that the Sanskrit root takes up only an abstract sense
of process which is partly expressed outside the roots affected with it,
and that many verbal roots and forms in the language are not
affected with it at all, whereas all the Syro-Arabian verbs take it up
in all its fulness.
The form in which the process is for the most part taken up by
the root in Sanskrit is Guna of the vowel of the root (2, compare
IV. 108) ; but this cannot be applied if that VOAVG! is a, or if it be
followed by two concurrent consonants, or if it be a long vowel,
unless it be final. In each of these cases Guna or incorporation
of a would give excessive length, suggestive rather of quiescence than
114 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. [SECT. vi.
of movement (3), but with a long final vowel this effect is escaped
by the vowel turning into a semi- vowel before the a which follows.
The first conjugation is of those roots, about 1000 in number,
which take Guna and subjoin a.
The second is of about 70, which take no conjugational element.
The third is of about 20, which reduplicate the initial consonant,
using for it in the reduplication syllable the unaspirated consonant
corresponding to it if it be an aspirate, and the corresponding palatal
if it be a guttural ; but if the root begin with s, followed by another
consonant, it is the second that is reduplicated; the vowel of the
reduplication syllable is the short vowel corresponding to that of the
root ; i is used for ri and sometimes for a.
The fourth conjugation is of about 130 roots, which subjoin ya.
Many roots form neuter verbs in the fourth conjugation, which in
another conjugation form transitive verbs.
The fifth includes about 30, which subjoin nu.
The sixth includes about 140, which subjoin a.
The seventh includes about 24, which insert n before their final
consonant.
The eighth includes about 10, which subjoin u; 9 of them end
n or n.
The ninth is of about 52, which subjoin ni, or before vowels n.1
The tenth conjugation is that of several roots as verbs simply
active, and of all causals. It Gunates the vowel of the root when not
final, Vriddhies it when final, and generally when it is a between two
consonants, and subjoins «?/«, before which p is inserted if the root
ends in a, or in 7>, ai, 5, changeable to a, and therefore incapable of
Vriddhi ; other roots in ai also insert p, but most others in e or o
insert y. This conjugation differs from all the others in this respect,
that the affection of the root and the subjoined addition to it are not
confined to the four conjugational parts of the verb, but are carried
throughout it except in the precative Parasmai and the aorist (27. 7),
which drop ay a ; the final a, however, of a//a is dropped before the
i which is taken in all the non-conjugational parts. It is a derived
verb rather than a conjugation, and can be formed on any verb.2
The p inserted after a seems to belong to the causal element, being
brought to light to preserve a and a ; paya is perhaps akin to the
root of TO/EW. The causation enters into the root, increasing its vowel
unless when this would make its length excessive, as when that vowel
is a followed by two consonants. When it produces Vriddhi it makes
itself felt as dominating the root, which is passive to it.
16. The process which is expressed throughout the conjugational
or present parts of the verb is the process of being or doing which
the subject realised. In the third conjugation it is probably
thought in its totality as the complete process of accomplishment,
being expressed by reduplication. But there is another aspect of the
succession of being or doing which gets expression in the Sanskrit
verb ; this is the going on or process thought as of the life of the
1 Williams, pp. 110,111, 118-133. J Ibid. pp. 121, 159.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. 115
subject, an idea of it more special to the subject than the former ; the
one being the process which the subject realises, the other the process
of the realisation. This last, however, is thought with sufficient
strength for expression only when the subject is singular. The
different subjectivities when the subject is dual or plural confuse
and weaken the thought of it so as to suppress its expression,
except in the first person of the imperative mood, in which the
appeal to self maintains the energy of the person in the dual and
plural as well as in the singular. In the second singular of the
imperative the emphasis of address to the single person takes the
place of the expression of the person and of the subjective energy.
Moreover, it is only in the Parasmai or active that this subjective
process is expressed. In the middle or passive there is not enough
volition in the subject to maintain it, except in the imperative mood,
in which the first person has it in all the voices.
Now, this subjective process can affect the root only when the
person is in immediate contact with the root ; but it then Gunates the
radical vowel, except in the seventh conjugation, in which it changes
the n to na. Neither can it affect a immediately preceding the person
(15), nor e, nor yd of the potential, but it Gunates nu of the fifth con-
jugation and u of the eighth, changes m or n of the ninth to nd, and it
preserves final a in the third conjugation, which, before the other per-
sons, is dropped or shortened or reduced to i.1 For sometimes when
the radical vowel cannot be Gunated, being long by nature or position,
the strengthening of the root appears in preserving it unmutilated.2
17. When the conjugational a precedes m, n, or v of the first person,
it is lengthened both in active and middle ; but the first singular
imperfect active has short a before m in all the conjugations. This
a belongs to the person, and expresses the consciousness of self, as
in aham, I. The conjugational a is the process of what the verbal
stem denotes, and it is dropped in the first singular imperfect,
perhaps because in it the verb is more merged in the subject than in
the other persons, being a remembrance of self alone. In the first
singular of the present there is a strong sense of the process, and this
is maintained in the first dual and plural of the present, and also
of the imperfect, by the person or persons associated with self ; so
that in all these persons the conjugational a is retained, as it is also
in the first person of the imperative, on account of the strength with
which the external fact is thought when made the aim of an impera-
tive appeal. Now a, expressive of the consciousness of self, belongs
properly to the first dual and plural as well as to the first singular ;
but in the dual and plural it is not strong enough to make itself felt
in expression as a distinct element, except in the imperative, in which
it is expressed and lengthened in all the conjugations, numbers, and
voices by the emphasis of hortatory appeal. In the other parts of the
verb it is only when preceded by the conjugational a that it comes
out as a lengthening of a. The potential intercepts this influence
of a on the first person, by interposing its own formative element.
1 Williams, pp. 110, 111, 130. - Ibid. p. 123.
116 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. [SECT. vi.
18. The potential element in those conjugations whose stem ends
in a, is i, which combines with a and forms e; in the other conjuga-
tions it is yd. It has been stated in 3 that «', as compared with a,
is suggestive of weakness or absence of force. And accordingly the
fourth conjugation in ya has generally a neuter significance. The
potential expresses a weaker sense of realisation than the other parts,
being only ideal, and it weakens the verbal process a by mingling
with it i. The other conjugations subjoin yd, increasing the effect
of i by the long vowel (3), probably because their process is weaker,
and consequently the thought of them as ideal is an element more
remote from realisation than that which is proper to the a- con-
jugations. The first singular retains its a after the potential e, on
account of the subjective sense of self in an ideal being or doing of
self alone, euphonic y being interposed, -eyam; but yd swallows it.
19. The conjugational parts of the verb have each two sets of
person endings, one for the Parasmai or active, the other for the
Atmane or middle. They are as on the opposite page,1 those of
the potential including the potential element.
This system of person endings suggests speculations explanatory of
them, which for the most part can be regarded only as hypothetical.
The element of the first person in the singular and in the plural is
ra, but in the dual it is v. In the plural self is combined with a
plurality, which is a less distinct element than the second personality
associated with it in the dual, and therefore leaves the sense of self
more distinct (14, Sect. V. 59, 60). Hence perhaps it is that the
element of the first singular remains in the plural, but is lost in a less
definite utterance in the dual. In the singular the consciousness of
self being stronger than in the dual or plural is more apt, as has been
said (17), to express itself by initial a, as maybe seen in the imperfect
and potential, but this does not appear in the present, in which mi
has no a preceding it in the conjugations which do not subjoin a to
the root. The cause is that the final i expressing the present engage-
ment of the person expresses the consciousness of self, and leaves the
latent a no stronger than it is in the dual or plural to make itself felt
only in lengthening conjugational a (17).
The element of the second person in the singular and throughout
the present of Parasmai has more breath than the third, because the
thought of the second ]>crson involves more sense of its subjective life
than the thought of the third ; but this difference vanishes in the
dual and plural of the potential imperative and imperfect of Parasmai,
because in these the persons have less subjective life, being not actu-
ally engaged, and being thought with others. In Atmane, however,
the above difference between the element of the second person and
that of the third prevails throughout, for in AtmanS the being or
doing abides in the subject, and this causes the person to be thought
with a fuller sense of its subjective life.
In the dual of the present of Parasmai there is a sense of the indi-
viduals expressed by n, and in the first plural this is maintained by
1 Williams, pp. 105, 106.
SECT. VI.]
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SANSKRIT.
117
•<-»
a
•5* '55
i 1
i
1
8 8
^m x! ^n J3 •"' .a
r? O .-TO rn- O
118 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. [SECT. vi.
the distinction between self and the associated individuals, but in the
second plural it disappears, the plurality being expressed only by a,
as significant of extension without a sense of the individuals ; and in
the third plural, which is thought less distinctly, this extension, like
the plural in neuter nouns (14), enters into the person which is thought
as an aggregate denoted by n, and becomes so objective that it has to
be quickened by i as an element external to it. In the third conju-
gation the reduplication at the beginning causes an abbreviation at the
end, and n is dropped in the present and imperative. The reduced
sense of the individuals in the dual and plural person endings compared
with what it is in dual and plural nouns and pronouns, arises from
the subjective connection of the former with the verb, which weakens
the thought of their objective element or substance (Del 4, 14).
20. In Atmane the person endings are relaxed with long vowels (3)
and with a relaxed utterance of the consonants, because the being or
doing is thought as abiding quiescent in the subject In the first
singular the m, which is especially liable to be vocalised by reason of
its natural connection with a as mentioned above (11), melts away
altogether, and in the present the vowels coalesce in e, which, uttered
with the quiescence of a long vowel, takes the place of i of Parasmai,
and is used in the dual and plural of the present as well as in the
singular to express the quiescent engagement of the persons. In the
first dual and plural of the present the s is relaxed to 7i, but in the
second and third dual the sense of the individual substances which is
in Parasmai is lost in Atmane owing to the increased subjectivity and
the consequent weakening of the substance, and the duality becomes
an extension of the personality. This after the stronger process of
the -a conjugations seems to retain more sense of duality than in the
other conjugations, and is expressed in the former by z, which combines
with the a into ?, while in the latter it is mere extension a. In the
second plural the plurality enters into the person and gets a diffused
expression as (V w, both elements of which belong to the second person.
And in the third plural the sense of a continuous aggregate which is
expressed by an is so objective that it is weakened in Atmang, and a
is dropped when it is preceded by conjugational a, and n is dropped
in the other conjugations.
21. The person endings singular of the potential and imperfect of
Parasmai drop the -i of present engagement, and being thought with
less distinctness than in the present, they have less sense of the
individuals, dual and plural. The first person dual and plural drops
s on account of the predominant sense of self, and the second and
third dual are each massed together by m, there being more sense of
the double substance in the more objective third person, and there-
fore more expression of extension in the long vowel. The third plural
after dropping the -/ of present engagement would become ant; but
in the third conjugation which has the reduplication, and probably
thinks the verb in the totality of its process (16), the person is still
less subjective, the realisation being more complete, and the more
objective plural s is taken, an reduced to u, and ti dropped. In all
the conjugations the weak subjective realisation of the potential had
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SANSKRIT. 119
a similar effect, making the third plural in -us; and sometimes
optionally in the second conjugation, final a of the root had the same
effect in the imperfect,1 by suppressing the a of the person and making
the person more objective. But even without those influences, the
stronger ending -ant dropped its t because two consonants are not
tolerated at the end of a word.
22. The potential element in Atmane is I, which corresponds to its
quiescent character and consequent love of long vowels ; after this 1
the first singular has a, the m being dropped, but in the first dual and
plural of the potential, and throughout the first person of the imper-
fect, the engagement of the subject, which in the present is e, is
reduced to i.
Even in the third singular potential and imperfect of Atmane, there
is an element of engagement of the subject due to the act or state
being thought as abiding in the subject, and this is expressed by a.
But in the more subjective second person this is taken into the person
and more fully expressed in its own nature by d, and in its abiding
in the person by being included within a kind of reduplication of the
person between £ and s, suggested perhaps by the thought of the
person as subject and object.
The second and third dual potential and imperfect of Atmane are
each massed together by m as they are in Parasmai, but Atmane,
according to its nature, gives a long vowel to both of them, significant
of the act or state abiding in them.
The potential also prefixes iyd before both in all the conjugations ;
whereas the imperfect, like the present, prefixes e to them in the -a
conjugations, and a in the others.
The second plural potential and imperfect has a double expression
as well as the second singular. The element d\o already involves
plurality as appears from the present. But in the potential and
imperfect the persons have less life than in the present, and conse-
quently, the thought of them as object tends more than in the present
to make itself felt along with the thought of them as subject, and in
this aspect the plurality is thought again as an aggregate expressed by m.
The third plural, which in the imperfect changes e of the present
to a, in the potential puts t before an, and softens it to r under the
influence of the vowels, thereby getting rid of a syllable from the
form burdened with £.
23. In the imperative the persons are objects of a command, and
this diminishes the sense of their intrinsic life. The first singular
after the appeal to conscious self expressed by d is weakened to ni.
The second singular in the a conjugations is overpowered by the energy
of the commanded process a ; in the other conjugations it is weakened
to hi or cTi. The third person both in the singular and plural receives
force, expressed by u, rather than gives it (V. 54); -tat, which, like
-fas, is quiescent and object as well as subject (see above), is some-
times substituted for -hi and -tu, and even for -ta to imply bene-
diction, chiefly in the Vedas.
1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 462. l
120 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SANSKRIT. [SECT. vi.
In Atmane" the engagement of the first person in all numbers of the
imperative is expressed by the inactivity of Vriddhi. The second
singular has its element s weakened by combination with the other
element w, which encroaches on it and relaxes it, but its engagement
has a sense of life, which, like that of third singular imperfect, is
expressed by a. The second plural and the second and third dual are
the same as in the imperfect ; but the third singular and plural both
end in -am, which seems to express passive submission to the abiding
realisation of what is ordered.
The imperfect has the augment a-, which with an initial vowel
forms Vriddhi. It probably expresses the remotion of the past.
24. There is also a perfect, which is reduplicated like the third con-
jugation if it begin with a consonant, and if not by doubling the
initial vowel ; and this tense does not belong to the conjugational
parts of the verb. It is formed as the following from Vid, cleave :
Person. Singular. Dual. Plural.
1. bib'eda b^bt^d^ca bib'idtma
2. bib'edit'a bitiidat'ns bitiida
3. bitfeda Wfidatus bitfidus.
If the root end in a vowel this vowel takes Guna in the second
singular, Vriddhi in the first and third singular.
The Guna or Vriddhi in the singular is the complete subjective accom-
plishment, not expressed in dual or plural, because the subjectivity is
less distinct in them (16, 157). When the radical vowel is a between
single consonants it may be lengthened in the first singular and must
be in the third singular, and in the other persons it may be changed to e
and the reduplication dropped,1 as if the initial of the root was vocalised
away and the confluent a was eased to e. The a of the perfect is what
is past and over, taken up by the singular persons and by the first
dual and plural, whose engagement is most strongly thought, but
subjoined to the root in the other persons; but the first singular
bitiedima, third singular bib'cdita, and second plural bib'idat'a, have
given up the consonant of the person weakened by the sense of com-
pletion and the cessation of the process, and a has overpowered the
merely connective i; also the sense of completion has made the third
plural less subjective, so that the person ending is -us, as in the poten-
tial and imperfect of the third conjugation (21) ; the second and third
dual are a close form of the present persons. And in AtmanS the
persons are those of the present with or without i to connect them to
the reduplicated stem unaffected with Guna.
25. In the formation of most of the non-conjugational parts of the
verb, a few roots ending in vowels, and all roots ending in consonants,
except a number of these, amounting to one hundred and three, take i
before the initial consonant of the added element.2 The roots which
require this i are perhaps those which are not thought verbally enough
to coalesce immediately with the thought of the added element, but
require a light thought of verbal succession to be added to them to
1 Williams, pp. 134, 137. * Ibid. pp. 140, 141.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SANSKRIT. 121
enable them to take up that element (V. 48). Such a thought finds
ready expression in i between two consonants whose utterance is
facilitated by i; but it needs to be more strongly thought to get
expression after a vowel.
Those roots which do not take i before the above elements may
optionally reject it also in the perfect before the second singular person
ending.1
Causal stems take i probably because the idea is too heavy to
coalesce readily with the added element.
26. There is a future formed by uniting the nominative case of the
noun of the agent in -tri with the present of the verb asmi, to be, both
in Parasmai and Atmane. The third person singular, dual, and
plural is the nominative of the noun in these numbers. The noun in
this formation gets the sense of a future participle which otherwise it
never has. Nor is there in Sanskrit any future participle with which
the stem of this tense can be identified ; 2 but it shows the affinity
between the noun of the agent and the Latin participle in -turns.
There is another future formed by annexing -sya to the root and
using the present person endings. This -sya seems to have a signifi-
cance similar to -sya of the genitive (9).
In both futures the root is Gunated through all the persons, sub-
ject to the restrictions mentioned in 15, and except in certain uncom-
mon roots of the sixth conjugation,3 being strengthened with the
thought of future accomplishment.
27. Besides the imperfect and the perfect there is an aorist which
has seven different forms, all of which take the augment and the
imperfect person endings, the third plural being -us, unless the tense
element ends in a.
(1.) The fullest form subjoins -sis to the root. Many roots ending
in -a, -e, -5, and -at, with three in -am, take this form in Parasmai ;
-e, -o, and -ai being changed to -a, and m as usual to a nasalisation.
In Atmane these roots follow the next formation.
(2.) A more usual form is -s, the radical vowel taking Vriddhi in
Parasmai before all the terminations, but remaining unchanged in
Atmane unless it be final i, I, u, or u, when it takes Guna. In the
second and third singular i is inserted after s to preserve tense and
person, -sis, -sit.
(3.) Those roots which take i before the non-conjugational forms
have in the second and third singular -Is, -It instead of -isis, -isit.
They also Gunate the radical vowel as in the future, both in Parasmai
and Atmane, unless it be final, when it takes Yriddhi in Parasmai,
Guna in Atmane. These roots are thought less verbally, and there-
fore take -i (25). The idea of them consequently differs little in
Parasmai and Atmane, so that in both they take up a sense of the
past, which expresses itself by Guna, unless the vowel is final ; this in
its significance is probably akin to the sense of remotion expressed by
a of the augment. If the vowel is final, it takes up in Parasmai, as
the mind is passing to the verbal i, the sense of cessation more proper
1 Williams, p. 141. 2 Bopp, Gram. Sans., sect. 460.
3 Williams, p. 140.
VOL. II. I.
122 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SANSKRIT. [SECT. vi.
to past activity in Parasmai, and is Vriddhied. But those roots
which do not take -i, and which form the aorist according to 2,
are thought more verbally with a sense of activity in Parasmai and of
quiescence in Atmane. These are differently affected by the past ;
for the past as affecting activity gives a sense of cessation or quies-
cence whose natural expression is Vriddhi (3) ; but the past does not
thus affect Atmane, which even in the present is thought with a
degree of quiescence. The association of quiescence, however, with
this form weakens in it the sense of remotion ; but just as thought
is passing to the tense element it takes up in Atmane a sense of
remotion sufficient to Gunate a final vowel.
(4.) Another form is -sa, subjoined to the root ; but this is taken
only by certain roots ending in -x', -s, or h, preceded by i, u, or ri,
and the final consonant is changed to k before the aorist element.
(5.) More usual is -a subjoined to the root. In this form and the
preceding a is dropped before first singular -am; for the past is
involved as a memory in the consciousness of self ; but in first person
dual and plural a of the past and a of self-consciousness are both
retained in a (17).
(6.) Another form is the mere root with the person endings of the
imperfect.
(7.) A few primitive verbs and all causals reduplicate and subjoin
-a to the root.1
It appears from the above that only the second and third forms
have Guna or Vriddhi ; as if in these only the root took up in part
the element of the past. Such an absorption into the root corre-
sponds to the abbreviation in these forms of the tense element, which
in its full form is -sis, but is in these reduced to -s.
There is a similar reduction of the tense element in the fifth form
compared with the fourth, and yet no compensation for it by Guna
or Vriddhi. But in this case the expression of the past, which is a,
is in both forms, the « being a mere abstract element of fact. In the
other case it is the expression of the past which is given up, namely,
the reduplication of .x.'2
This s is probably akin to the s of the future and of the genitive,
expressing in this application of it an abstract sense of fact as an
issuing into realisation. Perhaps it is the same s which marks the
subject, for it is in the subject that fact issues into realisation. And
the same element might denote plurality as increase of number (9).
S has a significance of this kind in the Sanskrit root, su parere,
whence ; sunus u/d;, son (87).
28. A benedictive or precative is formed by subjoining, in Parasmai,
-yds to the root unchanged and without -i, and in Atmane" by sub-
joining -iyils to the root which is Gunated, if it be one of those
which take -i (25) ; some roots ending in a vowel are Gunated in
Atmane, though they do not take ~i. The person endings are those
of the imperfect, the second and third singular Parasmai being -yds,
-ydt ; and in Atmane the second and third dual being -siydst'dm,
1 Williams, p. 147-152. 2 Ibid. pp. 108, 152, 153.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. 123
-siydstam, the second and third singular sisfas, -slsta, the first
singular -siya ; the other persons reducing -slyds to -si, and third
plural being -siran, like the potential.
The precative element is to a remarkable degree stronger in Atnfane
than in Parasrnai, as if the force of prayer in urging the accomplish-
ment was less felt the more activity there was in the subject, and the
more the accomplishment was thought in consequence as determined
by the energy of the subject. The being or doing of the subject is
thought in the precative element as the matter of the prayer, it is
expressed in that element precatively. The formative element of the
desiderative verb, presently to be described, is s, which seems to be
akin to the Sanskrit verb is desiderare ; and not very remote from
this is yaks poscere. Like this is the Parasmai precative element,
and like this, strengthened with s, the Atmane. The accomplishment
or root is thought in Parasmai unaffected by the urgency of prayer
with any change which needs expression ; and even in Atmane those
roots which are thought so verbally as to coalesce directly with the
verbal formative elements are for the most part thought precatively
without any change in their idea which needs expression, but the
other roots are so affected by it as to be strengthened with Guna.
Some also ending in vowels take Guna though they do not take i, the
mind catching the urgency of prayer as it passes to the precative
element, and this being felt as a change in the radical idea which
expresses itself in Guna as it is a vowel that is then being uttered.
A conditional is expressed as past of future by giving to the future
in -sya the imperfect person endings, and prefixing the augment1
29. The infinitive is the accusative of a verbal noun in -tu, the
root being affected as in the future in -tdsmi, so that if -id in the
third singular of the latter be changed to -turn, it gives the infinitive.2
30. The derived verbs in Sanskrit are the passive, the causal, the
desiderative, and the intensive.
The passive is formed by subjoining -ya to the root, and is
conjugated as an Atmane verb of the fourth conjugation.
It is, however, not very commonly used, except in the third singular
and plural present and imperative. For although a passive construc-
tion is exceedingly common in Sanskrit syntax, yet almost all the
tenses of the passive verb are expressed by participles.2
The passive element ya seems to be akin to the neuter element ya
of the fourth conjugation and to the potential element ; at least so
far as that there is in all of these a reduction of force in the succes-
sion of the being or doing (15, 18). Or does ya of the passive express
a sense of motion to, the subject being recipient of what comes to it ?
Before the passive element six roots in -a, and one or two in 5, ai,
and o, change their final vowel or diphthong to i, as if they took up
the passivity, and final i and u are lengthened as involving a sense of
quiescence. In the non-conjugational parts, except the perfect, all
roots ending in a vowel may Vriddhi the vowel and subjoin -i, or may
use the regular Atmane form. In the former case the mind, in passing
1 Williams, p. 153. - Ibid. p. 154.
124 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. [SECT. vi.
to the quiescent subject, catches such a sense of the passivity as affects
the radical idea and expresses itself by Vriddhi (3) in the vowel which
is being uttered, as well as by -i, which is a trace of the passive element
subjoined to it.
In the third singular of the aorist (27), the termination -ista, -sta, is
dropped, and -i is taken instead, a final vowel of the root being
Vriddhied, and if the root end in a consonant the radical vowel being
either Gunated, or if it be a lengthened.1
The sense of the subject is not strong enough in the Sanskrit pas-
sive to maintain the weakest person in the past tense, and the AtmanS
quiescence being thus unexpressed, a trace of the passive is expressed
by -iy and there is a tendency to affect the root with long vowels.
31. Causal verbs are formed from every root, and conjugated, as
has been described (15), for the tenth conjugation. In the passive of
causals, the element -aya is dropped in the conjugational parts, and
optionally in the non-conjugational, but the causal changes of the root
are retained throughout.2
32. Every root in the ten conjugations may take a desiderative
form by reduplicating its initial, subjoining s and in the conjuga-
tional parts adding a, i being inserted before s if the root takes i
(25). And although this form rarely appears as a verb, yet nouns
and participles derived from it are not uncommon. There are certain
desiderative verbs which in use have condensed their meaning into a
simple idea. Desideratives of Atmane verbs are themselves Atmane.8
Causals retain -ay, and take i in forming a desiderative.
When a root takes i before the desiderative element, the radical
vowel may in general be optionally Gunated, a separate emphasis
affecting the thought of the root as the desired accomplishment ;
when it does not take i, and ends in vowels, these are changed, i and
n to I and u, e, ai, and o to a, p and ri to lr, or after a labial to wr,4
the mind as it passes to the element of desire dwelling on the thought of
the desired accomplishment so as to increase the vowel which is then
being uttered. The desideratives, as involving a heavy idea, take i in
all the non-conjugational parts except the precative of Parasmai to
connect the desiderative stem with the added element;6 euphony
requires i in the precative of Atmane.
Causals may take a desiderative form, as from pat fall, pdtaydmi I
cause to fall, yripatayisiimi I desire to cause to fall ; and desideratives
may sometimes take a causal form, as div play, dudyusami I desire
to play, dudyusayami I cause to desire to play.0
33. Every root may take an intensive form ; which, however, is
even less used than the desiderative. In the present participle, and
in a few nouns, it may sometimes appear. It either expresses repeti-
tion, or gives intensity to the radical idea.7
There are Atmane intensives and Parasmai intensives. Both are
formed witli reduplication of the initial and Guna of the reduplicated
vowel, whether it be long or short; but the Atmane intensive is
1 Williams, p. 155-158. 2 Ibid, pp. 158, 160. 8 Ibid. p. 163.
* Ibid. p. 164. 5 Ibid. p. 165. « Ibid. pp. 163, 165.
7 Ibid. p. 165.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. 125
formed from the passive stem, the Parasmai from the root. In the
former also, if the vowel of the passive stem bo a, it is lengthened in
the reduplication syllable ; and if the passive stem contain ri, this
becomes rl in the intensive ; if it have a nasal after a, this nasal is
frequently repeated in the reduplication syllable. In the non-conjuga-
tional parts the Atmane intensives drop ya of the passive stem and
take i; they retain y for euphony between two vowels.
The Parasmai intensives take the subjective Guna of 16, and Guna
in the singular of the perfect. In the non-conjugational parts except
the precative they take i * (25).
Sometimes a nasal is taken in the reduplication syllable though
there be none in the root.2
An intensive Atmane or middle strengthens both parts of the idea,
the subject realising the accomplishment and receiving or experienc-
ing it. The latter, when strengthened, expresses itself in the passive
form ; the former gets expression rather in the Gunated reduplication
syllable ; and the whole formation is usually deponent in meaning.3
Intensive verbs are said to be capable of causal desiderative forms,
as tiid strike, totud strike often, totudaydmi I cause to strike often,
totudisdmi I desire to strike often, totudayisdmi I desire to cause to
strike often. But Bopp says that derived forms of intensives are
nowhere to be found.4
34. Verbs are formed from nouns by subjoining to the stem of the
noun -a, with Guna of a final vowel if capable of it, and lengthening
of a vowel before a final nasal ; these express action defined by the
noun. They are formed also by subjoining to the nominal stem -ya
expressive of wish or desire (compare Sanskrit I to desire, /OTJJS
desire) ; it is taken up by a final vowel, so that final a or a becomes
£, final i or u is lengthened, final ri becomes ri, and final n is
dropped ; also by subjoining -ay a or -ya causative or active, a final
vowel being dropped before -aya ; and if the nominal stem have more
than one syllable, and end in a consonant, the consonant and the
preceding vowel being dropped ; p is sometimes inserted before -aya,
especially if the stem be monosyllabic and end in a, and before p
Vriddhi is required ; if the stem be monosyllabic, and end in a con-
sonant, it may take Guna before -aya. They are formed also by sub-
joining -sya, -asya, or kdmya, expressive of desire ; kam means to love
or desire.5
35. Present participle Parasmai is formed by -t or -at, for -nt, -ant,
being applied just as if substituted for -nti, -anti in third plural
present.
The present participle Atmane is formed by -mdna, as if substituted
for -nte, by -ana, as if for -ate of third plural present.6 Future participles
Parasmai and Atmane are formed like the present, from the future in
-sya.7
The nasals in the present participles, by virtue of their uninter-
rupted breathing, give a sense of going on, which in Parasmai com-
1 Williams, p. 166-168. 2 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 756.
3 Ibid. sect. 760. 4 Bopp, Gram. Sans., sect. 580.
5 Williams, p. 168-170. 6 Ibid. pp. 170, 171. 7 Ibid. p. 182.
126 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SANSKRIT. [SECT. VL
bines with an element of realised fact t to express fact as in process,
but in Atmane is repeated to give a sense of its abiding.
The past passive participle is formed generally by adding -ta to the
root, expressive of realisation complete (8), but if the root end in p,
then by adding -na, expressive of quiescence.
Some roots ending in long vowels, and some ending in consonants,
and not inserting i, form it in -na ; roots ending in vowels do not
insert i before -ta or -na, though they may take it in the futures ; but
in many cases the final vowel of the root is changed, and roots ending
in ra or n reject those nasals before ta ; roots ending in consonants
take i before ta, or do not take it, according as they do generally in
the non-conjugational parts.
In this participle of causals -aya- is dropped, but -i is taken ; -i is
taken also before ta by desideratives.
This participle is also sometimes formed from nouns by adding -ita,
as if the word was the participle of a denominative verb in -aya ;
sometimes -ina takes the place of -ita.1
Past active participles are derived from past passive participles by
adding -vat to the stem of the latter.2 This is the formative of pos-
sessive adjectives, and its full form is -vant, as appears from the
declension ; -vant, -vat, -vas probably express possession as increase ;
Sanskrit, tacat tanttis, vasu res divitice ; Latin, -osus.
The perfect participle active is formed from the stem of that tense,
as it is in the dual and plural by adding -vas when that stem contains
more than one syllable, -was when it consists of one syllable only : the
8 becomes t before an initial consonant of case ending.
A perfect participle Atmane is formed by adding -ana to the stem
of the perfect dual and plural.3
36. Gerunds are formed by adding -tied to uncompounded roots,
-ya to roots compounded with prepositions or other adverbial prefixes.
Bopp considered -twd to be the instrumental case of an affix -tu, of
which the infinitive affix -turn is the accusative. It has been re-
marked that the form of the root in these two formations often differs
considerably, as from vak' are formed vaktum, tiktwd;* and this
prevents the two formations from being regarded as different cases of
the same noun, but it need not prevent the two affixes from being so
regarded. Ya is a weaker affix corresponding to the compound
nature of the verbal stem, for this would make the action or state
which the stem denotes less distinctly thought as object of a relation,
and the relation itself less precise. Accordingly, whereas twd is a
case of tu which stands for the object of the relation, ya has no such
stem, except after a short vowel, when it hasl/ and whereas the
former is an instrumental case, the latter seems to be a dative case
ending, which expresses a relation more abstract and general.
An accusative gerund is formed by adding -am to the root, which
is so strengthened with a sense of fact as object, that the radical vowel
takes the same changes as in the causal formation.5 Roots which
1 Williams, p. 172-170. - Ibid, p. 176. J Ibid. pp. 176, 177.
4 Ibid. p. 117. 5 Ibid. p. 179.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SANSKRIT. 127
begin with a vowel long by nature or position, except dp, drik", and
roots having an initial a before two consonants, and all roots of more
than one syllable, except urnu, form their perfect by taking dm,
followed by the perfect of an auxiliary verb.1
37. Future passive participles or participial adjectives are formed by
affixing -tavya, -anii/a, or -ya, to the Gunated root ; tav seems to be
the verbal element tu Gunated ; am seems to be akin to the Atmane
participial ending ana ; and y seems to be akin to the dative ending.
These formations commonly denote obligation, propriety, or fitness, to
be treated as the root denotes, and sometimes correspond to Latin
-bilis.2
38. There are a great many prepositions in Sanskrit, but they are
generally found as inseparable prefixes qualifying the sense of roots,
and the nouns and verbs derived from roots. Only three are commonly
used in government with nouns, d as far as, prati at, to, ami after ; and
of these the two last are rarely so used except as postpositions ; a is
generally not separated from the word which it governs.
Conjugations are few, and those which are most used follow words
as enclitics. These are k'a and, tat'd so, hi for, vd or, tu but.3
39. One of the most striking features of Sanskrit is its tendency
to run together the words of a sentence, and to throw members of a
sentence into compounds. All the parts of a sentence tend to join
each to the following one, so that the final letter of one is affected by
the initial of the other. And compounds are formed of two or more
words connected by concord or government, or as by copulative con-
junction, all of which but the last are mere stems, making nouns or
adjectives which are inflected as such. The copulative compounds take
a dual ending when they denote two animate objects, and a plural
ending when they denote more than two, but when they denote two
or more inanimate objects they may be neuter singular.4
Complex compounds involving concord and government and copula-
tion all together, or two of these, and consisting of four, five, or even
six words, occur commonly in the best specimens of Sanskrit, and in
the simplest prose writings, for the most part as adjectives. Some-
times the last member of a compound changes its final syllable ; for
this no longer expresses its substance but that of the compound. The
most common substitution is that of a for the final vowel or final
consonant and preceding vowel of a word.5
40. The prepositions, though not usually thought with full dis-
tinctness as relative elements involving a simultaneous sense of the
antecedent and the consequent, and in transition from the former to
the latter, are greatly used in combination with the antecedent in
forming compound verbs, which pass to their object through the pre-
positional element, or with the consequent in forming compound
adverbs, which consist of a preposition and a substantive governed by
it, and often preceding it in the stem form. Prepositions in compound
verbs may also qualify them adverbially.
1 Williams, p. 139. 2 Ibid. p. 180. 8 Ibid. pp. 271, 272.
4 Ibid. p. 273-287. 6 Ibid. p. 288-291.
128 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SANSKRIT. [SECT. vi.
Compound verbs are also formed by adverbs or the stems of nouns
used adverbially prefixed to the roots kri, to make, and Vu, to
become ; but these scarcely occur except as passive participles. The
compound verbs, formed with prepositions, are of more frequent
occurrence than simple verbs ; and a very small proportion of San-
skrit roots are in common use at all as verbs. Those that are so
appear in a multitude of different forms with one or two or even three
prepositions prefixed, the remainder being used principally in the
formations of nouns. In the compound verbs the augment and the
reduplication are inserted between the preposition and the root.1
From roots compounded with prepositions nouns also are formed
in great abundance.2
41. Now with regard to all these compounds, the question arises,
whether thought spreads through the components retaining the earlier
ones while the succeeding ones are being thought, or only mingles
each with that which follows, as it passes from one to the other,
leaving the preceding element when it has passed to the succeeding ?
That the latter is the nature of the mental action appears plainly
from the account of those compounds which has been given above. For
the compound members of a sentence show only a higher degree of
that mutual approximation of parts which takes place throughout the
sentence, and in which the mind passes from part to part, almost
mingling them as it passes. And that the compound verbs are loose
and open in their structure, with little mingling of their parts, appears
from their insertion between these of the augment and reduplication.
42. There is no indefinite article in classical Sanskrit.3 The
definite article is not unfrequently expressed by the pronoun sa.4
The verb agrees with the nominative case in number and person ;
the adjective participle or adjective pronoun with the substantive in
gender, number, and case, the relative with the antecedent in gender,
number, and person.4
The copula is very often omitted.4
The verb is usually, though not always, placed last in the sentence.4
Nothing is more common in Sanskrit syntax than for the verb to
be omitted altogether or supplied from the context.6
Causal verbs, with two objects, govern both in the accusative.6
The genitive in Sanskrit is constantly used for the dative, loca-
tive, or even accusative. It is more especially used for the dative,
so that almost all verbs may take a genitive as well as dative of the
object to which anything is imparted.7 The aim or ultimate object
of the action is here thought as its motive or origin.
"The prevalence of a passive construction is the most remarkable
feature in the syntax of this language. Passive verbs are joined with
the agent, instrument, or cause in the instrumental case, and agree
with the object in number and person."8 The passive participle
usually takes the place of the past tenses of the passive verb.8
1 Williams, p. 292-297. 2 Ibid. p. 292. » Ibid. p. 298.
4 Ibid. p. '299. » Ibid. p. 308. e Ibid. p. 310.
7 Ibid. p. 312. « Ibid. p. 314.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. 129
The Sanskrit infinitive is used like the Latin supine.1
The distinction of tenses has evidently diminished in Sanskrit since
the various tense formations came into existence. Bopp says that
the past tenses and also the future are used so indifferently that he
distinguishes them not by their meaning but merely by their form.2
Williams says that the reduplicated preterite or perfect is said to
express a past of some definite period, but may also be used as an
aorist.3 The thought of completion might pass into the former use
as defining the point from which to measure the past up to the
present.
Participles in Sanskrit often discharge the functions of the tenses,
constantly of the past and future.4
The sparing use made in Sanskrit of relative pronouns, conjunctions,
and connective particles is compensated by the use of the gerunds, by
means of which the sense of a clause may be suspended, and sentence
after sentence strung together without the aid of a single copulative.
Some of the chief peculiarities of Sanskrit syntax are to be traced to
the frequency of their occurrence.5
43. Examples, of which 1-13 are a story from the Hitopadex'a : 6
be 3d sing. gen. sage gen. penance grove loc.
(1.) As • ti Gautama • sya mun • es tapo • van -e Mahd'tapd
by name sage
ndma munih, (there) is in the penance-grove of the sage Gautama
a sage named Mahatapas ; tapovane is a compound of the stem tapas
and vana, whose locative is tapovane ; as blends into o before the soft
consonant v ; ndma is an adverb ; -fc is the visarga or breathing to
he instr. hermitage
which s is reduced at the end of a sentence. (2.) Te • na a\ramaf
neighbourhood loc. mouse young crow mouth abl. fall past part, see
sanniddn • e musika^dvakah kdka'inuk'a ' d b'ras • to dris'
past part.
tah, by him in the neighbourhood of the hermitage a young of a
mouse fallen from the beak of a crow was seen ; the two a's coalesce in
tend^ramasannid'dne; sannid'dnam is a com pound noun formed with
-na (3), from sam with, ni down, d'd put ; b'rasto is nominative singular
masculine past participle of Vra% to fall, -as changed to -5 (2) :
dris tah for dristas, -s changed to the breathing visarga at the end
then compassion joined instr. that instr. sage instr.
of a sentence (2). (3.) Tato dayd • yuk't'ena tena muni-nd
wild rice grain iustr. pi. rear past part.
nivdra'kan ' aih san'vard'd'i ' tah, then by that sage, touched with
this neg.
compassion, with grains of wild rice (it was) reared. (4.) Tad ' an'
interval accus. mouse accus. eat infin. after run pres. part, cat nom. sing, sage
antar ' d musikd k'dd'i'tum anu'd'dv • an viddlo muni'
instr. see past part.
nd dris ' tah, soon after this a cat was seen by the sage running
the accus. mouse accus.
after the mouse to eat it ; viddlo for viddlas. (5.) Td musikd
1 Williams, p. 315. 2 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 428.
1 Williams, p. 102. * Ibid. p. 319. 8 Ibid. p. 321.
8 Ibid. p. 328.
130 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SANSKRIT. [SECT. VI.
afraid accus. to see ger. devotion efficacy abl. the instr. sage mouse nom.
b'ltam a" lok' ya tapah-pra • &dv 'at te • na muni'nd musiko
strong super, uom. cat made
bal'isfo viddlo kritak, on perceiving the mouse afraid, from
the efficacy of devotion by the sage, the mouse was made a very
the cat nom. dog abl.
strong cat ; dlok compound verbal stem. (6.) Sa vidalah kukkur • ad
fear 3d sing, then dog made dog gen. tiger abl. great
bib'e ' ti, tato kukkurah kritah, kukkura ' sya vya.gr ' an maJiad
fear that neg. interval accus. it tiger nom. made
b'aya tad • an • antar ' a sa vydg'rah kpitah, the cat fears the dog,
then (it was) made a dog ; the dog has great fear of the tiger, then
immediately it was made a tiger ; vidalah s becomes the breathing
before k (2) ; kukkurdd for kukkurdt before b (2) ; bib'eti third singular
present of b'l third conjugation, vyag'rdn for vyagrdt • before m.
now tiger accus. even mouse not difference regard 3d sing.
(7.) At* a vydg'ra • m api musika • nir • vix'esd pax' ' ya ' ti .,
sage
munih, now the sage regards even the tiger no different from mouse ;
musikanirvixesd is a compound of the stem musika, and nirvix'esa,
which is compounded of nis without, and vixesa difference, which is
a nominal stem from vi apart, and x'is distinguish, the whole com-
pound being an adjective accusative masculine agreeing with vydgram,
or an adverbial accusative neuter ; pay^yati is third singular present
then all pi. there stand person pi. the
of pax' fourth conjugation. (8). Atah sarve ta'tra'&t'd g'and • s id
tiger accus. see ger. say 3d pi.
vydgr • d dris'fwd vad'anti, then all the persons residing there on
seeing the tiger say ; atas an adverb formed from a by the termina-
tion -tas with, from ; tatra adverb of place from ta ; st'ds drops * of
this instr. sage instr. mouse this tiger- hood
the plural by 2. (9.) Anena muni'nd musiko yd vyagra'td
bring past part.
nl ' ta'1, by this sage this mouse is brought to the condition of a
tiger ; yd is for ay am (2) ; vydg'ratd is a derivative like purusatd
this hear ger. the tiger uneasy think 3d sing, imperf.
(3). (10.) etak' k'lru'twd sa vydg'rah savyat'o k'intayat, on
hearing this the tiger uneasy thought ; etak is for etat (2), neuter
of esas ; sas vydgras savyat'as ak'intayat changed according to 2 ;
savyaf is compounded of sa with, and vyat* troubled; k'int is of
as long this instr. sage instr. live so long
tenth conjugation. (11.) Ydvad antma muni'nd g'lvi'tavya tdvad
this 1st pers. gen. self form story neut. disgrace 'making not flee fut.
idd mama viva 'rup ' dk'ydnam a'klrti ' kard na paldy ' i'sya'
3d sing. Ann.
tc, as long as (it is) to be lived by this sage, so long this
disgraceful original-form-story of me will not pass away ; g'lvitavya
(37) ; dlcyanam is from d to, and klya speak ; klrti means glory,
thus with to look ger. sage kill infin. with up take
aklrti disgrace. (12.) Iti sam 'd ' luk • ya muni han ' tu sain 'ud ' ya'
paat part.
tdh, on thus reflecting he was taken up with killing the sage.
saga nom. he gen. do desid. part, know ger. again mouse become
(13.) Muni ' s ta'sya k'i/drsitd g'n'd'twd punar musiko b'ava
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ZEND. 131
thus say ger. mouse indeed make past part. ,
ity uk'twa musika eva kri ' tah, the sage on knowing his
intention on saying thus become mouse again, mouse it was made
indeed ; k'ikirsitam is the accusative singular past passive participle
of the desiderative of kri to do ; b'ava is second singular imperative
us instr. one stand
of Ifu; uktwais gerund of vale say. (14.) Asmd ' b'ir eka'tra st'i'
pass. 3d sing, imper.
ya • ta, let it be stood by us in one place, for let us stand in
misery instr. go
one place ; ekatra adverb of place from eka.1 (15.) Duhk'ena gam'
pass. 3d sing.
ya • te, he is gone to by misery ; the passive construction is a
favourite idiom.1
44. The prevalence of the construction with the past passive
participle is a striking and important feature in the above examples,
and the use of the passive voice in the last two. There is a remark-
able weakness of organisation in 13, in which the subject munis
seems to have nothing which he realises subjectively.
45. One of the most distinctive features in Sanskrit is the great use
which is made of Guna and Vriddhi. This cannot be explained on
merely euphonic principles, but must express elements of thought
taken up by the root in its various applications to the objects of
thought (3, 15, 16, 24, 26-34, 36, 37). It is, as has been observed,
an approach to the characteristic formation of the Syro-Arabian
languages, though very distinct from that formation (15). And it
corresponds exactly with the approximation of the Indian to the
Syro-Arabian in respect of the readiness of excitability of his mental
action. For while the Indo-European races have this quality in a
higher degree than the Syro-Arabian, the Indian is one of those
which have it less than others of the Indo-European family (chap, i.,
Part I., sect. VI.) In him thought spreads on the radical element so
as to take in along with it some of the elements associated with it in
the object of thought which it is employed to denote. And though
this is to be seen in Latin and Greek also, it, prevails much less in
these languages which are spoken by races of quicker excitability ;
the tendency to take in a large object in the single act of thought
being proportional to the slowness of the mental action in this family,
as in every other.
ZEND.
46. The Zend, as the language is now called in which the Zend-
avesta or sacred writings of the Parsees were written, is believed
to have been the ancient language of Bactria, and to have pre-
vailed along the northern part of the tableland of Iran or Persia.2
It has very close affinity to Sanskrit, but more to the old Sanskrit
of the Vedas than to the classical Sanskrit of later times.3 It is
extant only in the two dialects in which the scanty fragments of the
1 Williams, p. 315. 2 Geiger, Handbuch der Awesta-Sprache, sect. 3.
8 Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, &c., of the Parsees, p. 117.
132 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ZEND. [SECT. vi.
Parsee scripture are written. The more ancient of these is called the
Gatha dialect, because the most important pieces preserved in this
idiom are the Gathas or songs ; the younger, in which most of the
books of the Zendavesta are written, is the classical Zend language,
which was for many centuries the spoken and written language of
Bactria. The Bactrian language seems to have been dying out in the
third century before Christ, and to have left no daughter language
behind it.1
47. The vowels were more developed in Zend than in Sanskrit.
In the Zend alphabet there are four characters for the vowel e, two
short and two long,2 but the original pronunciation of the vowels can
only be guessed.3 The e which corresponded to Sanskrit 2 was probably
broader than the other e ; for writers often confound the latter with
i, which circumstance seems to hint at its close affinity to that sound.3
And probably these vowels may be ?, e, e, e. There are also a, a, a, t,
I, u, u, o, o; and diphthongs formed of a or a before i, ^t, or o ; also
eu, e.i, ou, oi, oi, ui, ui. There is also a character oe, which, in the
middle of words, according to Haug, may be a diphthong ; but in the
beginning of words de and ao are thought by him to be a corrupt mode
of writing taken from the Semitic initial Elif.4 For the Zend texts
are handed down to us, not in their original characters, but in a later
form of writing which arose very likely shortly after the commence-
ment of the Christian era, when Syriac literature began to spread in
Persia, and which is read from right to left.6 In Bopp's opinion aS
was equivalent to Sanskrit ?,6 in which case it might be written |.
According to Geiger, the Guna of i or 1 is ae or oi, that of u or u is ao
or eu, the Vriddhi of i or I is di, that of u or u is duj
the consonants are : q, k, Jc, g, g\ k', g't t, 0, d, §, p, f, b, h, y, x',
s, s, z, z, u, w, r, n, n.
There is great doubt as to the true utterance of many of the Zend
consonants. There is a peculiar character used for final t, and for t
initial before consonants, but its utterance is not known. The
character which corresponds etymologjcally to Sanskit \' is said to
have been uttered as ss ; 8 and there are two characters for n which
seem to have differed only in strength and definiteness of utterance,*
and two for «., of which one had an affinity for a and the other for i
and e, as if the latter was more palatal, and the former more guttural.10
48. The words are separate in Zend, so that the phonetic changes
take place only within a word.11
Zend is more tolerant than Sanskrit of concurrent vowels, retaining
each its natural utterance.12
Before final m the vowels i and u are lengthened.13
If i, I, e, e, or y, follow a dental, a labial, n, «, or especially r, i is
generally inserted before that consonant ; and if u, u, or v follow it, u
is apt to be inserted before it.14
1 Haug, pp. 42, 43. 2 Geiger, sect. 6. 8 Haug, p. 53.
4 Ibid. p. 54. » Ibid. p. 53.
8 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 33. 7 Geiger, sect. 14. 8 Haug, p. 56.
9 Bopp, Vergl. Grain., sect. 60. 10 Ibid. sect. 62. u Geiger, p. 8.
12 Ibid. sect. 23. 13 Ibid. sect. 27. u Ibid. sect. 28.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ZEND. 133
Before an initial r an i or u may be introduced by this influence of
the above vowels respectively following it.1
Before final m or n, a constantly becomes e, often also in the middle
of a word before m, n, nt, or r.2
After y or a palatal, a often becomes z.3 Final yam, vam, become
im, urn*
After the a- vowels s becomes h,5 after the other vowels s.6
Concurrences of consonants are lightened by dropping consonants,
especially r, y, and v ; by changing y and v to i and u ; by aspiration
and softening ; by insertion of e.7
Before t, guttural post-palatal and palatal letters become Jc, dentals
become x'> labials become p, \' s an(i z become s.s
Before n and m tenues and medials are aspirated, and z becomes %'.g
Before y and r tenues and medials are aspirated ; before y, h often
becomes q ; before rp, rk, h is inserted.10
Before s the mutes are aspirated, and if medial lose their sonancy ;
before final s dentals become s and sibilants s.11
Final a and I are shortened, -ya is apt to become -e, -bya often
becomes -ve or -we, and -byo becomes -vyo.12
The original endings -as and -as have become in Zend -anh and -aonh,
except before the enclitics -k'a and -k'id, and before enclitics beginning
with a dental, before which latter e is inserted ; -anh and -aonh are apt
to become -o and -ao.13
In the Gatha dialect $ is often used for a, d, a, or o ; and o for a
and a / the softening of consonant concurrences is extended ; v is little
used, and often b instead of it.14
49. There are three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter.
Nominal stems are formed in -a, -i, and -u ; in -an to express the
agent, -ana the neuter abstract, -dni feminine of masculine in -a, -anh
(nominative -o or -are) neuter abstract, -at, -ant (feminine -i) adjec-
tives, -in substantives and adjectives, -ka substantives, -ma, -man
abstract and concrete nouns, -na, -nu substantives, -ra adjectives, -6a
abstract nouns, -tu (mostly masculine) concrete and abstract nouns,
-tar (nominative ta) doer, -dra (dro masculine, Orem neuter), -tat femi-
nine abstract, -ya adjectives expressing affection with the root, -vat,
mat adjectives of having; the root also being subject to Guna or
Vriddhi.15
50. The case endings are similar to those of Sanskrit, but with all
stems the ablative singular -at is distingxiished from the genitive ; 16
the vowel of the accusative is reduced compared with Sanskrit, -em for
am, am for dm; the vocative singular is the bare stem when this
ends in a vowel except those in -au, which, like those in a consonant,
form the vocative like the nominative;17 the nominative accusative
dual is -a instead of -au or e ; the ablative and genitive dual are -do and
the locative dual -yo, in which d and y seem to be case and o number,
1 Geiger, sect. 29. * Ibid. sect. 31. 3 Ibid. sect. 32.
4 Ibid. sect. 33. B Ibid. sect. 34. 6 Ibid. sect. 35.
7 Ibid. sect. 38. 8 Ibid. sect. 41. 9 Ibid. sect. 43.
10 Ibid. sect. 44. n Ibid. sect. 45. 12 Ibid, sects. 46-48.
13 Ibid. sect. 49. 14 Ibid. sect. 168. 15 Haug, p. 86-89.
16 Ibid. p. 93. 17 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 205.
134 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ZEND. [SECT. VL
The ablative dual maintains itself better than in Sanskrit, in which it
is merged in the general idea of dual proximity, -Vyam. The locative
plural ends in -ra more usually than in -u, i.e., in -sva or -hv a rather
than in -su.
The nominative plural of masculine a- stems ends in -aoiiho, which
corresponds to the Vedic -asas ; l that of neuter a- stems adds nothing
to the stem.
51. The degrees of comparison of adjectives and the pronouns cor-
respond to those of Sanskrit.2 The former, tara, tema, are attached
to the nominative ending ; 8 i.e., have 8 originally before them.
52. The verb in Zend differs notably from the Sanskrit verb in
having, l>esides the potential, another ideal mood, which may be called
subjunctive, though not always used subjunctively. It is formed
from the conjugational stem, and also sometimes from the perfect and
the aorist,4 by inserting a before the person ending ; and with the con-
jugational stem it may take the person endings of the present or those
of the imperfect5 The difference seems to be that in the former the
subject is thought as the present subject of the probability, and in the
latter as the probable or ideal subject of the probable event. The
ideal or uncertain nature of the event denoted by a seems to be
thought as what is protracted or postponed, because possibly never to
be realised. Yet it seems, at least with the present persons and the
conjugational stem, to express what is expected, for it is the usual
expression of the future, the future tense in its proper formation
being little used.5 With the imperfect person of third singular it is
chiefly used in an imperative sense.6
The potential also in Zend is used in the perfect and aorist* Its
formation as well as that of the precative is similar to Sanskrit. The
precative is often used as an hypothetical, and occasionally in a strictly
potential sense.
53. The ten conjugational stems are to be found in Zend as in
Sanskrit, and are used not only in the present, imperfect, and
imperative, but also in the present potential and present subjunctive,
of which moods in most verbs no other tense is extant.7
Moreover, the affection of the verbal stem described in 16 is in
Zend as in Sanskrit7
54. There are also similar formations of derived verbs, passive,
causal, denominative, desiderative, and intensive. In the intensive
the whole root is generally repeated in Zend, but in the older Gatha
dialect there is generally only reduplication of the first syllable with
Guna of its vowel. The passive is sometimes expressed by the
middle.8
55. The person endings are as follows : 9
1 Hang, p. 93-104. 2 Ibid. pp. 89, 106-110. 3 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., Beet. 291.
4 Geiger, sect. 107. B Hang, p. 64. 6 Ibid. p. 65.
7 Ibid. pp. 73, 74. 8 Ibid. p. 60-62. 9 Ibid. p. 72 ; Geiger, sect. 112.
SECT. VI.]
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ZEND.
135
ACTIVE.
Present
Singular.
Dual.
—— — ^
123
vahi ... to, 65
^
1
mahi
Plural.
— — -*v. _
2
60, dam *
— V
3
nti
1 2
mi hi
3
ti
Imperfect
em s, 5
t
va ... tern
ma
to
n, a
Imperative
a, dni di, §i
a
tu
dma
to
ittu
Singular.
s*- — .
2
nhe
-»^
3
te
MIDDLE.
Dual.
Plural.
• •»
3
nte
1 2 3
0106
1
2
0wem
nha
to
oi#e
J maiQi
\ mafi
> 0JCCOT
?i to
nuha
• tarn.
dmaiffe
* £ecem
nto"m
Present
Imperfect .
Imperative
Those marked * belong to the Gatha dialect.
The imperfect is augmented with a-, but the augment is often
omitted.1
The potential middle second singular person ending is sa, owing to
the influence of i. The potential active second dual is tern.
The person endings of the reduplicated perfect are :
ACTIVE.
Singular. PluraL
123
a 6a a
123
ma 6a us
MIDDLE.
Singular. Dual.
123 3
e sa e aite
Plural.
3
are, ere '
The reduplication is as in Sanskrit, except that the vowel is often
long ; sometimes it is dropped, and the vowel of the root lengthened
for compensation.3
56. The aorist formations occur in the Gatha dialect oftener than
in Zend, in which the s- formations are very scarce.4
The two future formations of Sanskrit are to) be met with in Zend
in a few instances only. Now and then we find the sa- formation of
the aorist used with the present persons for a future, of course with-
out the augment. The present of bu to be, has a future significance ;
and even its imperfect in a shortened form, compounded with a parti-
ciple, as perex'emno bica, I shall be asking.5
57. The participles are similar to the Sanskrit.6
The infinitive mood is expressed in various ways. In the Gatha
dialect, as in the Vedic language, it ends in 6ydi, dydi, and aiihe (ase),
1 Haug, p. 77.
4 Ibid. p. 79.
- Ibid. p. 78.
5 Ibid. p. 82.
3 Ibid. p. 78, 81.
6 Ibid. pp. 83, 84.
136 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: GREEK. [SECT. vi.
which in their true nature are datives. In the usual Zend the dative
of abstract nouns in -ti or -no, is used for it.1
The gerunds of Sanskrit are not in Zend. But there is a declin-
able verbal adjective in -yaz (37).
58. The prepositions are, as to their position, used very freely. If
compounded with a verb they may be separated from it ; often they
are put twice, without the verb and with it. They can be placed
before or after the noun, and are generally between the noun and an
adjective or participle agreeing with it. They govern various cases,
as in Greek and Latin.3
59. Composition seems to have been carried little, if at all, farther
than in Greek, and to form words rather than syntactical combina-
tions. The copulative or Dwandwa compounds are of comparatively
rare occurrence. None of the compounds apparently have more than
two components, and these are sometimes connected by o.4
GREEK.
60. The Greek and Latin languages, being familiar to every scholar,
no account will here be given of their structure, beyond what may be
suggested by comparison with Sanskrit and Zend.
The Greek phonesis differs from the Sanskrit in being more vocal,
and in showing more activity and more muscular tension in the
organs of speech in the mouth.
The first of these differences appears in the greater development of
vowels in Greek than in Sanskrit, and in the smaller development of
consonants. For the greater attention to the vowels in Greek, and to
the consonants in Sanskrit, led to discriminations in the use of these
respectively in each language which did not exist in the other.
Thus for Sanskrit a we find in Greek a, t, or o ; for Sanskrit a, we
find a, >j, or w ; for Sanskrit e we find a/, t/, or o/ ; for Sanskrit di we
find a, ?), or w; for Sanskrit o we find au, tu, or ou ; for Sanskrit du
we find an or TJU ; i and u correspond in both.5
On the other hand, Sanskrit distinguishes palatal consonants from
post-palatals, and cerebrals or ante-palatals from dentals, while Greek
makes neither of these distinctions. The preference of the vowel
in Greek sometimes causes an initial s, followed by a vowel, to be 6
weakened to a spiritus asper, and s between vowels to be dropped ;
and often a vowel is prefixed or inserted to give more vowel sound in
the formation of the word,7 while the semi-vowels y and w are apt to
be vocalised or absorbed into vowels.8
The tendency to vowel utterance so encroached on semi-vowel
utterance, that as a habit of speech this was lost, and y and wy when
not vocalised, were cither changed into other consonants or dropped.
1 Hang, p. 85. - Ibid. p. 86. 3 Ibid. p. 113.
4 Ibid. pp. 90, 91 ; Geigcr, Hect. 165. 6 Curtius, Gr. Etym., p. 394.
« Ibid. pp. 394, 414. 7 Ibid. p. 709-721. 8 Ibid. pp. 550-565, 591-597.
SECT, vi.] GEAMMATICAL SKETCHES : GREEK. 137
For their change into vowels in those places where there was less
tendency to utter them as consonants caused them to become con-
sonants in those places where that tendency was greater, because they
lost the associations of the softer utterance. The degree in which
the semi-vowels would be hardened in such places would depend on
the general hardness or softness of consonant utterance in the lan-
guage (97, 101).
The activity of the organs of speech in Greek is contrasted with
the indolent utterance of Sanskrit in the definiteness and distinctness
of enunciation in the former, and their versatility of action appears
in their dispensing with so many of those euphonic changes which in
the latter help to slur over the transitions of utterance and diminish
the changes of action for which the organs are not ready. Such com-
binations as xr, <!?r in the beginning of a Avord show great readiness
of change of utterance. And it was probably owing to greater force
and tension of the organs of the mouth in the utterance that the
tenues took the place of the tenuis aspirates, and that the surd aspi-
rates ^, d, and </> took the place of the medial aspirates g, d\ V.
The euphonic changes in the initials and finals of words in Sanskrit
are increased by another cause which strongly distinguishes Sanskrit
speech from Greek, the degree in which the words are run each ono
into the following. For if Sanskrit is remarkable amongst languages
for this peculiar feature, Greek is equally remarkable for the distinct-
ness with which the words are separated from each other. This is
plainly indicated by the spiritus lenis ; for its notation in writing
shows that it must have been distinctly felt in speech as the beginning
of the utterance of an initial vowel. And the accent, when it was on
the last syllable, fell, to mark the end of the word, and distinguish it
from the next word. When no word followed immediately the accent
did not fall.
61. The laws of euphonic change in Greek are as follows. A
tenuis, a medial, or an aspirate can be immediately preceded in a
word by no other mute than a tenuis, a medial, or an aspirate respec-
tively, probably because the vocal tendency of Greek speech led to a
simplification of the mute concurrence by partial assimilation ; x> #»
and (f>, though latterly they became spirants, are in their origin aspi-
rates,1 and are usually called so, and will be called so here.
Aspirates do not begin successive syllables, probably because their
repetition would offend the Greek definiteness of utterance ; and to
avoid this the first generally becomes tenuis.
No mute except T and x can immediately precede <r.
M changes a preceding labial to #, a post-palatal to 7, a dental to ff.
N becomes labial (,a) before a labial, post-palatal (7) before a post-
palatal, is assimilated before X, p, e, and is generally dropped before
ff and £.
E between two liquids sometimes becomes a medial.
62. Greek has masculine nouns in -a; and -»j?, as well as those in
-o;, which latter correspond to the masculine a- stems of Sanskrit, and
they are all similarly declined, being related to Sanskrit (4) as follows.
1 Curtius, Gr. Etym., p. 416-418.
VOL. II. K
138 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : GREEK. [SECT. vi.
Their genitive singular -ou is contracted from -do = -a(ff/)o, -tea =
-jj(ff/)o, -o/o = o(ff)/o, = Sans. -asya. Dative singular -q, = di(a) -$ =
-?j/(a) -w = -&»(a) = Sans. -aya. Accusative singular -v = Sans. -m.
Nominative accusative dual -a = at, -w = oe, t = Zend a (50). Geni-
tive dative dual -cuv = -a(<£)/(a)i> = Sans, ab'ydm, -o/v = o(<£)i(a)y, n =
7tt, the Greek genitive in the dual being the same as the dative.
Nominative plural -a/ = ai(tf), -01 = c/(ej) (9). Genitive plural -uv =
-auv = a(ff)w», -uv = o(ff)wv (13). Dative plural -a/; = aiai = a(</>)/ov(t>),
<£/<j/> = b'yasam, from which Sans, b'yas, -015 = oisi = o(^>)iffi(v) (12).
Accusative plural -a; = a(»)g, -ou; = on; (143). The difference between
the nouns in -as and those in »jj is confined to the singular.
There are some old locatives in -o/ = Sans, e, as o/xo/, at home.
The nominative and accusative singular of the neuter o- stem takes
the quiescent nasal, and -on = Sans. -am. In the plural the final
vowel of the stem is heavier, being expressive of an aggregate (14) ;
and -a represents Sans. -dni.
Greek has feminine nouns in a, as well as in »j, and in -d after f or
a vowel. Their genitive -»j; = (<*i)rit, *)( = ('J')lf, -«C = (di)d(, = Sans.
-dyds. Dative -p = (ai)f), -fj = («j')?7> •? = ("')'?» = Sans. dyai. Accusative
-a*, -)j>, -dv = Sans. -am. Dual and plural the same as the preceding.
The remaining nouns have genitive -of = Sans, as, dative -/ = Sans. e
reduced by loss of a, i.e. (a)/ ; accusative -a or -v = Sans, -am, curtailed
of m in the former. Nominative accusative dual -t = Zend -a (50).
Genitive dative dual -oiv= Sans, -dtfyam ; nominative plural -tc = Sans.
-as; genitive plural -iav = Sans, -dm; dative plural -ei, -tasi (t being
inserted after a consonant) = <£/ov(»), Sans, b'yasam (12) ; such forms
as nx.\j-s<tffi would suggest an original ab'yasam (111) ; accusative
plural -a; = Sans. -as. The nominative, accusative singular of neuters
is the stem ; in the plural a is added to the stem to make it heavier
as an aggregate.
Stems not neuter which end in a consonant generally distinguish
the nominative singular either by taking 5 or by lengthening the
vowel of the last syllable. Stems ending in e drop it before the
case endings. The vocative singular of Greek nouns is generally the
bare stem, except that of neuters, in -OK, and of steins ending in a
consonant which is not allowed at the end of a word, both which form
the vocative like the nominative.
63. Adjectives whose stem in the masculine and neuter ends in a,
generally make the feminine stem end in -»j or -a. Those in ->r and -t/,
and /titXac and ra/.a», make it end in -/a, whose / tends to precede a
final consonant of the stem, or to be absorbed in the conversion of
dentals to sibilants. Stems which end in a consonant, before which
the vowel is lengthened in the nominative, masculine, and feminine,
have no feminine form. Others have no feminine form, being com-
pounds or derivatives which are less simple in idea, and consequently
less capable of a strong sense of the noun. The endings of the degrees
of comparison -IM, -HSTO; - Sans, -iijans -isfa, -iffrieof, -taTa.ro; = iyastara
iyaxtata (82).
64. The first personal pronoun as subject is lyu, ^w> = Sans. aham.
The second is ai>, ri>, rwr) — Sans, twain. The objective stem of the
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: GREEK. 139
former in the singular is [it, fio, — Sans, ma, of the latter ae, rs, ao,
Sans, tioa, the 10 being dropped ; and fit, as, being themselves objective,
need no case ending for the accusative. The first person also prefixes
E to fi, according to Greek habit, perhaps to make the beginning of
the word more distinct (60).
The Epic genitive of the second person, no7o, is remarkable, for it
shows the stem as no, s for w ; but nov — rtuo = r«o-(ff)/o, and the form
nous — Tio'(a)iog, gives the full ending -si/as (9). The datives sfi?v, ntv,
are also remarkable as preserving the nasal of Vyam.
The stem of the dual is »« = Sans, nau, and a<f>u, in which <£ comes
from v ; their old cases were tut, v£/n, a<f)ui, a^iv.
The stems of the plural correspond to those of the oblique cases in
Sanskrit, the nominative having an ending of the masculine a- stems (9).
65. The ten conjugational stems of the verb (15) are to be found in
Greek. Bopp gives the following as examples of them: (1.) XSIKU,
fauyu ; but in these the Guna is not limited to the present and
imperfect ; 2 and 3 almost confined to roots ending in a vowel, eifu,
i8rttii, bibtafii; (4.) /SaXXw (/3aX?/w), <7a'XX«, a'XXo//,a/,
A/Wo/za/, /3u£w, /3Xi/£w, /3»/'£w, ff%/£w; (5.) rlvtv/M, Zetw/ni,
*rf«Swu/w, m&wvfu ; (6.) yX/jftftcu • (7 and 9.) Xa,«,/3ai<w,
Tavw, fj.at6a.tca, the first nasal belonging to the seventh conjugation,
and the second to the ninth transposed; (8.) rdw^ai, ciwfju, y<iwfLa.i;
(9.) tidfivriiLi, KiP>rifj.i ; (10.) -a^w, -aw, -tu, -ou ; J but some of these are
only denominative. There are also stems in -<rxw, r^daxu, (3i(3gumu,
yiyvusxu. Some verbs also in Greek strengthen the root with r in the
present and imperfect, as TU-TTTW, rix.ru.
With regard to their inflection, the Greek verbs are divided into
those in u and those in [it. To the former belong all verbs which in
forming their stem add to the root t, or a syllable ending in e, which
before a nasal generally becomes o, and corresponds to Sanskrit a. To
the latter belong all other verbs.2
66. The affection of the verb described in 16, so far as it concerns
verbs of the third conjugation in Sanskrit, may be traced in the present
and imperfect of verbs in /£/, which have a long vowel before the persons
in the singular, but not in the dual and plural. This, however, is not
to be observed in the imperative, which in Greek is probably thought
more in the accomplishment and less in the subject than in Sanskrit.
The vowel which corresponds to Sanskrit a before the person
endings is not lengthened as in Sanskrit before the first person, as
if there was not the same sense of the subjectivity of self above that
of other persons. And there seems to be a tendency in the subjective
affection of the person to be absorbed into the verb, and the person
to be less fully thought than in Sanskrit. Hence there is less
distinction than in Sanskrit between the person endings of the
present and those of the past. The final / expressing present engage-
ment of the persons is to be found in the singular of the present in
verbs in -fit, except in the second person, whose element sufficiently
expresses the person as subject, whereas p is the objective element of
1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 109a. 2 Ibid. sect. 494.
140 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : GREEK, [SECT. vi.
the first person, and the third person is objective in its nature, and both
of them therefore need / more than the second. But in verbs in -u
the vowel preceding the person which, like Sanskrit a, expresses the
process of being or doing, takes up in the singular the engagement
of the person, and well nigh absorbs the person in its own subjectivity.
In Doric the second singular, both present and past, of verbs in -/*/,
and verbs in -u, is apt to end in <ri)a, a stronger expression of it, a and
6 both denoting the second person (67).
In the first person dual and plural, and second and third dual in
Sanskrit, the sense of present engagement makes the individuals to be
so fully thought that in the present they are denoted by s in vas, mas ;
but without the sense of present engagement the predominant con-
sciousness of self so prevails in the first dual and plural that in the
imperfect potential and imperative the associated individuals are not
distinguished (va ma). In Greek there is neither the same predomi-
nant sense of self nor the same sense in the person of the present
engagement, and though the natural distinction of self from the
associated individuals maintained the e originally in the first plural
of all the tenses, as in Doric, yet the plurality came to be expressed
with less sense of the individuals by c as massed together, and was
expressed alike in the present and the past. In the other persons
of the present and imperfect the differences between Greek and
Sanskrit are merely euphonic.
67. The Greek optative, which corresponds to the Sanskrit potential
(18), agrees with the imperfect in its person endings, except in the
first singular in verbs in -u, which expresses more sense of the engage-
ment of self than in the imperfect.
In verbs in -pi, the third plural, both in the imperfect and the
optative, is fuller than in verbs in -u, expressing the person by a, as
well as the plurality by av, probably because these verbs, having less
sense of the process of subjective realisation in their stem, have the
thought of the subject thrown more on the person. In the imperative
also the third person which, in the singular, is -ru, corresponding to
Sanskrit -hi, and in the dual -ruv, is in the plural either -vrwv, which
adds to the Sanskrit -ntu a final n of combination, or -ruactv • which
seems to indicate the strength with which the command is thought,
first as applied to the individual, and then pluralised by the addition
of a third person plural. In verbs in -pi, as in the corresponding
Sanskrit verbs, the second singular imperative is -61 ; for where there
is no vowel annexed to the root or stem to express process of what is
realised, there tends to be more stress thrown on the person, so that
it requires a stronger form.
68. The person endings of the perfect correspond to those of the
present in the dual and plural, to those of the past in the singular ;
but the nasal of the first singular is vocalised and absorbed by the a
of the tense element. The persons are thought with more distinctness
in the singular than in the dual or plural, and their want of present
engagement is more strongly noted. In the dual and plural the sense
of present accomplishment is sufficient to cause the persons to be
thought as in the present.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: GREEK. 141
69. In the middle and passive, as in the active, the first person has
less affinity for a in Greek than in Sanskrit (17) ; and therefore its
consonant /* is not vocalised. The present engagement of the person
is expressed by -a/, as by Sanskrit -e ; but this is not, as in Sanskrit,
carried through the dual and the plural. It gives place in the dual
to v, which expresses a sense of combination, and in the plural to a
or f, which gives an element of extension, except in the third person,
which, by reason of its objective nature, needs, as in the active, to be
animated with present engagement, and therefore takes -on ; and this
in the past is changed to -o.
It is only in the third person that the dual and plural endings of
the present differ from those of the past ; the third dual of the past
ending in -jjf, as in the active voice. But in the singular the first
person is expanded into a double expression -A^", a thought of the
first person (v) as quiescent -W being substituted for the present
engagement -a/. In the second and third singular as in the third
plural, the / is dropped and the endings are -f(o)o, -STO.
In the first person dual and plural, present and past, the associated
individuals are denoted by 0, a relaxed utterance of s, and which
corresponds here to h in Sanskrit and Zend. But in the second
and third dual and second plural, and also in the imperative in the
third singular and plural, ad is an expression of the person element,
expanded and relaxed by the abiding and quiescent nature of the
middle or passive ; which, however, is abridged in the perfect when
the root ends in a consonant, by dropping <s and the vowel which
precedes it.
70. The first aorist corresponds to the fourth formation of the
Sanskrit aorist (27) ; and the second aorist to the sixth formation.
Reduplication seems to be lighter in Greek than in Sanskrit ; it
does not take the vowel of the root.
The perfect takes an element which is doubtless akin to ffa, of the
first aorist, and which seems to be ;^a, becoming xa. after a vowel,
and dropping x after a consonant, the consonant having been,
aspirated. When the root ends in a dental, the dental is dropped,
and xa is taken. When the root ends in a mute, it is apt, especially
if a monosyllable, to change a radical s to o.
The pluperfect in Doric ends in -e/a, in which the / is probably a
vocalisation of a, the past element added to the perfect being -<J«.
In the ordinary form the a is dropped, and ea becomes si before the
person endings, as l<s becomes st in ii,u,i.
The future corresponds to the Sanskrit future in -sya-, y being
dropped, and it takes the present person endings.
There is another future formed from the root by adding to the
vowel which precedes the person endings (52), so that in the first
singular u becomes &J, and in the other persons o becomes oD, and
s becomes ei".
A second perfect also and pluperfect are formed from the root, or
from the present stem, dropping from the tense element the x or the
aspiration. When the root ends in a consonant, and is a mono-
syllable containing £, t is changed to o in the second perfect, to a
142 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : GREEK. [SECT. vi.
generally in second aorist ; sometimes a short radical vowel is
lengthened in the second perfect.
These secondary tenses, the second aorist, second future, and
second perfect and pluperfect, are a remarkable feature in Greek.
They are mostly formed from the root, whereas the first aorist and
first future may be formed from the root, strengthened with Guna.
The secondary tenses also add to the root weaker elements than those
which belong to the corresponding primary tenses. Few verbs, how-
ever, have both formations. Verbs whose stem ends in a vowel, form,
with very few exceptions, only the primary tenses. No verb has all
the tenses.
71. Verbal stems ending in a consonant subjoin immediately the
element of the primary tenses. The final consonant of the stem, if a
dental, is dropped. If it be a liquid it relaxes the ff of first future
and first aorist, so that this is vocalised, and in the future absorbed
into the vowels which follow it (52), but in the first aorist into the
vowel of the stem either as / or as a lengthening.
Verbal stems ending in a short vowel are apt to lengthen it before
the subjoined element of the primary tenses. This seems to take
place when the vowel expresses a verbal element of thought added to
the root, as when a expresses an external application of what the
root denotes, as in n[j.du; e the subjective possession of it, as in
(f>i7.'sui ; o the causation or making of it, as dtxaiou. In such cases
the element expressed by the vowel is in a great degree absorbed by
the root, and the addition of another verbal element, as set, &c., in
combining with it strengthens the thought of it and draws it out.
When, however, the final vowel of the verbal stem is radical, or has
no meaning additional to the root, it is not lengthened. And when
the verbal stem has a syllable ending in a consonant added to the
root, as -a£w, then it takes up the tense element as a stem ending in a
consonant takes it.
72. Greek, like Zend, has, besides the optative or Sanskrit potential,
the subjunctive formed as in Zend (52), except that it never takes the
imperfect person endings. It expresses the aim or end of a present
or future fact or a probable supposition ; the optative the aim of a
past fact or a less probable supposition.
The optative in verbs in -pi is strictly similar to the potential of the
corresponding verbs in Sanskrit. The first aorist optative in ^Eolic
took the / between a and a, and lengthened it to si. For Greek is
distinguished above all languages by its sense of tense and of mood,
the latter especially appearing in the extent to which the contingent
and ideal are thought as well as the actual in the various positions in
time in reference to the standpoint of the speaker, so that all the
tenses have the optative, and all but the future tenses have the sub-
junctive and imperative. A future expectation or command is thought
from the future standpoint as present, while an expectation or com-
mand of what is future is itself present.
Zend and Vedic Sanskrit approach Greek in their sense of the
mood of the tense.
73. The full form of the infinitive is -fwui, the dative of a verbal
SECT, vij GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : GREEK. 143
noun (57) in -/utv, which by its nasals expresses the going on of the
verbal succession, thought as a noun. The nasal part of the form has
a strong affinity for those stems which have an element of process
corresponding to Sanskrit a of the first conjugation ; and their infini-
tive ended in ~t,usv, from which afterwards p was dropped, and the
ending became nv.
Other stems held by the latter part -vat in their infinitives, the v
being vocalised and dropped after the strong a of the first aorist, but
retained after the weaker a of the perfect, which becomes t.
In the middle and passive the verbal noun whose dative is the
infinitive ends in -e&, which is a relaxed utterance of the issuing of
fact into realisation (27), expressive of the relaxation or quiescence of
the middle or passive.
The infinitive, though properly a dative, may be abstracted from
being governed, and being thought as an aim may be used in any case,
even as a nominative. In such use it may be accompanied by the
noun in which as a verb it would be realised as its subject ; but not
being a verb realised in a subject it is thought externally to the noun
as an aim attributed to it. Thought passes from the infinitive to the
noun with a sense of attribution to it, so that the noun is thought as
an object ; and being thought abstractly as an object to which,
without further particularising the relation, the noun is thought as an
accusative, and is expressed in that case ; so that the construction
is an accusative depending on the infinitive (230).
74. There is a remarkable difference between the Greek passive
and the Sanskrit passive. The latter is distinguished from the
middle only in the present parts of the verb, the former only in the
other parts. It is to be observed, however, that in the non-con-
jugational parts the passive is expressed in Sanskrit by the participle
and verb substantive (30), and therefore more as a completed effect
than it is expressed in Greek. This must also be the significance of
the passive element in Sanskrit in the conjugational parts. So that
the passive is thought throughout more as an effect in Sanskrit than
in Greek.
In the perfect the sense of effect generally needs no other expres-
sion than the reduplicated root with the middle or passive persons of
the present. But in the aorist and the future an element expressive
of the passive is subjoined to the root. This in the first aorist and
first future is -0??-, sometimes -adq-, and in the second aorist and second
future -TJ-, the relaxed consonant and long vowel expressing the pas-
sivity of the being. In the perfect sometimes, especially Avhen the
stem ends in a vowel, there is a trace of the passive element in the
addition of a to the root. In the future the person is thought with
present engagement as expecting it, but not in the aorists, and accord-
ingly in them they lose the middle or passive form, and are the same
as if they were the past persons of a neuter verb.
The Greek thinking the passive in the effect and yet as a per-
sonal verb, developed a future perfect, which is not in the active or
middle.
75. The Greek participles are similar to the Sanskrit.
144 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: GREEK. JSECT. vi.
76. To the Sanskrit causative formation of verbs (31) correspond
some of those in -«£&>, -/£w, -a/xw. To the intensive formation (33) corre-
spond, according to Bopp, rw0a£o>, Ta/cdXXw, da/ddXXw, &c. ; the latter,
instead of lengthening a, add i.1 There are also formations from the
perfect, as rttfujjxw, xsxXjjyw. Frequentatives also are formed in -«£&/,
-/£«, -u£w, as g/Trd£«, a/V/'£w, eeirv^u.
Desideratives, like dfaas/u} are formed from roots, as Sanskrit desi-
deratives in -sya from the stems of nouns.
To the Sanskrit denominatives (34) correspond crod/£«, axovr/'^w,
yu»a/x/£w, oco/id^w, psXahu (jttfXay/w), &c. ; 2 also with desiderative
meaning tfjvarTjy/aw, (fee. And there is another denominative forma-
tion -sue*, not in Sanskrit, ToX/retiw, 'iciTgivu, &c.
77. The following examples of the derivation of nominal stems in
Greek, though not arranged as those of Sanskrit in 3, may readily be
compared with them. The stem, when not given by dropping -j or -r,
is in parenthesis.
Nominal stems derived from verbs or roots.
Substantives denoting the agent : c-o/iwoj, TPofrl;, agwyoj (a.orjyu) ;
xei-rr,(, O/XSTJJJ, TO/JJTJJJ ; ffwr^o; eqrup (-off) • /Vrgoj ; ypa<£'£i){; OPuQo'
6rty-a.i bird-hunter ; ra/i-/«s ; rs/jjea^'jjj ; iiow't. Feminine agent,
a-JX^Va/; (-rg'^), auX^To/a flute-girl; ffw'reisa. Adjectives active,
I/TOCITO; suspecting; xaAocr'roj covering; crro'otf (-a3) spitting ; <f>oe-a(
bearing.
Substantives denoting the action : irofaaif, Svala, ca/5s-/a, </>tfogd,
ro/i'Tj, XWXUTO; ; the state, o3tij>6; weeping, xXau'^'/ioj, tf a verbal
element, -roY'/to;, ^0-^5, ay^o'nj strangling ; the activity, d-jva-fii:, <£»jj--
/u<j, ^>^>»j, y»ci>»j, fj,tfi'fj,Ti, 7»a,u,7ij} ; the instrument or means, O.POTPOV,
XUTPOV, £^rrX?j handle; the thing done, •xzayij.a. (-/u.ar) iro/jj'^aa; the
abstract act, >.oyo;, ^ct* •/?•-, gX«r-/3- ; passive object, /SiXr/tw, xe^-6f
/^>o> ; abstract defined by the root, xoaro; (-ef).
Adjectives neuter and passive, Xo/fl"i;, ixX/T-^c (-1;) failing, <£/Xjj'rij
loved, <^/X7jT|o; (-ref/o;, Sanskrit -tavya (37), to be loved), ew*l>$
(ff£/3vo;), ffruyvoj, 5£/-X6; timid, ff/^Tj'Xo; silent, (ua'eos impure, /ttv^>w»
(-/*<») mindful, cr/d'coo; persuasive.
Nominal stems derived from nominal stems.
Patronymics masculine, Kgov/Bj?;, 'ArXan-/a3»j{, Keor'/wr, 'Axj/tfr
wwa^Tj;, 'Ia«r«T-/on'3»j; ; feminine, NJJCJ;?; (-/3), ' Adfaer-i'trj, A.x?iaru>ri,
xwidw; young of dog.
Diminutives of substantives, -/Vxo;, -/ffxj;, -ISKIOV, -la- ; -/'o», -/'3/o»,
-uaiov, -uXX/oi/, -u</)/o», -aff/ov, -a/o», -uXo;, -'%"'j, -'/^"O". Amplificatives,
-cov, -ai Feminines, tfra/»a-, fiaaiX'iaaa. Locals, -w», -jwv, av3^&;i',
man's apartment, «-fg/ffr«j'i«i)r dove-cot.
Substantives from adjectives, aofia, aX^<)r/a, ca^JTTjr-,
Adjectives from substantives, dsyus'io;, 6u?dv/oj,
jre'to/o;, at/6»(air'no(, ctv^wT'/xo;, ct^'/vif, cxon'Mo
1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 753. J Ibid, sects. 763, 769.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: GREEK. 145
•7o'<r/>o; drinkable, a/^oi/v/Acuoj by strangling • dapff-aXio; courageous,
iTq-aioz yearly ; fojao-ff/cs, fuptfiuAt tall, Ksvxe'daMs keen, adqg'/nKi
ffidrio-7n; (-id) of iron, xous'/fl/os, (j.oi9-!dio$ fftrpy-iis stony, anfio'iig windy,
(-F eW, Sanskrit -vaw£, 35) ; Gentile, -ij, -/oj, -ff/oj, -xij, -i»if, -r^ ; from
prepositions, xiffraabs, 'inraffog, percfffaos ; from adjectives, qdvpog,
Kjj<5u/£oj, vEO'xoro;, aXXo'xoroj, Mjff/'a^o?, ^ora^o:, floras (-«3).
78. There is great facility of composition in Greek, but there is
nothing like those coalitions of words forming a member of a sentence
which are so frequent in Sanskrit. The Greek compounds are words
forming part of the vocabulary of the language, and they consist of
two components. The Sanskrit compounds arise from the prevailing
interest of the whole fact, which combines the members ; the Greek
from the interest of the members leading to a fulness in conceiving them.
The verbs compound only with prepositions ; and the combination
is so loose that the augment generally intervenes. This shows that
in thinking them the mind passes from one component to the other,
instead of spreading into the second without leaving the first
In the Greek compounds, there is usually a connective element
between the two components. If the first component be verbal, the
connective element is ffi, iff, fffi, ffo, t, o, or /, unless the second begins
with a vowel, for then the connective is absorbed or reduced to
a; if the first component be nominal the connective element is o
or / subjoined to its root, or the formative element of the nominal
stem acts as a connective. The former connectives are abstract verbal
elements, the latter pronominal. The lengthening of an initial vowel
of a nominal stem after an adverb compounded with it is probably
expressive of a verbal element of thought which is too light to produce
a distinct vowel.
79. The acute accent in Greek may affect either a long or short
vowel, including under that term a diphthong, the circumflex only a
vowel long by nature. The former cannot go farther back than the
antepenult, nor the circumflex than the penult ; but the last syllable
generally counts for two in reference to an acute accent, if it be in
itself long by the nature of its vowel, or by its ending in concurrent
consonants, and in reference to a circumflex if it be long by the nature
of its vowel. The inflections at the end of words are strongly thought
so as to suggest strong volitions of utterance, and if a syllable be long
it requires a stronger volition, and in proportion to the strength of
the volition of utterance of a syllable it tends to draw towards it that
point in the word where the sense of volition of utterance of the word
is a maximum (Def. 27).
In applying the above rule, a/ and ct at the end of a word are not
considered long except in the third singular optative ; doubtless in
consequence of a comparative lightness in the element of thought
which they express.
But the accents do not always go back as far as they might. Thus
in the participles of the second aorist active, of the first and second aorist
passive, and of the perfect active, the strength of significance of the
participial syllable compared with the preceding syllables attracts the
accent. And in general the accent is drawn towards the end, either
146 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : LATIN. [SECT. vi.
by the strength of the end, or by the beginning being weak because it
does not involve a sufficient sense of the whole word owing to deficient
unity in the word.
If the penultimate be long by nature and have the accent, it is the
circumflex, but a long ultimate may have either accent ; perhaps the
accent is stronger, because there is more sense of the entire word in
the former than in the latter.
LATIK
80. Latin is less vocal than Greek, though it has a similar develop-
ment of vowels, whose correspondences to the Sanskrit vowels are
much the same as those of the Greek. Diphthongs are less frequent
in Latin than Greek.1 And there is not the same tendency to prefix
and insert vowels, or to absorb consonants into vowels ; but, on the con-
trary, the vowels are apt to be reduced when a word is increased by
composition or reduplication, as dbjicio conculco cecini, which close the
radical a to i or u. Mute consonants also, which are never at the end
of a Greek word, are frequent as finals in Latin ; and particles, pre-
positions, and inflections are apt to drop a final 'vowel or shorten a
long vowel before a final consonant.2
There, is less muscular tension, more softness of utterance, in Latin
than in Greek ; h is softer than %t to which as an initial it corresponds,
and m than /t* or v, for in final or h initial does not save the last vowel
of a word from elision in verse ; r often represents an original s ; and
the want of 6 and £, which are uttered with more compression than
h, f, or v, seems to indicate less muscular tension than in Greek.
There is also less versatility or ready change of utterance. The
following concurrences in the beginning of a word, which are all in
Greek, are unknown in Latin — bd, dr except in foreign words, dn, tl,
mn, pn, pi, tm, kt, km, sm, kn except in Cneus, and the mixed con-
sonants x and ps. Still more remarkable are the restrictions within
a word, for there the utterance of concurrent consonants is facilitated
by the division of syllables ; yet within an uncompounded word many
of the concurrences which might be regarded as the easiest, consisting
of a mute and a liquid, are almost unknown. Thus dr seems to occur
within such a word only in quadrans, dodrans, and the derivatives of
quadr-, as quadrus, quadraginta, &c. ; fjl seldom or never except in
foreign words ; cl perhaps only in Codes, and such poetic forms as
poclum, saednm ; Id only in valde for valide, and caldus for calidus ;
bl only in Publius Pullilitts ; en, pn, dm, dn, tm, tn, tl, not at all. It
is strangely in contrast with these restrictions, that in the end of a word
Latin has greater freedom in the use of consonants and of consonant
concurrence than any of the ancient languages akin to it, as amat,
amant, arx, fanx, nfc, ws mon#.3
Now, in the beginning or middle of a word utterance is stronger
1 In the proportion of one to six, according to Foretemann, in Kuhn's Zeitschrift,
i. p. 171.
' Benary, ibid. i. p. 52. ' Benary, ibid. i. p. 51.
SECT. VI.]
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: LATIN.
147
than at the end, and therefore the transitions of utterance require
more versatility because the changes of action are greater. A mute
followed by another consonant needs prompt change of action,
because it is a momentary utterance ; but r was lightly uttered, and
consequently required less new action ; inn in the beginning and Id
required quick change of utterance to make the transition distinct
between two consonants so like to each other, so that the above
restrictions of concurrent consonants in the beginning and middle
of words seem to be the effect of deficient versatility in the organs
of speech. In the end of a word the force of utterance declines, and
there consonants may concur without requiring such versatility, because
utterance is weaker and less distinct. Their concurrence, however,
shows a more versatile utterance than Sanskrit, a less vocal, more
consonantal speech than Greek.
Latin uses surd spirants for the medial aspirates of Sanskrit, but
within a word a medial is apt to be used instead of the spirant by
reason of the sonancy of the word, and the tendency to soft utterance.
Being less vocal than Greek, and softer in its consonant utterance
(60), Latin is more tolerant of the semi-vowels y, v, and w, as abiete,
when pronounced abi/ete, tenuis Avhen pronounced tenwis ; qu is gw.
It is probably owing to greater force of breath from the chest that
Latin often has q or c where Greek has v. In such words there
originally stood qw, and as Greek gave up the w, the guttural needed
more breath from the chest to utter it (see V. 75) than belonged to
Greek speech, for it was not k, but q. The pronunciation consequently
passed from the throat, and w tended towards its labial closure, and
the q became p. In Latin, on the other hand, the guttural remained
even when the w was given up.
81. The case endings of the Latin noun, compared with the older
forms, are as follow :
Stem
ending.
= Sans. a.
= Sans, a fern.
Consonant.
i, M.
'Nom.
U'S, S. a'S,
a, (i)e's
s, o, r
8
er, r = ras
S3
Accus.
u'm, S. a'm
a-m, e'm, S. dm
em, S. am
m, S. 7?i
>4
Neut.
u'm, S. a'm
—
—
*-> i
o \
Gen.
i, S. (as)y(a), i
a'e, e'l, S. dy(ds)
is, S. as
«, S. as
a
long for com-
02
pensation
Dat.
o, S. d(ya)
a'e, e'l, S. dy(di)
J, S. e
I, S. e
\Abl.
6. S. d(t)
a, e, old d(t)
e
l,U
Nom.
I, old (a)y(as) (9)
a'e, es, S. as
es, S. as
cs, us, S. as
Accus.
os, old a'ms
as, es, old dms
es, S. as
es, us, S. n mas-
j
4fl
culine, » femi-
* J
nine
» 1
f3
Neut.
a, S. d(ni)
a
a
fi
Gen.
drum, old dsam
drum,erum, old dsam
um, S. dm
um, S. am
Dat.
Is, S. (eb')y(a)s
is, ebits, S. db'yas
ibus, S. b'yas
bus, S. b'yas
Abl.
Is, S. (eb)y(a}s
is, ebus, S. ab'yas
ibus, S. b'yas bus, S. b'yas
148 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : LATIN. [SECT. vi.
The vocative singular is like the nominative except when this ends
in -us, the vocative being then the bare stem, whose final vowel has
enough life except for deus.
The Sanskrit vocative takes up an element of life more than the
Greek, the Latin more than either.
The Oscan ablative singular in all the declensions ended in d 1 (50).
Stems in i are apt to follow the analogy of consonant stems, and
make the accusative singular in em instead of im ; less frequently
they form the ablative singular in e instead of i. Many of them
have lost the i as neuters in e, ar, al, some of which originally
belonged to adjectives in -is, -ris, -lis: Adjectives whose stem has
not -i, but ends in a consonant, show a tendency to follow the
analogy of those which have -i in consequence of its prevalence in
adjective stems. Thus adjectives in -ans and -ens when used as adjec-
tives form the ablative in i, but when used as substantives or as par-
ticiples prefer -e.2 They always take * before the case ending in the
genitive plural, and in the nominative accusative plural neuter.
Substantives whose stems end in two consonants tend also to take
i, perhaps because they originally took it in the nominative singular
to sound *, as mons, monts, originally mentis. Of the stems in u, all
but a dozen follow the stems in i and in consonants, and make the
dative and ablative plural in -ibus instead of -ubus.
The demonstrative pronouns and the adjectives unus, totus, solus,
ullus, nullus, liter, neuter, alter, alius, form the genitive singular in -ius,
and dative in -i for all genders. These have less sense of their sub-
stantive than is possessed by adjectives in general ; for they are either
of a singling or a pronominal nature, and do not involve a comparison
of their substantive with others of the same name (Def. 6) so as to
emphasise the thought of it in distinction from them, but rather direct
attention to it alone (Def. 7). Hence the genitive and dative endings
overpower the final vowel of the stem corresponding to Sanskrit a,
which expresses the sense of substance (8) ; and the former has the
fuller form corresponding to an older yas (9). The nominative and
accusative endings are lighter, and consequently tend less to curtail
the stem (14), and the old ablative being formed with d preserved
the final vowel because it needed it for a connective.
82. The endings of the degrees of comparison of adjectives in the
Indo-European languages have a strong affinity with the endings of
the ordinal numbers, and these illustrate the significance of the former.
In Sanskrit, dtci'fiya second, and iri'tlya third, are thought with a
sense of increase like the comparative degree lyans, but k'aturta, fourth,
singles out more specially, because from a larger number, the last
individual reckoned, denoting it with a demonstrative element ta.
In panka'ma, fifth, there is a stronger sense of five as a combined
aggregate, and the individual that completes the aggregate is denoted
by ma (13). The strong aggregation of five diminishes that of six, so
that sasft'a, sixth, goes back to the demonstrative ending, but the
higher numbers take ma. Now these ordinal endings ta and ma
1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 181. 2 Zuinpt's Latin Gram., p. 53.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: LATIN. 149
belong also to the superlative endings, and in that use express a
similar idea, denoting the individual which completes the process of
increase. The process of increase itself, originally, it would appear,
expressed by lyans (9), may denote the comparative degree as in
Sanskrit, whence -icuv, Latin ior ; but it expresses this more distinctly
Avith an addition iyas'tara, whence Sanskrit -tara, Zend -stara, and
Greek -tangos, -iariio;, -uingog (penultimate of positive being generally
short), -reeo;. And when this element iyds or iyas'tar, or dropping ?•,
iyasta, takes, like a cardinal number, the ordinal endings ta and ma,
it gives for superlative endings iyas'ta or iyas'ta'ma, whence Sanskrit
-isfa, -tama, Zend -sterna, Greek -sararo;, -israros, -urarog, -rarof, Latin
-essimus, -simus, -timus.
The Latin comparative makes its neuter -ius like Sanskrit -lyas. _,
83. The personal pronouns correspond generally to Sanskrit.
Nominative . . ego, Sans, aham tu, S. twam
Genitive . . . mei, ma(s)y(d) tui, twa(s)y(a)
Dative . . . mihi, S. mahy(am) tibi, S. tub' yam
Accusative . . me, S. ma te, S. twd
Ablative . . . me, S. mat te, S. twat
Nominative . . nos, nas vos, vas
Genitive . . . nos'trum, S. nas ves'trum, S. vas
Dative .... no'bis, S. nas vo'bis, S. vas
Accusative . . nos, S. nas vos, S. vas
Ablative . . . ncrbis vo'bis
The genitive plural, nostrum, vestrum, involves a genitive element tr,
akin to -tris, &c., the formative of adjectives, and the urn of the
genitive plural (13).
The demonstrative hi, which is analogous to the relative qui, is
strengthened with c, an abbreviation of ce.
The neuter is expressed by d, analogous to Sanskrit, which, how-
ever, affects the root ; but in hie the d is displaced by c.
84. The conjugational element in the Latin verb differs from the
conjugational element of the Sanskrit verb in being less limited to
the present, and in being thought with less fulness of particularity.
It is the process of accomplishment rather than that of the being or
doing of the subject that it expresses, for it belongs to the parts in
which accomplishment is not complete, the future, the infinitive, and
the gerund, as well as to the present and imperfect ; whereas the
perfect tenses and the nominal formations in -t- which think the
accomplishment in its totality have not properly the conjugational
element. This being the nature of that element, it is brought out
less strongly by the present experience of the subject. In most verbs
of the first conjugation the a has become part of the stem so as not
only to pervade the verb, but also to be carried into the derived
nouns, but in a dozen verbs like sono, sonui, sonitum, the a is confined
to the parts of incomplete accomplishment. The second conjugation,
which corresponds to Sanskrit fourth, retains enough conjugational
movement in the perfect tenses and the t formations to form both
150 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : LATIN. [SECT. vi.
with an initial vowel, as -ui, itum, &c., except five which make -turn.
The third conjugation, which corresponds to Sanskrit second, has
enough movement for the short vowel in the present and infinitive,
but forms the perfect tenses and the t formations on the root. The
fourth conjugation carries the i throughout the verb, like the Sanskrit
causatives and tenth conjugation, and into the derived nouns ; but in
about a dozen verbs, which correspond probably to the Sanskrit fourth
conjugation, the i is confined to the parts of incompletion, the other
parts being formed on the root. To these correspond some twenty
seven verbs of the second conjugation, which form the latter parts in
the same way. The verbs in -io of the third conjugation, like capio,
quatio, seem to be formed with a short i changeable to e, whereas the
i of the fourth conjugation is long, except before vowels or final t,
and corresponds to Sanskrit ya.
The inchoative element -sc- is by its meaning limited to the parts
of incomplete accomplishment ; and n in cemo, &c., is limited in the
same way.
85. The person endings are the same throughout the active voice
except the first singular, which in the present and in the tenses which
have its person endings is vocalised to o, and in the perfect is absorbed
in the tense element, the second singular, which in the perfect is ti
(87), and the persons of the imperative, in which -to = Sans, -tu, -te =
Sans, -ta, -tote = -to pluralised by -te.
In the passive and deponent verbs the person endings subjoin r,
which is thought by Bopp l to be a reflexive element, and which must
have a significance of that kind expressing a sense of the person as
quiescent. The second singular transposes s and r, and has another
form -re, which probably corresponds to Sanskrit -se.
86. The imperfect and the future are formed with a verbal element
b, which has probably a significance akin to V in Sanskrit VH, Greek
<}>'Ju (56). It is determined to the past by a past form bam, and
to the future by a present form bo. In the past it takes a long vowel
before it which expresses like, an augment, the remotion of the past.
In the third and fourth conjugations, in which there is less sense of
process of accomplishment, the third having scarcely any conjuga-
tional element, and the i of the fourth belonging rather to the stem,
the future accomplishment gets a weaker expression, like that which
is given to the future by the Zend subjunctive (52). In this form
the long vowel expresses the remotion of the future. But a stronger
expression is given to the remotion of what is merely ideal in the
present potential by a, which in the second, third, and fourth conju-
gations is like Sanskrit ytl, whereas e in the first is like Sanskrit e.
87. The formative clement of the perfect has three forms, sis, vis or
uis, and is. In the pluperfect and future perfect indicative, and in
the perfect potential, the i of this element becomes e, and the s
becomes r, but in the pluperfect potential both are preserved. After
a vowel vis is used ; and in the second conjugation the conjugational
vowel enters into v, and vocalises it to «, but when the e is radical it
1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 47C.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : LATIN. 151
remains, and is followed by v. When the stem takes up into itself a
sense of the tense, and expresses it either by reduplication or by
lengthening its vowel, the tense element is weakenedjand reduced to
-is, as in Sanskrit it is reduced when the stem takes up the past (27).
This element with the person endings would be, -sism, -sisis, -sisit or
-sist, -sismus, -sislis, -sisunt ; but Latin was not favourable to s, and
after the first s the second was readily given up or changed. In the
first person m was dropped, as > was dropped in the Greek first aorist,
and s was vocalised, so that it became si ; in the second person also
the final s was vocalised, so that the ending became sisl, and it com-
pensated for the person from the analogy of the second plural by
inserting t, so that it became -sistl ; in the third singular and first
plural the second s was dropped ; and in the third plural the tense
element was Gunated, the second s becoming r between the vowels,
because the third person plural is so heavy and objective that the
perfect takes up a sense of extension in being affected with it. The
use of sis and vis being determined by euphonic causes, these elements
seem to be convertible into each other by contact with consonant or
vowel, as if they were different utterances of the same word. Yet it
is not into v, but into r, that s turns in Latin when it is relaxed by
contact with vowels. Also sis, as significant of the past, seems to
be of the nature of a reduplication (27). Could it have been originally
svis, abbreviated from a doubled root svisvi ? One may often observe
in Sanskrit a series of roots slightly differing from each other and
expressing the same idea. And it is a fact which perhaps has not
been sufficiently noted by philologists, as it seems often to render
probable the supposition of other roots, originally existing in the
primitive language, akin to those which are still found, and from
which words may have sprung, which cannot be deduced from the
latter consistently with phonetic laws. Such a series is su, sit, sus,
X'us, all meaning to bring forth or produce, and akin to these is x'vi to
swell, whence x'^Xu offspring (see also 117). There is no root svi
like x'vi ; but there is u/'oV, and a nominative plural uT-s?, which is
usually derived from su, by supposing i to be a suffix ; and there is
Jvif son or daughter, and Norse sveinn boy, which are derived from the
same root, but this is done by making l\n<; consist of nothing but
suffix (sv)'in'i's ; x and it seems much more probable that these words
came from a root svi. Such a root doubled might be used to express
production completed, what has been accomplished ; and in the
inevitable abbreviation of such a formation, svisvi would lose its last
syllable, so far as this was not necessary for retaining reduplication,
and become svis. This might furnish both sis and vis, the former as
a reduplication syllable coming from a doubled root, and the latter
produced by a preceding vowel relaxing and weakening s (159).
88. The verbal element s, which is in the first aorist in Greek, is
to be observed in Latin also similarly used, but changed into r
between vowels. Thus in amares, -res = -aai$, and in amavisses, -ses =
-acti;. In the infinitives amare, amavisse, the last syllable = the Vedic
1 Curtius, Gr. Etym., pp. 397, 398.
152 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : LATIN. [SECT. vi.
-se, the last syllable of the dative l of a stem ending in s (57). In
amasso, the old form of the future perfect, contracted from amavisso,
so is equivalent to au of the Greek future ; amaveram adds to the perfect
the a of the past, and amaverim the i = Sanskrit ya of the potential.
In the passive second plural the participle in -mdnas Sanskrit,
-fj,svo$ Greek, is preserved in the plural, and is moreover formed on
the stems of the present and imperfect of both moods and of the
future indicative.
The infinitive passive ended originally in -rier — -reer, the reflexive
element subjoined to the infinitive active.2
The present and past participles correspond to Sanskrit.
The supines are the accusative and ablative of the verbal noun in
tu (29) ; whence also comes the participle -turns, r expressing the
development of the future. In -ndus the n expresses a going on as
of incompletion, as in nt of the present participle, but d expresses less
force than t, being a relaxation of the tenuis (74).
The normal order in Greek and Latin was subject, conditions,
object, verb, but with freedom of change.3
89. Derivative verbs are formed like the following :
Frequentative, clam'ito, cur'so, dic'to, cur's'ito, dic't'ito.
Desiderative, emp'tu'rio, partu'rio (34).
Diminutive, sorb'ill'are, conscrib'ill'are.
Inchoative, lab'a'sco, pall'e'sco, mgem'i'sco, obdorm'i'sco, puera'sco,
matur'e'sco.
Denominative, flweo, numer'o, alb'eo, aemul'ari, graec'ari, dar'igo,
navigo, mit'igo, molril'ito, latro'dnor.
Derivative nouns are formed like the following :
Agent, vic'tor, vic'trix, aleaior, lud'or, conviva, err'o, lud'io,
navi'ta.
Action or state, pavor, furor, capi'o, mot'io, ac'tio, mo'tus, ac'tus,
cul'tura, querela.
Also the following : gall'ina, reg'ina ; pect'en, flu'men, vela'men,
reflu'a'men, alb'icmen ; vela'mentum, offer "u"mentum,fac'i'nor-, i'ti'ner- ;
vena'bulum, turi'bulum, vehi'culum, cing'ulum, indifcula, sepul-cntm,
ventila'brum, candela'brum, illece^bra, aralrum, mulc'tra, col'um
strainer; esxa, pos-ca ; pat r' onus ; ru-ina ; effig'ies ; gaud'ium ;
or'igo, conflu'ges ; ciqrido, lib'ido ; puer'ulus, fiU'ohis, line'ola, fratei"
culus, ram'usculus, ran'unculus, hom'unculus, hom'uncio, oc'ellus,
lib'ellus, sig' ilium, leg'uleyus ; front'o, lab'eo ; collegium, consortium/
repos'itorium, promp'tu-arium, gran'arium ; querc'etum ; bovile,
sed'ile ; sencc'tus ; consul'atus, exsul'atus, pedit'atus ; client' ela ;
cupid'itas, anxretas ; audac'ia, pauper'ies ; sancti'tudo; sanctvmonia;
patri'monium ; just'itia, dur'itics ; pingu'edo,
Derivative adjectives : crra'bundus, ira'cnndus, rot'undus, cal'idus;
noc'uus ; ege'nux ; fertns, fertile; mord'icus, cad'ucus, hi'ulcus ;
ama'bilis, doc'ilis, fertilis ; pugn'ax, aud-ax ; integ'er, sat'ur ; tac'
itarnus, bib'idus, cred'ulus ; super vac' aneus, succid'cineus.
1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 854. 2 Ibid. sect. 855.
3 Kiihner, Gr. Gram., sect. 348 ; Zumpt, Latin Gram., p. 528.
SECT. VI.] . GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. 153
From substantives: ferr'eus, aur'eus, ebur'nus, eburneus ; civicus,
bell'icus ; civilis, host'ilis, vir'ilis, aqua'tilis ; chart'aceus, papyr'
aceus ; tribun-icius ; let-alts lect'u'aUs ; consulfaris ; nat'al'icius ; medi"
ocris ; muli'ebris, fun -ebris ; camp-estris ; hon-estus ; dom-esticus ;
int-estinus ; ama'torius ; regains; honor 'us ; imbell-is ; can'inus ;
cedrlnus; osti'arius, mol'end'arius ; aquosus; mont'anus; mont'ani'osus ;
fraud'ulentus ; vot'ivus ; hes'ternus, ae'ternus, longi'turnus ; di'urmis,
noct'urnus ; fin'itimus, maritimus, leg'itimus ; awatus, turritus,
calce'atus.
From other adjectives, diminutives are formed in -ulus, -olus, -culus,
-ellus ; from names of places adjectives are formed in -ensis, -mus, -at-,
and -anus ; and from names of nations in -icus, -ius.
90. There are causative verbs formed with facio, as patefacio ; there
are no other verbs formed by composition except with prepositions.
91. The accentuation of Latin differs somewhat from that of Greek.
Words of two or more syllables never have the accent on the last
syllable ; but the accent, as in Greek, never goes farther back than the
antepenult. The accent of a monosyllable is circumflex, if the vowel
be long by nature and not merely by position. If the penult be
accented it is the circumflex that is used if the penult be naturally
long, and the last syllable be short, otherwise it is the acute. The
accentuation of antepenult requires that penult be short.1
CELTIC.
92. Celtic speech was from ancient times divided into two languages,
which may be called Irish and British. These differed from each
other more than any of the Teutonic languages, though not so much
as Lithuanian and Sclavonic.2 The Irish language includes the
Gaelic of Scotland.3 The British includes Welsh, Cornish, and
Armoric or Breton;4 and from the language of the Britons that of
the Gauls differed little, according to Tacitus.5 This probably implies
that the Gauls and Britons could understand each other,6 and all the
remains of the language of the former confirm the supposition of such
close correspondence.7
In the Celtic languages, more than in any others of the Indo-
European family, speech is vocal, and the consonant is slighted
in comparison with the vowel ; so thatjthe weakness of the consonant
and the predominance of the vowel characterise all Celtic speech.
This common character, however, is combined with a certain difference
existing between the Irish branch and the British, which has caused
the decay of the consonants to follow somewhat different laws in these
two branches.
The pronunciation of the Irish consonant betrays a tendency rather
to indolent utterance, that of the British rather to soft utterance.
The former tends to neglect to close the organs, so that the breath is
suffered to pass through ; the latter to close the organs softly and
1 Zumpt, Latin Gram., pp. 22, 23. 2 Zeuss, Gram. Celt., Preface, p. 5.
3 Ibid. p. 8. 4 Ibid. p. 9. B Agricola, sect. 11.
6 Zeuss, Preface, p. 4. 7 Ibid. p. 5-7.
VOL. II. L
154 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. [SECT. vi.
with gentle pressure of breath. The former, in uttering a consonant
after a vowel, only half performs the required act of utterance. The
latter, in uttering consonants which concurrence tends to harden,
relaxes the muscular tension in a gentler contact, which gives a sense
of softness ; while the breath is sounded in the throat rather than
pressed on the organs of the mouth.
93. The vocal character which belongs to all the Celtic languages is
to be seen in the frequency of diphthongs and of what may be called
semi-diphthongs, and in the way in which the vowel dominates over
the consonant which is in contact with it, so that the vowels on either
side of the consonant or consonants tend to affect each other with
mutual assimilation. Thus in Irish, " every consonant, whether in its
primary or aspirated state, has a broad or a slender sound, according to
the nature of the vowel which it precedes or follows. When it pre-
cedes or follows a broad vowel it has always a certain fixed broad
sound, and when it precedes or follows a slender vowel it has a fixed
small or slender sound, which will presently be described. This influ-
ence of the vowels over the consonants has given rise to a general rule
or canon of orthography which distinguishes the Irish from all the
European languages, namely, that every consonant or combination of
consonants must always stand between two broad vowels or two slender
vowels." l The broad vowels are a, o, u, the slender e and i. The
slender utterance of the consonants is that which they get by incorpo-
rating with them y immediately after them (Def. 29, 30). This makes
the post-palatals palatal and the dentals ante-palatal ; on the labials it
produces less effect.2 But if, according to the above, this effect is real,
then the above rule is not a mere rule of writing, but a law of utter-
ance ; and when it was not observed in writing, the writing was not
orthography, as it did not correctly represent the utterance,
Sometimes, in accordance with this law, a broad or slender vowel is
introduced next to the consonants, to be lightly uttered in connection
with the vowel of the syllable and to correspond with the analogous
vowel on the other side of the consonants. Sometimes it enters into
the vowel of the syllable and changes it, making it slender or broad
as the case may be.
In the southern parts of Ireland the simple vowels are apt to get a
diphthongal or semi-diphthongal utterance by virtue of the predomi-
nance of the vowel over the consonant. This happens before conso-
nants which require much breath, the vocalisation being carried on
with the initial breath of the consonants, and the vowel becoming
closer as the organs close to utter the consonants. Thus a before TO,
II, nn, or n, in monosyllabic words, and before ntt ns, in the first
syllable of disyllables, is pronounced in the southern half of Ireland
like the Gorman au or nearly like the English oto in how, and a before
V , like on in ounce ; 3 i before il and Is is pronounced, like ei (Eng. e'ee),
very slender in the south-east, but in the south-west like I (Eng. ee) ;4
o before TO, //, nn, in monosyllables, and before g or iV in the first
syllable of disyllables, is pronounced in the southern half of Ireland
1 O'Donovan, Irish Grain., p. 3. 2 Ibid. p. 28-39.
3 Ibid. p. 10. « Ibid. p. 12.
SECT, vi.] GEAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. 155
like ou in ounce.1 For the strength which final consonants have in a
monosyllable causes an increase of the breath required by the liquids
compared with what they take in other positions. Nasalised or
aspirated mutes in that position stop the breath too strongly for such
an effect, but in other positions the more breathing ones produce it.
In the other parts of Ireland the vowels retain their simple utterance.1
The above-mentioned rule of later Irish, " broad to broad, and
slender to slender," is to be found exemplified, though not regularly
observed, in the ancient Irish manuscripts. Sometimes it is the
vowel preceding the consonants which infects (as Zeuss calls it)
the vowel that follows them, and sometimes the vowel following infects
the vowel preceding. In the former case a when infected becomes ai e
or i, e becomes ea a or o, i becomes e, o becomes oi or ui, u becomes
ui. In the latter case a, becomes ea, i becomes ai, o becomes eo.z
There are also other infections not included in the above rule, that
of a to au or o- by u in the next syllable ; that of u to o by a or o in
the next syllable, and that of e to ei or i by e or i in the next syllable.
Sometimes the infecting vowel has been dropped, sometimes the cause
of the infection cannot be found. And the variability in the vowels
seems to have led to uncertainty and incorrectness in the spelling.2
The long vowels are subject to similar infections,3 and from this
cause, and also perhaps from the same cause which has occasioned the
diphthongal utterance of the vowels in the south of Ireland, the long
vowels are changed into diphthongs and triphthongs. For even
vowels, which were short in ancient Irish, have become long before
combinations of liquids or of s with other consonants.4
The vocal tendency, however, does not prevent radical vowels from
being sometimes dropped in words which have got an increase in the
end or the beginning ; and verbal inflections of more than one syllable,
and derivative elements, drop an initial vowel, unless they are preceded
by a concurrence of two liquids or two mutes, or a mute with a liquid
in the second place.5
The ancient Irish manuscripts distinguish the diphthongs from the
infected vowels by accentuating the first vowel of the former.6 The
following diphthongs occur, ai, ae, oi, oe, au, oo, oe, oi, ui, eu, eo."1
94. The infection of the British vowels is the same as that of the
Irish, and of scarcely less extent.8
The long vowels in British have undergone changes which seem to
indicate a tendency to close them.
A has not been preserved in British, but has been changed in
Welsh to au, which subsequently became aw, or when suffixes were
added, o ; in Cornish to ea, eo, eu, ey ; in Armoric to o, eu, e : e has
been preserved only in some Welsh examples ; it has been changed
in Welsh generally to oi, ui, icy ; in Cornish to ui, oi, oy ; in Armoric
to oi, oe, ui, oa: 1 remains, though sometimes changed in Welsh to
ei ; o is found only in one or two examples, having generally become
u ; and u has generally changed to t.9
1 O'Donovan, p. 13. 2 Zeuss, Gram. Celtica, p. 6-18. 3 Ibid. p. 18-32.
* Ibid. p. 32. 8 Ibid. pp. 33, 34 6 Ibid. p. 36.
7 Ibid. p. 36-42. 8 Ibid. p. 95. 9 Ibid. p. 110-118.
156 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. [SECT. vi.
British has much the same diphthongs as Irish, except that in the
second place they scarcely admit o, but have u instead.1
95. Already before the Roman times the old aspirates had generally
become medials both in Irish and British, the breath being cut off
from them, probably in that weakening of the consonants which has
been mentioned as a characteristic of Celtic speech (92). Some few
still remained ; 2 but the only aspirate preserved in Gallic was the
surd aspirate/.3
Afterwards changes came in the Celtic consonants, which, as they
were due to the elements of utterance with which they came in
contact, Zeuss has called infections.4 They differ somewhat in Irish
and British ; and even when the effect on the consonant is the same
in both, the different circumstances under which this identical effect
is produced in Irish and in British show that the action which
causes it is different in the two cases (107).
96. In old Irish, as in new, the liquids, when they stood singly
between vowels within a word or after vowels at the end of a word,
were uttered with an undecided closure of the organs, so that in
uttering m the breath passed through, and it became a close w ; the
other liquids were not aspirated, but they were pronounced lightly.5
In the end, however, of some words and suffixes n and m retain their
full pronunciation though they follow a vowel and stand by them-
selves ; which is doubtless due to some superior strength in their
original form.
There are also in Irish peculiar laws in reference to n.
Within a word n is dropped before s, f, and the tenues, and a
radical vowel preceding is lengthened, except the final n of in, and
sometimes of con in composition, or that of a root which has a suffix
beginning with one of those letters.0
The following words drop their final n before words beginning
with s, f, or a tenuis, namely: an, tire nominative and accusative
singular neuter of the article, and its genitive plural innan or nan, the
possessive pronouns of the three plural persons, viz., arn, barn, an,
the relative pronoun an, the prepositions in (in), kon (with), ren
(before), iarn (after), the conjunction aran (that), aud the numerals
7 to 10, which end in en.
The linal n of these words becomes m before b, and before the
liquids is generally assimilated to them.7
N when weakly uttered, if followed immediately by a vowel,
becomes ml ; 8 probably because the nasalisation fails, and the
breath for sounding the vowel pressing forward through the mouth,
catches the closure of n before it is opened, and d is pronounced.
Sometimes, probably because a dental surd consonant has been
dropped immediately after n, the closure is strengthened, and being
carried on beyond the nasalisation, t is pronounced before a vowel, so
that n becomes ///.
97. ( )f the spirants, the ancient Gallic language seems not to have
1 Zc-uss, ix 119-128. - Ibid. p. 46. 3 Ibid. pp. 88, 89.
4 Ibid. p. 47. B Ibid. pp. .11, 52. " Ibid. p. 52.
7 Ibid. pp. 53,54. 8 Ibid. p. 55.
SECT, vi.] GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. 157
had h as a radical,1 but it had s by itself and in x ; the x being
represented by s in Irish, by h and x in. British.2 The original h
was lost in Celtic, no doubt in the same weakening of the consonants
which destroyed the aspirates (95).
As a radical, fi is not found in Irish, but only as a breathing in the
utterance of an initial vowel,3 or the last state of an infected t (99).
Y has vanished from Irish, being absorbed into vowels ; and v or to
has disappeared from Irish, being absorbed into vowels in the middle
and end of words, and changed to / in the beginning.4 For when a
consonant is lost in its softer positions it tends to be hardened in its
harder positions, because it loses the softening associations of utter-
ance connected with the former (60, 101).
S in the middle and end of words, except when doubled or joined
with another consonant, is destroyed by the infection in ancient Irish ;
except in certain lengthened roots, and in certain formative elements.6
In the former the length of the vowel probably caused its infecting
power to become weak in the end of its utterance, and in the latter
the significance of the s, or the original form of the element, may have
given it strength to hold its ground. It must have been weakly
uttered, or it would not have perished under infection (99).
Zeuss says that sometimes s is added for euphony, as before the
article in, when it follows the truncated form of the verb substantive,
and before the article in, an, ind, naib, na, following the prepositions in,
kon, ren, iarn (which then drop ri), or the prepositions la,fri, tre.6 But
how can s be added for euphony after a consonant which has then
to be dropped for euphony ? Is it not more likely that these are forms
of the article strengthened with the Irish demonstrative element s ?
S sometimes arises from k or g,6 and this change is independent of
the adjacent vowels. It is probably a case of the general consonantal
weakening, which might specially affect the post-palatals, as the back
part of the tongue acts with least facility, and lead them to give up
the tension of the post-palatal closure ; the utterance then becoming
s, because there was no h.
The h which occurs in the modern dialects before initial vowels
after the article na, or after prepositions ending in a vowel, is merely
a breathing to distinguish the beginning of the word.
98. The medials are infected in Irish in the middle, and end of
almost all words when not doubled or combined with another con-
sonant ; the infection being that the closure of the organs is not com-
plete, and the breath passes through, so that the consonant is uttered
with an aspiration.7
In the ancient Irish manuscripts there appear also the beginnings
of another infection of the medials, which in the later language
spread more widely. These in the ancient language are nasalised
and assimilated after a nasal in the middle or end of a Avord, except
that g is written after n ; but in the modern Irish, in the beginning
also this assimilation takes place even with g after those Avords ending
in a nasal Avhich have been mentioned in 96.8
1 Zeuss, p. 57. 2 Ibid. p. 58. 3 Ibid. p. 59.
4 Ibid. pp. 60, 65-68. 5 Ibid. pp. 60, 61, 63. 6 Ibid. p. 61.
7 Ibid. p. 72. 8 Ibid. pp. 74, 76.
158 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. [SECT. vi.
99. The tenues likewise are infected with an aspiration in Irish in
the middle and end of most words when not doubled or in con-
currence with another consonant, except when n has been dropped
before them, or they have themselves arisen from the coalition of two
consonants ; sometimes, after a long vowel (97), the tenuis remains un-
infected, and always t of the second person suffixed or infixed. The
tenues, Avhen thus infected, were pronounced x> $> <£ ifl ancient
Irish, but in modern Irish and Gaelic x> ht <}>.1
Another infection is suffered by the tenues, but only in the later
Irish and Gaelic, somewhat more in the latter than in the former.
In the concurrences rp, sp, st, sk, in the middle or end of a word, and
also when standing alone after a vowel in the middle or end of a
word, the tenues become medial. Sometimes this is prevented by the
tenuis being doubled or preceded by a long vowel.2 The weakness of
« (97) affected the concurrent tenuis ; and r too was weak so as to
produce a similar effect, except when reinforced with a tenuis uttered
with the tongue. After a vowel the sonancy was carried into the
consonant, making it medial.
100. Consonants in the beginning of words also may suffer infection
from the end of a word preceding, if this be brought into contact with
them by close construction or composition. And in the ancient Celtic
manuscripts, particularly the Irish, the substantive is written in one
word with the article, with monosyllabic possessive pronouns, and
with monosyllabic prepositions, and the verb with verbal particles.3
The general rule in Irish is, that an initial consonant is infected
with an aspiration, if the preceding word, thus closely connected, end
in a vowel, or if its more ancient form did so. Often also a preceding
liquid has the same effect as a vowel, unless a vowel has been dropped
after it ; 4 probably because a liquid is so weak an utterance at the end
of a Avord, though not so weak if it be or was originally at the begin-
ning of a final syllable. This infection takes place 5 in the substantive
and the adjective after the cases of the article, which are in or n
before a consonant, ind or nd before a vowel ; in a substantive which
follows, in the genitive, a governing substantive which ends in a vowel
or a liquid ; after a numeral a pronoun or a preposition which ends
in a vowel; after forms of the verb substantive, of whatever root,
whether, as now found, they end in a vowel or a consonant ; after
active verbs, whether, as now found, they end in a vowel or a con-
sonant, the word after the verb denoting the object ; after the verbal
particles ro-, no-, ni-, nad-, but ro- and ni- are followed by b of verb
substantive, and ni- by t of second person uninfected ; 6 after copula-
tive or disjunctive particles ; and after the interjection a.
In composition the initial consonant of the second word is infected
in Irish ; if it be a substantive compounded with another substantive,
whether the latter end in a vowel or in a consonant, for there was
originally a connective o between them ; if it be a substantive, adjec-
tive, or verb compounded with an adjective ; if it be a substantive
or adjective compounded with numerals; after prepositions ending
1 Zouw, p. 77-81. 2 Ibid. pp. 87, 8«. » Ibid. p. 192.
4 Ibid. p. 196. B Ibid. p. 196-198. 6 Ibid. p. 195. '
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. 159
in vowels ; also after rem, kom, and tairm ; and after so, do-, mi-,
neb-, aith-.1
When final n has been dropped before an initial s, f, or tenuis (96),
these remain uninfected in ancient Irish ; 2 as does also initial s in the
concurrences sk, st, sp.3 But in modern Irish the initial tenuis, before
which final n has been dropped, is reduced to a medial,4 and / to v.5
101. The British liquids are not infected in the most ancient
manuscripts ; 6 but in the more recent language they are weakened
when they follow immediately another consonant in the middle or
end of a word, m becoming then u, v, or /, and suffering this infection
also after a; I, however, is not infected in iarl, a companion, nor is
m of the first person ; 7 n is dropped before s and /, and becomes m
before labials and n (ng) before post-palatals.8 The weakening of the
liquids in their softer positions seems to have hardened them in their
harder positions,9 as in Irish v was hardened to / in the beginning
of a word when it was vocalised in other places (60, 97). Hence the
peculiar II in Welsh.
102. The ancient Celtic had no h used as a radical, but only as a
breathing (97). Its s has been in some words preserved in British both
in the beginning and in the middle and end, and in other words since the
lime of the Komans changed to h, where Irish retains s.10 S, followed
by a tenuis, liquid, or ID, occurs in the ancient British in the beginning
of words, but the later Welsh prefixed always e, i, or y, which lightened
the utterance of s by making it the closure of the vowel. Often,
however, initial s is dropped before a liquid in Welsh, and initial sw
changed to hw or x^.11 Cornish and Armoric do not prefix a vowel
to initial si, sn, sp, st, sk.12
In many British words h, x, correspond to an original x.13
T has been preserved in the beginning of British words.14
In the British dialects w or v is represented by gu, gw, except in the
end of words, where it has become M.15 In later Welsh it is subject to
the regular infections of g. Ancient Armoric preserved w, but the
later language followed the same course as Welsh.16
103. The medials are not infected with aspiration in Welsh, either
old or recent. But in the older books there are the beginnings of a
weakening of the medials, b, and still more g, being liable to be
dropped after long vowels, especially in the end, g sometimes after
short vowels also.17 In old Armoric the medials were more infected
than in old Welsh, being vocalised or dropped in the middle and end
of words, especially in the end after long vowels.18 The medials in
British were subject to alteration prior to any other class of consonants.19
In later British, as well in Cornish and Armoric as in Welsh, the
medials are infected almost universally in the middle and end of
words, the infection being a weakening of the closure of the organs,
1 Zeuss, pp. 198, 199. 2 Ibid. p. 194. * Ibid. p. 195.
4 Ibid. p. 200. 5 Ibid. p. 201. 6 Ibid. p. 129.
7 Ibid. p. 133-136. 8 Ibid. p. 137. 9 Ibid. p. 130.
10 Ibid. pp. 140, 144. u Ibid. pp. 141, 142. 12 Ibid. p. 143.
13 Ibid. p. 146. u Ibid. p. 148. 15 Ibid. pp. 148, 150.
16 Ibid. p. 150-153. 17 Ibid. p. 157. 18 Ibid. p. 158.
19 Ibid. p. 155.
160 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. [SECT. vr.
and an increase of the sonancy. This was variously carried out, and
seems also to have been variously represented in writing, so that b
became /, u, v, w ; d became in Welsh dd, in Cornish th, in Armoric
z ; g became sometimes i, ?/, in the middle of a word after another
consonant, but was generally omitted, which obliteration b and d also
suffer sometimes in the middle and end of words.1
The assimilation of a medial to a preceding nasal in the middle and
end of words, whereby b was absorbed into m, and d into «, began in
the old British ; 2 g continued to be written after n ; 3 but did not ng
then represent the post-palatal nasal h ?
104. The tenues in British were infected with aspiration prior to
any other class of consonants ; 4 always in Old British in the middle
and end of words when doubled or after another tenuis ; sometimes
after s, generally after r, less generally after I (i after I either remains
t or becomes I), in only one or two instances after m or n. The double
tenuis became a single aspirate ; in the combinations of two tenues,
the first became i or e, the second was aspirated, t aspirated was some-
times written as dh. The only infection of the tenuis known to Old
British was aspiration.8
In the later British the tenues were infected with aspiration undei
the same circumstances as in Old British ; in Ik, rt, rk, more frequently
than in Ip, rp.6 Instead of th is sometimes written d (properly dh),
sometimes s or h in Welsh ; " sometimes d in Cornish, z in Armoric.8
In later British, and not previously, the tenues first in the middle,
afterwards also in the end of a word, become medials after a vowel
when not combined with another consonant ; 9 also p generally, and
k always, after s in the modern language.10
It is to be observed that this change of tenues into medials in the
middle and end of words is to be found in Latin or Romance writings
of the Continent prior to its appearance in British writings, and that
the medials which have thus arisen undergo the same infections as
other medials in the later language.11
J/jp, nt, are changed to m, n, like mb, nd, particularly in Welsh.12
In modern Welsh no original tenuis remains in the middle of a word
unless combined with another consonant.13
/', the only original British aspirate, occurs in the beginning, middle,
and end of words.14
105. Consonants in the beginning of a British word are infected
with aspiration by the end of certain words when in close construc-
tion or composition with it, according to the same rules by which
aspiration takes place in the middle and end of words.15 The words
which have this effect in construction are the numerals tri, three, and
yjw, six ; certain possessive pronouns ; the prepositions, a, which was
originally a/c, fra, originally trak or tras ; the particles, no than, origi-
nally nolc, na negative, originally nak, iiy, originally nyt. Those which
1 ZtMiss, p. 159. - Ibid. p. 167. 8 Ibid. p. 168.
4 Ibid. p. 169. B Ibid. p. 170-172. 6 Ibid. p. 179.
7 Ibid. p. 180. 8 Ibid. p. 182. 9 Ibid. pp. 183, 184.
10 Ibid. p. 184. " Ibid. p. 185. » Ibid. p. 187.
13 Ibid. p. 176. 14 Ibid. pp. 188,189 1S Ibid. p. 209.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. 161
have this effect in composition are in "Welsh the numerals tri, ~xwe ;
the prepositions a, tra ; the augumentative particle gwer, gur, gor.1
The infection whereby tenues become medials and medials are
weakened or vocalised, affects these consonants in the beginning of a
word, where they suffer the aspirating infection in Irish, namely, after
preceding words in close construction or composition, which end or
ended originally in a vowel ; liquids also have sometimes the same
effect as a final vowel.2
This infection takes place in construction after the article feminine
singular through all the cases, after a substantive in apposition, after
predicate if the verb substantive follow it, after the numeral two,
after certain pronouns, after the verb substantive in Welsh, after a
verb active, neuter, or passive sometimes in Welsh, after preposi-
tions ending in vowels, after the conjunction yn that, in Welsh, after
verbal particles, after interjections, after neu or, ny no, not, tra, as
long;3 in composition, with a preceding substantive, adjective, or
numeral, with prepositions ending in a vowel, with the reciprocal par-
ticle of verbs, with inseparable prefixed particles.4
The nasal infection of medials and tenues in British, as it occurs in
the middle and end of words in the older writings, prevails also in the
beginning of words in construction or composition, in the later manu-
scripts, more in Welsh than in the other dialects. This infection
takes place in construction after vy (myri) my, and after yn in ; in.
composition after an- negative, after the preposition ky kyn, and with
medials after seith seven, and wyth eight. The medials become m, n,
ng, the tenues mh, nh, ngh.5
106. Now of these progressive changes of the consonants, those in
which Irish and British agree are the change of tenues to medials
(99, 104), and the absorption of medials into a concurrent nasal (98,
103) ; both which have been developed only in the later language.
These are probably due to that predominance of the vowels and con-
sequent weakening of the consonants which belongs as a common
characteristic to both branches of Celtic.
107. The other changes must arise from causes which are quite
different in the one branch from what they are in the other ; for the
conditions which favour them in the one hinder them in the other.
Nor do the changes themselves seem to be quite of the same nature
in the two when they are narrowly examined. The tendency in
Irish, old as well as recent, is to utter all the consonants with an im-
perfect closure of the organs when they stand single after a vowel,
slurring over the check to the breath by the consonant, when there is
only one ; but to give the full consonant utterance when there is a
concurrence of two, the closure of the organs being then more marked
and less liable to be neglected. The tendency in British is to reduce
the tension of consonant utterance ; and it comes into play where that
tension is greatest, namely, in the concurrence of consonants. The
tension consists of the muscular closure of the organs and the pressure
of breath on them, and both are weakened in British ; the relaxation
1 Zeuss, p. 209-212. * Ibid. p. 212. 3 Ibid. p. 213-220.
* Ibid. p. 220-223. 5 Ibid. pp. 223, 224.
162 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. [SECT. vi.
of the former giving softness to the utterance, and the reduction of
the latter giving sonancy, because the vocal chords are constricted to
limit the current of breath, and they sound it as it passes. This
increased sonancy and encroachment of the voice on the consonants
distinguishes their infection in British from the aspiration which they
suffer in Irish. Thus the double tenuis in British tends to become a
medial aspirate ; the first of two concurrent tenues tends to be replaced
by a vowel ; s before a tenuis is uttered with the help of a prefixed
vowel ; the tenues tend to be absorbed into a preceding nasal ; and
medials and liquids tend to be dissolved in the vocalisation. So that
the nature of the change itself in the various elements, as well as the
circumstances in which it takes place, shows that in British it is due
rather to relaxed or soft utterance, in Irish rather to careless or indolent
utterance. The indisposition to strong utterance appears also in
British in the frequent substitution of h for s where s stands in Irish
(102). And it is probably owing to this softness of consonant utter-
ance that the semi-vowels y and iv, when not vocalised, are less changed
than in Irish or Greek (60), y being preserved in the beginning of
words, and w in the beginning and middle being only partially closed
into gw (102).
The same difference exists between Irish and British which has
been noted in 80 between Latin and Greek. An original qw having
changed the w for a vowel, retained the guttural in Irish, but changed
it to a labial in British.1 This is probably due, as in Latin and Greek,
to a stronger pressure of breath from the chest in Irish than in British,
for the utterance of a guttural requires this, unless it be followed by
w (V. 75).
108. There is another phonetic difference to be noted between
Irish and British. The Irish vowels are more open than the British
(94), and the semi- vowels changed to a greater extent into full vowels
(97, 102). This shows a somewhat greater tendency to vowel utter-
ance in Irish than in British.
109. In the Irish language the root of the article is n, which is
found by itself in each number before a substantive or adjective
beginning with a vowel. But the following fuller forms are found
in the old manuscripts.2
Singular,
masc.
Nominative .
Genitive . .
Dative . .
Accusative .
masc. fem. and neut.
Nominative .... in, ind inna, na.
all genders.
Genitive innan, nan.
inna, na.
Dative (do, di) naib, nab.
Accusative .... inna, na.
1 Zeuss, Preface, p. 5. a Zeuss, p. 229.
masc.
in, int
in, ind
(do, di)n, (do)nd
fem.
in, ind
inna, na
(do)n, (do)nd
neut.
an, a
in, ind
(do)n, (do)nd
in, inn
in, inn
an, a.
Plural.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. 163
These different forms are used according to the principles laid down
in 96, 100, and as those cases only which have nd before a vowel
(100) infect a consonant in the beginning of the following word, they
must in an older state of the language have ended in a vowel while
the other cases ended in a consonant. The older form of the article
might have been as follows, in accordance with the cases in the older
languages.
Singular. Plural.
masc. fern. masc. fern. neut.
Nominative . . inas ind ini inas indni
an neut.
Genitive . . . ini inas indndn indndn
Dative . . . inau inai inabyas inabyas
Accusative . . inan indn inas indni
an neut.
In modern Celtic only two genders of nouns are distinguished,
masculine and feminine ; but in old Celtic the three genders were
distinguished, not only in pronouns, but also in substantives and
adjectives. Afterwards the masculine and neuter were not dis-
tinguished from each other.1
The Sanskrit pronominal root an is not distinguished from en as
neuter. In Irish an is the relative ; a expressing more strongly than
other vowels a demonstrative reference to. Now, in the . Teutonic
article may be observed an affinity between the neuter gender and the
stronger demonstrative. Thus in Gothic the article is sa masculine,
so feminine, thata neuter ; in Anglo-Saxon, se masculine, s$o feminine,
that neuter. The neuter corresponds to Sanskrit tat, but in English
it has become the strong demonstrative or demonstrative of the remote ;
and it must have had, in its original use as neuter, a superior strength
of demonstration to lead to this transition in its use. In fact, the
masculine and feminine involve a sense of life, stronger or weaker
as well as demonstration, but the former element is absent from
the neuter ; the neuter is more objective, and in it, consequently, the
demonstrative element is stronger. And it is probably thus that we
are to understand the stronger demonstrative an used for the neuter
article in Irish. It is, however, only in the nominative and accusa-
tive singular that it is used, for in these the case relation is so light
that thought dwells more on the demonstrative stem than in the other
cases, so that it is thought more strongly (14).
As the nominative termination -as became weakened, it was probably
abbreviated, and s brought nearer to n ; and as s was dropped, n tended
to become nt (96). In the accusative the final nasal was similarly
brought near to n, and doubled it. In the genitive singular and
nominative and accusative plural of the feminine, as s was dropped,
the last syllable was strengthened in utterance so as to double n. In
the genitive plural, as the inflection decayed, the second n was drawn
near to the first, so as to double it ; and in the nominative and accusa-
1 Zeuss, p. 228.
164
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC.
[SECT. vi.
live plural neuter, the same happened in the decay of the inflection.
In the dative singular the b of the inflection, after having been
vocalised to the labial vowel u, was given up; but in the dative
plural, yas, after having infected the a with its y, was given up, and
b retained. In the dative the initial vowel is dropped after the final
vowel of the prepositions.
110. The root of the British article is n, and is found attached to
the end of the prepositions which end in vowels. In Armoric and
Cornish there is a definite article an and an indefinite un ; the n of
both in modern Armoric becomes I before Z, is preserved before vowels
and before h, n, d, and t, and becomes r before any other consonant.1
In Welsh the article is ir, r,1 in later Welsh yr, sometimes y before
a consonant.2 There is no change for case, number, or gender, in the
British article.3
111. In the old Irish, which in variety of the forms of the noun
far surpasses the Welsh of the same age, there is a double order of
declension, which Zeuss distinguishes as vocalic and consonantal. To
the former the declension of the adjectives belongs (149). The latter
is applicable only to substantives, and not to so many of these as the
former. There are also some substantives of anomalous declension.*
The neuter differs from the masculine in forming the nominative,
accusative, and vocative alike, and in the plural these cases alone differ
from the cases of the masculine.5
The first or vocalic order is as follows, distributed by Zeuss into
series, of which he gives these examples : 5
Masculine and Neuter.
Ser. I. Ser. II. Ser. III.
Feminine.
Ser. IV. Ser. V.
!Nom. kele
ball
t nisei
biO
dilgud
tuare
rann
briaOar
Gen. keli
baill
tuisil
beOo
dllgodo
tuare
rainne
breOre
§<
Dat. keliu
baull
tuisiul
biuO
dllgud
tuari
rainn
breOir
02
Accus. kele
ball
tuisel
biO
dllgud
tuari
rainn
breQir
Voc. Mi
baill
tuitil
biO
dllgud
tuare
rann
bria&ar
SNorn. keli
baill
tuisil
be6a
dilgoOa
t uari
ranna
bria&ra,
Gen. kele
ball
tuisel
bide
dllguBe
tuare
rann
briaffar
g<
Dat.f kelib
ballib
tuislib
bldib
dilgudib
tuarib
rannib
briadrib
M
PH
Accus. keliu
baullu
tuisliu
bidu
dilgu6u
tuari
ranna
briaOra
Voc. keliu
baullu
tuisliu
biOu
d'dyudu
tuari
ranna
briadra
The second or consonantal order, distributed in series :
Ser. I.
Her. II.
Ser. III.
Ser. IV.
Ser. V.
Nom.
ainm
beim
menme
dttiu
aOir
druid
fili
kaffir
c Gen.
anma
bcme
menman
d'tten
aOar
druad
filed
kaffrax
£ Dat.
anmim
b'lmim
menmin
d/tin
aOir
druid
filid
kaOir
02 Accus.
ainm,
beim
menmin
dilin
aOir
druid
filid
kaQrix
• ( Nom.
anman
be men
menmin
ditin
aOir
druid
filid
kaOrix
I JGen.
anman
bfmcn
menman
dltcn
aOre
druad
filed
kaOrax
£ j Dat.
anmanib
bfmnib
mrnmanib
dUnib
affrib
druidib
filidib
kaffrixib
(ACCUS.
anman
bemcn
mcnmana
ditnc
adru
druida
fileda
kadraxa
1 Zeuss, p. 2:;(J.
2 Ibid
. p. 241.
2
Ibid. p. 238.
« Ibid.
p. 213.
6 Ibid
. p. 244.
e
Ibid. pp. 264, 26c
SECT. VI.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. 165
Adru fathers, is the form supposed by Zeuss for accusative plural
masculine of Ser. III., and for feminine mdOra mothers.1
Bopp perceived that the stems of Irish nouns were altered by their
inflections, and that these alterations are a guide to the older forms.
The older forms of the above stems were probably Mya,2 balla,
tuisila, biOu,2 dilgudu, tuaryd, ranni, briaOari (Zeuss gives briaOar),5
but probably -Bar - Sans, -tri, and was originally with Celtic vocalisa-
tion -Oari), animan,4 benimanf menman? dltiun, ditin? aOir 6 (Sans.
-tri of kindred), druidf filid,6 JcaOrix-7
In the nominative singular not only s is dropped, but also in the
first order the final vowel of the stem ; -ya(s) becomes -e by infection
of y, and tuisila(s) tuisel by infection of i (93). In animan and
beniman, -an having been dropped, n was weakened and lost
between the vowels (96), but compensated in anim by strengthening
m, and in benim by lengthening e. In menman and ditiim, final n
was dropped as in Sanskrit (4), and the a of the former weakened
to e. The fourth series, Order II., is of stems in -id, -ed, -ad; they
often change this termination in the nominative singular to -iu, -u, -i,
or -e. So also in kaOrix, final consonant is dropped, and i divides
the concurrent consonants. The sense of the subject seems to have
tended to be taken up by the stem so as to weaken the ending and
sometimes to strengthen the stem with more vowel life.
The infection of the genitive singular shows the ending to have
been -i with the -a stems of Series I. and II. as in Latin, Sanskrit
(s)y(a) ; and -a, Sanskrit -a(s), with all the others ; in tuarya(s) (4),
y is infected by a, and in rainne(s) (4), the stem vowel a by e.
The infection of the dative singular shows -u (b vocalised) to have
been the ending with the masculine neuter vocalic stems ; and in
Order II., Series L, -m shows an assimilation of final n to b, with
infection of preceding a by -bi animimbi (11). The ending was -i
with all the others.
The accusative singular produces no infection of the stem different
from the nominative in the masculine neuter vocalic stems ; for it
only adds a nasal (4). In all the other stems the infection shows
that the ending was -im or -in; the objectivity tending to the stem
and weakening the vowel (50).
The vocative singular in Order L, Series I. and II., evidences an
ending -i (4).
In the nominative plural beOa, dllgoOa, ranna, briaOra, seem to
correspond to Sanskrit b'anavas agnayas (4), in which the extension
of the plural enters as a into the stem ; neuter nouns of Series I.
make nominative accusative plural in -e ; anman bemen suggest the
neuter ending -a ; beniman suffered infection in its last syllable from
the i of the second syllable supported by e of the first, whereas in
animan the infecting power of i is overcome by a of the first syllable.
In all the other-stems the nominative plural ending is -i-y(as) (9).
In the genitive plural, the infection of all the stems except those
of biOe and dilguOe suggest -a corresponding to Sanskrit -am, but
1 Zeuss, p. 271. 2 Ibid. p. 726. 3 Ibid. p. 743. 4 Ibid. p. 265.
5 Ibid. p. 267 ; Ebel on Irish Declension, sect. 4 in Kuhn's Beitrage, i.
6 Ibid. p. 271. 7 Ibid. p. 274.
166 GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. [SECT. vi.
these indicate a strong -e, which overpowered the final u. Perhaps
y of the genitive took the place of s or n in the ending sdm,
-ndm (13), and u was subsequently dropped ; thus biduyam, bidya,
bide, dllguduyam, dilgudya, dllgude (143). In this series the
genitive singular sometimes ended in -e.1
The dative plural -ib corresponds to Vyas, y requiring i before b,
and yas was dropped afterwards. The -u stems, like bid, often make
the dative plural in -aib? as if from an original -atfyas. There is
something similar in Greek ; in \/fxusaai (62), and ir^ai ««"«<», •
corresponds to a.
The accusative plural indicates u as the ending with the masculine
vocalic stems, and the masculine nouns of kindred. These have n in
the Sanskrit (14), and the n is vocalised to u in Irish, as in Greek.
In tuari the vowel is reduced as in the singular, but with the other
stems it is -a, which, with the consonantal stems, corresponds to
Sanskrit -as, or in the neuters to Greek and Latin -a ; and with the
stems ranni briaOari, the accusative plural seems to have been
rannias briaOarias, like -roV/a; voeriag and then to have dropped i.
The vocative plural is like the accusative, the substantive being
thought as object of the call.
Neuter nouns of Order I., Series I., make the nominative accusa-
tive vocative plural end in -e or -i ; those of Series II. end in -a, and
those of Series III. have the bare stem like nominative singular.3
The two examples of Order II.,j3eries I., are neuter ; * stems in -iun 5
are generally feminine.
There seem to be traces of an Old Irish dual ending -i.6
Diminutives are formed by -an, -en, and -dot, masculine and neuter,
by -ene, -ne, -nat, -net, feminine.7
112. Adjectives form a comparative degree in -idir, or in -iu, -u ; a
superlative in -em or -am (82). 8 There are also some anomalous com-
paratives in -a or -o,9 which, as well as -iu, -u, may be deduced from
Sanskrit iyan, the n being vocalised to u.
113. The declension of the noun has vanished from British, the
only inflections remaining being plural endings. Of these, -i is not so
usual as -ion, -iau, -ion, also -ou, -eu, -on. These would suggest an
original -yans for the plural ending (9). There are also plural endings
-t, -d, -et, -ot, -ieit, -ed, -id, -oed, perhaps originally singular abstracts
capable of a plural sense, like Latin juventus. And there are collective
nouns in -wys, singulatives in -in -en, and diminutives in -an -ik as
well as some in -os -aj£ ia\.l°
The British degrees of comparison are -ax or -ox comparative, x
perhaps from u, -am -af superlative.11
114. The personal pronouns in Irish are :
3
1 2 „ v
Singular : inT: ; tu ; c masculine, si feminine, ed neuter.
Plural : sni, ni ; sib, si; c of all genders.12
1 Zeufls, p. 254. 2 Ibid. p. 256. 3 Ibid. pp. 245, 249, 254.
4 Kbel, sect. 4. 5 ZCUHS, p. 2C8. 6 Ibid. p. 276.
7 Ibid. p. 280. H Ibid. pp. 282, 287. 8 Ibid. p. 284.
lu Ibid. p. 288-304. » Ibid. p. 305. l- Ibid. p. 332-334.
SECT. VI.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. 167
The plural ending is -i ; n is the root of first plural, and it seems
to be associated with the demonstrative element s, as in Sanskrit, a
with demonstrative sma ; in sib, s and b are both radical as in Greek
tf</> (64), and i comes from the plural ending. The third person
reminds of Sanskrit ay(am) ; it has a genitive ai.
There is also a masculine demonstrative of both numbers, som,
which seems akin to Sanskrit sma. The personal pronouns are
strengthened by subjoining for first singular sa or se ; for first plural
sni or ni ; for second singular s^i ; for second plural si ; for third sin-
gular se.1
The roots of the personal pronouns are inserted in the verb after the
verbal particles and the first prepositions of compound verbs to express
the object, either direct or indirect. If they follow a consonant, o or
u, sometimes a is put before first or second person, i before third.
After the negative nay^ i is put before all the persons. Sometimes, to
strengthen the expression of the relation, d is put before those vowels.
The strengthening elements may in addition be suffixed to the verb, -sa
for first singular, -ni for first plural, -su for second singular, -si for
second plural.2
The roots of the personal pronouns are also suffixed to prepositions
which govern them, -m or -urn for first singular ; -n, -in, -un, for first
plural : -t, -it, -ut, for second singular ; -b, -ib, for second plural ; -d or
a vowel for third singular dative masculine ; -i for third singular dative
feminine; -s for third singular accusative masculine; -e for third singular
accusative feminine ; -ib for third plural dative ; -u, -o, for third plural
accusative ; and these may be strengthened by the above-mentioned
elements, or the third person by som, sem, if feminine singular, by si.3
1
The possessive prefixed pronouns of the singular persons are : mo,
123
do, a ; of the plural persons, arn, ar ; farn far, forn for ; an a ; the
first form of each pair before vowels and medials, the second before
other consonants. These may be strengthened by the above elements
suffixed to the noun. If the possessive be third singular masculine,
som is suffixed, if third feminine, si is suffixed.4 The roots of the
possessives may be inserted between prepositions and substantives.
The relative pronoun in Irish is ,an or no; there seems to be a
genitive neix- Its root n, m; is infixed in verbs like those of the
personal pronouns.5
The Irish demonstrative pronouns are : 1, se (siu locative), so, sin,
sodin, de, side, ade ; they are often suffixed to a substantive which
has the article ; so, sin, take the article, and are not then followed by
a noun ; side, ade, make a nominative plural, sidi, adi, a genitive
singular, sidi, adi, a genitive plural side, ade ; 1 has generally the
article prefixed, and takes -siu, here (int'l'siu), to express this, tall,
there (int-i-8all), to express that. There are also em, dm, which
demonstrate emphatically, same, self ; on, son, which generally demon-
1 Zeuss, p. 332-334. 2 Ibid. p. 335-340. 3 Ibid. p. 340-342.
4 Ibid. p. 343-345. 5 Ibid. p. 345-350.
168 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. [SECT. vi.
strate neuters ; and, sund, sis, which demonstrate place and time ; and
fefinfe'sinipse,f-ade'sin is ipse, f'ade'sin'e plural, fa' nrsin nos ipsi.1
The interrogative pronouns are : Tie, ki, Ma, kid, ko, koi\ ; ke is used
in all genders ; k-, prefixed to P., si, ed, distinguishes gender.2
The indefinite pronouns are : kax, ke\ quivis, na% aliquis, ke\tar
uterque, nectar alter ; 3 ka%, when used absolutely as a noun, becomes
The Irish substantives ais, ois aetas, lln pars, lukt copia, kele
socius, so\uide multitudo, are often thought so lightly as to be
equivalent to pronouns or pronominals; ais, lln, lukt, to, is qui, ii
qui, kele to alius, soxuide to nonnulli.4
115. The British personal pronouns are :
12 3
Singular: mi, me ; ti, te ; em ef masculine neuter, hi feminine.
Plural: ni; \wi, why ; urynt, wy, i, masculine, feminine.
They are strengthened either by being doubled or by taking -nneu,
-ten. Zeuss supposes that in the old language they formed genitives
mou, ton, ou, &c., and he instances ou.5
The roots of the personal pronouns are inserted in the verb to
express the object, direct or indirect, in British as in Irish, but only
between particles ending in vowels and the verb, not between the
preposition and root of a compound verb. In the British manu-
scripts the infixed pronouns, with the particles to which they are sub-
joined, are written separate from the verb, and the possessives from
their substantive which follows, while in the old Irish all are joined
together.6
Only some of the British prepositions take up as suffixes the
personal pronouns which they govern ; and the only difference which
distinguishes from each other the suffixes of the third person is that
of gender. The Welsh dialect inserts between the preposition and
the suffix certain letters or syllables, -w-, -hon-, -di-, -nod-, -dan-, &c.,
and corresponding elements were inserted in Cornish and Armoric.
The suffixes of first person are, in singular, -/ ( = m), in plural, -m
(Welsh), -n (Corn.), -mp (Arm.); of second singular, -t (Welsh, Arm.),
-s (Corn.); of second plural, -\; of third singular masculine, -au
(Welsh), -o (Corn.), -of (Arm.), -ei, -i, feminine; of third plural, -unt
(Welsh), -e (Corn.) The personal suffix also may be strengthened
by subjoined elements.7 The possessive pronouns are, of first
singular, my, ry (Welsh), ow (Corn.), ma (Arm.) ; of first plural, an
(Welsh), wjdii (Corn.), hon (Arm.), a, at/a, ho, being prefixed to the
first plural n ; of second singular, dy (Welsh), thy (Corn.), da (Arm.) ;
of second plural, air%, yy^ (Welsh), agis (Corn.), hoz (Ann.) ; of third
singular, y (Welsh), i (Corn.), e masculine, he feminine (Arm.) ; of
third plural, en (Welsh), nya (Corn.), ho (Arm.) And these may be
strengthened by the pronoun, which corresponds to the possessive,
following the noun.8
1 Zeuss, pp. 351-361, 372-374. 2 Ibid. pp. 361, 362. 3 Ibid. p. 366-369.
4 Ibid. pp. 370, 371. B Ibid. p. 374-378. 6 Ibid. p. 378.
7 Ibid. p. 383-3S8. 8 Ibid. p. 388-392.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. 169
There are also in Welsh absolute possessives equivalent to the
German der meinige deinige, &c. These are, men first singular, teu
second singular, which appear to have been originally genitives, viz.,
mou tou, ein first and second plural, eid third singular and plural ;
ein and eid seem to be nouns, for they take the possessives or the
article before them, and after them the root of the pronoun suffixed as
to a preposition ; men, teu also generally have the article.1
The roots of the possessives also are inserted between prepositions
and substantives, generally written with the preposition and separate
from the substantive.2
The separate relative is supplied in Welsh by a verbal particle ; in
Cornish and Armoric nep aliquis was used for a relative.3 The
infixed relative is supplied in Welsh by a demonstrative, thus cum
viro fuisti in dorno ejus, for cnjus.
The British demonstratives are much less copious than the Irish.
They may mostly be reduced to one root liunn ( = hunt}, Arm. hont,
with various vowels and additions. In Welsh the demonstrative is
hunn masculine, honn feminine, hynn neuter and plural. In Welsh
the noun with the article precedes the demonstrative.
The elements u, a, ma, man are added to express this, and dkw in
Welsh to express that. There is also in Welsh a demonstrative sef
from isem.*
The interrogative pronouns are for persons, put (Welsh), pu (Corn.),
piu (Arm.) ; for things, pa, pi (Welsh), pe (Corn, and Arm.) ; pynnak
(Welsh) = cunque ; paup (Welsh), pub (Corn.), pep (Arm.) = quivis ;
nep (Welsh and Arm.), neb (Corn.) = aliquis.5
The substantives re persona, dim res, sawl copia, kilid socius, are
used like pronouns.6
The demonstrative hun Jiunan singular, hunein plural, is used, pre-
ceded by the possessive pronouns, to signify self.7
116. The primitive system of the Celtic verb is one and the same
through all the dialects,8 which shows the great antiquity of its peculiar
structure. It has three tenses called primary, namely, present, past,
and future. The person endings of the present are attached to the
stem of the verb ; those of the past are generally preceded by s, which,
however, is often omitted in the active voice, and always in the
passive; those of the future are preceded by b or/.8 This s is evi-
dently the same element as that which denotes the past in Sanskrit
(27), Zend (56), Greek (70), and Latin (88) ; and the b or / corre-
sponds to the element of the future in the first and second conjugations
in Latin and to Sanskrit Vu.
There are also three secondary tenses which have different person
endings from the primary, and which express a present, past, or future,
in past time, or as object or condition of another fact, or as merely
ideal.
The secondary person endings by their reduced subjectivity express
both affections, that of tense and that of mood, without distinguishing
1 Zeuss, p. 392. 2 Ibid. p. 393. 3 Ibid. p. 397.
4 Ibid. p. 398-401. 5 Ibid. p. 402-407. e Ibid. p. 407-409.
7 Ibid. pp. 409, 410. 8 Ibid. pp. 411, 428.
VOL. II. M
170 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. [SECT. vi.
one from the other. There are also verbal prefixes which help the
expression of tense and mood. There is no reflexive form of the verb,
as there is no reflexive pronoun. The preposition im-, around,
expresses the reflex in British, and once or twice in Irish.1
117. The prefixed particles are in Irish ro and no, in British ro.
Sometimes in Irish do is found instead of ro, and mo instead of no?
Both in Irish and British ro is used, compounded with substantives
and adjectives, as an intensive prefix, and it signifies also completion.3
It seems to be akin to the Sauskit root ruh, to increase, come forth, be
born, which has also a kindred root, tu, with similar meaning, and they
both belong to the same ircle of roots and ideas from which most
of the verbal elements have sprung (27, 86, 87). The other Irish
particle seems to be of a pronominal nature, for no is the relative pronoun
in Irish (114). And there are in British two pronominal particles,4 yd
and a, used before the verb, of which Zeuss treats along with ro
and no, though they do not correspond with either of these.
118. In Irish, ro-, which means completion, is used to help the
expression of the past ; as in Latin the perfect is used as an aorist,
both languages tending to think the verb in its accomplishment. But
ro- is sometimes omitted after particles which weaken the sense of
verbal realisation, as the negative ni, and the preposition 5, from, used
as a conjunction,5 and governing the verb as an object, so as to weaken
its subjectivity. In this use ro- admits between itself and the verbal
stem the infixed pronominal elements (114).6 Its vowel not only
changes to a, u, ui, i, either of itself or by infection or assimilation,
but is more frequently absorbed, as when the particle is followed by a
verbal stem beginning with a vowel, or is preceded by another particle
ending with a vowel, which takes up the r as a final consonant.6
In Irish verbs, compounded with a single preposition, ro as the
particle of the past intervenes between the preposition and the root ;
in verbs compounded with more than one preposition, it generally
comes between the first preposition and the second, but sometimes
follows the second. If the compound verb be affected with the
interrogative prefix in or the negative nl, ro-, when it is used, follows
these particles. In verbs compounded with one or more prepositions,
the infixed pronominal elements are inserted before ro.1
But ro is used in Irish, not only in this sense of completion, but
also prefixed to the third singular future of the verb substantive of the
form lia, and after kon (ut) before a verb used in a subjunctive sensei8
In these uses it evidently expresses a sense of growth towards accom-
plishment, so as to strengthen the future or the aim and object of
another verb.9
The particle no (sometimes nu) makes in Irish a present or future,
which lias the secondary person endings, to be relative to another verb
as the object or condition of the latter, or relative to a past, so as to
express an imperfect or a past future. It is used only with verbs
which are not compounded nor preceded by another particle ; for it is
1 Zeuss, pp. 412, 896. - Ibid. p. 419. 3 Ibid. pp. 420, 833, 867.
4 Ibi.i. p. 422. 5 Ibid. p. 413. 8 Ibid. p. 414.
7 Ibid. p. 415. 8 Ibid. p. 41G. * Ibid. p. 418.
SECT. VI.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. 171
only the former that have sufficient unity to be taken into the correla-
tion with another verb, and even they, if already affected with a
relation, are not apt to be thought with sufficient unity to take this new
relation, and if affected with no, are for the same reason not apt to
take any other relation except the simple and most usual one,
kon (ut).1
The infixed pronominal elements are taken in Irish after no as
after ro, and sometimes no supplies the want of a preposition which
would express the relation of the verb to the infixed pronoun, repre-
senting pronominally the verb as relative to the pronoun. In this
latter use no may be preceded by a conjunction.2
119. In the older British also ro (ry, re, ra) is used as in Irish, but
in the later British it passed out of use.3
In the oldest Welsh ro occurs as the sign of the perfect. After-
wards ry denotes in Welsh not only the perfect and pluperfect, but
also the future perfect and the perfect infinitive, being expressive
of completion.3 It always adheres to the verb itself, and does not
suffer a pronominal element to come between them.4 This particle,
however, disappeared earlyj and then the only particles used with the
verb were yd (y, ed, e) and a, which, being used with all the tenses,
have nothing corresponding to them in Irish.4
Yd, or (if followed by a consonant) y, precedes the verb when the
verb begins the sentence, or when at least the verb precedes the sub-
ject, though certain adverbs and conjunctions may go before it ; a
precedes the verb if it follows subject or object.4 Yd is a demon-
strative element pointing to the verb, and strengthening its assertion
when it is in its natural place, according to Celtic syntax ; a points
to the verb as in relation with what has gone before when it is not
in its natural place as thought absolutely, but follows another member
with which it is thought as in relation ; yd and a are both affirma-
tive. Ny is the negative particle of the absolute sentence, na of the
dependent sentence.5 Both yd and a admit after them the infixed
pronominal elements, and these also may follow the primitive con-
junctions, though yd and a cannot;6 yd and a are not used before
the verb substantive when it is preceded by the predicate.7 These
two particles are similarly used in Cornish and Armoric.8 They can
scarcely be regarded as forming part of the structure of the verb, like
ro and no.
The verbal particle re is found in Old Cornish with the sense of the
perfect ; but it differs from the Welsh particle in admitting the
infixed pronominal elements between itself and the verb.9
The particle ra in Old Armoric also admits after it the infixed
pronouns ; but it expresses not the perfect but rather the optative
or future.10
120. The personal inflection of the old Irish verb is given by
Zeuss as follows, with the roots, kar love, gni do, ber bear, suidig
1 Zeuss, p. 417. 2 Ibid pp. 418, 419. 3 Ibid. p. 420.
4 Ibid. p. 421. 6 Ibid. p. 422. 6 Ibid. p. 424.
7 Ibid. p. 425. 8 Ibid. pp. 426, 427. 8 Ibid. p. 425.
10 Ibid. p. 426.
172
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES*. CELTIC.
[SECT. vi.
put, each of which is a specimen of a series of verbs, the last with a
deponent formation. The first series is the most numerous.1
ftj
•Si
«l
_, 1
2J
•S]
s|
ilst
2d
3d
!lst
2d
3d
Present.
Ser. L Ser. IL Ser. III. Ser. IV.
person . . kairim gniu biur suidigur
,, . kairi, -e gni bir (suidigir)
„ . . Jcairid gniid berid suidigeQar
kairi kara gni beir
„ . . karam gniam beram suidigemmar
„ . . kairid gniiB beriO suidigid
„ . . kairet gniat berat suidigetar
'Past.
Ser. I. Ser. II. Ser. III. Ser. IV.
tbl
fist
person w/arus rognius ruburt
rosuidigsiur
•S1
2d
„ . royaris rognis rubirt
rosuidigsir
CQ 1
[3d
„ . royav rogni robart
rosuidigestar
li 1
1st
,, . royarsam rogensam robartmar
rosuidigsemmar
f-1 j
*\
2d
„ . ro^arsid rogensid robartid
rosuidigsid
5 1
[3d
„ . ro%arsat rogensat robart atar
rosuidigsetar
Future.
Ser. I. Ser. II. Ser. III.
Ser. IV.
. i
ilst
per. karub (gniub) (berub)
suidigfur
«
2d
„ kairfe (genfe] gene (berfe) bere
(suidigfir)
5
3d
„ kairfed (genfd) gena (berfa) bera
(suidigfe6ar)
kairfea
'rt
fist
„ karfam (genfam) genam (berfem) beram suidigfemmar
FH
2d
„ kairfid (genftd) genid (berfid) berid
suidigfid
s
[3d
„ karfat (genfet) genat (berfet) berat
(suidigfetar)
The forms in parenthesis have not been found by Zeuss, but con-
jectured by him from analogy.2
The forms of the third singular without d are used when the verb,
instead of being absolute and positive, taking the lead in the sentence,
is construct or negative. In other persons too the vowel i subjoined
to the root belongs properly to the absolute use of the verb, e or a to
the dependent or negative use of it.3
After the person endings very frequently are added, both in the
active and in the passive, the strengthening elements of pronouns,
which are infixed ; and often also in the active that of the person itself
without regard to the infixed pronoun, if there be one.3
The first series differs from the others in having in the singular of
the present a conjugational vowel subjoined to the root. This vowel is
infected by the vowel of the person ending, and according as the latter
is taken up by the former it is weakened and becomes superfluous in its
original place. Thus the singular person endings mi, si, ti became m,
1 Zeuss, p. 430. 2 Ibid. p. 429.
8 Ibid. p. 428.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. 173
s, t, and afterwards s was dropped (97), and t was weakened to d (99).
In the stems which have no conjugational vowel there was not so great
an absorption of the vowel of the person ending, though still it infected
the preceding syllable. It retained power in the first person to vocalise
the in, so that the person ending became u, and was afterwards taken
up by infection into the preceding syllable. But in the second and
third persons the vowel of the person ending was taken up into the
preceding syllable, and the persons suffered the same changes as in the
first series. In the third person, however, the i of the person ending,
instead of passing into the root, was inserted between the root and the
person, as if it so entered into the consonant of the person to give life
to that element being naturally objective, that this required i before it
to give it the proper utterance (93), and then the other i was dropped.
In the fourth series ar is subjoined to the person, becoming ur in the
first person, and ir in the second. It is doubtless the same element
as that which terminates the Latin deponent and passive verb.
The person endings of the plural, which probably were originally
mas, Us, anti, became by infecting the preceding syllable and con-
sequently losing their own vowels, am, id, at ; but some verbs of the
first series were subjective enough to animate their first plural with i,
and take mi instead of am.1
The third plural is formed in -it also, and in -et.1
The past, which is in truth a perfect, being formed with ro-, has
the same elements of person as the present, except that there is no
element of the third singular in the first three series. Moreover, the
third series, which ends in a consonant, has so little subjective move-
ment that its stem corresponds to the Sanskrit past passive participle
in -ta (35), and in the plural the persons also have a passive formation,
being thought with less activity than in the singular, because with
reduced individuality. In the fourth series, the s of the tense seems
to be attracted by the t of the third singular, but the third plural
being originally nt, could not thus take up the s. In ro\ar-, k is
aspirated between vowels (99).
The second and third persons singular of the future vary from those
of the present by being more open, as with an infusion of a, which
probably has a significance of probability like that of d in the Zend
future (52).
121. The secondary person endings in Irish have less expression of
subjective engagement with the verb, and are therefore suitable for
the past, and for the moods of less subjective realisation. These are,
in the singular: -in, -da, -ad; in the plural, -mis, -Oe, -tis.2 The first
singular has n instead of m, which is probably a weaker expression of
self, and corresponds to v in Greek. The second and third singular
and plural have a strong analogy to the person endings of the redupli-
cated perfect in Sanskrit (24), the a of second and third singular pro-
bably expressing what is removed from present realisation either as
past, or as dependent on another fact, or on a supposition.
This is less distinctly thought in the second plural, because the
1 Zeuss, p. 433. 2 Ibid. p. 450.
174 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. [SECT. vi.
thought of the plural is less distinct than that of the singular. The
first plural, as well as the third, has the more objective plural element
s (21, 24) on account of the reduced subjective realisation.
These person endings form what are called the secondary tenses,
present, past, and future. AVith no- prefixed to the verb, they form a
secondary present, which expresses an imperfect, and also a sub-
junctive and hypothetical ; l with ro- prefixed, but without the s of
the past, they form a secondary past, which expresses a perfect sub-
junctive or hypothetical ; 2 with the element of the future they form
a secondary future, which expresses either a past future, or a future
subjunctive or hypothetical.3
A future perfect is expressed in Irish by prefixing ro- to the simple
future indicative.8
Besides the subjunctive use of the secondary tenses, there is also in
Irish a subjunctive or hypothetical present formed with the following
person endings : singular -am, -a, -a, plural -am, -ad, -at ; * the a
seems to have a significance similar to a of the Sanskrit potential
(18), and of the Zend subjunctive (52). And also in the present and
future, the verb of a relative clause, or after a relative particle, may
form the third singular in -as or -es, the third plural in -ate, -ite, -te, the
s of the former, and the e of the latter, referring pronominally to the
subject or the object.5
The persons of the imperative are : second singular in -e external, or -i-
internal before final consonants ; third singular -ad, -ed ; first plural
-am, -em ; second plural -id; third plural -at, -et. The first and third
persons are subjunctive, except that the third singular has d*
The Celtic infinitive is quite a substantive, being declined as such.
It is in Irish either the stem of the verb, or a verbal substantive
formed with the terminations -ad, -ed, -id, -ud, or less frequently -t, -til,
-am, -em, -um, -ent, -end, -siu, -tin, -i^e, -e%tJ
In the Celtic passive, owing to the prevalence of the impersonal
construction, there are only some scattered remains of any person
except the third singular, and still less in Welsh than in Old Irish,8
In the latter the inflection is similar to the fourth or deponent
series of the active. In the past tense it is the participle that is most
frequently used, but sometimes the third singular present with ro-
prefixed.9
The third singular of the secondary tenses passive in Irish ends in
-de, -de, that of the primary tenses being -Oar, -Ber, The sense is
either past or subjunctive or hypothetical, and the prefixes no- and ro-
are used as in the active.10
There is also in Irish a subjunctive third singular passive in -aOar,
-ar, with which also the imperative is expressed. And there is a
passive infinitive -adar, -Oar, formed apparently from the active -ad
by subjoining the passive termination."
There are two passive participles in Irish, a past participle in -iOe,
1 Zeuss, p. 450. 2 Ibid. p. 453. 3 Ibid. p. 454.
4 Ibid. p. 455. 8 Ibid. pp. 456, 457. 6 Ibid. p. 457.
7 Ibid. p. 459. 8 Ibid. p. 463. • Ibid. p. 464-469.
10 Ibid. p. 470. n Ibid. p. 472.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. 175
-Be, -6a, -da, -te, -ta, corresponding to Sanskrit -ta (35) ; and a future
in -iOi, -Oi, -tl, like Sanskrit -tavya x (37).
122. In the old remains of both branches of the Celtic language,
there are the beginnings of an impersonal inflection of the verb which
prevailed more and more in the later dialects. This inflection, when
fully developed, admits only the third singular of each tense, signify-
ing the other persons by adding to this the pronouns of these persons.
This is done in the old language by infixed pronominal elements, and
only in the passive, except that in old Irish it appears also in certain
forms of the verb substantive. And in consequence of this construc-
tion the personal inflection of the passive is in Old Irish almost
confined to the third singular and plural, in Old Welsh to the third
singular. The later Celtic adding the absolute forms of the pronouns
to the third person, not only in the passive, but also in the active,
forgets more or less all personal inflection.2
123. The verb substantive in Irish is expressed by four different
roots. Of these, a, td,fil, are used only in the present, bi in all the
tenses. They are irregular in their inflection, as well as the verbs fit
know, klo hear, eit go, ik reach, and 61 says, which occurs in no other
form. Some verbs also are reduplicated.3
124. The old Welsh verb was thus inflected, the future being sup-
posed by Zeuss, not found.
Present. Past. Future.
t Singular, 1. . . karam kereis (karboim)
„ 2. . . keri kereist (karboi)
„ 3. . . keir, kar karas (karib, karab)
Plural, 1. . . karun karasam (karbom)
„ 2. . . karau% karasau% (karbo )
„ 3. . . karant karasant (karboint, karbont) 4
The secondary person endings were singular, -un, -ut, -ei, plural
-em, -eu%, -int. Zeuss thinks that -am first singular present indicates
a mixture of the present with the future, as a has a future signifi-
cance.4 The element of the first plural is n, u being probably only a
connective vowel. In -am, -au-fo and -ant, a is perhaps significant of
the extension of plurality. The element of the second singular was
probably stronger than that of the third, and held its i outside the
root. In the past the i of the person was taken up before the s of
tense in the first and second singular.
The secondary persons were more objective and their radical ele-
ments somewhat stronger ; the vowels before them were probably
merely connective. The n of first singular corresponds to the Irish.
The other British dialects varied slightly from the above, but corre-
sponded in the main.
125. There are some traces in British of the subjunctive present
formed with a.5
In the imperative second singular the Welsh language uses the
stem of the verb if simple, but adds to it a, e, or i, if it be denomina-
1 Zeuss, p. 473. - Ibid. pp. 412, 413. 3 Ibid p. 476-495.
4 Ibid. p. 497. 5 Ibid. p. 515.
176 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : CELTIC. [SECT. vi.
tive or derivative. Sometimes a strengthening pronoun follows. The
imperative third singular is -et, first plural -ion, second plural -u-fo
third plural -ent.1
The infinitive has many forms, and is a noun as in Irish.2
126. There is no trace of personal inflection in the passive, the
third person with infixed pronouns being used instead. This in
pres. past fut.
Welsh is kerir, karat, barer. present
The third person of the secondary tenses passive in Welsh is kerit,
past future
karisit, karaiir.3
The Old Welsh passive participles are past -etik, future -atoi, -itd.
The former adds to the termination -et a derivative element -ik.*
In Cornish and Armoric there spread along with the impersonal
inflection a use of composite tenses consisting of the past participle
and the various tenses of the verb substantive to express the tenses,
primary and secondary, of the passive verb, whose simple forms were
preserved only in Welsh.5 And this passed to the active, past passive
participles being used in a neuter sense with the verb substantiye
to express the past.6 Armoric formed a past active with the verb
to have and the past participle.7 And the modern British uses
composite tenses consisting of the infinitive with the auxiliary verb
to do.7
The irregular verbs in British are akin to those in Irish. In some
of them the verb substantive coalesces with the root.8
127. There is a full supply in Celtic of conjunctions and pre-
positions used properly as transitional elements of relation, connecting
and governing, the former the verbs, and the latter the nouns in cases
distinguished in the ancient language according to the nature of the
relation.9
128. The Celtic uses a multitude of derivative elements like the
other Indo-European languages ; 10 it shows a tendency to composition
like the Greek (78), and far more than the Latin.11
The ancient Gallic, in forming compounds, generally used o as a
connective element between the two components, sometimes even
after i or u when this was the final vowel of a nominal stem standing
as the first component (78). The use, however, of these vowels of
composition declined in the ancient language ; and in the oldest Irish
and British, the only truces of them which remain are their infections
of the initial consonant of the component which followed them.12
In the true compounds the denning or limiting component goes
first ; and where the contrary order is followed, it is rather a
construction that has coalesced from frequent use than a true
compound.13
129. In Irish the verb takes the lead in the sentence preceded only
by the negative or interrogative or conjunctional particles. The verb
1 Zeuss, p. 515-517. 2 Ibid. p. 518. 3 Ibid. p. 523.
4 Ibid. p. 528. 5 Ibid. p. 530. 6 Ibid. p. 531.
7 Ibid. p. 532. 8 Ibid. p. 533-560. 9 Ibid. pp. 576, 663.
10 Ibid. p. 723. " Ibid. p. 818. ^ Ibid. p. 819.
33 Ibid. p. 859. " Ibid. p. 881-8S3.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. 177
substantive takes the lead when it is expressed, and is followed by
the predicate. The predicate goes first when there is no verb sub-
stantive.
If any member of the sentence gets the lead owing to a special
emphasis it is preceded by the verb substantive ; and the rest of the
sentence either qualifies it or is itself also preceded by the verb sub-
stantive as a second assertion.1 Sometimes the emphasised word pre-
cedes without the verb substantive as a nominative absolute.2 The
subject generally follows the verb, and then the objects and con-
ditions, but sometimes the object goes before the subject.3
The genitive in Irish follows its governor ; and the former may
have the article before it, but not the latter. The article sometimes
precedes even a proper noun.3 If an adjective agrees with a sub-
stantive which is preceded by a possessive pronoun, it takes the
article before it to represent the substantive.4
In Irish the genitive is sometimes expressed with the preposition
di ; and the preposition do, meaning to, generally precedes the
dative.5
The adjective generally follows its substantive in Irish ; and when
it precedes, it is to be regarded as compounded with the substantive,
which is more usual in Celtic than in the kindred languages. When
thus constructed the adjective has no inflection ; and the closeness of
the combination appears from the infection of the initial consonant of
the substantive.6
The pronominal adjectives, and the numerals, both cardinal and
ordinal, precede their substantive.6
If a personal pronoun as subject of the verb is at the end of the
sentence in Irish, it takes the preposition do, showing a weakness in
the sense of subject. The same takes place with a possessive when it
follows the substantive.7
130. In Welsh the verb or predicate takes the lead in the sentence,
preceded by the affirmative, negative, interrogative, or conjunctional
particles. The predicate is followed by the verb substantive if this is
expressed, or by the verbs nominari, eligi, &c., the latter taking before
them the particle y (119), which is not taken by the verb substantive.
Only after negative and interrogative, and some other particles, and
after adverbs, the verb substantive precedes the predicate.8
Very often, however, the subject or the object takes the lead, but
then the verb is constructed with the relative particle a before it
(119), showing that the preceding noun is in an absolute position.
This particle, however, is often omitted if the verb be the verb sub-
stantive or one of its compounds.9
A relative clause is often preceded in Welsh, not by the relative
particle a, but by the affirmative yd, y ; when the relative is weak
the clause being almost a separate sentence, or when the relative is
neither subject or object but in an oblique case.10
1 Zeuss, p. 884. 2 Ibid. p. 886. 3 Ibid. p. 887.
4 Ibid. p. 888. 6 Ibid. p. 889. 6 Ibid. p. 890.
7 Ibid. p. 892. 8 Ibid. pp. 898, 899. 8 Ibid. pp. 899, 900.
10 Ibid. pp. 901, 902.
178 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. [SECT. vi.
The order of the remaining members of the sentence is not strict in
Welsh any more than in Irish, but the subject usually precedes the
object.1
Definitions of time, place, or other circumstance, sometimes take
the first or the second place.1
In "Welsh, as in Irish, the article is not used before a substantive
•which is defined by another in the genitive. The article is generally
not used before a proper noun, but it may be used before a proper
noun in an oblique case, or with a proper noun in the nominative after
heb inquit, serving probably to facilitate the correlation of the proper
noun. For a similar reason the article is used before an adjective
whose substantive is separated from it or connected with a possessive
pronoun ; the article facilitates the connection of the adjective with
the substantive by directing attention to the latter as connected with
the former.2
As in Old Irish, so in Welsh, the genitive follows its governor, and
is sometimes expressed with di, meaning of, from, and the dative
always requires di, meaning to.3
The adjective follows its substantive, as in Irish, but may precede
it without inflection as compounded with it.4
There are adjectives in Welsh which do not take the plural inflec-
tion after plural substantives, as mawr great, tek handsome; also com-
pounds, but especially derivatives in -ik, -awk, -awl, -eid, and the degrees
of comparison.5
The infinitive is thought as a substantive in British as in Irish.6
If a passive infinitive depends on another verb, this becomes
passive also.7
A reflexive or reciprocal action is expressed in British by prefixing
om, im, around, to express the turning in on itself of the reflex or
mutual.8
The tenses are not kept distinct in British. The future is con-
founded with the present, and the secondary present with the
secondary past in their hypothetical use.8
131. The following are examples of Old Irish of the eighth or the
beginning of the ninth century,9 as analysed and explained by
Zeuss : 10
not be different what out bear 3d sing. pass, from mouth and what ia rel.
(1.) Ni 'p sain an-as'ber • Oar ho • giun okus am'be • ss
in heart
hi'kridiu, let not what is uttered from the mouth and what is in the
heart be different ; /> is an abbreviated form of ba, the third singular
subjunctive or imperative of bi (121) ; an is the relative pronoun ; giun
dative singular of gen, and kridiu dative singular of kride ; bess, the
relative third singular present of bi ; the ss is a demonstrative element
referring as a relative to the subject and representing it with the
be 3d sing, imper. kind every one towards other from art.
verb (121). (2.) Bad fuairrc% ka% fri • alaile o • n '
1 Zeuss, p. 903. - Ihi.l. p. 904. 3 Ibid. p. 905.
4 Ibid. p. 906. s Ibid. p. 907. 6 Ibid. p. 910.
7 Ibid. p. 528. 8 Ibid. p. 909. • Ibid. Preface, p. 34.
" Ibid. p. 986-996.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. 179
love brother ly
deserk bradar'di, let every one be kind towards another from brotherly
love ; Zeuss thinks fuairi'e^ a compound of fo under, and aiOrex, akin
to aiOirge poenitentia ; braBardi dative feminine singular of the adjec-
neg. do 2d sing, imper. vengeance towards the evil that
tive braBarde. (3.) Nl dene komrud fris 'in'ulk ar '
not be 3d sing. subj. evil two dat. part dat. pi. to do thou good towards him
na ' bad hulk dib ' Rnaib do'gne'su maid fris ' som
and be 3d sing. fut. good he afterwards
okus bid maid som iarum, do not take vengeance on the evil
that there be not evil on both sides ; do thou good towards him, and
he will be good afterwards ; dene is the second singular imperative
(121) of denim, I do ; ar is the preposition to, at, used as a conjunc-
tion ; llnaib is dative plural of lln part, genitive leno, like bit), on the
dative plural in -aib (see 111) ; dognesu is the second singular impera-
tive of the compound verb dogniu, I do to, with the strengthening
suffix su of second singular (114) ; bid is third singular future of bi,
becoming weakness and intens. fear on the servant while
for bied. (4.) Komadas lobre okus imm'omon fors'in ' mug kein
that is rel. 3d sing, in service to his master dat.
m'bii ' s ok'fognam di'a • -xoimdid, weakness and fear are
becoming to the servant while he is in service to his master; lobre is
substantive from lobor, weak ; omon is substantive from the root om ;
imm, sometimes imb (Latin amb), means about, and also expresses the
reflex or mutual ; it here strengthens omon; kein is originally a noun,
and therefore requires with the verb the relative particle no, reduced
to 11, or to m before b ; s relative third singular (121) ; fognam is verbal
noun (121) offogniu I serve, which is compounded of fo under, and
gniu I do; koimdid is dative singular of koimdiu (111, Ord. II.,
not pardon
Ser. IV.), k being aspirated between the vowels. (5.) Nl dilg-a'
2d pi. art. neut. unkindness to do 3d sing. pass, towards you but back speak 2d pi.
id an ' ankride do'gnl ' Ber fr • ib old at ' gairiB
at scold 2d pi. at every one and to from take 2d pi. every one neg. rel. to from
ar ' keliB ar • ya~^ okus di • oi • prid kd\ na ti ' u '
take 3d sing, imper. every one his fellow
brad ka^ a • yele, ye do not pardon the unkindness
that is offered to you, but you retort and inveigh at every one, and
you defraud every one ; let not every one defraud his fellow ; the a of
dilgaid seems to be due to the negative (120) ; dilg- seems to be a
compound of di from, and lug let go or loose ; ankride is compounded
of an privative and kride the heart ; dogniBer from dogniu I do to ;
atgairiO arkeliB are of Series III. (120); dioiprid is compounded of
di to, od from, and her to bear, bear from (another) to (yourself),
the d of od, though dropped, hardens b to p,1 as that of nad
hardens d of next word to t; na or nad is the negative particle
of a dependent or relative sentence, it seems to incorporate with the
negative the demonstrative element ad, referring to that on which it
run 3d pi. all and is one man
depends or to which it is relative. (6.) Red 'it huili okus is'oin fer
get 3d sing. rel. victory of 3d pi. dat. in his completing prize seek pass. 3d per. subj.
gaib ' es buaid di • ib inn'a"xpmaln'adlannseg ' ar
1 Zeuss, p. 856.
180 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. [SECT. vi.
there is fern, that reward art. gen. contest gen.
and is ' si ede dul%inne in ' milti, all run and there is one
man who gets the victory of them in his finishing, the prize
that is sought there, that is the reward of the contest ; reOit
is third plural present of the verb red run ; is third singular verb
substantive ; komalnad is the verbal noun or infinitive ; the -ar
of segar is a form of the third person passive, analogous to -a in the
active (121), and used in a relative clause; dul%inne is feminine
is custom for
derivative -inne ; milti genitive of milte neuter. (7.) Is ' bees do '
art. dat. pi. good teacher dat. pi. praise art. knowledge gen. art. gen. pi.
naib dag ' forkitlid • ib mol • ad in ' gni innan •
hear er gen. pi. so that love 3d pi. sub. what past hear 3d pi. pret.
ets'id ' e ar • a • kar • at an • ro • -/luin • etar, praise of
the knowledge of the pupils is a custom with good teachers that they
may like what they have heard ; forkitlidib and etside seem to be of
the same original formation in -idu, and to be declined like dilgud
(111), forkitlid is derived from forkital instruction, which is derived
from forxanim I teach, which is compounded of /or, on over, and
kan, which seems to mean speak ; Zeuss (p. 440) translates foryun
dico praecipio ; molad is verbal noun or so-called infinitive ; gni is
genitive of gne ; ara is conjunction, compounded of ar to, in order to,
interrog. not known to you be 3d pi. many kinds
and a demonstrative. (8.) Ki • ni gle I • ib ata 'at il ' \enele
speech gen. sing, this world dem.
berli i'sin-biuO • so, is it not known to you there are many
kinds of speech in this world? ki is the interrogative pronoun what,
used as an interrogative particle ; -ib the suffix of second plural; ataat
third plural present indicative of ata to be ; kenele plural of neuter
noun of Order I., Series I. ; bcrli genitive singular of berle ; biuB
is known to me be 3d sing. fut.
dative singular of biO (111). (9.) Is • gU li • m'sa ro'm ' bia
victory
buaid, 'tis known to me I shall have the victory ; -sa strengthens
the first singular (114) ; ro strengthens the future bia with a sense
of completion, and it is probably on account of the completion
that it is bia instead of Lied, for robia occurs also in indicative
quantity to rel.
sentences ; -m- is infixed first person. (10.) Meit do ' n '
in 3d sing. pas. subj. on us tribulation is dem. fern, quantity art. dem.
ind'nag ' ar forn'ni f°\iB i* ' xi meit in ' sin
to rel. in 3d sing. pass. subj. art. comfort verbal noun not give 3d sing. God
do • n ' ind'narj ' ar in • dWn • ad, ni tabir dia
on us therefore tribulation not dem. under with bear past 1st pi. rel. be
fovn'ni dim foyj® n • ad • fo • yotn ' ol ' s ' am, k ' i '
3d sing. art. fein. tribulation bear 1st pi. jires. to bear 3d sing, comfort in
d ind f(>\iV folloh ' <iin do • ber diBn'addar'
its place by boar art. gen. pi. gen. pi. be 3d sing. fut. art. fern, salvation past
(t'hfitstii, tre'fulan iima ' fnchide bied ind ' hik ro'
know IHI i>l. be 3d sing. rel. firm your faith this dat. pi. tribulationdat.pl.
Jit ' funnnr be ' .s- wnirt forn'iressi is?i • aib fo^id ' ib,
as much as tribulation is urduim-d for us, so much it is that comfort
is ordained ; God gives not to us therefore tribulation that we might
not bear thouh there be tribulation that we bear he brins comfort
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. 181
in its place ; by bearing of tribulations shall be salvation ; we know that
your faith is firm in these tribulations ; donindnagar is from the
doubly compounded verbal stem do'ind'nag, from a root nag, with
some fine simple meaning like put or give ; n is an infixed relative
referring to meit ; fornni is forn strengthened with ni the strengthen-
ing element of the first plural; nadfoypmalsam is for nadfo^pmfolsam,
the root being fol bear, of which follon or fulaii is a lengthened form ;
dober is a compound of do and ber ; so is an intensive prefix, Sanskrit
is custom arrogance gen. sing. fem. is different art. neut.
su, Greek iv. (11.) Is ' bes uailbe is • sain an '
dem. out bear 3d sing. subj. pass, in 3d sing. fem. and to do 3d sing. ind. pass.
I as • ber ' ar in ' di okus do'gni ' Oer,
the custom of arrogance is, that is different which is said in it and is acted;
uailbe is genitive singular of ualb, Order I. , Series ^.,dogni6er is done to.
if be 3d sing, second, pres. ill will and revenge in every one of
(12.) Ma ' beiO ml • du6ra%t okus digal la kd-% ud'
2d pi. to other dat. sing. on thought there lest end 3d sing. subj. pass.
ib dralail • iu beiO for-menme and arna'foirkne • a
your religion then
for'krabud and, if ill-will and revenge be in every one of you
towards another, there should be care lest your religion end then ;
digal is compounded of di from, and gal strife ; formenme thought
on ; arna is ar to, in order to, and na relative negative ; foirknea is a
is 3d sing. neut. dem. this
denominative verb from for'kenn end. (13.) Is ' hed in ; so
what pray 1st sing, that attain to 2d pi. between knowledge art. God gen. and that
no'guid • im kon ' duk • aid etar • gne n • dae okus ko~
not be 3d sing. subj. darkness art. gen. pi. desire world ly gen. pi. on eye
na'ro ' ib temel inna tol domun ' d ' e tarrosk
your soul gen. sing, that be 3d sing. subj. clear eye your soul gen. sing.
forn ' anm ' e ko ' ro • p feig rosk forn ' anm • e
this is what I pray that ye may attain to the knowledge of God, and
that (the) darkness of worldly desires be not on (the) eye of your
soul, that the eye of your soul be clear ; duk is compounded of do to,
and ik reach or arrive at, -aid is the inflection of a dependent verb
(120) ; etargne is a compound, distinguishing knowledge ; dia, God, is
declined irregularly ; ro is the verbal particle used with the subjunc-
tive ib or p for be (118) ; tol is genitive plural like rann (111) ;
not be 3d pi. many faculty pi. to
anme genitive singular of anim. (14.) Ni ' t • at il • dan • i do
one man dat. sing, and not one faculty to society dat. sing.
oen fiur okus ni oen dan do so-^uid • i, many faculties
are not to one man, and not one faculty to many ; nitat is con-
tracted from niataat, from the verb substantive ata ; dan mascu-
line noun, genitive dano, seems to make the plural not like bid,
but in -i ; fiur dative of fer, so%uidi dative of so%uide feminine,
do 2d pi. imper. what out bear 3d sing. subj. pass, to 2d pi. like as to
(15.) Den • id an • as • ber • ar fr • ib, amno'd'u'
2d pi. love 1st sing. emph. love 3d sing, imper. every one of 2d pi. emph.
6 • kair • im ' se kar • ad ka% ua • ib • si
other accus. sing, not to with come 3d sing, imper. every one glory accus. sing, for
alaile ni t • air • g • ed ka% indokbdil do
himself come for his fellow dat. sing, be 3d sing, imper. noble comp.
fe'sin t • air k'ed di' a' yfl • iu bad uaisl ' iu
182 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CELTIC. [SECT. VI.
every one with another accus. than be 3J sing. rel. himself not look 3d sing imper.
kdx li ' alaile ol • da • as fessin na dek • ad
art. faculty to give past part, to himself hut faculty his fellow gen. sing.
in ' dan do'rad • ad do fessin akt dan a • yel ' i, do what
is told you, like as I love you, let every one of you love another, let
not every one gain glory for himself, let him gain for his fellow, let
every one be more noble with (in the opinion of) another than what is
himself, let him not regard the faculty given to himself, but the
faculty of his fellow ; nodubkairimse (114) ; tairged tairked is trans-
lated by Zeuss paret, and is explained as the verb ik or ig to arrive,
doubly compounded with do, which he translates ad, and air, which
he translates ad apud ; indokbdil from indokbal feminine, declined
towards of taking
like rann ; Zeuss supposes it a double compound, ind ' od • gabal ; it
seems more probably connected with the root dek like Im'tca do%a ;
doradad given to.
The following is an example of the impersonal inflection of the
that comfort 1st pi. suhj. emph. 1st pi. every one in
passive : (16.) Kor • ro • nert • am ' ni M% hi
Buffering dat. sing, tribulation gen. pi. like as 1st pi. comfort 3d sing. suhj. pass.
foditin ftf/fid ' e am no • n ' nert ' ar
empb. 1st pi. ?of God
ni ho dia, that we may comfort every one in the suffering of
tribulations like as it is comforted to us of God ; l ro is the verbal
particle used before the subjunctive (118).
The Celtic race is distinguished amongst the Indo-European races
by quickness of thought ; and accordingly their language shows a
tendency to break thought into smaller parts than any of the Indo-
European languages. This appears in the fragments of the pronouns
which are so much used, and which need to be strengthened by each
other more than in any of the kindred languages. It appears also in
the lightness with which some nouns are thought, so as to be used
like pronouns (114, 115). It appears most distinctly in the tendency
to reduce the root to such a fragment of thought that it has to be
compounded with one or two particles to express what in the other
languages is a simple idea ; thus in Example 3, the compound do'ynesu
is translated by Zeuss fac ; in 5, di'oi-prid fraudatis ; in 10, do-ind'
nagar tribuitur, fo-^om'olsam sustineamus ; in 11, a&'berar dicitur;
in 15, t'air'ged paret.
The lightness of the parts into which Celtic speech is broken is
doubtless connected with that intonation, as of singing, which may be
observed in the speaking of French and Irish. This kind of intona-
tion is to be observed also in the quick languages of Africa (Sect. L,
48) ; and it arises from the light parts of the sentences being merged
in the whole ; so that there is a tendency, instead of distinguishing
the parts with accentuation, to give expressiveness to the utterance of
the whole by inflections of the voice.
1 ZCUSH, p. 475.
SECT. vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. 183
TEUTONIC.
132. Among the Teutonic languages, the High German which was
spoken originally in the higher lands of the south,1 but which now
prevails over the whole of Germany, is distinguished from the other
languages by some remarkable features. It has been divided by
German philologists into three periods, called by them the Old, the
Middle, and the New.
The other Teutonic languages are Gothic, Old Frisian, Old Saxon,
Anglo-Saxon, Low German Middle and New, Dutch Middle and New,
Old Norse, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, English.
The principal attention here will be given to the Gothic, Anglo-
Saxon, and Old High German.
The most striking difference between High German and the other
Teutonic languages is that which is stated in Grimm's law of the
changes of the mutes. That law is that the medial of the older Indo-
European languages becomes in Teutonic a tenuis, the older tenuis an
aspirate, the older aspirate a medial ; but that in High German this
transmutation is repeated, so that the medial of the other languages
becomes in High German a tenuis, their tenuis an aspirate, their
aspirate a medial. This law, however, does not prevail so generally
in the middle and end of words as in the beginning, being interfered
with in those positions by other tendencies.2 And even in the begin-
ning of a word it is subject to limitations.
For the Teutonic languages in their early period, as represented by
the Gothic, had no true aspirate either in the labial or in the guttural
order, but instead of aspirates the spirants / and h. These have not
the closure of the organs interruptive of the breath which belongs to
the mutes, and consequently they were exempted from the law of
change ; so that though an original p became / in Gothic, this / re-
mained spirant in Old High German ; and though an original k became
h in Gothic, this h remained unchanged in Old High German.3 In
the dental order there was an aspirate in Gothic which became d in
Old High German.
This want of an aspirate in the labial and guttural orders shows a
weakness of the interruptive closure in the labial and guttural
utterance as represented in Gothic, in consequence of which, when the
breath broke through with an aspiration, the closure was not felt at
all, and it was a spirant that was uttered. In consequence of this
labial weakness p was unknown as an initial in Gothic except in
foreign words, and pp, bb, ff, vv, had no place in it.4 And though
k occurred as an initial, it was probably uttered somewhat softly, for
Ulphilas uses it for both x and x ', 5 and kk occurs only in foreign
words, while gg was nasal.6
This weakness of utterance almost disappears in High German,
the only traces of it being that Middle High German retains Gothic b
1 Grimm, Geschichte der Deutschen Sprache, p. 482. J Ibid. pp. 393, 394.
3 Ibid. p. 395. * Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, i. pp. 65, 60.
8 Ibid. p. 68. 6 Ibid. pp. 71, 72.
184) GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. [SECT. vi.
and g in the beginning and middle of a word ; and Notker's rule of
writing Old High German (138) retains Gothic b and g in the beginning,
if the preceding word end in a liquid or a vowel. High German, how-
ever, admits initial p, has true labial and guttural aspirates, and
doubles the labials and the gutturals.1 We do not in these languages
distinguish post-palatals from gutturals.
The first step of the change of the mutes was accomplished, accord-
ing to Grimm, by the Teutonic languages in the course of the first
two centuries of our era, the second by the High German, about the
seventh century.2 Previously to both these transmutations, the
Teutonic language must have had true aspirates, both labial and
guttural, out of which they developed the medials. At that time,
therefore, the breath did not break through in the utterance of a
labial or guttural aspirate, so as to abolish the interruptive closure,
but was let through after it. Was this because the closure was then
stronger than it afterwards became, or because the pressure of the
breath was weaker1? Now, in the High German the new aspirate
was uttered with more tension of the organs than the old. It was
formed out of the old tenuis, not by relaxing the closure, for then the
new aspirate would have been as soft as the old, but with mainte-
nance of the tension of the organs. It was uttered with additional
force of breath breaking through the closure, so that t, for example,
became ts, which was stronger than the old aspirate th, as ch also was
stronger than h, and ph than /. And in the parallel phenomenon,
when the transmutation was taking place in Gothic, we must suppose
that it was an access of breath which changed the old p into /, the
old k into h, the old t into th, and that the former utterance of the
language was with less pressure of breath. So uttered, the lips were
capable of an initial p, and the lips and the back part of the tongue
could interrupt the first pressure of the breath which was to break
through with an aspiration, so as to utter true aspirates.
Now, the access of breath which tended to change the tenuis to an
aspirate would tend also to change the medial to a tenuis, for in the
increase of the current of breath the vocal chords would be relaxed to
give it freer passage, the sonancy would in consequence be given up,
and the breath would strike more hardly on the closure of the organs.
On the aspirate the effect would be, as on the tenuis, to overpower
the closure, so as either to abolish it or to cause it to be less felt in the
utterance. The former effect, however, would be hindered by the
nature of the aspirate. For, whereas the tension of the organs in
uttering the tenuis is a single act, that of the aspirate is a tension
followed by a partial relaxation of the organs ; and however this
action were overpowered when affected with an access of breath, the
beginning of the new utterance would be felt to be closer than the
end. In both beginning and end the breath would predominate over
the organ, and the action of the organ be less felt. The closure
would become a weaker element of the utterance, and the relaxation
which followed would let the breath pass without any sense of utter-
1 (Jrimm, Deutsche (Jrammatik, pp. 129, 148, 184, 193, 194.
• Grimm, (Jcschichte, p. 437.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. 185
ance at all. The consequence would be that the new utterance of
the aspirate as felt would be reduced to a soft interruption of the
breath, and it would define itself as a medial.
133. The increase of breath in the utterance of the consonants
seems to have affected the Teutonic vowels also, opening the vowel
utterance when close, to give breath to the consonants, so as sometimes
to cause the vowels to break or vary in the course of their utterance,
and make two vowels to be heard instead of one.
The original Teutonic vocalisation, to judge from the Gothic, seems
to have corresponded with that of Sanskrit, except that it had neither
d nor t, but e or 5 instead of a, and ei for I, and that it had the
peculiar diphthong iu. Like Sanskrit, it had neither e nor 6 ; its
vowels were a, *', u, u, e, and o, and it had the diphthongs ai and au.
The substitution of e for a, and ei for I, indicates a somewhat less
vocal character than Sanskrit, for it shows less attention to the distinct
utterance of the vowels, the openness of a and the closeness of I being
both eased in the intermediate vowel e. The diphthong iu also seems
to indicate a closeness of vowel utterance, as if there were an absence
of the habit of a full vocalisation. It involves a palatal tendency
such as may be observed in the English pronunciation of u, as, for
example, in the word tube, pronounced tyube. But the Gothic iu is
not yu, but a true diphthong, of which the stronger element is i,1
This original vocalisation of Gothic seems to have been somewhat
altered by the additional breath in the utterance of the consonants.
For before h and r, which demand breath for their utterance, the close
vowels i and u became ai and au ; distinguished by Grimm as ai and
au from the diphthongs, which he writes di and du.2 He considers
ai and au to have been originally long, though afterwards pronounced
short, and used by Ulphilas for s and o; di and du correspond to
ai and au.3 The breath supplied in larger measure to h and r opened
the utterance of i and u as with a prefixed to pass the larger volume
of the current of breath.
134. The Anglo-Saxon vocalisation also bears traces of the influence
of this access of breath to the consonants ; but under somewhat
different forms from Gothic, owing to a difference of utterance. For
Anglo-Saxon utterance is closer than Gothic ; the organs are less opened.
This seems to be due to the consonant engaging more interest than in
Gothic and the vowel less ; for the consonants are uttered with pres-
sure of breath on closed or partially closed organs, and their predomi-
nance causes a tendency to reduce the openness of the current of
breath, by virtue of the prevalent volitions of interruptive closure.
There is, however, a prolonged softness in doubled nasals, and in a
nasal followed by a mute, which causes these combinations to have
little pressure of the breath, so that a preceding them is not closed in
sympathy with their interruptive closure, nor is i or u opened to
supply more breath for pressure,4 though sometimes a becomes o5 in
sympathy with the anterior closure of the nasal with continued sonancy.
1 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 50. 2 Ibid. i. p. 44 ; Grimm, Gesch., p. 277.
3 Grimm, Gram., i. pp. 44-48. 4 Ibid. i. pp. 223, 226, 227.
B Ibid. i. p. 224.
VOL. II. N
186 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. [SECT. vi.
In general, a yields to the close tendency, and becomes a when
followed by a consonant. It remains a in the flexion endings or deriva-
tion endings -a, -as, -an, -ath, -al, perhaps because in these its signifi-
cance maintained it ; also before a single consonant, sometimes also
before 8t, sk, Id (probably when uttered almost singly, 157), provided
such consonants be followed by a, o, u of flexion or derivation syllable ;
but in this case, if m be the consonant, a sometimes becomes o ; l also
before final m, or m followed by final e, becoming, however, some-
times o.2 The a is represented in Anglo-Saxon by ce.3
Now, a becomes fa before II, rr, rl, rn, and before I or r, followed
by p, f, t, d, dh, k, g, h, m, or s, also before h, ht, hs.*
These all require force of breath, and this reacted on the vowel,
opening its habitually close utterance as it passed to the consonant, so
that it began as f and ended as a.
Grimm says, "ta ist zwar diphthongisch, aber beindhe kurz zu
sprecJien, d. h. gleich einem kurzen a mitfliichtig vorgeschlagenem f." B
A, d, and fa all occur before single I, r, p, /, t, d, dh, k, g, and before
/'/ st 6
Jl, SI.
In accordance with this tendency of the close vowel utterance to be
opened by the access of breath to the consonants, i and u of Gothic
tend to become f and o in course of time.7
/ of Gothic is apt to be represented in Anglo-Saxon by f, but
before h, ht, Anglo-Saxon favours i on account of its close palatal
tendency.8
Gothic ai is represented in Anglo-Saxon by f, fo,9 but before those
of the combinations mentioned above, which begin with r, Gothic
ai is represented regularly in Anglo-Saxon by to, " diplithongische
doc.h halbkurze aussytrache mit blossem vorschlag des f." 10
The occurrence of fo in Anglo-Saxon where Gothic has i or ai
seems to be due to the access of breath to the consonant, opening the
vowel as it passed to the consonant. For the utterance in Anglo-
Saxon being closer than in Gothic, the vowel maintained its closeness
in the beginning, and was not opened till the end, where it was more
opened in Anglo-Saxon than in Gothic in course of time from the
longer action of the cause ; as fa came from a, so the closer fo came
from the closer i, al.
No diphthong in Anglo-Saxon has the second vowel closer than
the first, owing to this habit of retro-activo opening of the vowels in
the end of their utterance, And hence Gothic di is represented in
Anglo-Saxon by d, and Gothic du by ea,n the second vowel in both
being opened, and the first in the latter being closed. In di a was
more predominant than in du.
In Gothic aii, u predominated over a. In Anglo-Saxon u is opened
and a is assimilated, and a/i becomes o.1-
1 Grirnm, Gram., i. pp. 223, 224. a Ibid. i. pp. 232, 233. » Ibid. i. p. 235.
4 Ibid. i. p. 230. 5 Ibid. i. p. 238. 8 Ibid. i. p. 237.
7 Ibid. i. pp. 2'JC, 2-J7. 8 Ibid. i. p. 226. » Ibid. i. pp. 81, 226.
1J Ibid. i. pp. 239, 240. »' Ibid. i. pp. 228, 238. 12 Ibid. i. p. 227.
SECT. vi. J GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : TEUTONIC. 187
The diphthong ei is contrary to the habit of Anglo-Saxon utterance,
and I, for which it is used in Gothic, takes its place in Anglo-Saxon.1
The diphthong iu is sometimes represented in Anglo-Saxon by ?6,2
the second vowel being as usual opened, and the first reduced, losing
in its reduction its distinctive closeness. Sometimes it is represented
by long u,3 the u having absorbed the i.
The closeness of Anglo-Saxon utterance is to be seen in y and w or
u closing into g.*
135. Old Norse had a tendency to vocalisation which perhaps was
due to Finnish influence (IV. 147). The vowels were generally
lengthened, at least in the later pronunciation, when they were not
followed immediately by a consonant utterance which was felt with
distinctness after them. Thus a, i, u, and o were lengthened at the
end of a word and before nk, ng, in which n is half merged in k and
g ; a and o were lengthened also before Im, Ip, If, Ik, Ig, and U (for
fit), a also before s (for ns) ; u was lengthened also before If and s
(for us) ; e is lengthened only before U (for ht).6 The guttural open-
ness of a and o weakened I before any consonant but a dental ; u
weakened Z in Z/by its affinity for// and thus room was made for
the lengthening of the vowel. But $ became ia before Id, Is, rr, rl,
rm, rn, rd, rk, rg, probably also at an earlier period before Im, Ip, If,
Ik, Ig ; it varied between e and ia before II, It, Ig, rf, rt, rdh, I, r, f,
t, dh, s, g, k ; " ia ist fast einfacher laut mit leise vorschlagendem i" 6
This change of e comes from the access of breath to the consonants,
and the tendency of the language to vocalisation ; the consonant
utterance which demanded most breath opened the vowel in the tran-
sition of the latter to it, making the beginning of $ to be felt as i.
From the action of the breath also, Gothic i and u tended to become
f and o ; and from the assimilation of the vowels in course of time
Gothic ai tended to become e, Gothic au to become o.7 Gothic e
is represented by a,8 Gothic iu by i6;9 but iu had also by the
assimilation of its vowels in course of time become long u,10 or at the
end of a word ie, e.u
136. In Old High German the older combinations of open and close
vowel which were in Gothic, had in course of time been eased and
simplified in utterance by assimilation of one vowel to another. In
this way ai and aii had generally become $ and o ; and di and du had
generally become ei and ou.12 But the additional access of breath
which the consonants received reacted on the vowels, opening them
more or less according to its strength, where they had remained close.
Thus Gothic i and u tend to be represented in High German by e
and o, and Gothic iu by io, eo.13 But before two consonants i and u
were slower to change owing to the strong interruption of the breath.14
Before the spirants h, s, and v, the diphthongs ei and ou (Gothic
di and dii) had their close second vowels opened by the breath which
1 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 230. - Ibid. i. p. 240. 3 Ibid. i. p. 231.
4 Ibid. i. p. 259-261. 6 Ibid. i. p. 286-291. 6 Ibid. i. pp. 29G, 297.
7 Ibid. i. pp. 282, 284. 8 Ibid. i. p. 285. 9 Ibid. i. p. 298.
10 Ibid. i. p. 291. « Ibid. i. p. 288. 12 Ibid. i. pp. 80, 84, 99, 101.
13 Ibid. pp. 81, 84, 102, 106. 14 Ibid. i. pp. 83, 86.
188 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. [SECT. vi.
the spirants demanded, and became e and o. This change took place
in ou before the dentals also,1 as if the dental closure caused an indis-
position for the degree of anterior labial closure which is required for
the utterance of u.
137. Old High German had a fuller vocalisation than Gothic. It
had a and i, which Gothic had reduced to e and ei.2 From an older
o it had developed oa, tio, ua? And when e (Gothic di) was followed
by v, v was vocalised to u or o * (147).
138. The pressure of breath from the chest in uttering the con-
sonants, which, increased by two successive steps, produced the changes
of the mutes as stated in Grimm's law, explains also the principal
exceptions to that law. It arose from an increased volition to carry
expression through (Def. 25), and this caused an increased current of
breath through the word, which was stopped at the end of the word,
with increase of pressure there. And the increased transmission of
the breath in the middle tended to relax the interruptions of the
breath, the closure of the organ yielding to the breath to let it
through for the utterance of the rest of the word.
In Gothic the old p, and sometimes the old k, being weak utterances
(132), instead of holding with aspiration the breath which came on
them in the middle of the word, yielded it for the utterance of the
rest of the word, relaxing the tension so as to become medial, instead
of becoming aspirates according to the law.^ The new medials in the
middle of the word resisted the breath so little that they remained,6
but in the end the pressure of the breath on them was such that it
passed through with an utterance and they became aspirates, unless
when preceded by a liquid,7 which took up the breath in its own
utterance and relieved the pressure. Thus 6 and d at the end became
/ and 6, but h had not enough tension for the repression of the breath
which took place at the end of the word, and the new g remained.8
In Anglo-Saxon the consonants were stronger (134), and in Old
Norse the current of breath was less (see below) ; so that in both the
transmission of the breath in the middle of a word was reduced.
The old p became /in the middle and end of the word according to
Grimm's law,9 but the old ph, instead of yielding the aspiration in the
middle of the word, retained it and became/, except when double or
after nasal.10 At the end of a word the new b was replaced by/, and
in Anglo Saxon after a long vowel g became h;11 but in Old Norse
final (j did not become h, but was dropped in the preterite;12 d was
confused with dh in the middle and end of the word in Anglo-Saxon
and Old Norse, d being preserved in Old Norse by I, in, or n preceding
it,13 and taking up tin; breath in its own utterance so as to prevent the
aspiration, and in Anglo-Saxon similarly by /, n, or r preceding it.14
In Old Saxon and Old Frisian the consonants were softer than in
1 Grimm, (Irani., i. pp. 90, 94. - Ibid. i. pp. 86, 93. 8 Ibid. i. p. 111.
4 Ibid. i. ]>. 'JO. 6 Grimm, Gesch., pp. 407, 409.
8 Grimm, Grain., pp. 61, 69, 5SC. 7 Ibid. pp. 55, 62. 8 Ibid. p. 69.
v Grimm, Gesch., p. 407. lc Grimm., Gram., pp. 247, 310.
11 Ibid. pp. 247, 259, 310. )2 Ibid. p. 321. '•> Ibid. i. p. 315.
14 Ibid. i. p. 252.
SECT. VI.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : TEUTONIC. 189
Anglo-Saxon, and in them the new b in the middle of a word was
replaced by bh instead of/.1
In High German the new aspirate z (ts) became ss after a vowel in
the middle and end of a word.2 And in the end of a word the new
medials resisted the pressure of the breath, and sometimes in Old
High German, as a rule in Middle High German, became tenues,3
while in Old High German v became /, and in Middle High German v
and h became / and % in the end of a word.4
In High German the older k, which in the beginning of the word
was only sometimes aspirated, in the Middle High German scarcely
ever, was generally aspirated by the breath of the middle and end of
the word, especially after a vowel. But in Middle High German the
old g was preserved generally in the beginning and middle of a word,
and the old b also.5
The Allemannian dialect of the Old High German, as it was written
at St. Gall by Notker (A.D. 900) and his companions, shows a tendency
to a weak closure of the organs in the utterance of the labial and
guttural mutes which corresponds to what has been observed in 132;
and on the other hand a tendency to a strong closure in the utterance
of the dentals, which corresponds to the general increase of strength in
the High German consonants. Their rule in writing is that the old b
and g are not changed to p and k in the beginning of a word if the
preceding word end in a vowel or liquid, unless this is separated
by concluding a sentence ; but that the old th at the beginning of a
word, which begins a sentence or follows a spirant or mute, instead of
becoming d becomes t.6
As the pressure of breath changed the mutes, so a liquid or spirant
or smooth aspirate preceding the mute often prevented the change by
taking up the breath in its own utterance. Thus in Old High German
the older p, and at first the older k, was preserved after s ; T in Old
and Middle High German the older t after h, s, or/, and before r;8
and in the Old High German the older k often after I, n, s, or r.9
Owing to the pressure of breath with which the Teutonic mutes
were uttered, they generally required when immediately preceded by
another consonant that this should be a smooth aspirate or spirant to
let breath come to them. Thus in Gothic before t of second preterite
and before -t of substantives, p and 6 became /, k and g became h, t
d and th became s. Final s also in Gothic sometimes aspirated b
and d preceding it to get breath.10
Old Norse, Swedish, and Danish are exceptions to the above rule; for
Old Norse has pt,11 Swedish has kt,12 Danish has gf,13 but kt, gt also
became it. These languages came under the influence of the Finnish
language (171), which has no aspirates, tends to form double letters
1 Grimm, Gram., i. pp. 212, 275. ~ Ibid. i. pp. 165, 413.
3 Ibid. i. pp. 131, 157, 182, 377. < Ibid. i. pp. 137, 378.
6 Ibid. i. pp. 183-186, 396, 423, 428.
6 Grimm, Gesch., p. 361-366 : Gram., i. pp. 130, 158 note, 181.
7 Grimm, Gram., i. pp. 129, 179. 8 Ibid. i. pp. 154, 413.
9 Ibid. i. p. 181. 10 Grimm, Gesch., pp. 362, 363.
11 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 313. 12 Ibid. i. p. 557. u Ibid. i. p. 570.
190 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. [SECT. vi.
by assimilation, and utters its consonants lightly, with little pressure
of breath (IV. 147).
Besides the above causes of exceptions to Grimm's law, the High
German authorities vary in the mutes, some of them being under
the influence of the more northern languages more than others.1 And
according to Grimm some words also retained the old utterance ; the
stream of change flowed past them and left them unmoved.2
139. The Teutonic languages are some harder than others in the
utterance of the consonants. The High German shows hardness in
changing the medial to tenuis in the end of a word. And to this
Grimm compares its intolerance of double liquids in the end of a
word j 3 which certainly indicates a habit of stronger interruption of
the breath in the utterance of the consonant. In this respect Anglo-
Saxon agrees with High German, showing itself harder than Old
Saxon, which admits double liquids at the end of the word ; * as it
also changes b to / in the middle of the word, while Old Saxon
changes b to bh.
High German also shows its hardness in having instead of / the
labial aspirate pf used in Middle High German always in the begin-
ning of the word and after short vowels or m in the middle and end,5
in aspirating t with s instead of with A, and in its guttural aspirate.6
It also admitted p as an initial, of which, moreover, Anglo-Saxon was
somewhat more tolerant than Gothic,7 and both High German and
Anglo-Saxon doubled labials and gutturals.8
The natural tendency, however, as time goes on, is to ease the
utterance, and so s was gradually softened in the Teutonic languages
to z and r, especially after a vowel. But this change of « to r was
carried farther in Old Norse than in any other of the languages.9
140. The increased pressure of breath from the chest is accompanied
in High German, as has been observed in other languages, by the
development of a more guttural utterance (V. 50, 75 ; VI. 80, 107).
And probably the Finnish influence, acting on the Swedish and
the Danish, and reducing the breath from the chest in uttering the
consonants, caused the so called gutturals to become palatal or ante-
palatal in the beginning of a word before e, i, a, o, or M.10 This change
Grimm considers not proved for Old Norse,11 and denies it in Anglo-
Saxon.12 In Old Frisian ho supposes that k in this position was
uttered strongly and with an aspiration, as in certain words it passed
into sz, sth, tz.13 The new utterance was represented in Swedish by
ty or ky, in Danish by Icy 10 (176). To Finnish influence is probably
also due the softening of the consonants and the tendency to double
them in the Norse languages10 (179).
141. The accent of the word in the Teutonic languages lengthened
in course of time the vowel on which it fell, unless when followed by
I Grimm, Gesch., p. 424. '-' Grimm, Gram., i. p. 590.
3 Ibid. i. pp. 12-J, 378. * Ibid. i. pp. '210, 245.
6 Ibid. i. p. 396-398. 6 Grimm, Gesch., pp. 394, 395.
7 Grimm, Gram., i. pp. 129, 217. 8 Ibid. i. pp. 143, 193, 250, 264-266.
9 Ibid. i. pp. 64, 305. 10 Ibid. i. pp. 555, 563, 564, 568.
II Ibid. L p. 321. I: Ibid. i. pp. i>57, 258. 13 Ibid. i. p. 277.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. 191
a double consonant, and weakened the unaccented syllables, so that the
vowels of the endings all tended to be reduced to e or i in the later
languages, and the unaccented syllables to be curtailed.1
142. One of the most remarkable features in the Teutonic languages
is the umlaut, by which word Grimm denotes the change produced in
the vowel of the root by i or later by e, sometimes by u, in a forma-
tive syllable, which change sometimes remains though the i or u is
dropped, sometimes disappears with the i or «.2 The umlaut has a
resemblance to the infections to which the Celtic vowels are so sub-
ject (93, 94), and like these it was developed only in later times in
the Teutonic languages, so that it does not appear at all in Gothic.*
But it is strikingly distinguished from the Celtic infections in being
limited to the root. The formative syllables are liable indeed to
have their vowels changed, the vowel of one into that of another ;
but this is called by Grimm assimilation 4 in order to distinguish it
from the partial change or umlaut to which the vowel of the root is
subject. The remarkable circumstance in the umlaut is that it is the
strong accented syllable of the root which is subject to it, and that
the influence to which this syllable yields comes from the compara-
tively weak formative syllable ; nay, that in the course of time as the
formative syllables grew weaker and the radical syllable more pre-
dominant the umlaut of the latter was more extensively developed.5
This is not a case of mere phonetic action. In such action it is the
strong accented vowel that would tend to affect the weak unaccented
vowel with a partial assimilation to itself. Here it dominates over
the latter in another way, namely, by absorbing it into itself, and this
must be by a mental action. The facts can be understood only as
indicating that the root takes the umlaut in consequence of the radical
element of thought absorbing into itself more and more the minor
elements which complete the idea of the word, so that the expression
of the former is more and more affected by that of the latter, according
as the idea of the word grows in singleness and concentration. And
so understood, the umlaut is to be classed with the changes which take
place in language as inflections decay ; but it owes its special form to
another feature of the Teutonic languages, in connection with which
it will be considered further on (173).
But though the umlaut is characteristic rather of Teutonic thought
than of Teutonic utterance, it is of course affected by phonetic influences.
It is always the formative syllable Aveakened by the predominance
of the accented syllable which affects the vowel of the root ; and so
weakened, no vowel except e or i is sufficiently distinct in the mus-
cular action of its utterance to effect the change. All the unaccented
vowels tended to become e or« (141); and the umlaut is always an
infusion of i or e into the radical vowel, except in the Norse languages.
In these, owing apparently to the influence of the Finnish language,
in which the vowels are strong (IV. 147), u in a formative syllable or
a has sometimes sufficient distinctness to affect the vowel of the root
1 Grimm, Gram., i. pp. 114, 119, 243, 367, 373, 577. 2 Ibid. i. p. 9.
3 Ibid. i. pp. 10, 51. 4 Ibid. i. pp. 117, 576. 5 Ibid. i. p. 10.
192 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. [SECT. vi.
with the umlaut.1 In the other languages the strong radical vowel is
not affected with umlaut by the indistinct a, o, or u of a formative
syllable, but by the more distinct i or e, so that the radical a, o, u,
becomes e, o, u.2 On the other hand, the vowel of one formative
syllable is weak enough to be assimilated by that of another, no
matter what vowel the latter may be, so that in Old High German o
may thus be assimilated to a, e to a, a to e, a to i, a to o, a to u, u
to o.3 It is remarkable that it is the vowel of the syllable which
precedes that is assimilated by the vowel of that which follows, as if
the final element, in being added to the preceding element to be
thought with it in the unity of the whole idea, had an advantage over
it in being thought last in completing the idea.
In Old High German the umlaut of a in the root to e, by i following,
began probably in the sixth and seventh century, affecting it first
when followed by a single consonant ; a followed by two consonants
began to be affected in the ninth century. It was later still that the
influence of i reached over an intervening syllable to affect a in the
root. It is remarkable that compound words were less subject to the
umlaut, because it required unity of idea. In Old High German there
was no umlaut of a, o, o, or u ; but in the tenth century u began to
show umlaut as iu.* There was a Teutonic tendency to this diph-
thong (133), but it required a long vowel to admit it as umlaut.
In Old Saxon there was an umlaut only of a to e.6
In Anglo-Saxon the umlaut changes not only a to e, but u to ii, a
to ce, o to e, u to long u, ed to long ii ; and often the v or i which
causes the umlaut is itself dropped by syncope or apocope, yet the
umlaut remains.6 This great development of the umlaut no doubt
arises from the Anglo-Saxon tendency to close the vowels (134).
In Old Norse the umlaut which proceeded from i changed a to e,
u to ii, a to ce, 5 to as, u to long ii, au to eii, id to i ; but also u changed
a to o, ia to id, d to au. And, as in Anglo-Saxon, the i or u which
causes the umlaut is often dropped, while the umlaut remains ; but
when i is dropped by syncope, a sometimes comes back, unless when
followed by two consonants.7 The great development of the umlaut
in Old Norse is probably due to the distinctness of the unaccented
vowels. In Swedish and Danish the umlaut from u is found only in
a few instances.8
In Middle High German every accented vowel which ended a syl-
lable was long,9 while the i or I which produced umlaut was (with
the exception of -inc, -In, -ic, -isch) reduced to unaccented e, scarcely
distinguished from ?. The umlauts were a to e, o to o, u to ii, d to ce,
0 to ce, u to iu, ou to (iu, uo to ue. No other vowel but e, which has
been i or I, can give the umlaut to a, o, u. The umlaut of a to e was
established in the ninth century, that of u to iu in the tenth, the
others in the eleventh and twelfth. The umlaut remains often after
1 has been dropped.1"
1 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 676. 2 Ibid. i. p. 9. * Ibid. i. pp. 117, 118.
4 Ibid. i. p. 77-79. 5 Ibid. i. p. 209. 6 Ibid. i. p. 243.
7 Ibid. i. pp. 281, 303. 8 Ibid. i. pp. 551, 563. 9 Ibid. i. p. 331.
10 Ibid. i. pp. 361,362.
SECT. VI.]
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC.
193
In High German the umlaut could be given only by an i which
touched the root by beginning the syllable next after it ; except when
an i beginning a third syllable had first assimilated the i of a preceding
syllable, which then gave the umlaut to the root. But in the thirteenth
century umlauts came in where the i did not begin its syllable.1
143. The following is the Gothic declension, in which the dative
case serves also for the ablative and instrumental : 2
Strong masc. 1st
declension.
Strong masc. 2d declension.
sing.
plural.
sing.
plural.
sing.
plural.
Nom.
fisk'S
fisk'os
har'yis
haryos
haird'eis
haird'yos
Gen.
fisk'is
fisk'e
har'yis
har'ye
haird'eis
haird'ye
Dat.
fisk'a
fisk'am
har'ya
liar "yam
haird'ya
halrd'yam
Accus.
fisk
fisk'ans
Jiar'i
har'yans
haird'i
halrd'yant
Voc:
fisk
har'i
haird'i
Strong: masc. and
fern. 3d declension.
Strong masc.
4th declension.
Strong fem.
1st declension.
Strong fem.
2d declension.
Nom.
sing.
sun'us
plural.
sun'yus
sing.
balg 's
plural.
balg'eis
sing.
gib'a
plural.
gib 'os
sing.
6ivi
plural.
6iu'yos
Gen.
sun'aus
sun'ive_
balg 'is
balg'e
gib'os
gib-o
Oiu'yos
Oiu'yo
Dat.
sun'au
sun'um
balg'a
balg-im
gifrai
gib 'dm
Oiu'yai
Oiu'yom
Accus.
sun'u
sun'uns
balg
balg -ins
gib'a
gib'os
6iu'ya
Biu'yos
Voc.
sun'au
balg
Oiv'i
Strong fem.
4th declension.
Strong neuter
1st declension.
Strong neuter
2d declension.
Nom. . .
sing.
anst 's
plural.
anst'eis
sing.
vaurd
plural.
vaurd'a
sing.
kun'i
plural.
kun'ya
Gen. . .
ansfais
anst'e
vaurd'is
vaurd' e
kun'yis
kun'ye
Dat. . .
anst'ai
anst'im
vaurd' a
vaurd'am
kun'ya
[kun'yam
Accus. . .
anst
anst'ins
vaurd
vaurd'a
kun'i
kun'ya
There is a strong feminine third declension, including only five
or six nouns declined like the masculine. The strong neuter third
1 Grimm., Gram., i. p. 363-365.
Ibid. i. p. 597-606.
194 GRAMMATICAL' SKETCHES : TEUTONIC. [SECT. vi.
declension is limited to singular oifaihu, which has genitive faih faus,
dative faih'au. The old formative ending of the stems seems to be
preserved before m in the ending of the dative plural, except that i is
used with stems ending in a consonant as well as with those in i, and
5 corresponds to Sanskrit a.
Substantives which denote sensible objects, and which involve sex
or gender in their radical idea, are principally of the fourth declension,
but those which have an abstract signification are generally of the
first,1 for they need an additional thought of substance (Def. 4),
expressed by a (8), while the former involve this in their idea.
In the nominative har'yis the a has fallen to i, and when the stem
was polysyllabic or had a long syllable, ya in nominative and genitive
singular was contracted to I, which is represented in Gothic by ei*
(133). The formative vowel of the stem was generally dropped or
shortened in the nominative singular.
The old ending of the genitive singular -yas (9) was reduced to -is or -s.
Stems ending in -u, and feminiues in -i, took up the a of yas, and
formed the genitive singular in -aus and -ais, corresponding to Sanskrit
-os and -2s ; but in proper names, which, owing to their concrete nature,
are thought more clear of the relation, the genitive ending -is was
separate from the stem ; as Jesii'is.3
In the dative singular these stems take up in the same way the
dative ending -a, which is the sole residue of aVya (11) in all except
the feminine -a stems, which retain the i ; the -a of the dative is
confounded with that of the -a stems.
The vocative sunau corresponds to that of Sanskrit -u stems (4).
The ending of the nominative plural is -as (4), which added to -a
of the stem makes -as, and is represented by -os; but in the fourth
declension of stems ending in a consonant it seems rather to be -yas
(9), contracted to -eis ; and in the third declension the y was perhaps
taken up from -yas, or perhaps was inserted on account of the phonetic
tendency to put » before u (133). The -a of the neuter corresponds to
Latin and Greek.
A similar alternative of suppositions may be made for sunive as for
sunyus, there being perhaps originally ya in the ending of the genitive
plural, which was absorbed by the final vowel of the stem in Sanskrit,
and lengthened it (13). Is it owing to the influence of such an
element that the genitive plural has e instead of o for Sanskrit a, except
with the feminine a stems, whose a overpowered the y f (111).
The m of the dative plural doubtless represents the old 6* of
I' yas (4)
The m of the accusative plural is a remarkable preservation of the
marks of case and number (62), but only in masculine nouns (14).
Of neuter nouns the nominative and the accusative were the same ;
and in the genitive singular -yix was not contracted to eis after long roots,
as if it was more independent and less closely united than in masculine
nouns.
144. There is also in all the Teutonic languages a weak declension,
as Grimm has called it, which has arisen from the insertion of n
1 Grimm, Gram., iii. p. 493. a Ibid. i. p. 599. 8 Ibid. L p. 601.
SECT. VI.]
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC.
195
or an between the stem and the element of case or number.1 It is used
with stems which have got a special application, as Gothic kaurn corn,
used to denote a grain, bandva a sign, used to denote a concerted signal,
or those which have taken up strong associations, as of action, life,
movement.2 In either case there is a fulness and strength of idea
which can never belong to a root, and in consequence of which the
stem cannot so readily take up a sense of correlation, or that of indi-
viduals constituting a plurality. The thought of the substantive
object as thus connected in a relation or a plurality required a distinct
act of attention directed to it, and this was expressed by the pro-
nominal element n or an. It is in fact an arthritic formation (Def.
7), such as is found in languages of the most diverse families (see V.
61, and the references there), in which a pronominal element is
attached to a noun or nominal stem, and refers to it to facilitate its
being taken in its present connections (147). The weak declension
seems to indicate a weakness (170) of the objective part, or element of
substance in the substantive idea (Def. 4), owing to a strengthening
of the attributive part.
145. In the Gothic weak declension (148), n was inserted when
the stem ended in ei. Otherwise an was used, the a taking the place
of the final vowel of masculine stems, and being taken up by the
original final vowel of feminine and neuter stems into o, which corre-
sponds to a. In the nominative singular n and s were dropped ; but
in the nominative plural n or an was inserted, as above described,
between the stem and the s of plurality, and in the other cases between
the stem and the element of case. In the dative plural and the
accusative plural the n was absorbed by the following nasal. In the
genitive singular and dative singular the original ya which belonged
to the element of case (4, 9, 11) having been contracted to i,
assimilated to itself the final vowel of the stem, and was afterwards
dropped. But in both cases the 5 and the ei of the feminine nouns
resisted this change. The accusative singular has dropped its case
ending in the weak declensions of all the stems, as in the strong.3
The substantive stems in -ei denote pure abstracts of adjectives,
qualities thought specially as substantives.4
146. The following are the stem and case endings in the Anglo-
Saxon declensions : 5
Strong.
Masc. Masc.
1st Decl. 2d Decl.
Fern.
1st Decl.
Fern.
4th Decl.
Neuter
1st Declension.
Neuter
2d Decl.
Nominative .
sing.
pl. sing.
-as -e
pl.
-as
sing.
-u
Pl.
-a
sing.
pl.
-a
sing.
pl.
sing.
Pl.
-u
sing.
-e
Pl.
-u
Genitive . .
•es
•a -es
-a
-e
-ena
-e
-a
-es
-a
-es
-a
-es
-a
Dative . . .
-e
-um -e
-um
•e
-um
-e
-um
-e
•um
-e
-um
-e
-um
Accusative
—
-as -e
-as
-e
-a
-e
-<L
—
—
—
-u
-e
-u
1 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 597. 2 Ibid. i. p. 821 ; iv. pp. 510, 511.
3 Ibid. i. p. 607-609. * Ibid. iii. p. 504. * Ibid. i. p. 638-647.
196
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC.
[SECT. vi.
In the weak declension the nominative singular of masculine has -a,
of feminine and neuter -e ; the other cases singular of both have -an,
except accusative singular neuter -e ; the plural cases of all have
nominative -an, genitive -ena, dative -um, accusative -an.
In the strong declension the vowels of the genitive and dative
singular have all fallen to e, and those of the dative plural to u, on
account of its affinity to m.
In the other cases the correspondences with the old vowels and
with Gothic are :
Old.
ya
a
Gothic.
yi, i
a
Anglo-Saxon.
e
u
Old.
a
ya
Gothic.
6, 5
ei
Anglo-Saxon,
a
a
The y of the Gothic stem ending is always dropped in Anglo-Saxon,
but there is a trace of it in the old plural masculine second declension
-eas. The « of the nominative and accusative plural feminine is
dropped, having been perhaps weakened by the naturally long vowel
which preceded it. The genitive plural feminine first declension -ena
belongs to the weak declension (147). The accusative plural masculine
first and second declension has dropped n. There are also a few -?t
stems of irregular declension. The nouns of the fourth declension
masculine have gone over to the first and second ; and those of the
second feminine end in -0, which does not change in the singular.
There are no third feminines.
In the weak declension, Grimm conjectures that all the vowels of
the endings of the feminine are long except that of the dative plural.1
This would lead to the conjecture that the masculine stem ended
originally in a, and the feminine in a / that d was closed to e in the
nominative singular ; but that in the other cases except genitive and
dative plural both a and d were preserved by the n which followed
them, and which perhaps was strengthened by the dropping of the case
ending so as to have something of the prolonged softness of the double
nasal or nasalised mute (134). In the genitive plural a and a were
closed to e and e. And in the nominative and accusative singular of
the neuter the a was weakened to e, the original ending having been
weaker than masculine -as.
147. The endings of the Old High German declensions are on
the opposite page.2
The original d is preserved in the nominative plural first and second
masculine, though in Gothic it had become 5; and the d of the
genitive plural, which in Gothic was c, has become d. The y has
absorbed the u in the nominative plural third declension and become I ;
as it has absorbed also the a of the stem ending in the second femi-
nine and become I, except in the dative plural, in which it is it and in the
genitive plural, in which it is dropped. In the genitive plural of the
second feminine, and throughout the first feminine, the a of the stem
has become //, except in the nominative and accusative singular, in
which it is a. >So that the feminine declensions, with the exception
1 Grimm, Grain., i. p. 820.
2 Ibid. i. p. 611-629.
BECT.VI.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC.
Strong.
197
Masc. l.
Masc. 2.
Masc. 3.
Masc. 4.
[Fern. 1.
Fern. 2.
Fern. 4.
Neut. 1.
Neut. t.
Nom.
•ff.
-d
s-'.
-*
pi.
-d
-u
pi.
iff.
pi.
•i
•ff.
•a
pi.
•d
sg-
•i
pi.
-4
•ff.
pi.
-i
5
pl.
•ff.
-i
. PL
Gen.
-es
-0
-«
-0
-es
-eo
-(S
•V5(eo)
-5
-ono
-I
-ono
-i
-yo(eo)
•M
-0
-f5
-yo (eo)
Dat.
Accus.
Instr.
-a
-a
-urn.
-d
-a
-um
-yu
-im
-a
-im
_7
-0
-om
-t
-im
•'
-im
-I
-a
-um
-e
-wm
-u
-u
•fl
yfl
of dative singular of first, differ from Gothic mainly in the prevalence
of i. The genitive singular masculine and neuter is -es, as in Anglo-
Saxon; though the s of the plural has heen dropped both in the
nominative and in the accusative. The genitive plural of first and
second feminine belongs to the weak declension ; and it is remarkable
that this is confined to the feminine nouns, in which gender is
expressed by the long final vowel of the stem. For in these the
thought of the stem as feminine is strongest, and the speciality which
this gives makes it less ready to be thought in correlation ; and in the
plural, which is less distinctly thought as object of a relation than the
singular (14), they need the arthritic n in order to take up the sense
of object to the strong genitive relation (144). In the third mas-
culine i prevails more than in Gothic, having quite taken the place of
u in the plural. The masculine and neuter nouns have stronger
substance than the feminine nouns, and being consequently more
readily thought as objects of a relation, they have an instrumental case
in Old High German and Old Saxon ending in -w, which corresponds
to Sanskrit -a.
It appears from the above that the fuller vocalisation of Old High
German than of Gothic (137) was independent of the increased pres-
sure of breath in uttering the consonants. For it is more probable
that before this came to either Gothic or High German the latter had
a where it was the original vowel while Gothic had o or e, than that
High German restored a out of o or e when it got the second access
of breath.
The loss of the final consonants everywhere except in the dative
plural is remarkable. But some personal nouns of the first masculine
retain in the accusative singular the old ending -an; l which corresponds
with what has been observed of Sanskrit masculine nouns (14).
148. The following are the Old High German endings of the weak
declension compared with the Gothic :
1 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 613.
198
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC.
[SECT. TI.
Masculine 1st declension.
Masculine 2d declension.
Feminine 1st
declension.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Accus.
Gothic.
O. H. G.
Gothic.
O. H. G.
Gothic.
O. H. G.
sing,
-a
-ins •
•in •
-an •
pL
ana
one
am
a/is
sing.
-o
•in
-in
-un (-on
pi.
-un(-on)
-6n6
-5m
•un(-on)
sing.
.ya
-yins
-yin
-yan
pi.
-yans
-yane
-yam
-yans
sing.
•yo
-yen
-yen
-yun
pL
-yun
•yono
•yom
-yun
sing.
-0
•ons
-on
•6n
pL
-6ns
-6no
•dm
-ons
sing.
-a
-un
-un
-tin
Pi-
-un
-5n6
-dm
-un
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Accus.
Feminine 2d declension.
Feminine 3d declension.
Neuter declension.
Gothic.
O. H. G.
Gothic.
O. H. G.
Gothic.
O. H. G.
sing.
-yo
-yons
•yon
-yon
pL
•yons
-yono
-yom
-yons
sing.
•ya
-yun
-yun
•yun
PL
•yun
-yono
•yom
•yun
sing.
-ei
-tint
-ein
-ein
pi.
-eins
-eino
•eim
-eins
sing.
-in
-in
-in
-in
Pi.
-in
-ino
-iml
-in
sing.
-6
-ins
-in
•0
pL
-ona
-one
-am(-nam]
-ona
sing,
-a
-in
-in
-a
Pi.
-Hn
-5no
-6m
.*„
Gothic a before n is u in Old High German, and Gothic 5 before n
is u, except in genitive plural, where both are o on account of the
following u. The dative plural masculine and neuter in Old High
German has o, perhaps from absorbing n. Gothic a of nominative
singular is o, Gothic u is a in Old High German. In Old Norse in
the strong declension the nominative singular of masculines and
the nominative plural of masculines and feminines retain -r, correspond-
ing to Gothic -s ; and in the weak declension the nominative plural of
masculines and feminines ends in -r.1
149. The adjectives belong all to the first or second declension,
except a few Gothic nominatives singular belonging to the third ; 2 the
stem, therefore, with these exceptions, ends either in -a or -ya (111).
The following is the strong first declension of adjectives in Gothic :
Singular. Plural.
Nominative
Genitive .
Dative
Accusative
masc.
-s
-is
-amma
-ana
fern.
-a
-aizos
-ai
-a
neut.
-ata
-is
-amma
-ata
masc.
-ai
•aize
-aim
-ans
fern.
-08
-aizo
-aim
-08
neut.
-a
-aize
-aim
-a
To these endings y is prefixed in the second declension,
declension is the same as that of the substantive.3
The Anglo-Saxon strong first declension is:
The weak
Singular.
Plural.
masc.
fern.
(-n)
iieut.
-f'X
-re
-es
-U1H
-re
-um
-7ie
-e
—
Nominative .
Genitive .
Dative
Accusative .
1 Grimm, Gram, i. j>i». G50-G58. 2 Ibid. i. p. 721. 3 Ibid. i. pp. 718-722.
masc.
fern.
neut.
-e
-e
-tt
-ra
-ra
-ra
-um
-um
-um
-e
-e
-u
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : TEUTONIC. 199
Short monosyllabic stems have -u in nominative singular feminine ;
long monosyllables have it not ; the other stems vary.
In the second declension e, corresponding to y, is prefixed to these
endings in the nominative singular of all genders and nominative
plural neuter, perhaps also in nominative plural masculine, feminine.
In the first declension both strong and weak a of the root, when
closed to a, according to 134, is restored by e of the flexion ending.
The weak declension is the same as that of the substantive.1
The Old High German strong first declension is :
Singular. Plural.
masc. fern. neut. masc. fern. neut-
Nominative . . -er -u (-yu} -ass -5 -d -u (-yu)
Genitive -es -era -es -era -era -ero
Dative . . . -emu(o) -cru -emu(o) -em -em -em
Accusative . . -an -a -ass -e (? -a) -d -u (-yu)
Instrumental . -u (184) — -u
The second declension prefixes y to these endings. The weak
declension is the same as that of the substantive.2
150. It is evident, on comparison of the strong declension of the
adjective with the declension of the simple demonstrative pronoun,
that the former has taken up the latter, dropping only the consonant
which is the root of the pronoun, but retaining the pronominal
elements, which are combined in the demonstrative with those of case
and number. Moreover, the forms of the cases of the adjective in
Anglo-Saxon and Old High German are deducible rather from the
Gothic demonstrative or their own demonstrative than from the
Gothic adjective. For the Gothic inflections of the adjective do not
all agree with those of the demonstrative, but some of them rather
with the inflections of the substantive. And this indicates that the
pronominal declension of the adjective was a later development, and
had not yet been fully carried out in Gothic.
The Gothic nominative of the masculine singular, and nominative,
dative, and accusative of the feminine singular, and nominative and
accusative of the neuter plural, are not pronominal, but identical with
the substantive. Now the vowel of the feminine stem and the a
of the masculine nominative singular express a stronger reference
to the substantive object which is qualified than is contained in any
other of the inflections of the substantive if used with the adjective.
Even the feminine vowel is not strong enough for the reference to
the substantive which is drawn forth by the act of combining the
adjective with it, when it is laden with the genitive relation. In the
neuter singular cases also, and in the oblique cases of the masculine
singular as well as in all the plural except the nominative and
accusative neuter, there is a similar insufficiency in the substantive
inflections to express the reference to the substantive which is drawn
forth in the act of combining the adjective with it. But the nomi-
native and accusative plural neuter are lighter, being thought simply
1 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 732-735. * Ibid i. p. 722-729.
200 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. [SECT. vi.
as aggregates, and with them the adjective can combine without any
special act of reference to them beyond what the substantive inflections
involve. The special act of reference to the substantive, or of attention
directed to it, is naturally expressed by pronominal elements. And
the fact which this peculiar declension of the adjective reveals is,
that in the Teutonic languages there is a renewed act of attention to
the substantive object in thinking the adjective. "While the nominal
inflections were strongly thought, the sense which they involved of the
substantive to which they belonged was sufficient for the expression
of this reference to the substantive in the thought of the adjective.
As the inflections came to be more weakly thought, they failed to
signify this reference and were exchanged for the pronoun ; and those
failed first in which the sense of the substantive was weaker compared
with the strength of the act of attention to the substantive which was
involved in qualifying it in those cases with the adjective.
In Anglo-Saxon and Old High German the declension of the pronoun
was taken up generally by the cases of the adjective, instead of being
limited to a portion of them as in Gothic.
151. This tendency to direct a special act of attention to the sub-
stantive in thinking the adjective shows a weakness of comparative
thought of substantive objects. For it is because the mind cannot
with sufficient strength think the substantive object comparatively
with other objects which it suggests, that it has to move back from
them to it and renew its attention to it in making the comparison.
Hence also the imperfect thought of the adjective which appears,
especially in High German, in the use of the substantive for an
adjective.
The uncomparative thought of the substantive which makes it
unapt to be embraced in one idea with the adjective which qualifies
it, causes also the adjective to lose in a great degree the sense of the
substantive, when it is thought with special reference to only a part
of the extension of the substantive. This happens always in the older
Teutonic dialects when adjectives are thought as in a higher degree
(225). For then the substantive object is thought comparatively, not
with the generality of the objects denoted by the substantive, but
with certain of them which have the quality. With these which
have been thought first comparatively in ascribing the quality to
them, another object is compared as having the quality in a higher
degree. Such double comparison was not in old times readily per-
formed by Teutonic habits of thought. It consequently engrossed
the mental energy ; and the general substantive was almost lost sight
of in the double comparison. The substantive idea having been thus
dropped, the adjective was thought not by comparison with a general,
but as an apposition (Def. 5) ; so that it got somewhat of the nature
of a substantive. But its attributive part was so strong, that its sub-
stance was weakly thought, and could not enter into the connections
in which it stood without a special act of attention directed to it The
formation was the same for an adjective thus passing into a substan-
tive as for a substantive which well-nigh passed into an adjective, on
account of the special strength of the attributive part affecting the
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHED: TEUTONIC. 201
substance (Def. 4) almost as if it qualified the latter l (144). In other
words, the adjective, which expressed a quality as in a higher degree,
was declined in the weak declension. But in the later dialects, as
Middle and New High German, comparative thought had become easier
from exercise, and the strong declension came to be admissible for the
comparative degree.2 In all the dialects the superlative degree might
have the strong declension,2 because in thinking it the second act of
comparison is lighter, being with all the objects denoted by the substan-
tive, and having the quality ; for this differs little from the first act of
comparison with the generality of objects denoted by the substantive.
Other adjective stems which attract thought from the general
substantive idea, fixing it on particular substantive objects to which
they refer, are those which express identity, as same, self, also the
present participle (192), the ordinal numerals, and certain others,
many of them compounds. And with these all, at least in Gothic,
the substantive is replaced by a part of its extension with which the
adjective becomes an apposition (Def. 5), and, losing the comparative
thought of the substantive, is weak in its sense of substance, and
needs the arthritic element to form its connections, so that they are
declined with the weak declension. The Gothic present participle,
however, in the masculine gender often becomes a substantive of
strong declension, by virtue of its strong masculine substance (144),
especially in the nominative singular ; and this takes place also in High
German and Anglo-Saxon, but not in Old Norse. In the later dialects,
the compound and other adjectives last mentioned, originally of weak
declension, have either died out, or become substantives.3
In contrast to these adjectives of the weak declension, are those
which, on account of their strong objective reference to the substan-
tive, have always a strong sense of its substance (Def. 4), and there-
fore the strong declension. These are, in Old Teutonic, the adjective
pronoun, and the adjectives of measurement, namely, all, enough,
half, middle, full, and the cardinal numbers.4
With regard to adjectives in general, the original rule was, the definite
article brought with it the weak inflection of the attributive adjective ;
without the definite article, the adjective, attributive, or predicative
had the strong form.5 The article fixed attention on the limitation of
the substantive by the adjective. The substantive in its own general
meaning was weakened ; and the only substantive object which was
thought was that which had the attribute denoted by the adjective.
This took the place in the adjective of its sense of the general sub-
stantive, and became in the adjective the substance of an apposition,
weakened by the attributive nature of the idea, and consequently
referred to arthritically in the weak declension. With the personal
pronouns also the adjective was thought with an object limited to
what possessed the quality ; and a similar limitation of the substantive
which was qualified by an adjective was effected by this and that, and
later by possessive pronouns, by the indefinite article, by many, all, and
each, so that after these the adjective was used in the weak form.6
1 Grimm, Gram., iv. p. 512. • Ibid. i. p. 756 ; iii. p. 566. 3 Ibid. iv. p 519-524.
4 Ibid. iv. p. 513-517. 5 Ibid. iv. p. 581. 6 Ibid. iv. p. 587.
VOL. II. O
202
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : TEUTONIC.
[SECT. vi.
152. In the formation of the comparative degree the original ending
lyans or lyas is contracted to is or as, which in Gothic has become iz
or oz ; and the feminine in Gothic and Old Norse, as in Sanskrit, takes I,
which in Gothic is ei. Perhaps in Gothic -iz- was taken by those adjec-
tives with which as more simple the comparative element coalesced
more easily. Derived and compound adjectives took -oz. The superla-
tive is formed by -ist.1 The forms in Anglo-Saxon are, comparative
-r, superlative -fst, -ost /2 in Old High German, comparative -ir, -?r, -or,
superlative -ist. Old High German forms the feminine comparative
in -a, to which the Anglo-Saxon, though not identical, corresponds.3
153. The first three cardinal numerals are declined as adjectives of
three genders, the second and third being plural. Those for 4 and 9 are
found declined in Gothic, those for 4, 7, and 9 in Anglo-Saxon, those
from 4 to 9 in Old High German, all plural, both in the masculine and
in the neuter ; those for 10 to 19 in Gothic and Old High German, only
that for 12 in Anglo-Saxon, are declined as plural substantives
masculine ; those for 20, 30, 40, and 50 are formed in Gothic with
the masculine substantive -tigus (decas), which is regularly declined ;
the Gothic for 60 is wanting, but those for 70, 80, 90, 100, are formed
with the neuter substantive -tehund (decas) and declined, the plural
of 100 being abridged to hunda. In the other languages the mul-
tiples of 10 from 20 to 100 correspond to -tig, and are not declined except
in Old Norse. The multiples of 100 correspond to -hund, and are not
declined. Old Saxon has for 100 hundered or hunderod, Old Norse
hundradh, Middle High German hundert. Old Norse has also -reed in
the numerals for 07 to 120, sirced seventy, dttrced eighty, &c.4 Gothic
Ousundi is a feminine substantive singular, and is declined ; so also
Old Norse dusund, which, however, afterwards became neuter ; in High
German and Anglo-Saxon it was neuter, and in the latter was declined.5
154. The personal pronouns are declined as fellows :
GOTHIC.
1st Person. 2d Person.
singular.
dual.
plural.
singular.
dual.
plural.
Nom.
ik
vit
vets
du
yutf
yus
Gen.
mcina
unkara
unsara
Oeina
inqvara
izvara
Dat.
mis
unkis
unsis
dus
inqvis
izvis
Accus.
mik
unkis
unsis
Buk
inqvis
izvis
Third person nominative singular and plural wanting ; singular and
plural genitive seina, dative sis, accusative sik ; dual wanting.
ANGLO-SAXON.
1st r
'erson.
singular.
dual.
plural.
Nom. i/c
vit
Vf
Gen. nun
un/in,
>' iiaer (are)
Dat. me
link
us
Accus. nif/c
uulc.
nsik
2d Person.
singular. dual.
6u git
din inker
Of ink
6fk (8e) ink:
plural.
99
1 Grimm, Gram., iii. p. 566-568.
3 Ibid. i. p. 758 ; iii. pp. 56G, 570, 571.
8 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 760-764.
2 Ibid. iii. p. 579.
4 Grimin, Gesch., p. 253.
SECT. VI.]
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC.
203
Third person wanting. The accusatives mek, usik, Oek, eovik, are only
in the oldest sources ; accusative is usually same as dative.1
OLD HIGH GERMAN.
1st Person. 2d Person.
3d Person.
sing.
dual.
plural.
sing.
dual. plural.
sing, plural.
Nom.
ih
wiz
wir
du
yiz, iz ?
^r
Gen.
mm
unyar
unsar
din
in^ar
iwar
sin
Dat.
mir
un-y
uns
dir
M*V
iu
Accus.
mih
un%
unsih
dih
M»X
Iwi
sih
sih
The genitive dual and plural ends in er as well as in ar. The posses-
sive pronouns are adjectives with the above genitives for their stem,
and declined in the strong declension.2
The third personal pronoun of three genders and the simple demon-
strative are as follows :
GOTHIC.
3d Personal Pronoun.
Nominative singular
Genitive . . . .
Dative
Accusative .
Nominative singular
Genitive .
Dative
Accusative . . . .
masc.
is
is
fern.
si
izos
neut. masc. fern.
ita pi. eis iyos
is ize Izd
neut.
iya
ize
^mma
izdi
%mma ^m im
im
ina
iya
ita ins iyos
iya
Simple Demonstrative.
masc.
sa
Bis
Gamma
dana
fern.
SO
Oizos
Oizai
Od
neut. masc. fern.
Oata pi. Oai Bos
6is Oize Oizo
Oamma Oaim 6aim
Oata dans Oos
neut.
05
Oize
Oaim
05 3
ANGLO-SAXON.
3d Personal Pronoun.
Simple Demonstrative.
Dat. .
Accus.
Instr
masc. fern. neut. masc. fern. masc. fern. neut. all gen.
Nom. sing, he hf6 hit pi. hi sing, s? seo Bat pi. Od
Gen. . . his hire his hira 6 as Odre Ods Odra
him hire him him Odm Odre Odm Odm
hine hi hit hi Oone Od Oat Oa*
... Ou ... da
OLD HIGH GERMAN.
3d Personal Pronoun.
Nominative singular
Genitive .
Dative
Accusative .
1 Grimm, Gram., i. pp. 780, 781.
3 Ibid. i. pp. 785, 790.
masc. fern.
neut.
masc.
fern.
neut.
ir siu
iss
pi. sie
sio
siu
(fs) ird
?s
ird
ird
ird
imu iru
imu
im
im
im
inan (in) sia
iss
sie
sio
siu
2 Ibid. i. p. 783.
4 Rask, Anglo-Saxon Gram., pp. 53, 56.
204
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC.
[SECT. vi.
tasc. fem.
neut.
masc.
fem.
neut.
er diu
doss
pL die
did
diu
es derd
des
derd
d^rd
derd
emu deru
demu
dem
dem
dem
'en dia
doss
d&
did
diu
liu
diu
...
...
...
Simple Demonstrative.
c. fem.
Nominative singular d&r
Genitive . .
Dative
Accusative .
Instrumental
The genitive masculine es is not found, sin being used instead ; for
ira, iru, sometimes iro occurs. In the Old High German simple
demonstrative all the cases whose endings begin with a vowel insert i
after d. Often in nominative plural neuter dei is found for diu;
derd and dfru vary between -d, -u, and -Of1
There are traces in Gothic of a demonstrative hi-, declined like i-.
There are also the demonstratives declined like adjectives ; Gothic
ydina, Old High German gener, d$ser, neuter diz ; 2 Anglo-Saxon Bis,
declined as follows : 3
masc. fem. neut. all genders.
Nominative singular B?s Beds Bis pi. Bds
Genitive .... Bises Bisse Bises Bissa
Dative Bisum Bisse Bisum Bissum
Accusative .... Bisne Bds Bis Bds
Instrumental . . . Of 6s ... Beos
The interrogative pronouns were :
GOTHIC.
Singular.
masc.
hvas
hvis
hvamma
hvana
fem.
hvo
hvizds
hvizai
hvo
neut.
hva
hvis
hvamma
hva
Plural
masc.
hvai
hvissS
hvaim
hvans
fem.
hvos
hvizo
hvaim
hvos
neut.
hvo
hvize
hvaim
hvo.
Anglo-Saxon hva, neuter hvi.it, declined like s$ ; Old High German
hwr, declined like der ; Gothic hvaryis, which of many? declined like
adjective second declension, is found again only in Old Norse ; Gothic
hvaBar, Anglo-Saxon hvdBcr, Old High German huedar, which of two?
declined regularly ; Gothic hvTieiks qualis, Anglo-Saxon Jtvilk, Old
High German hitfllhhcr, Xew High German icclcher.2
155. In the Gothic first personal pronoun the original a is reduced
to i both in the root of the nominative singular and in that of the
other singular cases. The genitive singular of the three personal
pronouns takes an additional i to express the genitive relation, and
subjoins tin. This throws light on the Sanskrit genitive mama, tava,
and the /end inana, tava ; for the Gothic -na seems to be arthritic
(Def. 7) like the n of tliu weak declension (144), expressing attention
directed to the person in the act of connecting it with what governs
it, (210) ; and Sanskrit -ma, -vn probably expresses a second thought
of the person in the act of connecting it with its correlative (8).
1 Grimm, Gram., i. pp. 790, 791. ' - Ibid. i. p. 794-800.
3 Husk, Anglo-Saxon Gram., pp. 53, 56.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. 205
The dative singular, dual, and plural of the personal pronouns is
expressed by -s, which has probably come from bcya. This element
in the Sanskrit dative first person singular has become hya, and
of the three spirants h, s, and v, s is the nearest to y, and y in coalesc-
ing with either of the others would naturally attract it to s ; it would
at the same time tend to make the preceding vowel i.
The accusative singular has -k. This has been explained by Bopp
as equivalent to the Vedish particle -lid, -ga, which he identifies
with ha in the Sanskrit first personal pronoun aham.1 Thus under-
stood it would express personality, and would correspond to a second
thought of the personal object which would be involved in the mental
act of connecting it with what governs it.
The root of the nominative dual and plural of first person is vi
(Sanskrit va), of second person yu. The -t of dual, Bopp takes as a
residue of tva, two.2 These roots are too subjective for the other
cases, and take an objective pronominal element n, to which probably
w was subjoined for the dual and s for the plural ; giving, with the
genitive plural ending -ra (= Sanskrit -sdm) vinwara, vinsara,
yunwara, yunsara. The n followed by w may have been attracted
by it so as to become n, and changed w, to k in vinwara (vinkard), to
qw in yunwara (yunqward) on account of the preceding u ; and the
u might also have caused ns to be followed by w, and consequently
softened to z in yunsara (yuzwara). Subsequently i and u imparted
their voice to v and y, and were dropped, so that vi became u, and yu
became i. It is remarkable that the dual has the plural endings, the
duality being confined to the stem.
The accusative plural -s was probably -ks originally, as Anglo-
Saxon and Old High German have -k, -h. The Anglo-Saxon stem of
second plural dropped the z, so that the genitive became iuwara, efiver
(134). In Old High German yu became i.
156. The feminine is expressed by i, in Gothic si, as it is also
expressed by -i in Sanskrit and Greek in some adjectives and
participles (5, 63).
This feminine i has become y in Gothic iyos and iya, but in iya it
is also neuter, for the reduction of energy expressed by the close vowel
corresponds to neuter as to feminine. The Gothic neuter ita corre-
sponds to Latin id. The final a in ita, Bata, and in the accusative
singular masculine and neuter of is and sa, must be a pronominal
element referring to what the pronoun itself refers to. The pro-
nominal genitive -zos is Sanskrit -syds ; -zdi is Sanskrit -syai, of which
the y has changed Ba to di ; -mma is Sanskrit -sma(i) ; all pronominal ;
ze, zo, is Sanskrit -sd(m), ze retaining a sense of the y after s, which
in Sanskrit has imparted itself in masculine and neuter to the preced-
ing vowel (13) ; this y has changed Ba to Bi throughout the Gothic
genitive ; -ra, -im, dative plural, is Sanskrit -&'-, -ib1-.
Gothic so corresponds to Sanskrit sd, Bo accusative singular to
Sanskrit td(m), Bo neuter plural to Sanskrit td(ni) ; this o of so is pre-
served in Anglo-Saxon seo feminine, and Tied feminine. In Old High
1 Vergl. Gram., ii. p. 102 ; Curtius, Gr. Etym., p. 515.
2 Vergl. Gram., ii. p. 120.
206 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. [SECT. vi.
German the o has become u, except in accusative singular feminine,
where it is replaced by a ; and in Anglo-Saxon accusative singular
feminine a has been taken up by the stem 0a, Otis.
The Teutonic construction of the relative pronoun is remarkable.
It is either a demonstrative pronoun representing the antecedent in
the relative clause, in the case proper to that clause, and -with an
indeclinable demonstrative element subjoined to it which has a
relative significance. Or if the antecedent is a personal pronoun it is
that personal pronoun repeated in the relative clause in the proper
case and with the indeclinable element subjoined to it. In Gothic
this element is -ei, which Grimm identifies with the stem of Latin is,
but Bopp with the Sanskrit relative ya. In Old High German the
indeclinable element is dar, dir (Old High German dar = there) ; in
Old Norse it is er.1 In Danish der, Frisian ther, which means where,
is used by itself for the relative pronoun of all genders and both
numbers.2
When the antecedent is a demonstrative pronoun it sometimes in
Gothic takes the relative element, and is not repeated in the relative
clause. And sometimes it is dropped as antecedent, and in the proper
case in .the relative clause takes the relative element.3
In the oldest High German the demonstrative is used by itself as
relative ; and the first and second personal pronouns when antecedent
are repeated as relative.3
Gothic -uh = Latin -que or -c; Gothic -hun = Latin -cun or
-quam.4
Old Norse has a negative suffix -gi, attached to particles, nouns, and
pronouns, to express not, so, neither, nothing, &<x4
Old and Middle High German have an indefinite element dih-, dfh-,
sih-, as deh'ein ullus, and an indefinite pronoun eddes, ethes.6
The Gothic ei is used for ut, quod, and also makes other particles
relative, sve -- sva'ei so as, Oat'ei = or/.6
157. The Teutonic verb has only a present tense, and a past ;
but it has a subjunctive or ideal mood as well as an indicative, the
past as well as the present being thought either indicatively or in the
other mood.
In Gothic and Old High German, the Greek and Latin future is
rendered by the present. It was long after that its expression by
auxiliaries became general.7
In the original formation of the past, as it is seen in Gothic, there
is either reduplication or change of the vowel of the root, or both.
And the formations differ for past singular, past plural, and past
participle. The vowel of the subjunctive past singular and plural is
always the same as indicative past plural. The following table shows
these vowel changes,8 the diphthong of the reduplication syllable put
first:
1 Grimm, Gram., iii. p. 14-18 ; Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 365.
3 Grimm, Gram., iii. p. 174, note. 3 Ibid. iii. pp. 16, 17.
4 Ibid. iii. pp. 23, 24, 33, 35. • Ibid. iii. pp. 40, 41, 57.
• Ibid. iii. pp. 164, 165. " Ibid. i. p. 1051. 8 Ibid. i. pp. 835, 837.
SECT. VI.]
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC.
207
Present.
Past singular.
Past plural.
Past participle.
I.
a
ai -a
ai -a
a
II.
ai
ai -ai
ai -ai
at
III.
au
ai -au
ai -au
au
IV.
e
ai -e
ai -e
e
V.
ai
ai -o
ai -o
ai
VI.
e
ai -o
ai -o
e
VII.
a
5
0
a
VIII.
ei
ai
i
i
IX. .
iu
au
u
u
X. .
i
a
e
i
XI. .
i
a
e
u
XII.
i
a
u
u
The vowel of the past participle seems to be the original radical
vowel,1 except in XI. and XII., in which the radical i has yielded to
the influence of a liquid following it,2 and become u ; for the liquids
have an affinity to u, being uttered, as u is, with a closure in the
anterior part of the mouth, and unimpeded breath.
The reduplicating verbs all have a long radical vowel or diphthong,
the a of I. being long by position, except in fahan and hahan, whose
a is long by nature or position in all the other Teutonic languages.3
In VIII. to XII., i and u before h or r become ai, au 4 (133). Other-
wise the radical vowel is short in the last six conjugations. These
express the past in the singular by broadening the radical vowel ; for
even in VII. Gothic o corresponds to a (133).
In all the conjugations there was perhaps a tendency to express the
past by taking up the a of remotion as connected with the process of
being or doing in the thought of the root (24, 27, 70, 86, 88), but there
was not room in the first six conjugations to do this with sufficient
expressiveness in the radical vowel on account of the long vowels or
diphthongs of the root. It was therefore taken up in a reduplication
syllable, but was still so associated with the process that it was
lengthened to ai. In V. and VL it also affected the radical vowels,
changing them to o = a.
An increased sense of process in the present is expressed only in
VIII. and IX. by an increase of the radical vowel.
In the plural of the past the process is less distinctly thought,
because the subject, whose being or doing it is, is less distinct (24),
and there is a tendency to think the past with loss of the process
instead of with remotion, the being or doing as having ceased rather
than as separated by an interval. This is expressed by reduction of
the vowel of the present, and cannot be applied to the first six con-
jugations on account of the length of the radical vowel, nor to X. and
XL on account of the weakness of the vowel of the present. In the
former, therefore, the plural of the past has the same stem as the
singular, and in the latter it is expressed as remote, but diffused and
lengthened by e = a (133). In VII. also the radical alias such an
affinity for the a of remotion that it takes the latter in the plural as
in the singular, o in both corresponding to d (133).
1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 26. 3.
3 Ibid. i. p. 1023.
2 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 839.
4 Ibid. i. p. 843.
208
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC.
[SECT. vi.
If the root begin with two consonants, only the first begins the
reduplication syllable, except sp, st, sk, which have such unity that
both are repeated.1
In the other Teutonic languages the reduplication of the initial
consonants is given up, and the vowels of the reduplication syllables
are taken into the roots. In other respects the vowels correspond to
the Gothic, according to the rules which hold for each language.2
The consonants are least liable to inorganic change in the present,
more in the past singular, most in the past plural.3
158. To the stem of the tense, formed as above, the following
person endings are subjoined in Gothic :
Indie. Pres. Indie. Past.
Singular
Dual .
Plural .
Singular
Dual . .
Plural .
'1 2
-a -is
-os -ats
-am -id
Subj. Pres.
'l~~ "^2
-au -ais
-aivaty -aits
-aima -aid
1
3
H0
-and
~3 "
-ai
-aina
2 3
Singular
Dual. .
Plural .
Singular
Dual . .
Plural .
1 2
1
-u$}
-um
2
4
-uts
-uO
Subj. Past.
"3^
-un
" 1 2 3 "
-yau -eis -i
-eiva -eits —
-eima -eiO -eina
3 1 2 J
Imperative singular, — , — , — ; dual, — , -ats, — ; plural, -am, -iO, — ;
infinitive, -an; participle present, -ands ; participle past, -ans.*
It appears from the above that there is in Gothic a remarkable
development of the subjective engagement of the persons, for the
vowels which precede the person elements belong to them rather than
to the verbal stem, and express the realisation by the person ; a expres-
sing it as present, u as past, ai (Greek o/) as conditional, ei as con-
ditional past, the closeness of the vowel reducing the expression of
realisation. The persons which are more lightly thought have less need
of this element, and tend to reduce or drop it, for they readily coalesce
with the verb as subjectively realising it. These are the singular
persons, and in a less degree the second plural, for this is lightened
by the direct address of the second person, and by the indistinctness
and consequent abstractness of the plural. The first person singular
involves «, expressive of self-consciousness (17), and this tends to pre-
dominate over the more objective element mt and to take the place of
the vowel of subjective engagement. In the dual first person v takes
the place of m as in Sanskrit, vas in the present being vocalised to os.
In the first singular subjunctive m is vocalised to u, while in the
indicative past it is dropped.
The second singular has loss life in the indicative past than in the
other parts, for the sense of the past which takes life from the person
i.s more distinct in the indicative than in the subjunctive ; but it is
remarkable that while in Sanskrit the second singular perfect is -fa
and in Latin -//, it is -t in Gothic. Perhaps 6 would not have been
sufficiently contrasted with s, d would become 6 at the end of a
word. In the dual ts (Sans, t'as) the t of second person is probably
1 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 813. 2 Ibid. p. 837. 3 Ibid. ii. p. 79. * Ibid. i. p. 840.
SECT, vi.] GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. 209
due to the s which follows it. The second plural seems to be lighter,
as has been said, than the first or third plural or the first dual, for it
does not, like these, take a, representing the associated persons in the
subjunctive, in which, owing to the weaker realisation, the person is
less merged in the verb.
It is to be observed that, except in the second singular of the past
and in the second dual, the old t of the person endings is in Gothic
represented by d, instead of by 6 as it ought to be according to
Grimm's law. Even in the third singular and second plural the 6 is
d changed to 6 at the end of the word according to the Gothic rule
(138) ; for in High German it has become t.1 Perhaps the old t in
the decay of the formative elements was softened to 0 before the first
general change of the mutes took place (132), and then the 6 became d.
159. There is also what Grimm calls a weak conjugation of the
Teutonic verb, a later formation than the strong conjugation above
described. It subjoins to the root i, 5, or ai, in order to make of the
root a verbal stem.2 And these vowels must express that which
makes the difference between the idea of a root and that of a verbal
stem, namely, the process of being or doing which is involved in the
idea of the verb (Def. 11), and the failure of which to penetrate the
root (168) gives rise to the weak conjugation. The difference, then,
between the weak and the strong verb is that in the former the thought
of this succession is added to that of the radical element, but in the
latter it is taken up into the radical element as part of the idea of
it (III. 93 ; V. 48 ; VI. 25). The i conjugation is more transitive
than the o conjugation.3 The person elements and the vowels of tense
and mood prefixed to them are the same in the weak verb and in the
strong, but in the past tense of the former, both indicative and subjunc-
tive, those vowels are preceded in Gothic by the element ded, which
thus intervenes between the process of realisation of the stem and the
process of engagement of the subject. In the first and third singular,
which are curtailed in the strong conjugation also and in the Sanskrit
perfect, the whole ending is da ; see Paradigm on the next page.
Imperative second singular nas'ei, salfro, hab'ai ; the other persons
same as indicative present.4 Infinitive nas'yan, salb-on, haban ; par-
ticiple present nas'yands, salfronds, hab'ands ; participle past nasiids,
salb'dds, hab'aiQs. If the root of the first conjugation be a long
syllable, -yi- wherever it occurs becomes -ei-. The d of the second
conjugation swallows the vowels prefixed to the persons ; the ai of
the third is swallowed by them when they begin with a, but it swal-
lows i. The -t of the second singular indicative past changes to s the
final d of ded, and is dropped itself.
The element ded is thought to be taken from a reduplication of a
verb don to do (87, 191, 192, 215), which, however, is not found in
Gothic or in Old Korse, though Gothic has its derived substantives
ded and dedya, and Old i^orse has dad; Anglo-Saxon has the verb
don to do, and Old High German tuon?
The infinitive -an corresponds to Greek -w (73), participle present
1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 91. 4. 2 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 845.
3 Ibid. ii. p. 586. 4 Ibid. i. p. 845-850. 6 Ibid. i. pp. 1041, 1042.
210
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC.
[SECT. vi.
m
,jj
9
*t»
•I : 1
J ?
-* ' 1
S S
§ 1
eo 5 eo?
'? "? '?
^ 1
s "s
-3
•I ?
N\i ^
<N-i 3 ?
<N.£ .^ * <N?
*Q ^*^
2 T ' T
"? ? ?
"'? ?
g
3
|
.3
P*
'?
a
"i * ^i
I """^l
: ^
Mi ** g
r~l .-— ,'—
1-1 3 : -U .'«.
r
3_*_J
~ «
T T' T
'S
c
1
^
: ^
"- eo^
: '?
"1 : 1
0 '3
"•? 1 1
1
"? 1*
.1
••i «
c %>
^
^
•^s 4s
l^> lu
^
C «o 'o
10 10 0
•0 «0 ^0 ^b
*t3 *a
*? '?
»
1
e
1
i
•«^ ^*
r 5*
a.
•o
-"•b *- fi
•-— *Q fc
-"1 §
- I 1 "1
i
•J
•? "?
•o -o -b
?
5
-M
-I ?
'.s
f
eo js» • J5>
eol i g
53 • O co »^£
CO ^i S^ .^
'' f
•c
** '**
"<n *9
«o «a V)
J^
^
a a
9 9 V
1
C C
I e
s c S
1
•? i! *
•- | *
• 3 * ^
a J3 S N -§
'? ?
^J •«
^ ^s
V^ -". ^j ^>
Ol '-* •!* •"»
• &i ^> A* •«*
-*— -"_j
3 3 3
833
233 3
3 3
s c
c 2 s
a K K §
§ §
g
3
|
e S>
'.c
^ e .3 «
•s • i
r-* •
-S ; -1
: |
§3 3
i i
I* !* i
S'*
R K
C R
K B §
1 1 1
M a
•rang
C 3 _3
OQ O 04
•IBVJ -rang
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. 211
-and to Sanskrit ant (see 158), participle past -an to Sanskrit -ana, -d
to Sanskrit -ta ; 0, being a less continuous utterance than n, is less
expressive of process, and is therefore suited to the weak verb.
There is a passive in Gothic which, however, is found only in the
present indicative and present subjunctive, and is not in any other
Teutonic language at all. The inflections have so far decayed that
the first person singular and first and second plural have sunk to the
abstract subjectivity of the third, and are replaced by it. The second
singular is -za (-ff«/), the third -da (-rce/), the plural -nda (-Kra/). The
subjunctive persons all end in au instead of a, which perhaps arises
from their being less absorbed in the verb owing to the weakness of
the realisation (158). To these endings the strong verbs, and the
weak of the third conjugation, prefix a in the indicative, ai in the
subjunctive ; the weak of the first conjugation prefix ya indicative, yai
subjunctive ; the weak of the second d throughout.1
160. The Anglo-Saxon verbal terminations are, for the strong
conjugation. : 2
123
Indicative present singular . . -e -est -e@
„ „ plural , . f -a§ -a$ -aQ
Indicative past singular . . , — -e
„ ,, plural .... -on -on -on
Subjunctive present and past singular . -e -e -e
„ „ „ plural . -en -en -en
Imperative singular — , plural -a@, infinitive -an, participle present
-ende, participle past -en.
For the weak conjugation : 3
123
Indicative present singular . -e -st -Q
„ „ plural . . . -aQ -a§ -a§
Indicative past singular . . . -de -dest -de
,, ,, plural . . . -don -don -don
1, 2,3
Subjunctive present singular . . . -e
„ „ plural ... -en
Subjunctive past singular ..... -de
„ „ plural -den
Imperative singular — , plural -#, infinitive -an, participle present -ende,
participle past -d. Here, as in the Gothic passive, is seen the tendency
of the third person to supplant the first and second. The second and
third singular indicative present strong often drops the e.
The -st of the second person is thought by Bopp to be a strengthen-
ing of s with the second personal pronoun, as the inflection got weaker.4
It is in the past of the weak conjugation though not in that of the
strong, perhaps because -de as an element mediating between the verbal
stem and the person brought with it a stronger sense of the person.
In the first weak conjugation, verbs, whose root is a long syllable,
'drop the conjugational *.5 The second conjugation is found only in
1 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 855. J Ibid. i. p. 895. 3 Ibid. i. p. 903.
4 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 448. 8 Grimrn, Gram., i. p. 904.
212 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. [SECT. vi.
the past, and even in the past the o is sometimes replaced by a in the
singular, or ya or e in the plural, the first and third conjugations being
mixed with the second.1
161. The Old High German verbal terminations are, for the strong
conjugation :
123
Indicative present singular . . ~u -is -it
„ „ plural . . . -arri&s -at -ant
Indicative past singular . . — -i
„ „ plural . . . -urnSs -ut -un
Subjunctive present singular -e -es -e
„ „ plural . . . -emls -&tt -Sn
Subjunctive past singular . . . -i -Is -i
„ „ plural . . . -lines -It -M»
Imperative singular .... — — —
„ plural .... — -at —
Infinitive -an, participle present anter, participle past ariSr.
The second singular indicative past is the stem of the subjunctive
past
In Old High German and Middle High German, i of the root
becomes ? in the plural of present indicative, and in the subjunctive
and infinitive, probably because the radical idea was thought less
distinctly in these parts, and the root uttered more carelessly.2
For the weak conjugation the terminations are :
123
Indicative present singular . . -u(-m) -s -t
,, „ plural . . -tnes -t -nt
Indicative past singular . . . -ta -tos -ta
„ „ plural . . . -tumes -tut -tun
Subjunctive present singular . . -e -Ss , -e
„ „ plural . . -mes -t -n
Subjunctive past singular . . -ti -tis -ti
,, „ plural . . . -times -tit -tin
Imperative singular . . . — -vowel —
„ plural .... -at, -t —
Infinitive -n, participle present -ntcr, participle past -tcr.
The first weak conjugation subjoins to the root i, the second o, the
third e ; and the stem thus formed is second singular imperative. The
first conjugation takes -at in second plural imperative, the others -t. The
infinitive ending of the first conjugation is -an, the participle present
ending -anter, y Injing prefixed ; but verbs of the first conjugation,
whose root is a long syllable, drop the conjugational i throughout,
except in the imperative second singular, in which it is lengthened.3
The prefix -<ja Gothic, -gc. Anglo-Saxon, -ka -ki Old High German,
gradually attached itself, except in Norse, to the participle past of
most verbs, except when excluded by certain other particles. It
corresponds to Latin con, and like it signifies totality or completion.4
162. There are anomalies in the conjugation of certain verbs in the
1 Crimm, Gram. i. p. 906. * Ibid. i. pp. 864, 1066.
1 Ibid. L pp. 856-879, 10:il. « Ibid. i. p. 1016, il p. 833.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : TEUTONIC. 213
Teutonic languages, some of which are similar to what are found in
other Indo-European languages, and some peculiar to themselves.
The verb substantive in Gothic has three roots — is for the indicative
present singular, 1 im, 2 is, 3 ist ; si for the indicative present dual
and plural, and for the subjunctive present ; vis to remain, for the past
indicative and subjunctive.1
In Anglo-Saxon it has an additional root bi, whose present indica-
tive and subjunctive is used with a future significance, and which also
furnishes an imperative.2
In Old High German the root is appears only in the third singular
indicative present, si in the third plural indicative present, and
throughout the subjunctive present and in the infinitive ; pi in the
first and second singular and plural indicative present ; wis in the
past indicative and subjunctive, and also in the infinitive ; the pre-
sent of ids is used sometimes in a future sense.3
The various roots, when used in the sense of abstract being, take up
into themselves a sense of tense and mood which is akin to the
original signification of each, and which unfits them for expressing the
other parts.
There are also several verbs used as auxiliaries expressing sub-
jective conditions of the action or state denoted by the principal
verb ; and these have the anomaly that they are used for the present
time in the past form of a strong conjugation, and for the past time
in the past form of the weak conjugation with the stem of the strong
past as its root.4 The reason of this is probably that their sense as
auxiliaries is too weak and abstract for their present form, and
corresponds rather to the idea of them when reduced by being thought
in the past. It was probably the loss of the past significance which
made some of them irregular in the plural.5 When this secondary
auxiliary sense is itself past it takes the weak form, as new verbs are
apt to do. The verb will tended to assume the subjunctive form,
and to mix this with the indicative.6
Some verbal stems have the sense of process strong enough for the
strong conjugation only in the present, and are weak in the past7
(168). Others, though strong in the past, take up an additional
element of process in the present, and are formed weak.8
163. Composition was favoured in Teutonic speech by the tendency
to give synthesis to the sentence and mass it together as a whole.
This also caused the Teutonic compounds to have less fusion of the
components, one with another, than was the case with Greek and
Latin compounds ; for these got greater unity by being thought more
separately each for itself, instead of the mind hastening to the con-
ception of the whole. Hence in the Teutonic compounds each of the
components had its own accent.9 The first scarcely ever suffers
umlaut (142) from an i of the second.10 And many of the particles
with which verbs were compounded could be quite separated from
1 Grimm, Gram., i. p. 851. 2 Ibid. i. p. 909. 3 Ibid. i. p. 881.
4 Ibid. i. pp. 851, 881, 909. 6 Ibid. i. p. 852. 6 Ibid. i. pp. 853, 884, 909.
7 Ibid. i. pp. 854, 886, 910. 8 Ibid. i. pp. 844, 868, 902.
9 Ibid. ii. p. 407. 10 Ibid. ii. p. 541.
214 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : TEUTONIC. [SECT. vi.
them with great facility. In Gothic and Anglo-Saxon the particles
were less separable than in High German.1
Grimm distinguishes proper and improper compounds ; the former
being those which were formed originally to express compound ideas,
the latter those which have arisen from the coalition of words which
occur frequently together in the same construction with each other.
According to Grimm, the formal distinction is that the proper com-
pounds were formed with a composition vowel subjoined to the first
component ; and the improper did not take a composition vowel.2
When, however, the first component was a particle, it never had a
composition vowel.3 The composition vowel which was taken by the
first component in every proper compound, unless it was a particle,
was a 4 (206). And this a was evidently an arthritic element (Def.
7), expressing an abstract act of attention directed to the first com-
ponent in carrying it into connection wibh the second. It limited
the idea of the first by the connection in which it was to be thought,
as that connection when formed limited the thought of the second.
This composition vowel was liable to be swallowed by a final vowel
of the first component, to be weakened, and at length to be dropped.5
And in New High German, when its use was forgotten, a new element
was adopted to connect a first component with a second, when the
former expressed a strong idea, not readily compounded with another.
This new composition element was s, which seems to have been taken
from improper compounds in which the first component was a
genitive, but in which the sense of it as a genitive had grown weak.'
The first component is subordinate as determinant of the second.7
The substantive as a rule cannot compound with the verb.8
164. The neuter gender is more favoured by the Teutonic languages
than by Greek or Latin (220). Thus when an adjective or pronoun
or participle agrees with two substantives singular, one of which is mas-
culine and the other feminine, or one of which is masculine or feminine
and the other neuter, or with three or more singular substantives of
different gender, it is put in the neuter plural, sometimes in the
neuter singular, the thought of them together being conceived as of
several or of one, not involving living force. But if any of the sub-
stantives be plural, they cannot be all connected with the thought of
the adjective, participle, or pronoun, and this will belong to only one
of them, generally to the nearest.9 Some personal nouns also which
may belong to either sex are neuter, especially in Old Norse, and
some which can be applied only to women. Thus Gothic barn,
Anglo-Saxon did (rixo; rs'xKn), Old Norse man, skald poet, fifl
fool, troll demon, skafs giant, High German wlp, weib, Anglo-Saxon
rz/, Old Norse tprund woman, fliod girl, Old Saxon /rZ woman, are
all neuter.1"
Neuter nouns which denote living objects are apt in Old High
1 CJrimm, dram., ii. pp. 898, 902. 5 Ibid, i . p. 408.
1 Ibid. ii. pp. 410, 6<»7. « Ibid, i . pp. 411, 424,624, 679.
6 Ibid. ii. pp. 418, 419, 679. 6 Ibid, i . pp. 941, 942.
7 Ibid. ii. p. 407. * Ibid, i . p. 586.
9 Ibid. iv. p. 279-284. » Ibid, i i. p. 323.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. 215
German to subjoin ir to the stem in the plural. This is compared by
Grimm to the element of the comparative degree, and doubtless ex-
presses the increase of plurality * (9), there being a sense of the many
individuals because they are living.
The feminine nouns formed out of masculine and neuter nouns, like
Gothic tainyo, basket, from tains, twig, and the others which Grimm
mentions, denote things which are subordinate to their primitives, as
made out of them, or as parts of them, or as pertaining to them, or
dependent on them ; and as expressing ideas in which the primitive
has got a special application, they are weak 2 (144).
Grimm says : " The masculine seems the earlier, the greater, the
firmer, the harder, the quicker, the active, the moving, the producing ;
the feminine, the later, the smaller, the softer, the stiller, the passive,
the receptive ; the neuter, what is produced or wrought, the stuff, the
general, the undeveloped, the collective.3
Abstract substantives whose meaning involves a sense of being
abstracted from another object, being thought as a quality or property,
or condition, or being, or doing, are feminine, because thought as sub-
ordinate or dependent. Such are the Gothic verbal nouns in -eins,
-ons, -ains, which correspond to the Latin in -tion-, also those in -ei,
-ida, -unga.*
But those which are abstracted as a force without carrying with
them a sense of belonging to another object are masculine. Such are
the nouns whose stems are verbal roots,5 and those which are formed
with -u6 (compare Latin cantus masc., cantio fern.)
Those which are quite abstracted,7 so as not to carry with them a
sense either of inherence or of force, are neuter.
It is probably on account of their marked objectivity that neuter
nouns in Teutonic were originally formed with -a, for this expresses a
strong sense of the substance (Def. 4).
The Swedish inflections distinguish the feminine from the mas-
culine much less than the neuter from the masculine. The Danish
unites masculine and feminine in one form, and strongly distinguishes
the neuter.8
165. Originally in the Teutonic languages the negative preceded
the verb, and in some cases, especially in Old Frisian and Anglo-
Saxon, from frequent concurrence it got attached to the verb as a kind
of prefix ; but afterwards it came to be supplanted by a negative after
the verb, which at first was used to strengthen the negation.9 In the
Old Norse poetry a negative suffix -a, originally -at, was attached to
the verb.10
Was the above change due to the negative being excluded from
before the verb by the closer connection between the subject and the
verb, arising from the decay of the person element which represented
the subject in connection with the verb 1 The subjectivity of the verb
when strongly thought is a positive conception which in itself does
not admit a negative.
1 Grimm, Gram., iii. pp. 330, 646. 2 Ibid. iii. p. 347. 3 Ibid. iii. p. 359.
4 Goth., iii. pp. 513, 530. B Ibid. iii. p. 479-481. 6 Ibid. iii. p. 507.
7 Ibid. iii. p. 532. 8 Ibid. iii. pp. 544, 548, 549.
9 Ibid. iii. p. 709-714. 10 Ibid. iii. p. 715.
216 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. [SECT. VI.
166. The great use in the Teutonic languages of auxiliary verbs
•which express subjective conditions of the realisation of the principal
verb evidences the strong subjectivity which characterises the thought
of the Teutonic nations ; and yet fine differences may perhaps be
observed among the Teutonic languages in respect of the subjectivity
of the verb.
The High German seems to have a stronger sense of the subject as
the source or seat of the being or doing than Anglo-Saxon and
English, but rather less sense than these of the subjective process, as
if the volition which prompts an action were a more prominent
element to the former, and the self-direction which carries it through
were a more prominent element to the latter.
Thus on the one hand the High German conjugates more fully the
auxiliary verbs denoting subjective conditions than Anglo-Saxon or
English, so that in the former these approach to the rank of principal
verbs. And in Old High German the person endings are much
stronger and more distinct from each other than in Anglo-Saxon
(160, 161).
On the other hand, the English construction of the verb to be, with
the present participle, which does not exist in New High German,
and which in Old High German had not the sense of continuance
that it had in Anglo-Saxon, but scarcely differed from the simple
tenses,1 indicates in High German an inferior sense of the process or
succession of the being or doing.
167. The passive voice even in Gothic is in a most decayed con-
dition. And in Gothic the Greek passive infinitive is rendered by
the active infinitive (230) ; thus, " to be seen of them," is rendered
" for them to see ;" the passive also is sometimes transferred to the
auxiliary, as tiskiusan skulds ist, "is bound for rejection," instead
of " shall be rejected." 2
In New High German the active infinitive is used after horen and
sehen where Latin would use the passive, as ich hore erzahlen audio
narrari.2
And in Old High German and Anglo-Saxon a gerund in -anne
(229) governed by zu took the place of a passive infinitive.3
In High German also the present participle active, even of transi-
tive verbs, is used for a passive participle, the activity of which the
substantives are the object distinguishing them adjectively 4 (229).
168. The Gothic intransitive verbs formed by -na approach to the
nature of a middle voice. Their present is of the strong conjugation,
their past of the weak ; for in the present only they have sufficient
sense of the subjective process for the strong formation (162). Both
in the present and in the past their stem has the reduced vocalisation
which belongs to the past plural of their root.5
It was perhaps owing to the strong subjectivity of Teutonic thought
that it was not apt to think the subject as object, so that, except in
Old Norse, the reflexive pronoun, which was complete in Gothic, was
more or less given up.
1 Grimm, CIram., iv. p. 6. - Ibid. iv. p. .17-61. * Ibid. iv. p. 105.
« Ibid. iv. pp. 59, CO. • Ibid. iv. p. 25-27.
SECT. VI.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : TEUTONIC. 217
Old Norse expressed the reflexive verb by subjoining an abbreviation
of the reflexive object to the person ending ; and this formation got
a passive significance in Danish and Swedish.1
The Teutonic infinitive has less subjectivity than the Greek or
Latin infinitive. It was thought more as an object or aim, and might
be quite separate from the subjective realisation. Hence the con-
struction of the accusative with the infinitive, as subject of the latter,
has been lost by the Teutonic languages, though there are traces of it
in the older Teutonic dialects (230). The infinitive had not enough
subjectivity to retain it.2
The German ich hare dich ein haus bauen, does not mean audio te
domum exstruere, but, I hear you building a house.
169. The Latin perfect subjunctive is in Teutonic expressed by the
present, generally indicative, sometimes subjunctive.3
Ulfilas translates all the Greek past tenses by the one Gothic past,
without auxiliaries in the active, but by an auxiliary in the passive.4
Perhaps in the eighth century, certainly in the ninth, the Old High
German had traces of the past with auxiliaries; this was quite
established in the tenth century. It may have been before this
amongst the other Teutonic races, especially those which bordered
on the Romance ; for the Eomance had the past with habeo in the
sixth or seventh century as the rule.5
The Teutonic past participle, with 7iabe, is an accusative, with sein
a nominative ; the former construction is proper for transitive verbs,
the latter for intransitives. In the former it is in Anglo-Saxon fre-
quently inflected.6
Old High German, Old Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon have no compound
past for the verb to be. Middle High German and New High German
make it with bin; Low German, Dutch, Frisian, Norse, and English
make it with habe; the latter is the more objective.6
Ulfilas uses vairdan, Anglo-Saxon uses bi, for future of verb sub-
stantive.7
Ulfilas translates the Greek future twice by Tidban with the simple
infinitive without a preposition, it being strongly contrasted with the
present, "what I do I will do" (2 Cor. xi. 12), and "where I am
there shall my servant be " 8 (John xii. 26).
Old High German uses haben with the infinitive to express the
future, but prefixes zi (zu) to the infinitive, as does Middle High
German, but sometimes the idea is more than a future ; Gothic uses
munan putare for /aiXXg/v, and skulan for fan>. In Old High German
seal retains this significance ; the poets use it for future, the present
being preferred in prose. In Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon it is more
used for future, and more still in Middle High German, Middle
Dutch, and Old Norse ; Middle High German also using the present
for future.9
1 Grimm, Gram., iv. pp. 39-45, 321-331. 2 Ibid. iv. p. 114-121.
3 Ibid. iv. p. 147. 4 Ibid. iv. p. 148. 5 Ibid. iv. p. 149-155.
6 Ibid. iv. p. 159-162 ; Rask, Anglo-Saxon Gram., sect. 401.
7 Grimm, Gram., iv. pp. 177, 178. a i^a. iv. p. 93.
9 Ibid. iv. p. 178-180.
VOL. II. p
218 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: TEUTONIC. [SECT. vi.
In Gothic, will never expresses a mere future ; but it does in Old
High German, and still more in Middle High German, confined, how-
ever, to first person singular.
New High German can say ?r will kommen veniet. In all the
other dialects, including Anglo-Saxon, will retains its original meaning.
In New High German alone, werden is introduced to express the
simple future, icollen and sollen retaining a strong sense of their
original meaning.1
170. Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse use the dual personal pronouns;
we two
thus vit Shilling, for 1 and Skilling. Old Norse used the plural also
we they
in the same way, as ver Hakon, for we and Hakon ; their ffrdidhar,
for he and Hreidhar.2 This shows a tendency to mass objects
together as if there was a weak sense of the element of substance in
the substantive idea (144) ; see Sect. III. 9, 4 ; 49. Skilling defines
vit like an adjective or genitive.
171. The article is in use in all the Teutonic languages. But the
Norse uses it differently from all the others ; for it suffixes the article
to the substantive though it puts it before the adjective. The article
which is thus used in Norse is declined as follows in the earliest
writings :
masc. fern. ncut. muse. fern. neut.
Nominative sing, inn in itt plural inir inar in
Genitive ins innar ins inna inna inna
Dative inum inni inum inum inum inum
Accusative inn ina itt ina inar in
It is suffixed to the substantive, whether strong or weak, without
interfering with the inflection of the substantive, except in the dative
plural, whose ending melts into the article, becoming unum instead of
uminum. The i of the article is absorbed by a final vowel of the
substantive, and unless when folloAved by nn, is dropped after ar, ir,
ur. In the neuter itt when suffixed drops one t.
The lato origin of this formation is shown according to Grimm by
its not alTecting the radical vowel with any umlaut (142).
In the Edda first appear a few traces of it ; and in Old Norse
prose it is used much less frequently than in the New Northern
dialects ; just as the article before the substantive is sparingly used in
the early speech, though almost indispensable in the later.
In the Edda the article *", *?/, Oat, is often used before a substan-
tive, but it is then a demonstrative rather than an article. In
Swedish and Danish it is sometimes similarly used before a substan-
tive, the demonstrative signification being very fine, so that the native
grammarians call m the defining article, inn the definite. In the old
language the former is sometimes used before an adjective, but rarely
without the latter intervening. In Swedish and Danish the use of
the latter before an adjective has almost died out, the other having
taken its place. The folk-songs often attach the suffixed article to
the adjective, a construction which otherwise is unknown to the
1 Griirm, Gram., iv. p. 180-182. - Ibid. iv. pp. .294, 295.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : TEUTONIC. 219
Northern dialects, whether old or new.1 The Norse languages show a
tendency to suffixion (156, 168), which is probably due to Finnish
influence (135, 138, 140, 142) ; for the northern languages of Europe
and Asia all suffix the secondary elements to the primary.
In the Teutonic languages the nominative takes the article more
than the other cases. And a genitive governed by a noun which has
the article is apt itself also to have the article.2.
Sometimes in Anglo-Saxon prose the possessive pronoun precedes
article, adjective, and substantive.3
172. In Old and New High German prose, attributive adjectives and
possessives as a rule precede the noun, but in Middle High German
they sometimes follow, being then not inflected.4 In Old Saxon and
Anglo-Saxon there seems to be great liberty in putting them before or
after, and in Middle Dutch; though New Dutch puts them before.5
The Northern dialects, old and new, like the Gothic, put them before
or after.6
In Anglo-Saxon the subject usually stands before the verb, even
when preceded by those particles, &c., which in New High German
and Danish require an inversion of this order ; but after the particle da
or Bonne then, at the beginning of a consequent sentence the subject
usually follows the verb. The object usually precedes the verb, this
being last, but there is much freedom of arrangement.7
In Anglo-Saxon, when a short pronoun is in the dative case, it is
usually placed as near to the verb as possible, between the subject
and the verb.8
173. The Teuton is in a marked degree slower in his mental action
than the Celt, and less ready to respond to an impression ; and a
similar difference, though perhaps in a less degree, seems to distinguish
him from the southern nations of Europe. In Teutonic speech
accordingly a tendency may be observed to take in a larger object in
the single act of thought than is usual in Latin, Greek, or Celtic. In
Celtic a tendency has been remarked to reduce the root to a smaller
fragment of thought than in other Indo-European languages (131) ;
and in Teutonic is to be seen the opposite tendency to make the root
a larger object of thought, and to include along with it in the one
mental act additional elements which affect it. Thus the thought of
the verb as past, and sometimes the thought of it as present, is in part
taken up into the root in the strong conjugation (157), part of it being
expressed outside the root in the vowel before the person. And
though something like this is to be seen in Latin and Greek, the
tendency is not by any means so strongly developed in them as in
Teutonic and Sanskrit (45). Indeed, the Teutonic past tense of the
strong conjugation is strikingly analogous to the Sanskrit reduplicated
perfect. And the verb in both makes a distinct approach, though
only an approach, to the internal modifications of the Syro- Arabian
1 Grimm, Gram., iv. p. 373-380. : Ibid. iv. pp. 436, 438.
3 Ibid. iv. p. 431. « Ibid. iv. pp. 475, 496, 486.
5 Ibid. iv. p. 500-504. 6 Ibid. iv. p. 505.
7 Rask, Anglo-Saxon Gram., sects. 372, 373. 8 Ibid. sect. 386.
220 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES I LITHUANIAN. [SECT. vi.
verb (15), just as Teutonic and Hindoo thought seem to make some
approach to that medium degree of quickness which characterises the
genuine Syro- Arabian races (chap, i., Part I. 6).
The same tendency to give largeness to the individual acts of
thought is to be seen in the heaviness of the elements which are put
together in Teutonic speech, the constituent parts of a Teutonic
word being thought more largely than those of Latin, Greek, or
Celtic.
And the same character of Teutonic thought is to be seen in one of
the most striking features of Teutonic language, the umlaut (142).
The partial change in the radical vowel which Grimm calls by this
name differs from the change of the radical vowel of the verb for the
past or present in this respect, that it did not make its appearance
till the formative elements of words had to a certain degree decayed,
and the words had come to be thought with increased singleness of
idea. Then the vowel of the root began to be affected by that of the
subjoined formative element. And as the change was thus accom-
panied by a weakening of the latter, it was plainly due not to the
root being overpowered by the formative element, but to the
formative element being gradually taken up in thought by the root
(142). It is an instance of the changes which affect language as
human progress goes on (chap. iv. 24), but shows also the Teutonic
largeness of the single act of thought, and the comparative tendency
of the Teutonic mind to spread on its objects. Such a tendency is,
by the theory of Book I., chap, i., connected with slowness of mental
action, though the particular forms in which it will manifest itself is
determined by other causes. And the correspondences which have
been shown between fine varieties of this mental quality, and fine
varieties of this feature in language within the same family, is a
striking continuation of the theory which connects the one with the
other.
LITHUANIAN.
174. The Lithuanian branch of the Indo-European family of lan-
guages comprises the Old Prussian, which was spoken along the
coast on the south-east of the Baltic between the Vistula and the
Niemeu or Memel river, but which in the second half of the seven-
teenth century was absorbed by German ; the Lettish, which is spoken
south of the Gulf of Riga in Courland and Livonia ; and the
Lithuanian proper, which is spoken in the parts of Russia south and
west of the latter dialect, and in the northern part of East Prussia,
within a lino extending from Labiau on the Kurische Haff eastward
to Grodno, thence towards the north-east to the neighbourhood of
Dunaburg, and thence westward to the sea near Liebau.1
It is the last-named dialect which has been investigated by
Schleichor, and of which an account will bo given here founded on
his grammar. Thi.s dialect is itself divided into two sub-dialects —
High or Southern Lithuanian, and Low or Northern, called also
1 Schleicher, (iraiii. dt-r Litauischcn Sprache, sects. 2, 3.
SECT. VI.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES! LITHUANIAN. 221
Zemaitish, which means low. These two dialects in the Prussian
part of the region are divided hy the Memel river, and they occupy
corresponding positions in the Russian part. The Prussian Lithu-
anians belong to the lowest stratum of the population, but in Russia
the Lithuanian is the language also of a better class.1
175. The Low Lithuanian being the northern dialect, is more within
reach of Finnish influence ; the High Lithuanian is in contact with
German. And the difference between the two dialects is probably
due in part to these two influences. The Finnish loves vowels (IV.
147), and the vowels seem to be better distinguished in Low Lithu-
anian than in High. Thus o, e or i, ao in the former correspond
respectively to uo, $a, o in the latter ; in which it is to be observed
that of the three original vowels, a, i, and u, a and i are better pre-
served in the former, u only is better preserved in the latter. In
Low Lithuanian also, the second vowel in at, a«, ei is preserved, but
in High Lithuanian it is generally dropped. The High German
aspirates t, d with a sibilation, Finnish in its purity does not aspirate
at all, and accordingly t, d are preserved in Low Lithuanian, but
aspirated with a sibilation as t\ rf in High Lithuanian.2
But both the dialects betray Finnish influence, while they have of
themselves a phonetic character of un versatile utterance akin to that of
the Hyperborean languages, and a weak pressure of breath.
The Finnish has such a tendency to vowel utterance that when it
adopts a foreign word it is apt to change the vowel of the word to a
diphthong, which is often done by inserting i before the vowel. And
it gives such full utterance to the vowels, that though a diphthong is
uttered as such, with one vowel passing into the other iu the first
syllable, where probably the accent gives it unity, elsewhere the two
vowels of a diphthong are uttered as fully as if they were not united
(IV. 147). Now there is in Lithuanian a tendency to concurrent
vowels, such as to lead to the increase of the single vowels with an
additional element, which though extremely light is yet distinguish-
able from them, and which makes them long except ea, which may be
short ; such are ao, uo, fa. Long e almost always has a light addition,
en or ee, but sometimes becomes f,3 which being closer saves breath.
The diphthongs ai, au, ei, when accented in the beginning of a word,
are uttered as ai, au, e>, the first vowel predominating over the second ;
but in the middle or end of a word, whether accented or not, both
vowels are fully uttered, as they are always in ui ; ai, at,, ei in the
beginning or the middle of a word are always accented ; they do not
occur in the end.4
Two vowels of different syllables may concur in composition.5 The
vowels o and e are always long ; ° a and c when unaccented are
generally short ; when accented and followed by two consonants they
may be either short or long ; when accented and followed by one
consonant they are long as a rule.7
The weakness of the nasals and their tendency to be absorbed by a
1 Schleicher, sects. 3, 4. - Ibid, sects. 4, 7. 3 Ibid. sect. 5. 3.
4 Ibid. sect. 7. 1. 2. 3. r> Ibid. sect. 7. 3. 6 Ibid. sect. 5. 4. 7.
7 Ibid. sect. 8.
222 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : LITHUANIAN. [SECT. vi.
preceding vowel, which was native to Lithuanian as to Slavonic, and
probably due to indolent utterance, fell in with the Finnish tendency
to give predominance to the vowels. It continues where Finnish
influence does not reach. For there is a tendency, more in later times
than formerly, and in High Lithuanian than in Low, to drop a nasal at
the end of a word, also before s or z, and sometimes before t.1 This
seems by its situation to have come from German influence. Perhaps it
was due to the excessive lightness of n, m in Lithuanian, leading them
to be disregarded by a German ear accustomed to strong utterance.
176. The tendency to insert i after a consonant before a vowel,
which has been noted in Finnish, is in Lithuanian also 2 (140), which,
moreover, tends to prefix y to a vowel in the beginning of a word or
syllable.2 This probably arises from weak pressure of breath from
the chest, coupled with an effort to strengthen the vowels (Def. 26).
That there is weak pressure of breath in the utterance of the conso-
nants appears from the absence of the usual aspirates. And the use
of y and not of w to help the utterance of the vowels is probably due
to their natural weakness, in consequence of which they involve small
guttural action. The use of y favours a tendency to a soft sibilation
(178).
177. Lithuanian is also characterised by a relaxation of consonant
utterance, probably due to Finnish influence, which produces a palatal
tendency ; as the tongue when relaxed naturally lies close to the arch
of the palate.
There are no double consonants ; 3 they are too intense for the
habits of consonant utterance.
In consequence of the palatal tendency, there is in Lithuanian a
complete series of palatals and ante-palatals, except that like Finnish
it has no aspirates of auy order except f, and in High Lithuanian £
and (t, nor any spirants except v, y, and the sibilants.4 And with
this exception there are also the usual post-palatals and labials, besides
Pi, b\, rm, n, and also /. This consonant f is in Slavonic also ; and
in the Tartar languages it is the I which belongs to words whose
vowels are hard. It seems to have been developed by that distinction
of hard or soft, and was probably got by Slavonic from Tartar
languages.
178. There is another phonetic tendency in Lithuanian which has
been alluded to above as resembling what is to be observed in the
Turanian and Hyperborean languages generally of Asia and Europe,
a deficient versatility of utterance which evades abrupt changes of
action in the organs of speech, and slurs over the transitions of
utterance in speaking.
Hence the dentals take up i or ij following them, and become ante-
palatal.
Hence i or f following k or // makes it palatal, following / or r
makes it ante-palatal ; /r and (j before a, o, ?/, or a consonant, are deep
gutturals ; but //, g\ also may precede a, o, it, as /r», gi. When I
follows a guttural or post-palatal it takes the post-palatal character, and
1 Schleicher, sect. 26. . - Ibid. sect. 22. 3 Ibid. sect. 14.
4 Ibid, sects. 11, 12.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: LITHUANIAN. 223
becomes t.1 From the same cause also e, when followed by k or ?,
becomes ea, the light guttural vowel a facilitating the transition to k
or I.2 Hence also tenuis before medial becomes medial, and medial
before tenuis becomes tenuis, the second consonant determining the
nature of the first, probably on account of the strength which it has
as beginning a syllable. Hence also z before I becomes s on account
of the strength of the current breath in I ; and s and z are dropped
before another sibilant. But these rules are not observed in writing.3
Hence also hiatus is avoided by crasis or elision, or the insertion of a
semi- vowel,4 and i in the beginning or middle of a word is sometimes
pronounced e.5
Hence also a concurrence of t or d with t, d, I, or sometimes k after
it, is eased by changing the first to s ; d before in also may become s ;
and s, or if k, g precede, s is used as a medium of transition to t, n,
or m, s to k or g, z to d6 (176).
179. After every short vowel the consonant sounds to a German ear
as if it was double.7 This is an interesting observation, for it throws
light on the phonesis of Danish and the other Norse languages, which,
like Lithuanian, show marks of Finnish influence (140). The
apparent doubling of the consonant arises from the Finnish strength
of vowel utterance, together with the little breath which the con-
sonants involve ; in consequence of these two peculiarities the consonant
is felt strongly as an interruption to the breath, unless the inter-
ruption is weakened by the vowel being long. It stops the breath
of the vowel without sending it through the closure, and is felt
consequently as a more complete interruption.
In both the dialects of Lithuanian, but much more in the northern
than in the southern, a tendency may be observed to shorten the final
syllable.8 This is what might be expected from the greater proximity
of the former to the Hyperborean languages of Europe which show
the same tendency (IV. 125). It would naturally arise from a weak-
ness in the volition to carry expression through, which probably
causes the weak pressure of breath from the chest (Def. 25). And in
consequence of it short i and u at the end of a word are apt to be
uttered carelessly like e and o.9
It is also probably due to the failure of expression at the end of a
word that a medial there loses its sonancy and is pronounced tenuis
though it is written medial.10 And it is to be observed that Finnish
also excludes the medial from the end of a word (IV. 147).
The accent in Low Lithuanian tends back to the stem11 (IV. 154).
180. The Lithuanian roots are to a remarkable extent capable
of expressing, by changes of the radical vowel, changes of the radical
signification.1- This is an approach to the internal vowel changes
of Syro- Arabian words. But it is only an approach ; for it is the
expression only of modifications of the radical element ; whereas the
Syro-Arabian changes express modifications of the verbal or nominal
1 Schleicher, sect. 10. 1. 2. - Ibid. sect. 5. 3. 3 Ibid. sect. 13. 2.
4 Ibid. sect. 21. 5 Ibid. sect. 5. 6. 6 Ibid. sect. 23.
7 Ibid. sect. 14. 8 Ibid, sects. 15, 27. 9 Ibid. sect. 5. 6. 8.
10 Ibid. sect. 13. 2. u Ibid. sect. 15. 12 Ibid, sects. 17-20.
224 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : LITHUANIAN. [SECT. vi.
stem, including those of mood, tense, and voice in the former. The
groups of Lithuanian roots through which runs a common element,
along with a strengthening or weakening or other change of the vowel
to determine the common element to the expression of a special
radical idea, indicate a strong sense of the common element and
of its modification in each root, which implies a largeness in the
thought of the radical element (218). And this corresponds with
the comparative slowness of thought in the northern races of the
Indo-European family (Part L, Sect. VI.); so as strongly to confirm
the theory laid down in Book I., chap. i.
Yet Lithuanian retains the characteristic structure of the Indo-
European words; for every word in the language is formed with
additions to the root unless where these have been lost by later
curtailments.1
181. There is a full supply of Indo-European suffixes forming
nominal stems, and a suffix is always attached to the root to form
the stem of a noun.2
With the stem suffix -a there is generally a strengthening of the
radical vowel, at least not a weakening of it.3
The suffix -u forms only masculines ; 4 -yu also forms masculines,
abstracts, or agents,5 and -tu masculines;6 -oka forms adjectives =
German -lich.~
182. Compound nominal stems all take the stem suffix -ya what-
ever be the original suffix of the second component, except the com-
pounds with the negative tie-. The first member gives up its ending
if it be -a, -i, or -for, but -u is retained. Sometimes a composition
vowel -a-, -o-, -1-, is inserted between the two components and accented,
but only in compounds of substantive with substantive. When a
preposition is the first component, its vowel, if not long, is lengthened
or strengthened, but a is long or short according as it has the accent
or not.8
A verb already compounded with a preposition may sometimes
compound with a second preposition. The meaning of the verb is in
most cases essentially, often very strongly, modified by the preposition.
Not rarely the verb is compounded with a preposition to change its
process into completion. Especially often is pa- (Ger. be-) thus used,
but also nu- (Ger. lierab] and others. Of such verbs of completion as
well as of others, a present is formed. The preposition per- through,
takes the accent always. Disyllabic verbal forms of the verbs which
join the infinitive ending immediately or with e to the stem can
throw the accent on the prefixed elements ; the others never lose the
accent by composition.9
When the radical vowel In long by nature or position in first singu-
lar present, the accent does not fall on the syllable preceding in com-
position (except per), but if short it does. In preterite, which does
not take >j, the accent does not full on component syllable (except per),
1 Schk-ichor, sect. 'M. 3 Ibid, sect. 11. 3 Ibid. sect. 41.
« Ibid. sect. 43. 6 Ibid. sect. 14. • Ibid. sect. 49.
7 Ibid. .-ect. r.ti. 8 Ibid. sect. 57. 1. » Ibid. sect. 57.2.
SECT. vi. j GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES '. LITHUANIAN. 225
but is apt to do so when the preterite takes ?/, and accents the ending
in the uncompounded verb.1
The suffix -ean$ denotes the wife, -ditis, -d'tis, -iikas, -i'tis, the son ;
-I't?, -ike, the daughter, of the person denoted by the noun.2
183. The names of countries are feminine, and generally those of
cities.3
The cardinal numerals 1 to 9 are adjectives and have a masculine and
a feminine form ; those for 1 1 to 19 are all formed with lika (dfxa) sub-
joined to the cardinals with a composition vowel between, and have
only one form ; those for 10 to 90 are feminine nouns, but 10 and 20
are now indeclinable ; that for 100 is masculine, that for 1000 femi-
nine.4
Lithuanian distinguishes now only two genders, masculine and
feminine.5
184. The table on next page shows the endings of the noun which
are added to the root for stem, number, and case, and also the declen-
sion of the simple demonstrative.6
On comparing with Sanskrit (4) we observe that the old loca-
tive i has become e (179) ; a has become u in the dative singular
of first and third declension, perhaps owing to a lost m = Sans. &'/ in
the instrumental singular -u has probably taken the place of -ami,
and in the fifth and sixth declension it is formed with -mi — Sans, b'l ;
in the genitive singular o seems to correspond to an original a, having
arisen in the first and third declensions from the decay of the in-
flection ; -aus = Sans. os. The nominative plural first and third
declension has i like Greek and Latin, and the accusative plural
has u like Greek, owing to the dropped nasal.
In the second declension o corresponds to an original a. In the
locative plural, old writings have sometimes -sa, sometimes -se, the
oldest have for the most part -su,7 which corresponds to Sanskrit. It
seems probable that Lithuanian preserved the original ending of the
locative plural sva (12), and that the v or u prevailed over the a till it
was weakened in the first and third declension by being taken up by
the stem ending, and that afterwards a was changed to e by the
analogy of the singular. In the genitive plural -u = Sanskrit -am,8 the
nasal causes the change to u, as in the cases already mentioned, and
in the nominative vocative singular, seventh declension.
The neuter singular of ta has i, which is probably decayed t.g In
the locative and dative singular masculine of ta the m is a remnant of
srna (tamui is the old dative), but in the instrumental singular mi
= b't, and the preceding a is changed to uo by m. The two cases of the
dual are compounded Avith the second numeral, the nominative dual
feminine, like the nominative plural masculine, being if a. instead of
tai.
The genitive plural is used for the genitive dual in nouns and pro
nouns.
In the greatest part of Lithuania south of the Memel river the dual
1 Schleicher, sect. 57. 2. • Ibid. sect. 59. • Ibid. sect. 60.
4 Ibid. sect. 62. 5 Ibid. sect. 76. 6 Ibid. sect. 78-89.
7 Ibid. sect. 77, note. 8 Ibid. sect. 77. 9 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 157.
226
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: LITHUANIAN. [SECT. vi.
«o t
o e
•naa
S
5 ^
\^> ^^ "* ^* -^
^ ft ^S ( c" ^
§• %•
-K» •**
"V V
ijs -15
i i
« S VS S
<5
>- c
xS
-
« 4)
I
I
a
'8 iv .«
,0 ,-,
e >§ e v,
3
« P * -
»° .^ o 2 ®
*"&£ o I .fc
. cr. £ r; a j3
^ S rt « '^^
~ o o -2 tS fl
o o o « 2 ®
*/* •< H-5 P ^H O
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : LITHUANIAN. 227
has gone out of use, probably owing to German influence; and in
Northern Lithuania the locative of all numbers is expressed by the
preposition in and the accusative ; so that there is no locative dual
extant.1
In the cases left vacant in the table the stems in -en and -er sub-
join -i or -ya, and form the cases accordingly (206). This addition
to the stem is probably pronominal, referring to the substance (Def. 4),
which wants an act of attention directed to it in those stems whose
endings belong rather to the attributive part of the idea to connect
them with those case relations which are more strongly thought2
(144).
185. The interrogative or indefinite pronoun kd$, which in certain
applications is also relative, is declined like ids, except that it has no
feminine or neuter form, and is used only in the singular. It has a
compound possessive kfa'no', as well as the regular genitive ko'. Like
tas are declined also ans (anas) that, katras which of two or three ;
also ya, third personal pronoun ; sya this, kurya which, tokya talis,
kokya qualis, except that in these the y occasions some euphonic
changes and contractions.3
The substantive pats (patis) master, pati feminine, is used for self.4
And there are pronominal compounds, as in Greek and the other
kindred languages.
To the nominative singular masculine of the pronouns -ai is added
for emphasis, as tasai, compare ourexr/; and very frequent is the
strengthening suffix -gi (-75). There was formerly an interrogative
suffix -gu, but it is no longer used (cf. Finnish -ko, IV. 152) ; -yau,
which by itself means already, Latin jam, is subjoined as a particle of
identity, as tasyau, derselbe. And to ta, ana, sya, kurya, katra, and
to ya itself, ya may be subjoined, both pronouns being declined.5
186. The adjectives are declined pronominally, that is, by subjoin-
ing to the root in each case the same case of tas, if the stem ends in
-a, of -yas if it end in -u, the former dropping t ; except that those
whose stem ends in -u make the nominative and accusative singular
and nominative plural like substantives, -u maintaining itself by reason
of its strength of significance. The instrumental singular has dropped
-mi in the -a stems and generally in the -u stems, and the nominative
plural of the -a stems ends in -i instead of -fa ; perhaps in both cases
because the termination is weaker in the word of more than one
syllable.6
In the nominative singular the adjectives form a neuter by drop-
ping -s.1
The adjectives take a definite form by subjoining ya, both com-
ponents being declined.8
The comparative of adjectives is formed by -easn'is masculine, -easn'e
feminine, the superlative by -ydusi'as masculine, -ydusi^a feminine.9
The former is declined as adjectives with stem ending -ya, the latter
as adjectives with stem ending -a, in which the y makes some euphonic
1 Schleicher, sect. 76. 2 Ibid. sect. 87. 8 Ibid, sects. 89, 90.
4 Ibid. sect. 91. 5 Ibid. sect. 92. « Ibid, sects. 93, 94.
7 Ibid, sect 88. 8 Ibid. sect. 95. 9 Ibid. sect. 61.
228
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: LITHUANIAN. [SECT. vi.
changes in the inflections.1 The root of the former corresponds to
Sanskrit -yans, that of the latter to a partial reduplication of the same.
187. The personal pronouns are declined as follows :2
First Person.
Second Person.
Reflexive.
. ( Nominative
dz
M
Accusative
mantf
t&vg'
save'
3 Locative maniye, man I'
tavlyi, tori'
savlye, sav?
K Dative munma'(manciZem.}
ta'v
sa'v
72 Instrumental manimi, manim
tavimi, tavim
tavimi, saiim
Genitive manias, poss. md'no
taveas, poss. td'vo
sarcus, poss. td'vo
( Nom. Accus.
mtidu (vedu old),
i/thlit, yudci fern.'
...
</
mudvi fern.
» \ Genitive
m&ma
yiima
. . .
3 1 Dat. Instr.
mtimdvqam, mum,
ytimdveam, yum
...
\
mtidveam
yudveam
(Nominative
m£t
yu's
...
Accusative
m/6t
yus
...
-. , Locative
musiye, musl'
yusiyt, yusi'
g \ Dative
mums (mumus old)
i/iims (yi'tmut old)
...
jfj Instrumental
mantis yumis
...
\Genitive
mu'sii (munsti Zem.) yu'su(yunsu Zem.)
...
also mu's
also lju's
The genitive vianeas, &c., are never used possessively, but only
mano, &c. ; and the latter precede the governing substantive without
an accent, unless with emphasis.
There is a possessive adjective mans metis, but little used ; and
there are definite possessive adjectives formed with ya, manasis der
meinige, &c.
The oblique stem of the singular seems to be mani, tavi, savi, except
in the possessive, whose stem is niana, tava, sava ; all of them involv-
ing a second thought of the person in connecting with it the case
relation (8, 155).
The stem of the dual seems to be mn, yu, and that of the oblique
cases of the plural runs, yus, formerly niuns, ynnx, as appears from the
old form of the genitive. This probably arises from the old element
*n>a (7), the nasal being transposed and having changed a of ma to u.
The ending of the locative plural is probably borrowed from the
singular ; in the dative and instrumental the s of the stem is dropped.
The nominative plural mes seems to retain both the i and the s of the
old ending yas.
188. The person endings arc the same for all parts of the verb,
subject only to changes of utterance, due to the elements which con-
noct them with the root. And it is remarkable that not even in the
oldest remains of tlu> language arc there any person endings for the
third dual or third plural, the third singular being used for these.
123 12
The person endings are, singular, -rni, -$i,-ti; dual, -va,-ta; plural,
1 2
-me, -te (19). Dut if there intervene between the person endings and
1 SchltichtT, sect. 93.
Ibid. sect.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : LITHUANIAN. 229
the root a or an element ending in a, then they become along with
123 12 12
the a, singular, -u, -i, -a ; dual, -ava, -ata ; plural, -ame, -ate, a being
absorbed in the first and second singular. If the accent is not on «,
it is not on any of these endings ; if it is on u, it is also on i, but on
no other. In the ordinary speech -a of third singular and -e of the
plural is dropped. In Low Lithuanian -ava has become -au. If
these endings are preceded by y, the usual euphonic changes take
place.1
The preterite and future take respectively -aya- and -sya- (26,
27, 70) between the stem and the person endings. In the former
the first a is probably the essential element ; y is dropped in first and
second singular, and in the other persons -aya becomes 5 ; and in the
latter, as well as in certain presents which have -ya-, y is dropped in
the second singular, and in the other persons in High Lithuanian -ya-
becomes -i, this i again being dropped in the third singular. The
accentuation of the future is that of the infinitive.2
189. The Lithuanian verb, like the Sanskrit, has a present stem,
and a non-present or second stem. From the latter the stem of the
preterite also differs in many verbs ; so that in dividing the verbs
into classes it is necessary to take into account not only the present
stem, but also the preterite stem. The classes may be briefly stated
by noting the modification of the root either with an inserted letter or
with V. for Vriddhi, G. for Guna, and 7 or ~ for lengthening or shorten-
ing the radical vowel, and by subjoining whatever letters are to be
added before the first singular person ending -u for the present stem,
-au for the preterite stem, and before the infinitive ending -ti for
the second stem. Thus stated, the classes of primitive verbs are as
follows : s
L 1. -u, -au, -ti ; -u, —au, -ti ; -u, -yau, -ti ; -u, -*^yau, -ti ; -u,
G' yau, -ti, the root in both these ends in n or I. 2. -u, -?yau, -Hi
intransitives ; -u, -dyau, -oil.
II. 1. —it, -au, -ti, radical vowel i, root ends in I or r, generally
intransitive. 2. G1 u, -au, -ti. 3. G' u, -au, -ti. 4. — «, —au, -ti
radical vowel a.
III. 1. -n- u, -du, —ti, root ends in a consonant, intransitives,
inchoatives. 2. -n'tt, -au, -ti.
IV. 1. -yu, -au, -ti ; -yu, -yau, -ti / -yu, —yaw, —ti, root ends in
r, I, or m ; —yu, -yau, -ti. 2. -yu, -eyau, -e'ti, intransitives.
V. 1. -t'u, -au, -ti, inchoatives. 2. -st-u, -au, -ti inchoatives. 3.
-d-u, -au, -ti inchoatives.
There are also remains of a conjugation in -mi, without any con-
nective vowel, first singular preterite ending in -au, -yau ; only two
reduplicated, duo'mi (dwdmi), daviau, duoti, give, dTJ-mi (dedmi),
de'yau, de'-ti put 4 (215).
190. The following are the three stems of the various formations
of derivative verbs, with the changes and additions affecting the roots
1 Schleicher, sect. 101. 1. 2. - Ibid, sects. 101. 3. 4 ; 105.
3 Ibid, sects. 110-117. 4 Ibid. sect. 119.
230 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: LITHUANIAN. [SECT. vi.
in each.1 1. -a'u, -o'yau, -o'ti. 2. -sa"ti, -so'-yau, -soil. In both these
there is a sense of duration, and if the root end in one consonant a
radical i is generally lengthened. 3. V' a'u^'yau, V' I'ti, durative,
iterative, causative. 4. -da'u, -d'au, -dl'ti, radical a reduced to i,
causative. 5. V- da'u, V* d'au, V1 dvti, iterative of causative. 6.
V- sta'u, V- st-au, V' sti'ti, iterative. 7. V- o-yu, V' o'yau, V- o'ti (some-
times without Vriddhi), iterative, durative, denominative ; o pre-
ceded by y, n, n, sn, d, t, subjoined to the root, form iteratives, o
being accented. 8. -uo'yu, -avail, -tio-ti, often not accented, borrowed
words, denominatives, diminutives. 9. -du'yu, -avati, -du'ti often
not accented, principally denominatives, some duratives and iteratives.
10. -i'yu, -i'yau, -i''ti, often not accented, denominatives, almost all
transitive. 11. -&'yu, v'yau, -tf'ti, denominatives, intransitive, if in
precede f, iterative, diminutive. 12. -in'u, -in'au, -in'ti, often not
accented, often with Vriddhied root, causative; d may precede in,
after vowel, n, k, or I, if radical vowel be long, rarely after t or d.
14. -en'u, -en~au, en'ti, durative, intransitive.
It is not to be supposed that from every root all these derivatives
can be formed. Yet many roots are capable of several derivatives.
And there are besides the prepositional compounds.
191. Verbs whose stem has not more than two syllables (a compo-
nent preposition not being counted), and which end in -u or -yu in
h'rst singular present, make a third singular permissive by prefixing te
and ending in en, which represents an original ai = Greek o/.
Verbs of three syllables, and those whose ending is not accented,
only prefix te,2 the last syllable being probably too weak for the
inflection ; te is probably of the nature of the conjunction that ; it
precedes a component preposition.2 1
The old optative formed with -i- subjoined to the present stem,
corresponding to Sanskrit potential, was formerly used for an impera-
tive, but afterwards the i, or, in second singular for a milder com-
mand, fa, was strengthened in the imperative by putting k before it,
and was subjoined to the second stem.3 This k Bopp deduces from
the s of the stronger precative element in Sanskrit -slijas * (28).
The accentuation of the imperative is that of the infinitive.3
An imperfect is formed by -data- subjoined to the stem of the
infinitive ; dara- is the stem of the past tense of a verb formed from
da, d*, duo, put, or do, according to 190, 8 5 (159).
An optative is formed by the optative of bu, be, which drops u
before the optative element i, y, with the accusative of the abstract
substantive in -tu, formerly a supine, prefixed to it without change
of accentuation. The first person singular always, and the second
singular often, drops -ni/ib-, so as, e.y., to make suldiau for suktum'
biau ; and the third person drops the verb bu altogether, and the m
which precedes it, without nasalising the u which is then at the end.6
A middle is formed by subjoining to the verb, if not compounded
with a particle, the reflexive element s, sometimes si or se. If the
1 Kchleichcr, sects. 65-74. 2 Ibid. sect. 104. 8 Ibid. sect. 108.
* Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 680. '" Schleichcr, sect. 10ft. • Ibid. sect. 107.
BEOT.vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: LITHUANIAN. 231
verb be compounded with a particle, si is inserted between the particle
and the root, and sometimes in the written language si is also added
at the end.1
The older language can also insert and subjoin in the same way the
element of the first person mi, as object of a verb in any person.1
The infinitive is formed by -ti added to the second stem. The supine,
found only in old books, adds -tu. Both infinitive and supine were
originally declined. When the infinitive ending -ti is attached immedi-
ately to the root it is not accented ; when it is attached by I or o to a
monosyllable the accent falls sometimes on 1 or o, sometimes on the
root.
192. The present participle active adds to the present stem -as
(ants) masculine, -anti feminine, -a (ant) neuter, the future -ses
(syants), -senti (syanti), -se (syant), the gerund of both -ant, -sent ;
Zemaitish and Old Lithuanian retain n before s in the present
participle masculine.2
Verbs which in the present are disyllabic, and form the first singular
in -u, -iu (infinitive -ti or -fit), have in the present active participle the
accent almost always on the root, only those whose radical vowel is
not long by nature or position, can, in certain cases, especially in
nominative singular, accentuate the final syllable. The root is always
accented when the present first singular is a disyllabic in -au (infini-
tive -oti or -Iti). Verbs having more than one syllable in first singular
present accentuate the same syllable in participle as in present.
The past participle active is formed by substituting for -au in the
first singular of the past tense -e«s masculine, -usi feminine, -ea neuter ;
the original -ans being changed to -eas when it is the last syllable, to
-us when it is not. In the same way a participle is formed from the
imperfect in -davau. Preterites in -yau drop the y in the participle
when it is dropped in the infinitive.3 The accent is on the radical
when the nominative singular masculine is a disyllable, a preposition
not being counted, otherwise on the same syllable as in the infinitive.
The ending of the past participle corresponds to Sanskrit -vant as
that of the present and future to Sanskrit -ant (35) ; and in all the
obliqiie cases of the masculine of these participles ya is added to the
stem, and in all cases of the feminine except the nominative singular,
a is added to the nominative singular, and then the participles are
declined as adjectives ending in a.4 These additions to the stem are
probably pronominal, and are taken for the same reason that in Gothic
the present participle has the weak declension (151), because in the
thought of these participles there is less comparison of the substantive
object to which they belong with the rest of the extension of the
substantive than there is in the thought of an adjective. Their sense
of the general substantive is less, and the substance weak.
There is a second present participle active, used only in the
nominative, and formed by adding -damas masculine, -dama feminine,
to the stem of the infinitive. This ending is the passive participle of
1 Schleicher, sect. 109. 2 Ibid. sect. 33. 3 Ibid, sect, 34.
4 Ibid. sect. 96.
232 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: LITHUANIAN. [SECT. VL
a root whose original form was da, and which signifies put, do1 (159,
215). The formation seems to mean engaged in that which the
root signifies. The accent is on the same syllable as in the infinitive,1
but when the root is short and unaccented in first singular present,
the accent is on the last syllable in feminine singular and masculine
plural.
The passive participles present and future — the latter now no
longer used — are formed by adding -mas masculine, -ma feminine and
neuter, to the stems of the present and future respectively, retaining
in the former the connective vowel which precedes the person in
first and second dual and plural ; but High Lithuanian drops the
a of sya.z The accentuation of the feminine singular is as in the
preceding.
The past passive participle is formed by adding -tas masculine, -to.
feminine (35), to the stem of the infinitive.3 The accentuation of
feminine singular as in preceding.
The participle of necessity (Lat. -ndiis) adds -Unas masculine, -Una
feminine, to the same stem ; 4 -no, is the passive participial element
(35), added to the element of the infinitive.
The participles in -mas, -tas, -tinas, are declined like adjectives in
-as. And all the participles may take the definite form, subjoining to
their cases the cases of yas, with the usual euphonic changes.5
The suffix -toyis, genitive -toyo, but in Zemaitish and the older
language -toyas, feminine -toye, genitive -toyfs, added to stem of infini-
tive, forms nouns of the agent ; 6 -imas, or after vowels -yimas, added
to the infinitive stem of very many verbs, forms nouns of the action.7
fr" 193. The attributive part of the substantive idea is weak, and
does not come out as a common element in the names of crops,
plants (except trees), and such collectives as rye, barley, flax, cabbage,
which are plural, the singular denoting a single grain or plant ; nor is
it thought in the units of plurals denoting material and such like
(221), or things consisting of many parts, as ladder, comb, village,
recurrent festival, and quarter of the heavens, north, south, &c.
The dual of nouns and adjectives is used only in concord with the
second numeral ; it has gone out of use in Southern Lithuania, but
in Northern it is to be heard entire, and not limited to natural
couples, but applied to any two objects.
In songs and tales, but more rarely in ordinary discourse, katras,
which of two or of three ? and also has, who 1 goes with a verb in the
three youths nom. pL hay gen. mowed which be
first or second dual, as trl's bcrn'if • e'i s7'an • o pi'o'vea. katrds bu'"
fut. 2d dual my lover
si ' t mnno nif'alaf, three youths mowed hay, which of you will
be my lover ? 8
Though has and katraa are each in the singular, yet their stem
involves the thought of an alternative, and such is the sense of the
individual that this makes the verb dual.
1 Schleicher, sect. 35. : Ibid. sect. 36. * Ibid. sect. 37.
4 Ibid. sect. 38. 6 Ibid. sect. 96. 8 Ibid. sect. 39.
7 Ibid. sect. 40. 8 Ibid. sect. 120.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: LITHUANIAN. 233
The second numeral is often suffixed to nouns in the nominative
dual.1 The particles pi, meaning by, na, n, meaning in, and link,
meaning -wards, used to be suffixed to nouns. Some prepositions
also may be used postpositionally.2
194. The neuter gender having been given up in the noun does not
occur in the attributive adjective. But in the predicative adjective it
is found when the subject is tai that, kds what, viskas all, or ntaks
nought, less frequently with the abstract subject, it. Disyllabic
adjectives in -as become in this case adverbs in -ai, probably because
they take up a stronger sense of the copula than those which are less
simple. In ordinary discourse the feminine is often used for the
neuter.
An adjective is masculine when it belongs to nouns masculine and
feminine connected by the copulative conjunction 3 (220).
195. The only article which Lithuanian has, is that which is
suffixed to the adjective (186), except that in some parts of the
country, owing to German influence, ids is used as a definite article,
veans, one, as an indefinite. The article suffixed to the adjective
particularises through the adjective, so that it is not a particular noun
that is qualified, but the noun becomes particular by being qualified,
and there is therefore an emphasis on the thought of the adjective.
Adjectives used substantively, and not as neuter abstracts, take the
suffixed article.*
196. The subject precedes the verb or predicate, the verb substan-
tive being omitted with a predicative adjective.5
In such expressions as, they say, it rains, no subject is expressed.5
The attributive adjective precedes its substantive, sometimes with a
genitive between. The active participles follow their substantive in
books, but precede in popular language.6 The genitive may either
precede or follow its governor.7 The possessive case of the personal
pronouns usually precedes its governor, and has then almost no accent ;
in the older language it often follows, and in the songs more frequently,
being then accented. Some prepositions are used also as postpositions,
e.g., del because of, -pi by, -na in, -link -wards, are enclitic.8 There is
considerable freedom of arrangement of the parts of a sentence.
197. The reflexive pronoun, which has only the singular form, is
used not only with the third singular and plural subject, but also
with the first and second singular, dual, and plural.9
In the reflexive form of the verb, the reflexive element may be
either direct or indirect object. In the former case the verb some-
times comes very near to a passive signification, and, especially in the
older language, takes the place of a passive.10
The reflexive verb does not form the compound tenses with the verb
to be, probably because its own signification is nearly a state of being,
and the auxiliary verb would be tautology. But when it is compounded
with a preposition, the reflexive element, which is put between the
1 Schleicher, sect. 120. 2. - Ibid. sect. 133. 3 Ibid. sect. 121.
4 Ibid, sects. 122, 123. s Ibid. sect. 124. 6 Ibid. sect. 123.
7 Ibid. sect. 129. 1. 8 Ibid, sects. 133, 135. 2.
9 Ibid. sect. 135. 3. 10 Ibid. sect. 137,
VOL. II.
234 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES I LITHUANIAN. [SECT. vi.
preposition and the verb, may be taken as governed by the preposition,
and the verb as active, and then the compound tenses may be formed.1
The passive is generally expressed by a passive participle and the
verb to be, the participle agreeing with the subject in number and
gender.
198. The present tense involves a strong sense of process or dura-
tion, and is very much used, because facts are thought so much in
their process. This duration is more strongly expressed by prefixing
be-; with this prefix and the negative the meaning may be never-
more.2
The past tense is often used where we would use the present;
because Lithuanian present has too much of the going on.
The past tense has the signification of the Greek aorist, perfect, and
imperfect. But the written language often expresses the perfect by
the past participle and the present of the verb to be. In Northern
Lithuania this latter has almost taken the place of the past tense.3
By the verb to be and a participle are expressed also the pluper-
fect, the past optative, and the future perfect.1
The future has such a sense of process as to express a future dura-
tion as well as a future occurrence.
There is such a strong sense of process, along with a rather weak
sense of position in time, that in the succession of one being or doing
to another, the process of the consequent is sometimes thought as in a
continuation of that of the antecedent, occupying a subsequent part
of the same succession of time, its time being thought, not in relation
to the time of the speaker as a past or present, subsequent to another
past or present, but in relation to the time of the preceding realisation
as a future 4 (V. 65).
The verb has little subjectivity, and its process is process of accom-
plishment. The future is consequently sometimes almost a future
perfect.4
199. The optative mood would be better called the ideal, for it
expresses what may be, what is doubtful, or what is only said or
thought, as well as a wish.5
An instrumental case of the infinitive is used before the same verb
from which it is formed to strengthen the expression ; and these con-
structions are negatived doubly by net before the infinitive, and ne-
burn
before the verb. Dcyte deya, with burning it burned, i.e., it burned
bright0 (V. 66). There is also an intensifying construction of a noun
or superlative governing its own or a kindred genitive plural.6
Tho supine was formerly used with verbs of motion, but now the
infinitive.0
The participle in -<lamas is used only in the nominative.7
Tho participles and gerunds are used in preference to relative and
dependent clauses ; showing a weakness of subjectivity in the verb.
The participle agrees with its subject, the gerund, which is a participial
1 Schk-i'cher, sect. 136. 2 Ibid. sect. 138. 1. * Ibid. sect. 138. 2.
4 Ibid. sect. 138. 3. ° Ibid. sect. 139. ° Ibid, sects. 129. 4, 140. 4.
7 Ibid. sect. 141.
SECT, vi.j GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES : LITHUANIAN. 235
stem without case element, takes its subject in the dative, and states
a condition of the fact.1
In negation the verb takes the negative ne-, and at the same time
another member of the sentence may take it also.2
he went into the city to _ king
200. Examples : (1.) Yi's ?yo I td niea-sta pas td kardlift,, he
went into the city to the king ; 3 e'yo is third singular of preterite
of eiti, to go (188); the nasalised endings are accusatives; on the
I frightful dream dreamed
article see 195. (2.) Az baisii scipna sapnavau, I dreamed a frightful
dream ;4 sapnava-u is the first singular preterite of sapnuoti, to dream.
he teaches me writing
(3.) Ti's mokina mane rastd, he teaches me writing ; 4 mokina is third
singular present of the causative verb moJcimi, I teach5 (190, 12). (4.)
grant us new year healthy to continue
Duk mums nauye meta sveaikems su'lauk'ti, grant us to continue
healthy during the new year ; duk for duki is precative (191) of duoti
to give ; mums is dative plural of first personal pronoun ; nauye meta
accusative for time how long ; sveikeams dative plural of sveikas
healthy ; sulaukti infinitive of sulauk, compound of su with, and
he will bring beautiful little words and bitter little tears
laukti to wait. (5.) Farms graziu zodafu ir gailiu asarat'u,
he will bring beautiful little words and bitter little tears ; 6 parties
is third singular future, which is reduced to the verbal stem, com-
pounded of par = Latin per, and nes bring ; graziu is accusative
plural of grazus, feminine grazi, gailiu of gailu (186) ; zodafu is
genitive plural of zodatis, diminutive of zodis, asarat'u of asaratis,
the diminutive of asara, both formed with -atis, and declined as stems
on thy help gen. relying work accus.
ending in -ya. (6.) Ant tdvo pa'galb'os nu'si'tike'dam's darbd
I began
pra'de-yau, relying on thy help I began the work ; 7 pa- is a perfective
prefix (182) ; nu- down is perfective ; -si- is reflexive (191) ; for
participle -damas see 192 ; pradeyau first singular preterite (190)
it without half gulden gen. not sell
of pra'dpti, pra forth, d? put. (7.) Tai be pus'auksin "io ne 'par
fut. 1st sing.
duo • si • u, I will not sell it under a half gulden ; 1 auksinas is a
gulden, derived from aultsas gold, and when compounded with pus
it takes ya for stem ending ; parduoti, to sell, is compounded of par
he such the shame himself did
through, and duo give. (8.) Yi~s tok's td gedd pa'si'darq, one such
as he has done himself the shame;8 pa is a perfective prefix (182) ;
pasidare is third singular preterite of pasidarl sich machen, perfective
what through winter was sleep past part, out crept
and reflexive. (9.) Kas per z$a.ma buvo mengo • y • es is' Undo,
what had slept through the winter crept out ; 9 zeaind is the accusa-
tive singular ; buvo is third singular preterite of bu to be. (10.)
Mass hold ger. he sleep pret. 3d sing.
Mise be'laik-ant yis meago • yo, while they held Mass he slept ;
1 Schleicher, sects. 142-144. 2 Ibid. sect. 146. 3. 3 Ibid. sect. 122.
4 Ibid. sect. 125. 5 Ibid. sect. 127. 6 Ibid. sect. 129.
7 Ibid. sect. 132. 2. 8 Ibid. sect. 135. 6. 9 Ibid, sects. 136, 144.
236 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SLAVONIC. [SECT. vi.
when out go fut. year pi.
belaikant gerund, be expresses duration.1 (11.) Kad is • ei • s meta • i
and one fern, day then you become blind fut. 2d pi.
ir vfana dfana tai yus ap ' yek • si ' t, when a year and a day
shall pass then ye shall become blind;2 metai is plural because
thought in its parts (193) ; tai is the neuter demonstrative ; yek is
why I
the root, to which ap gives sense of becoming. (12.) Kur as
•ing daina fut. 1st sing, why merry fern, be fut. 1st sing.
dainuo • si • u kur linksma bii'si • u, why should I sing dainas
he in go fut. into room accus.
(folksong), why should I be merry?2 (13.) Yi's %'ei's I stuba
and robber dat. pi. he give fut. knowledge when all pi. sleep past part. pi.
o razbaininka ' ms yisdiio's zine lead vis'i su'mig ' %
be fut. room gen. then they bottom accus. pi. out knock opt. 3d pers. out of
bu ' s stub ' o tai yea dugn ' its is ' mus ' tu is
the gen. pi. vessels and all accus. off take opt. and off go away part. nom. pi.
tu bos'u ir viska, is ' pies • tu ir is ' keliau • dam ' i
moreover also the maiden along with take opt.
dar ir ta inerga drauge im ' tu, he should enter into the room
and give instruction to the robbers, when all should be asleep in the
room ; then they should knock the bottoms out of the vessels, and
carry off everything ; and going away they should, moreover, also
bring the maiden along with them ; sumig compounded of su with,
and mig sleep ; for optative third person see 191. 3
SLAVONIC.
201. The Slavonic race, called Sarmatians by the Greeks and
Romans, dwelt in early times north of the Black Sea and of the
mouths of the Danube, where in the last half of the fourth century
they were conquered by the Goths under Ermanric. Both were soon
after overwhelmed by Tartar and Mongolian invaders, and the Slaves
spread themselves west and north till they reached the Saal and
Holstein, and south of the Danube into Illyricum.
The Slavonic language includes many dialects, and these have been
grouped into an eastern and a western division, called respectively
Antian and Slavinian.4
The most eastern Slaves formed two states — a southern state about
Kiev on the Dnieper, and a northern, about Novgorod and Lake
Ilmen. The latter, which was the larger and more numerous, and
was mixed with the adjacent races, was brought into subjection about
the year 8G2 by Rurik and the Waryaga Russi, a Scandinavian tribe
which had got this name from the Finns ; and his successor, Oleg,
conquered the southern state, and united the two. Vladimir (980-
1015) received Christianity from the Greeks, his capital being Kiev,
which continued afterwards to be the principal seat of whatever
ecclesiastical and secular knowledge existed in the country.5 Already
a century before the conversion of Vladimir the Bible had been traus-
1 Schldcher, sects. 13C, 144. a Ibid, sect 138. 3. 3 Ibid. sect. 139.
, 4 Adclung MithridatoM, ii. pp. 610, Gil. '- Ibid. p. 617-C19.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES I SLAVONIC. 237
latecl into the Slavonic language by two Greek monks — Constantine,
who afterwards took the name of Cyril, and Methodius.1 The dialect
into which this translation was made is thought to have been Old
Servian,2 which belonged originally to the neighbourhood of the Upper
Vistula and Eastern Gallicia.3 It has been in some degree modernised
from time to time, and still continues to be the language of religion ;
up to the beginning of the eighteenth century it was the written
language of all Kussia.4 Bopp calls it Old Slavic ; Miklosich calls it
Old Slovenic ; and under the name of Old Slavonic it will .be taken
here as the representative of Slavonic speech.
202. Old Slavonic differs from Lithuanian in having much weaker
vowel utterance. The original i and u were generally reduced to
shevas i and «.5 The original a became e, sometimes o.6 The
original a is represented by e? sometimes by a, original aa by o,
original da by a.7 The original i tended to become i, the original u to
become u.* The Sanskrit e, Guna of i, became before a vowel oy ;
before a consonant it is represented by e or i. There is no Slavonic
representative of Sanskrit at. The Sanskrit 0, Guna of u, is repre-
sented by u, or before a vowel ov ; Sanskrit au, Vriddhi of u, by av
before a vowel, va before a consonant.9
Slavonic e and o tend to become i and u.6
In the lengthening of the Slavonic vowels also for compensation of
dropped sounds or other causes, there is a curtailment of vowel utter-
ance ; e indeed is lengthened to e, » to i or to e, u to ut but o is increased
only to a / 9 » and u cannot bear the stress of utterance in the beginning
of a word, but are lengthened to i and u.5 Lithuanian tends to take y
before an initial vowel of word or syllable (176), probably to give
force to the vowel (Def. 26) in the strengthening of vowel utterance
which was called forth by Finnish influence. In Old Slavonic some-
thing similar may be observed ; probably an effort to help the weak-
ness of vowel utterance. Thus y is prefixed to initial e, and v to
initial u ; 10 e also seems to have had a broader and a narrower utter-
ance, being broad always when initial, and the -broad e seems to have
always taken y to help it, being written ya ; n and y or an ante-palatal,
because it involves y, has a tendency to be followed by a, because it
strengthens and broadens the weak vowel utterance ; neither i nor i can
be preceded by y.12
It is probably owing to the weakness of the vowels, that when they
are initials there is a tendency to prefix consonants to them, not only
y and v, but n also to take the stress of initial utterance.13
Old Slavonic has no diphthong, but changes the i and u of the
original diphthongs into y and v ; u it also tends to contract concurrent
vowels into a single vowel.15
The vocalic weakness of Slavonic is connected with a feature
1 Mosheim, Eccl. Hist., Book iii. chap. i. - Adelung Mithridates, ii. p. 621.
3 Ibid. ii. p. 635. 4 Ibid. ii. pp. 620, 622.
8 Miklosich, Slav. Gram., i. p. 198. 6 Ibid. i. pp. 2, 3.
7 Ibid. i. p. 102. 8 Ibid. i. pp. 5, 6. 9 Ibid. i. pp. 16, 183-185.
10 Ibid. i. p. 198. " Ibid. i. pp. 47, 198. » Ibid. i. pp. 53, 204.
13 Ibid. i. pp. 214, 296. 14 Ibid. i. p. 199. 15 Ibid. i. p. 196.
238 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SLAVONIC. [SKOT. VI.
found also in a somewhat less degree in Sanskrit ; which is weak in
its vocalism. This is the use of the vibratiles as vowels to form
syllables without any other vowel (2) ; which arises from the small
difference that is felt between the vocal sound of a vowel and the
sustained sonancy of a vibratile. Thus er and el before a consonant
are apt to become in Old Slavonic and some other Slavonic languages
r and /, forming syllables like vowels (2) ; rl, Ii, and rii, lii before a
consonant also, are apt to become r and Z, forming syllables, in some
of the Slavonic languages.1
And probably owing to the sustained sonancy with which r and I
are thus wont to be uttered, they are not permitted as consonants
before any other consonant except y ; because in this position their
sonant utterance would be curtailed. To avoid such concurrence they
are put before the vowel of the syllable, which is then either absorbed
by them or lengthened by the addition of their sonancy.
203. A weak pressure of breath in the utterance of the consonants
appears in Slavonic as in Lithuanian from the reduction of the
aspirates, of which it has only f and /'. And this produces in
Slavonic (Def. 26), as in Lithuanian, a tendency to prefix y to a vowel
after a consonant. But Slavonic has not the same palatal character
which in Lithuanian seems to indicate such relaxation of the conso-
nant utterance. It has no palatals, nor any ante-palatal tenuis or
medial. The I, which it has in common with the Tartar languages,
it probably got from these ; as in these it belongs to the words whose
vowels are hard ; and seems, therefore, to arise from that distinction
of hard and soft which is indigenous in those languages (IV. 4).
That w is not used like the above-mentioned use of y is due to the
smallness of the guttural action in the vowels by reason of their
weakness ; and the great use of y causes a tendency to soft sibilation
which is in Lithuanian also (176).
The pressure of breath that was in the original Indo-European a
was sometimes eased in Slavonic by opening the closure so that it
became a mere breathing h. And as Slavonic had no palatal, it
moved forward k' and 3£', sounding them as s."
204. It seems to be a mark of indolent utterance that there is in
Slavonic, as in Sanskrit and Lithuanian (175), a tendency to absorb
the nasals into the vowels. Thus before consonants and in the end
of a word ' n becomes £, and o/it, becomes d in some of the languages ;
u?i also before consonants becomes a.3
Slavonic utterance is strongly marked with a want of versatility ; as
appears from the extent to which assimilation is carried both in the
vowels and in the consonants, and from the avoidance of hiatus in the
middle of original Old Slavonic words, by insertion of y, v, or 7t, or
by changing u or u to t.4
The assimilation of <> to a, or e following it, does not occur in Old
Slavonic. Dut c//e becomes r/~, lija ce, aye aa, iye ii, uye uu, au aa,
u° y> y u^ 'jc. yi, ua «a> °<~i ««, w ce.°
Of two concurrent consonants, if the second be sonant the first
1 Miklosich, i. pp. 2, 4, f» ; ii. Kinleit, pp. xv. xvi. - Ibid. i. p. 202.
» Ibid, i. pp. y, 4. 4 Ibid. i. pp. 187, 189, 295. * Ibid. i. pp. 192-196.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SLAVONIC. 239
must be sonant, if the second be surd the first must be surd (178).
If an ante-palatal sibilant, or t', be preceded immediately either by t'
or by a dental sibilant, this preceding consonant becomes ante-palatal.
If a labial be followed by a vowel which has y before it, the y is
changed into Z,1 perhaps because the labial involves so little pressure
of breath on the lips that it repels the breath from passing over the
point of the tongue, and this is diverted to the sides of the tongue.
Generally t and d are dropped before I, n, m, /?, or s, in the middle
of a word, d also before 2 or z, p and b before n, t, or s, v also after
b ; and the combinations st', and st', are lightened in various ways.2
The dental mutes are so breathless, that they do not suit the breath-
ing consonants except r, which from its frequent use as a vowel is an
easier utterance ; the post-palatals have more breath ; labials do not
suit dentals. And owing to want of versatility of utterance, the tran-
sitions of utterance which are less easy are avoided.
When r, I, or n is followed by y before a vowel it becomes ante-
palatal ; 3 but t, d, in the same case become ts, dz, in Old Slavonic, as
it has no t or d, and then these become st, zd,3 because t, d, being
momentary, while s, z, have duration, the change of action is less
sudden in uttering st, zd, than in uttering ts, dz, the tongue having
time to move into the position for t and d during the latter part of
the utterance of s, z. But ty, dy, become also t', z, in Old Slavonic.4
Y before a vowel, and following tr, dr, acts on t, d, through r, so
that they become st, zd.5
The transitions of utterance in Tct, gt, ht, are often eased by chang-
ing k, g, h, to s / and often k is dropped before t in a root.6
As Slavonic had no palatal, k, g, h, before e, e, i, i, or before y,
followed by a vowel, became t\ z, s, or £', z, s, the latter being the
earlier change ; 7 and these changes may take place when the conso-
nant, instead of being single, is followed by r.8
The dentals t', z, s, become ante-palatal before the palatal vowels,
and before r, I ; st, zd, before y followed by a vowel may become st,
zd.9 There is sometimes an insertion of z, s, to facilitate the transi-
tion from one utterance to another10 (178, 203).
205. Slavonic has no nominal stems consisting of mere roots.11
Miklosich gives 185 suffixes, which are used to form nominal stems,
most of which are excessively abstract in their own significance.
The suffix, masculine -«, feminine -a, neuter -o (originally a), is
both primary and secondary, that is, used both with roots and with
stems. The signification of nouns substantive and adjective formed
with -M is very various, as gray cantus, lifedey simulator, plot'v,
saepes, ostav'w relictio, slaviy luscinia, grazdi stabuluni.12
If the root ends in a or e, y or v is inserted before the suffix to
avoid hiatus ; and -u is dropped after y.12
If the root ends in i, the i is either Gunated to oy or left unchanged.
1 Miklosich, i. pp. 295, 296. - Ibid. i. pp. 225-227, 296.
3 Ibid. i. p. 202. 4 Ibid. i. p. 219. 5 Ibid. i. p. 220.
6 Ibid. i. p. 238. " Ibid. i. pp. 239, 240. 8 Ibid. i. p. 250
9 Ibid. i. pp. 276-279, 282, 283. 10 Ibid. i. p. 283.'
11 Ibid. ii. p. 1. 12 Ibid4 iit pp. 2) 12.
240 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SLAVONIC. [SECT. vi.
In the latter case y or v is inserted before the suffix to avoid hiatus ;
and -u is dropped after y.1
If the root ends in u (originally u or u), u becomes av or ov, or
remains. In the latter case u becomes u or v, and u is divided from
-« by y or v."
If the root ends in I or r this is almost always raised to al, ol, el,
ar, or, er, »V,3 with this suffix.
If the vowel in the middle of the root be ?, », it, «, e, I, r, e, it is
apt to be strengthened either by Guna or by being lengthened or
broadened.4
If this suffix be attached to verbal stems ending in z or a, this i or
a is sometimes dropped before it.5 But as a secondary suffix it is seldom
found except in the formation of composite stems, particularly those
which express possession ; and the ending of the compound is dropped
before -«.6
The suffix -i< (originally -u} is hard to be distinguished from the -«,
which corresponds to original -a, as already, in the oldest Slavonic, the
former often follows the declension of the latter.7
The suffix -t subjoined to roots forms masculine substantives ; and
subjoined to substantive stems, forms feminine collectives.8
The suffix -u is both primary and secondary ; it often indicates the
feminine.9
The remaining suffixes present no noteworthy feature except the
rich development of subsidiary elements which they exhibit.
206. Compound nominal stems are distinguished from mere coali-
tions of words into names of substantive ideas, by this, that the
former have only one accent, the latter may have more than one, each
member retaining its own.10
When noun (substantive or adjective) is compounded with noun,
final « or a of the first is replaced by o, final t by e, with few excep-
tions ; and to a final consonant of the first, o is subjoined. This o
maintains itself even where euphony would generally require e/11 it is
a composition vowel (163).
In coalitions of noun with noun the ending of the first is regularly
dropped.11
Compounds of a preposition with a noun following it, have no
composition vowel, but take a suffix perhaps to give them combination.12
Often a compound noun is resolved into its components, each with
the case ending; and these are often separated by intervening
words.11
The determining member generally goes first in compositions and
coalitions.1''1
207. The following an: the caso endings for the different stems of
nouns substantive and adjective in the three numbers, the case ending
being .substituted for the .stem ending:14
1 Mikl.*ich, ii. p. 3. - II
4 Ibid. ii. p. 15-40.
'" Ibid. ii. p. 347. "II
I. ii. p. 5. 3 Ibid. ii. pp. 7, 9.
1. ii. pp. 41, 47. 8 Ibid. ii. pp. 49, 51.
7 Ibid. ii. p. 53. * Ib d. ii. pp. 53, 64. • Ibid. ii. p. 69.
13 Ibid. ii. p. tffjij. " Ibd. iii. p. 9-44.
1. ii. p. 349. l- Ibid. ii. p. 401.
BECT. VI.]
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SLAVONIC.
241
Stem ending
-u(-a)
-o, neut.
-a, mostly
-u(-u)
-i
-v, fern.
-en, masc.
-er, fern.
fern.
Nora. . .
-u
-0
-a
-u
-i
-U
.u.
•i
a'
Voc. . . .
-e
-o
-o
-u
-i
-1
-eni
-i
3
Accus. . .
-u
-o
-d
-u
-i
•uve
-ene
-ere
51
Gen. . . .
-a
-a
•V
-u
-i
-uve
-ene
-ere
X,
Dat . .
-u
-e
-ovi
-i
-uvi
-eni
-eri
cc
Instr.
-umi
-d
-umi
-imi
-uviyd
-enimi
-eriyd
Loc. . . .
-e
-k
-e
-u
-i
-uvi
-eni
•eri
-uve
-ene ,
Jl
(Norn., Voc.,
Accus.
1-
-e
-e
.u
-i
-uvi
-eni
-eri
ft'
Gen., Loc. .
-u
•u ,
-u
-u
-iyu
-uviyu
-eniyu
-eriyu
•eru
Dat., Instr.
-uma
-uma
-ama
•uma
-ima
-uvama
-enima
-erima
' Nom. , Voc.
-i
-a
.u
-ove
-iye
-uve
-ene
-ere
Accus. . .
-n
-a
Jii
-u
-i
-uve
-ene
-ere
4
Gen. . . .
-u
-u
-u
-OVU
-iy
-UVU
-enu
-eru
a
Dat. . . .
-omit
-omit
-amu
-umu
-imu
-uvamii:
-enim
-erimu
(g
Instr. . .
-It
-u
-ami
•umi
•imi
-uvami
•enimi
-erimi
Loc. . . .
-ehu
-ehu
-ahu
-uku
-ihu
-uvahu
-enihu
-eriJiu
Stems ending in -inu, generally denoting inhabitants of places, drop
-inu in the plural ; and those in yaninu generally follow in the plural
the consonantal stems, or, as one might infer from the accusative, the
-i stems.1
The adjective -ya stems make the vocative singular like the
nominative.2
Feminine -i stems make the instrumental singular in -iya, and the
nominative vocative plural in -i.3
Neuter stems in -en or -et make the nominative, vocative, accusative
singular in -e, those in -es make it in -o, and in the nominative
vocative accusative plural they all add -a.4
208. The table on next page shows the declension of the pronouns.6
The nominative accusative of the neuter of tu is to singular, te dual,
ta plural; of moy is moye singular, moy dual, moya plural. The
remaining cases of both are the same as the masculine. Tu, demon-
strative relative, is declined as the y of moy, nominative accusa-
tive singular masculine being i.6
The nominative accusative of the neuter of Tcuy is koye singular,
Jcoi dual, Jcaya neuter ; the remaining cases are the same as the
masculine. The nominative accusative of the feminine of kuy is
Jcaya singular, Jioi dual, knye plural ; the remaining cases of the dual
and plural are the same as the masculine, and those of the singular
the same as feminine moya, putting k for m.7
The nominative accusative of the neuter of si is se singular, si dual
and plural, the remaining cases the same as the masculine.8
1 Miklosich, iii. p. 14.
4 Ibid. iii. pp. 42, 43.
7 Ibid. iii. p. 50.
2 Ibid. iii. p. 10-12.
8 Ibid. iii. p. 45-53.
8 Ibid. iii. p. 52.
3 Ibid, iii.'p. 36.
6 Ibid. iii. pp. 48, 49.
242
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SLAVONIC.
[SECT. vi.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SLAVONIC. 243
The nominative accusative of the neuter of vi$i is vise singular, visa
plural. The nominative singular feminine of visi is visa, accusative
singular feminine visa, nominative accusative plural feminine vise.
The remaining cases of the neuter singular and plural and of the
feminine plural, are the same as the masculine, those of the feminine
singular are the same as feminine si with vi prefixed.1
209. In the nominative singular of the noun, final s is dropped,
and a preceding it has become « / in the neuter, final m is dropped,
and a preceding it has become o. Final a has become a ; and the
stem endings u, u have become «, u ; ya often becomes yi, iya
becomes iy.2
The vocative singular when different from the nominative reduces
a to e, a to o, while it raises the final vowel of the 4 stems and
-u stems. In Sanskrit also these stems strengthen the final vowel in
the vocative.3
The m of accusative singular is dropped without leaving any trace
except in the feminine -a stems ; the connective a changed to e
remains in the consonantal stems.3
In the genitive singular also of the consonantal stems the connec-
tive a changed to e remains while the s has been dropped. Final «
and i are raised to u and i, as in Sanskrit the u and i are Gunated
before s. The singular genitive ending -a of first and second declen-
sion is deduced by Schleicher from asya (aya, a). To this Mik-
losich says that there are insuperable phonetic objections ; but he
does not state them. He considers that it represents the old ablative
-at (4),4 but he does not explain how the ablative with its compara-
tively small range of use could have supplanted the genitive. The
genitive singular of the feminine -a stems, which ends in -u unless y
precede the a, when it ends in -e, Miklosich deduces from -a, which
has undergone the same two changes in the present participle ; and
this -a he deduces from the old locative -am.4 But as the long vowel
preceding the genitive s in Sanskrit in the plural caused it to
become n (9), by strengthening the sonancy and suggesting an easier
passage of the breath, it may have here caused a tendency to a
similar change ; and the nasal would be favoured by the influence of
preceding y being unfavourable to a guttural breathing. Bopp con-
sidered n in the Sanskrit genitive plural to be occasioned by hiatus,5
but if a consonant was needed to avoid hiatus how came the original
s to be dropped ? He deduced the Slavonic nasal in the genitive from
the original final s, and compared the final v in the plural and dual of
the Greek verb 6 where Sanskrit has s (66).
The dative singular of first and second declension ends in -u, which,
as in the Irish dative (111), is doubtless due to an original b' (184).
The other datives all take up i, corresponding to Sanskrit e.
The instrumental singular ends in mi, as in Lithuanian ; and this
corresponds to an original Vi. It is absorbed as a nasalisation by
1 Miklosich, iii. pp. 52, 53. 2 Ibid. iii. p. 2. 3 Ibid. Hi. p. 3.
4 Ibid. iii. p. 4. B Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sects. 17 b, 246.
6 Ibid. sect. p. 271.
244 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SLAVONIC. [SECT. vi.
feminine -a. The feminine * stems, and also for the most part the
feminine a stems,1 add to their stem ending in the instrumental
singular ya, which is a pronominal element, as may be seen in the
pronominal declension. The instrumental relation is so strong an
element of thought that it coalesces with the concrete idea of its
object less readily than the more abstract case relations. The thought
of it consequently elicits an abstract sense of the object as such,
which is thought with attention directed to it ; and this mental act
strengthened with a sense of the feminine gender is expressed by a
pronominal element (Def. 7).
A similar influence of the dative and instrumental relations, as
they are thought in the dual and plural, and of the locative relation
as thought iu the plural, has strengthened the v- stem ending with a ;
and has strengthened the stem ending in the genitive locative dual
of all the consonantal stems with i, which probably is pronominal
(184), being needed because these stems are deficient in an abstract
objective part or substance after the attributive part (Def. 4).
The consonantal stems take i also in other cases as given above.
Miklosich thinks the locative endings -yye, -ene, which are in the
oldest sources, are perhaps genitive. The ending -i is due to the
coalescence of locative i with i added to the stem ending. The
locative -u of fourth declension seems to be a reduction of -ovi, which
corresponds to the Vedic locative ending of the u stems -at' z,2 and the
-e of the first three declensions to the coalescence of a and a with i.
The nominative vocative accusative dual of the first declension
corresponds, like the Zend -a, to Vedic -a (12). In the others it is
similar in its formation to the Sanskrit.
In genitive locative dual -u corresponds to Sanskrit -os; and in
dative instrumental -ma to Sanskrit -&'(y)«(?n).
The nominative plural of first declension has -i corresponding to -e
in the Sanskrit pronouns ; that of second declension -a to Sanskrit
-a(ni) ; that of third declension is same as genitive singular -# or •?,
corresponding like this to Sanskrit -as; the -e of the others corresponds
to Sanskrit -as.
The accusative plural has dropped -ns ; the genitive plural has
reduced -<~nn to -u; the dative plural has reduced -b'yas to -mv. ; the
instrumental plural has reduced -Vis to -mi, the first and second
declension absorbing -mi into it ; the locative plural has -hn for su,
preceded by £ in first and second declension, as in Sanskrit.
210. The steins of the personal pronouns receive remarkable addi-
tions ; tcbc, sale correspond probably to Sanskrit tava, sava ; but tS, sS
cannot, and those show that mS, mime involves a distinct pronominal
element HC (155). Perhaps the heavier ending of the dative, locative,
and instrumental singular weakened in?-, so that under the influence
of n following it it became m». In the instrumental singular the
stems seem to be strengthened with //a, and their a lengthened as in
composition, which seems to have affected also ta and sa; -mi was
absorbed.
1 MikloKch, iii. p. »>. : Hopp, Vergl. dram., sect. 199.
SECT, vi.] GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SLAVONIC. 245
The nominative dual of first person has taken up i ; that of the
second, and the accusative dual of both, have a corresponding to
original «. Is there more distinction of the individuals in i as
expressing juxtaposition than in a as expressing extension?
The nominative plural -u corresponds perhaps to original -as, like
genitive singular third declension ; ti corresponds to te, the accusative
plural to -ans.
The datives singular mi, ti, si, the genitives singular me, te, se, and
the accusatives plural nu, vit, are enclitic. The latter are used also for
the dative.1
In the demonstrative pronouns the genitive ending -go is probably
a pronominal element ga corresponding to Sanskrit g'ii,2 and this is
preceded by the composition voAvel, changed, however, to e by y pre-
ceding it. The dative ending -mu is the dative of original sma ; ~
and the feminine pronouns take -sya, whose genitive -syas is represented
by -ye. Before the case endings beginning Avith m the stems take i,
probably from the y which originally followed the b' which m
represents (11).
The genitive plural -sum became -hu, and as it was thus reduced
almost to the same form as the locative -ihu (4), the i also was taken
from the latter.
211. The adjectives, except the possessive adjectives (223), may be
declined, as in Lithuanian, in composition with yu, the adjective
taking the case endings as well as yu, or being prefixed in its stem
form. The latter takes place in all the cases whose ending begins
with a consonant.3
The comparative of adjectives is formed by the suffix -iyvs (5), to
which -yu is added, except in the nominative singular masculine
and neuter. If the stem ending « of the adjective is dropped before
the comparative element, this becomes -ty«sy« or -yusyu ; if not it
coalesces with i of the comparative element into e.4
The comparative serves also in the Slavonic languages for super-
lative, being then accompanied in the younger languages, and some-
times also in Old Slavonic, by a strengthening particle.5
212. The numerals for 3 and 4, triye, t'eturiye when masculine, are
declined as plurals of masculine i stems, those for 5 to 10 end in -ti, and
are declined as feminines in the three numbers.6
The ordinal of 3 is formed with -ti, those of 4, 5, 6, 9, 10 with -tu,
those of 7, 8 with -mv, but they are all declined in composition with
yu 7 (151, 225).
213. The verbs have a present stem and a non-present or infinitive
stem. The latter is in some verbs — I. primary, i.e., the mere root.
Other verbs form the infinitive stem with a suffix ; of which suffixes
there are five, nd, e, i, d, ua (ova).s
II. The stems formed with nd subjoined to a root are transitive or
intransitive, many of them passive ; some of them can drop the
1 Miklosich, iii. p. 46. 2 Ibid. iii. p. 47. 3 Ibid. iii. p. 55.
4 Ibid. ii. p. 322. 5 Bopp, VergL Gram., ii. sect. 305.
6 Miklosich, iii. pp. 35, 37. 7 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., ii. sect. 322.
8 Miklosich, ii. p. 420.
246 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SLAVONIC. [SECT. vi.
suffix. If the root forms also an e stem, the nd stem is distinguished
from this by perfectivity. The deverbal nd stems are perfective (227),
the denominative passive.1 Miklosich considers that -nd corresponds
to Sanskrit -nu, Greek ->u, Gothic -n, and that the nasal of a came
from an older U ; before a vowel the a, like &, becomes <w.2
III. The primary e stems, i.e., those formed from roots, are
generally neuter and durative. If the root forms also an i stem or an
a stem, the e stem is passive.
The denominative e- stems are durative of inchoative, and signify
to become what the noun denotes.3
To -e corresponds Sanskrit -ya, which, according to Miklosich, must
have become first -ay, then -£?/, also Latin -2, Gothic -ai.*
IV. The i stems are all denominative, according to Miklosich, and
generally durative, their signification being causative, either transitive
or reflexive.5 But he says that when a primary stem and an i stem
belong to the same root, the latter is causative of what the former
signifies. The radical vowel is Gunated as in Sanskrit, and -i corre-
sponds to Sanskrit -aya.
Miklosich thinks that in Sanskrit, and in all the other languages of
the family, the causative was formed on a verbal noun to which the
first a of aya belonged, the causative element being -ya.6
Amongst the i stems, there are also some intensives and diminutives.7
V. The a stems are either primary or deverbal or denominative.
The primary and denominative are durative unless they have a prefix.
The deverbal are iterative. "When the latter are formed on primary stems
the radical vowel is strengthened, but with a different vowel increase
from that of the nominal « stems.8 The -a of the denominative a
stems corresponds to Sanskrit -aya, the stem ending of the noun being
dropped. The deverbal a stems, in the strengthening of the radical
vowel and in their meaning, approach in some degree to the Sanskrit
intensives. Even primary verbs take this -a, which, however, with
some deverbals and denominatives, they keep only in the infinitive.9
No class of verbs includes so many intensives and diminutives as the
a class.10
The combination sk is properly in Slavonic one of those elements
by which roots are determined. It remains accordingly through all the
verbal forms ; thus i to go, ?W/a to seek, jti to sing, piska to sing with
the flute.11
VI. The ura stems are all secondary, deverbal or denominative.
The sufh'x consists of u and a, u arising, according to Miklosich, from
the nominal u stems, which correspond to the Sanskrit a stems, and
spreading from them to others, and a being imperfective (227).
The diminutive of these is formed with -kova, -ftzra.12
214. From the infinitive stem, the aorist is formed either by sub-
joining to it, if it end in a consonant, the short person endings, a
1 Miklosich, ii. pp. 421, 423. - Ibid. ii. p. 429.
3 Ibid, ii. p. 430 ; iv. p. 296. « Ibid. ii. pp. 433, 434.
• Ibid. ii. p. 435. « Ibid. ii. p. 451 ; iv. p. 297. 7 Ibid. ii. p. 452.
- Ibid. ii. pp. 454, 4C9. » Ibid. ii. p. 468. "J Ibid. ii. p. 470.
1 Ibid. ii. p. 4SO. '-• Ibid. ii. p. 486.
SECT. VI.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SLAVONIC. 247
connective vowel e being inserted, which, however, is different from
the suffixed -e of the present, or by subjoining s (27) to it if it end in
a consonant, before which t, d, z, s, are dropped, and the vowel
strengthened for compensation, and l> is dropped without such com-
pensation ; the s may become h ; r and I, mr and ml, at the end of a
stem are treated as vowels. These two formations are peculiar to the
Old Slavonic and Servian.
In the latest form of the aorist, which is common to all the Slavonic
languages, the s, which becomes h between vowels, is joined to a
consonantal stem by a connective vowel o, which in the loss of the
person endings of second and third singular became e. This o
expresses the remotion of the past. The stems which end in -nd
preceded by a consonant, sometimes change nd before h to o.1
If the verbal stem end in a vowel, the later aorist coincides with
the earlier, as the s of the latter is h between vowels, and the vowel
subjoined to the stem in the former is replaced by the final vowel
of the stem.
The future subjoins sy (26) to the infinitive stem, but is formed
only by the verb bu.2
The first past participle active is formed with the suffix - s, the
second with -lu, used only as a predicate. The former is declined as
ending in -v.syu, except in nominative singular masculine and neuter
(211).
The past participle passive is formed with -enu or -tu.
The infinitive is formed with -ti, rarely -tu, the supine with -tu ; 3
-ti might be a locative case or a genitive, more likely, according to
Miklosich, a dative, -tu an accusative.
215. The present stem is distinguished by the suffix e, which
corresponds to the Sanskrit conjugational vowel a.
Some verbs do not take this e. And the i stems and the primary
e stems take the suffix only in first singular present. Probably it
coalesced in the other parts with the stem ending into i. Some verbs
and classes of verbs have i before the e, as in Latin cupio, and in
Greek xgd^u (xgay/w).4
The present stem in some classes of verbs receives also internal
change, in the strengthening or nasalisation of the radical vowel, or
external addition, either -i, which Miklosich considers euphonic for
the prevention of hiatus, or -d, which he connects with the root de,
Sanskrit d*a (159, 192), or reduplication, which, however, is found
in only two verbs, da to give, and de5 (189).
From the present stem is formed the imperfect, by lengthening the
present suffix e to e to express the going on in past time, and sub-
joining h or ah, h being same as s of the aorist, and becoming
euphonically s before e ; the imperative by adding the old optative i;
the present participle active by adding -nt to o, the prolonged present
vowel by which it is absorbed into e, if y precedes, into u after any
other consonant ; and the present participle passive by the suffix -mu
1 Miklosich, ii. pp. 487, 488. 2 Ibid. ii. p. 488.
3 Ibid. ii. pp. 328, 488, 489; iv. pp. 817, 844. 4 Ibid. ii. p. 489-491.
5 Ibid. ii. pp. 491, 492.
248 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES I SLAVONIC. [SHOT. VL
subjoined to i or o 1 as the vowel of the present, according to the
ending of the stem.
The present participle passive is used also as an adjective in the
sense of Latin adjectives in -bilis.2
216. The person endings of the present tense are :
siugular. dual. plural.
1st -mi -ve -mil
2d -si -ta -te
3d -tn -te -nty.
Those of the other tenses are :
singular. dual. plural.
1st -in -ve -mw
2d -s -ta -te
3d -t -te -nt
The nasal of first singular and third plural of both sets is absorbed
by preceding vowel, and if this be e it becomes a.
The ending -tu of third singular present is often dropped, -tu
of third plural less frequently. Very seldom -mi is found instead
of -mi. The -tii of third singular is from -ti, -ti. The first dual is
rarely -va instead of -tu3
The dual person endings, -tat -te, were originally used without dis-
tinction of gender ; but afterwards -ta came into use for the third
person as well as for the second, and in later writings, when the sub-
ject was a feminine or neuter noun, the dual person ending became
te or te in conformity with the final e of the noun 4 (220).
Verbs, whose stem ends in a vowel and has no stem-suffix, some-
times have -tu for -t ; in the third singular of the short persons
generally -s and -t are dropped,5 and -nt is absorbed as a nasalisation.6
Old Slavonic knows nothing of the lengthening of the conjugational
vowel e (Sanskrit a) in the first singular dual and plural which is
found in Sanskrit (17). But in the Slavonic past tenses the first
singular, dual, and plural takes before it o, corresponding to a, the
first person being reduced from -om to -«. This vowel distinguishes
the past in the simple aorist from the present, there being no dis-
tinction in the second and third dual and second plural. It must
express a sense of the past, which is so often expressed by a; and it
indicates that the sense of the past is stronger with the first person
than with the others.
In the aorist, -sent, -hent of the third plural become respectively
'&, -£<?.7
217. There are also compound tenses in Old Slavonic expressed by
the participles with tenses of auxiliary verbs.
A perfect active is expressed by the past participle in -lvt and the
present of the verb yes, to be, a pluperfect by the same with the
imperfect of bn, to be. This participle without yes has an aorist
signification.
1 Miklosich, ii. p. 493 ; iii. p. 95. 8 Ibid. iv. p. 832. '
3 Ibid. iii. pp. 63, 64. * Ibid. iii. p. 67. B Ibid. iii. p. 68.
8 Ibid. iii. p. 98-124. " Ibid. iii. pp. 80, 98-124.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SLAVONIC. 249
A future active is expressed by the present of the perfective verbs,
by the infinitive with the present either of irrie habere, of nafm inci-
pere, or of liote velle ; a future exactum by past participle in -lu with
present of bad eintreten ; a conditional or ideal by the same participle
with aorist binn or buhv, the past expressing the ideal as absent from
actuality.1 A passive is expressed by the active with reflex object sS,
or by the passive participles with parts of the verbs bu, buva, bad, yes.z
218. Slavonic, like Lithuanian (180), takes up into the root ele-
ments of thought expressed by modifications of its vowels, and these
modifications involve more steps of vowel increase than there are in
Sanskrit, which has only Guna and Vriddhi.3
219. Slavonic has a weak comparative sense of substantive objects
in respect of their qualities, so that qualities are apt to be thought not
as adjectives with comparison of the substantive object (Def. 6), but
by themselves as substantives, either in apposition to the substantive
to which they belong, or connected with it by the copulative conjunc-
tion or by prepositions.4 And for the same reason adjectives are apt
to be used substantively, the general noun being dropped because the
sense of comparison which involves it is faint.5
Abstract nouns often denote persons, the attribute which is used to
designate the persons being abstracted as a substantive instead of
inhering in their substance.6
An attribute cannot in Slavonic be predicated of an adjective used
substantively, because, there being no article with the adjective, this
has not sufficient substance to support the copula as its subject, and a
substantive is needed for that purpose.
The sense of possession is so strong that the thought of the pos-
sessor is wont to enter into the idea of what belongs to him, distinguish-
ing it from other objects of the same name, so as to be expressed by
an adjective agreeing with it (Hectorea conjux) instead of by a substan-
tive governed by it in the genitive case, or through a preposition.7
The comparative sense of verbs seems to be weaker than that of
substantives, so that instead 'of an adverb there is often an adjective
agreeing with the subject.8
220. The analogy of the ending e of the nominative plural feminine
has introduced in some places in New Slavonic a feminine form me,
ve for the plural of the first and second personal pronouns ; just as the
third person ending of third dual of verbs has taken a feminine and
neuter form te in the later remains of Old Slavonic 9 (216).
Feminine nouns may have been sometimes used originally to denote
persons of the male sex, and masculines of the female sex, the designa-
tion being thought as a subordinate thing belonging to a man, or
as an independent thing belonging to a woman (Def. 16). And
nouns originally masculine may become feminine, because their stem
ending generally belongs to feminine nouns, and the reason of its
original use has been lost. The sense of gender prevails over the
1 Miklosich, iv. p. 808. - Ibid. iii. pp. 127, 128. 3 Ibid. ii. Einl. p. xx.
4 Ibid. iv. p. 3-5. 5 Ibid. iv. p. 25-31. 6 Ibid. iv. p. 6.
7 Ibid. iv. p. 7-16. 8 Ibid. iv. p. 16. 9 Ibid. iv. p. 20.
VOL. II. R
250 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SLAVONIC. [SECT. vi.
analogy of the stem ending in many names of cities which are feminine
though they end in -w.1
In the later languages, many masculine substantives are in the
plural thought as neuter aggregates, and sometimes neuter plurals
have feminine adjectives. In Old Slavonic, neuters in -o when used
of persons take -« in the vocative singular like masculines in -u.
There are no substantives of common gender.2
Slavonic, like Teutonic, shows in its use of the neuter a tendency
to drop the element of living force (164). Thus when an adjective,
or participle, or pronoun refers to substantives of different gender or
whose gender is not noted, it is neuter (194), unless two substantives
be closely connected with each other, when it agrees in gender, some-
times with one, sometimes with the other, the gender of one having
prevailed over that of the other in the close connection of the two.3
When the subject denotes a multitude the predicate is neuter without
respect to the gender of the subject.4
In the weakening of the sense of gender, the masculine forms
being more frequently used, tended to prevail over the feminine ; and
in the dative dual and plural, in which there is great similarity
between the two genders, the feminine substantive is not unfre-
quently connected with a masculine adjective. In the plural also, in
which the substantive idea is less distinct, the past participle in -vs is
often masculine, though belonging to a feminine noun ; and in many
of the languages the participle in -lu has in the plural only masculine
forms.5 It is probably for a similar reason that in the later languages
a neuter noun in the accusative not unfrequently has a masculine
adjective.6
221. Old Slavonic has the dual number in all inflected classes of
words through all cases and persons, and uses it whenever two things
are spoken of, independently of the numeral two, or the adjective
both. The same is true more or less of New Slavonic and Old
Servian and New Servian, while the other Slavonic languages possess
at present only some dual forms with which the thought of duality is
no longer connected.7
New Slavonic, however, has in most places lost the nominative and
the genitive locative of the dual of the first and second personal
pronouns.8
The plural is frequently expressed by collectives, the attributive
nature (Def. 4) of the individual being lost in that of the aggregate.
And many substantives are used in the singular for the plural, as if
they were collectives, the individual not being distinguished. But in
the later Old Slavonic and in the living Slavonic languages collectives
are not unfrequently used in the plural. The plural or the collective
of the inhabitants is used to denote the country.9
Substantives which denote a continuous material without indi-
vidual limitation (193), and abstract substantives, may be plural10
1 Miklosch, iv. p. 21-24. 2 Ibid. iv. pp. 25, 35. 3 Ibid. iv. pp. 33, 35.
' * Ibid. iv. p. 54. 5 Ibid. iv. pp. 36, 37. • Ibid. iv. p. 34.
7 Ibid. iv. p. 40. 8 Ibid. iv. p. 41. 9 Ibid. iv. p. 43-45.'
10 Ibid. iv. p. 46.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: SLAVONIC. 251
This indicates a weakness in the thought of the common attributive
nature, so that it fails to come out clear of the individual objects noted
in the formation of the idea. The singular of yeliko oaog may belong
to a plural noun, the individual being lost sight of.1
Verbs and adjectives are generally connected in the plural with
singular collectives,2 the reference which they involve making the
sense of substance more distinct.
Not unfrequently the verb is used reverentially in the plural with
a singular subject.3
222. The first four cardinal numerals are adjectives, and agree with
their substantive in gender, number, and case.3 Those for 5 to 10 are
feminine collective substantives, and govern what is numbered in the
genitive plural4 This accords with a weak sense of the individual.
The attribute of the cardinals 5 to 10 was originally feminine singular,
but afterwards neuter.5 " So great," &c., are adjectives agreeing with
noun; "so many," &c., are singular neuters; sometimes, however,
they too agree with nouns.6
223. The third personal pronoun has in the nominative the stem
onv, in the other cases yu ; in Bulgarian it has tu throughout.7
The Slavonic languages have not developed an article carried out
completely in its applications ; 8 though in the oldest writings there is
an article ize used in imitation of the Greek ; and the Slovenians and
Upper and Lower Servians, from living in close connection with
Germans, have, especially in the cities, developed an article out of tu,
which, however, the present written language strives to banish.9
Those adjectives which involve least comparison with a general idea
do not take the suffixed article (211). Such are in general the posses-
sive adjectives (219) which denote relation with another noun without
much sense of distinction from the general one, and the past participle
active, as it belongs so subjectively to its substantive.10 Adjectives
also used predicatively are not apt to take the suffixed article,11 for the
reference is not so much to other things as to realisation in the sub-
ject. The suffixed adjective came more and more into use in course of
time.11
224. The Slavonic languages have two negative particles, a simple
negative ne, and a stronger negative ni, which has taken up i to
strengthen it.12 The particle ne is usually written in one word with
the verb,13 and often when thus prefixed changes its meaning to the
opposite.14 With similar effect it unites as prefix with a noun.15
The negative pronouns require a negative with the verb,16 for the
negative of the pronoun does not sufficiently affect the verb.
225. Prepositions are not unfrequently repeated before each of the
words standing in the relation.17
The comparative of the adjective is in many of the languages not
1 Miklosich, iv. p. 46. 2 Ibid. iv. p. 48. 3 Ibid. iv. p. 51.
4 Ibid. iv. p, 53. 6 Ibid. iv. p. 55. 6 Ibid. iv. p. 59.
7 Ibid. iv. p. 70. 8 Ibid. iv. p. 125. » Ibid. iv. pp. 125, 126
10 Ibid. iv. p. 130. " Ibid. iv. pp. 134, 136. 12 Ibid. iv. p. 170.
M Ibid. iv. p. 171. " Ibid. iv. p. 173. " Ibid. iv. p. 175.
16 Ibid. iv. p. 188. " Ibid. iv. p. 252.
252 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SLAVONIC. [SECT. vr.
declined, so as to agree in case with its noun,1 the comparison \vhich
it expresses withdrawing it from close connection with the noun ^151).
For this reason also it takes -yu to form the connection (211). On the
other hand, some adjectives are not declined because their stem
coalesces with the substantive. And sometimes substantives in
apposition partially coalesce, and the last only takes the case
ending.1
The genitive singular takes the place of the accusative singular in
masculine substantives denoting living objects, but less frequently in
the older language than in the later. The genitive may take the place
of the accusative in the plural also of adjectives, participles, and pro-
nouns.2 The object, when strongly thought in its own idea, is only
partially thought as object; and the act or relation is thought as
affecting only part of it.
The accusative is often governed by nouns derived from transitive
verbs.3
In negative sentences transitive verbs govern the genitive instead
of the accusative ; 4 for it is not the action as affecting the object that
is denied, but the noun is the object of the denial of the action ; the
latter is denied of or from the former.
Neuter pronouns often are accusative in negative sentences instead
of genitives,5 perhaps because they fall in more closely to the verbal
idea so as to be negatived along with it.
The fundamental idea of the instrumental case is that along which
the action takes place (10); it expresses not only the instrument,
but also how often and how much, and the direction or manner of a
process.8
226. The passive is expressed in Slavonic by active forms of neuter
verbs (213), by the reflexive construction with the reflexive object,
not separate as when it denotes a reflex action, but enclitic, or by the
participles -?««, -en*, -in, witli an auxiliary verb7 (217). Middle
verbs also are expressed with the enclitic reflexive object.8 Often the
reflexive object is dropped without the verb becoming transitive.9 In
Russian at present the reflexive object follows the verb, but in the
other languages, as formerly in Russian, it precedes.10
227. Verbs are distinguished as imperfective or perfective ; the
former being thought duratively in the process, or iteratively, the
latter being thought in the accomplishment (213). Iterative verbs,
which are regularly formed with the stem suffix a, may take a second
a to form iteratives of iteratives, hiatus being of course prevented
(204) ; when negatived, iterative verbs not only express negation of
the iteration, but not unfrequontly a more emphatic negation of the
simple verb, the negative affecting each instance in the iteration.
Perfective verbs may be perfective of the momentary or of the dura-
tive, or of the iterative.11
1 Miklosich, iv. p. 342. - Ibid. iv. pp. 370, 495. 3 Ibid. iv. p. 376.
4 Ibid. iv. p. 498. « Ibid. iv. p. 500.
6 Ibid. iv. pp. 6S3, GSS, 703, 726. ~ Ibid. iv. pp. 264, 265.
8 Ibid. iv. p. '266. » Ibid. iv. p. 270. 1° Ibid. iv. p. 271.
11 Ibid. iv. pp. 274, 276, 279, 280.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SLAVONIC. 253
Of most unprefixed verbs there are two forms, a perfective and a
durative, or a durative and an iterative ; of others there are three
forms, perfective, durative, and iterative ; of many there are four
forms, perfectives of two kinds, a durative and an iterative, or a per-
fective, a durative, an iterative, and an iterative of an iterative. The
difference is often unexpressed, being involved in different applications,
for many forms are perfective or iniperfective, according to difference
of meaning ; and many verbs can be used in the same meaning either
perfectively or iuiperfectively. The same forms are often perfective
or iniperfective, according to difference of accentuation or quantity of
vowels.1
If the perfective form of a verb has gone out of use it is replaced
by the iniperfective, and this goes out of use as such ; and an imper-
fective gone out of use is supplied, an iterative by a durative, and a
durative by an iterative. A simple iterative gone out of use as such
is supplied by a double iterative, which serves also for a durative. A
perfective is often got by giving a prefix to the durative form. A
prefix gives either direction or perfectivity,2 the prefix carrying the
mind to the end of the process.
The iterative verbs of the fifth and sixth classes (213), generally
become durative by getting a prefix,3 the prefix having the effect of
summing up the iteration into the duration expressed by final a;
but many of them become perfective of iterative, especially with na-
on, and^o-, which expresses extension.4
228. In Old and Xew Slavonic, and in Upper and Lower Servian,
the verb is dual when the subject denotes two things, whether they
belong to each other or not. With two or more subjects in the
singular the verb is respectively dual or plural. If a collective sub-
ject denotes persons or has taken the place of the plural, the verb is
plural.6
229. The present tense of durative verbs is not unfrequently used
with a future signification, to express the future more vividly.6
The strictly present is going on and is therefore durative ; and a
present perfective is present only in anticipation, as a future, or as
what may come at any time.^ If a past tense precede, a present per-
fective may be thought from the standpoint of the past ; and in the
later languages it is so used as historical present.8
In Russian the second plural person ending is sometimes added to
the first plural of the present to refer the verb to the speaker and to
several other persons, who are addressed as with a call for co-operation.9
The imperative (optative, 215) is sometimes used to express a sup-
position, concession, or condition ; and its second person singular may
be used when thought from the standpoint of a past tense preceding it
to express a quickly passing fact generally thought as in past time,
the subject of this fact being, as it were, commanded in the second
1 Miklosich, iv. p. 280-282. - Ibid. iv. p. 285-287.
3 Ibid. iv. pp. 317, 332. 4 Ibid. iv. p. 331. 5 Ibid. iv. pp. 765, 766,
6 Ibid. iv. p. 771. 7 Ibid. iv. pp. 772, 776. 8 Ibid. iv. p. 778.
9 Ibid. iv. p. 781.
254 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : SLAVONIC. [SECT. vi.
person singular to realise it. Such a fact is also expressed by the
stem of many verbs, and thought in present, past, or future.1
The imperative is sometimes used in dependent clauses generally
after a question, in which use it is rather an optative or potential than
an imperative, Siada 3 d»a<fov ? monstrdbo vobis quern timeatis?
The past participles bnlo, buvalo, of the verbs bu (Sans. Vu), buva
(durative), when connected with a present put it in the past.3
The present participle active has often a passive meaning, the action
being thought as belonging adjectively to its object (167).4 And
there is a form in -ste, which Miklosich thinks might be a neuter
accusative of this participle, which is used like a gerund (167).5 The
passive participle is often replaced by an adjective, the action of one
thing on another being thought as qualifying the latter.6
230. In Slavonic that which the subject realises is more external
than in Teutonic. Slavonic thinks the verb more in the external
process of accomplishment, so that the subjectivity is carried to the
end of the process in the perfective verbs ; and doing or being as an
end or aim in the infinitive retains its connection with the substantive
which has it for an aim ; whereas the infinitive has well nigh lost
that connection in Teutonic (168). The infinitive is so verbal in
Slavonic that it is contrary to the genius of the language to govern it
with a preposition.7 "When the substantive to which the infinitive
belongs in Slavonic is different from the subject of the principal verb,
it is put, not in the accusative, as in Latin and Greek, but in the
dative ; the infinitive, according to Miklosich, depending on the verb
and the dative on the infinitive.8 This view of the construction of
the infinitive leads Miklosich to deny that in Slavonic or Latin the
infinitive can ever be really used as a nominative.9 But we know
that in English the infinitive, with to before it, can really be thought
as a nominative to a verb, e.g., to die is gain. The infinitive is not
necessarily dependent on a principal verb, but may be abstracted as
an aim attributed to a substantive expressed or understood, in which
attribution thought passes from the infinitive to the substantive to
which the aim is attributed. The latter, therefore, does depend on
the infinitive through a sense of attribution, and in. Slavonic is in the
dative as that to which the attribution is made (73). That the infini-
tive does in this way govern the substantive to which it belongs is
proved by the analogy of the verbal noun (see below), which plainly
does govern its noun. The infinitive as an aim can express a wish,
purpose, or command as well as an object of a verb or of a noun of
action ; and as a dative it can express a condition or circumstance in
proximity to which a realisation takes place.10 The infinitive active
can take the place of a passive infinitive 10 (167).
The supine expresses in many of the Slavonic languages the direct
object of verbs of motion.11
1 Miklosich, iv. pp. 782, 794, 79S. - Ibid. iv. p. 70S. 3 Ibid. iv. p. 815.
4 Ibid. iv. p. 821. 6 Ibid. iv. p. 828. 6 Ibid. iv. p. 17.
7 Ibid. iv. p. 872. 8 Ibid. iv. p. 870. 9 Ibid. iv. p. 848.
'" Ibid. iv. pp. 846, 849, 850, 852-861. 1J Ibid. iv. pp. 858, 874.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARMENIAN". 255
A verbal substantive signifying the being or doing is formed from
all verbs by adding -iye to the stem of the past passive participle, so
that its stem ending is -tiye, -eniye. It is declined through all the cases
of the singular number, and like the infinitive takes the subject of
being or doing in the dative. Like the infinitive also, it may take
the place of the passive, and in Old Slavonic it governs its object like
the finite verb. It may be governed by a preposition, and is qualified
by an adjective.1
AEMENIAN.
231. The Armenian language has lived through three periods
clearly distinguished from each other. The first extends to the
beginning of the fifth century of the Christian era, and contained,
according to later writers, a considerable number of literary works,
mostly historical, of which only a few fragments remain. This first
period had its alphabet, and a greater richness of forms than the sub-
sequent period, but its articulations cannot be recovered. The second
period reaches from the fifth to the twelfth century, and includes the
classical writers of Armenia. It begins with the introduction of a
new alphabet by Mesrob, arranged after the Greek, and founded
principally on the letters of the first period. The third period begins
with the twelfth century. It added to the alphabet two letters o and
/, and varied considerably from the second period in pronunciation
and in the use of the grammatical forms. It is the language of the
second or classical period that will be studied here.2
232. The Armenian alphabet has eight t- consonants, of some of
which it is difficult to distinguish the nature. Their utterance is thus
represented, t, ts, d, dz, tsh, dsh, dsh analogous to tsh in form, and next
but one after it in order ; ds, dsh, dsh analogous to ds in form, and next
but one after it in order. They may, perhaps, taken in this order, be
regarded as t, t', d, d?, t, £, d, d', though not properly distinguished as
such in speaking. And then the Armenian alphabet would contain the
following consonants : k, Jc or q\ g, g ', t, £ , d, d1, t, f, d, d", 0, p, p,
b, h, %, y varying to $, s, z, s, z, v, w, r, I, r, n, m, to which in the third
period of the language was added /. The vowels are : a, e, e, e, i, o,
u written ov , and to these was added in the third period d ; in the
beginning of a word 6 is pronounced ico, and e is pronounced ye.
Two concurrent vowels preserve each its full value, except that e
before a is pronounced y, and there are the diphthongs ai, m, au, and
iu. At the beginning of a word or syllable y is pronounced h, and at
the end of a word it lengthens a or o preceding it. The aspirate g' is
etymologically akin to /, r. It takes the place of X in the alphabet
and in writing Greek words ; but it is pronounced gh. It probably
corresponded originally to the I of the Slavonic and Tartar languages
(203). The modern Armenians pronounce g, d, b, as &, t, p, and k, t,
p, as g, d, b; this looks as if they used for both an intermediate
utterance which seems to transpose them ; but Lepsius says that there
1 Miklosich, iv. p. 877-880. 2 Lauer, Grain. Arm., pp. 1, 2.
256 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARMENIAN. [SECT. vi.
is an actual interchange of pronunciation. The accent is on the last
syllable.1
233. There is no grammatical gender nor dual number.
The Armenian noun has the peculiarity that in the nominative,
accusative, and vocative singular, the final vowel of the stem, if it end
in a vowel, and if it end in a consonant the vowel preceding that
consonant is dropped, and a similar tendency appears in those cases in
the plural also. It is as if in the other cases the case relation
strengthened the thought of the substance (Def. 4), referring rather to
that part of the idea than to the whole, and consequently strengthened
the stem ending which involved that element ; while in the nominative,
accusative, and vocative, the weak case relation and the substance
tended to be absorbed into the substantive idea, and the stem ending
to be weakened. The dropping of the vowel of the last syllable often
renders necessary the insertion of a vowel, generally i or u before the
consonant, which is then at the end, to facilitate its utterance. But
also when there is already an i or u before that consonant, it is apt to
be lengthened to c or ui, in the aorist participle and other stems e to
ea ; which seems to indicate a strengthening of the residue of the stem
by the absorption of the substance or case relation. Stems which end
in u often when they drop u take r instead of it.
Some stems which end in o, i, or u change this vowel to a in the
instrumental singular and in the oblique cases of the plural. This a
is probably pronominal and arthritic (Def. 7), the instrumental rela-
tion being so strong as not to combine with these stems without its
help, and the indefiniteness of the individuals in the plural rendering
its help necessary with the strong oblique relations.
This view of the nature of this a is confirmed by the fact that the
only stems which have -a in all the oblique cases, singular and plural,
are proper names, and that even the female names formed with -uhi
take -a, changing the i before a to y. Proper names are so concrete
that they do not take up an element of relation so readily as common
nouns (V. 60), and are therefore more apt to use an arthritic con-
nective (Def. 7). But in other nouns also the vowel i or u, which is
at the end of the fuller form of their stem, may be connective, and
may by its addition weaken the vowel of the last syllable of the
stem.
If a stem end in o, which is preceded by y, the y becomes v. The
original stem ending was -ya, and this became -vu ; but when the u is
dropped or changed to a the y returns.
Of stems ending in a vowel, most of those which have a guttural
or dental before the final vowel end in i.
The stems which end in a consonant end in g\ r, or n.
Sterns which end in y or p have in their full form c before the final
consonant, those in n have a or ?'. Those in -in change it to -an in
the instrumental singular and the oblique cases of the plural, the sub-
stantive idea being thought in these cases principally in its substance,
and that part being consequently strengthened in expression. Some-
1 Laucr, p. 3-G ; Lepsius, Standard Alphabet, p. 133.
SECT, vi.] GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARMENIAN. 257
times final n is dropped after another consonant in the reduced
stem.1
234. The nominative singular is the reduced stem ; the nominative
plural takes -k\ which is generally added immediately to the reduced
form of the vocalic stems, but those which end in u, particularly those
which in the reduced stem change u to r, are apt to retain u in the
nominative plural, and to insert n between u and Jc. The nominative
plural of stems which end in a consonant sometimes join 7c immedi-
ately to the reduced stem, as all those in -Oivn (<rui"j), sometimes to the
fuller stem, as all those in -g or -rn. Many reduced stems in -n insert
u before the n in the nominative plural for facility of utterance.2
The accusative singular is the same as nominative singular. The
accusative plural differs from nominative plural only in taking -a
instead of -If. The accusative, when defined, is preceded by z, which
is probably a demonstrative element ; z is repeated before an adjec-
tive or genitive, which is connected with an accusative.2
The vocative singular and plural is the same as the nominative.3
The genitive singular is the fuller stem ; but stems ending in -0 or
-a take y (h), those in -o often take -£. The genitive plural adds -£
to the fuller stem ; and those -u stems which take n before &' in
nominative plural retain the n in genitive plural.3 Very seldom the
genitive plural is formed from the reduced stem.4
The dative singular and plural is the same as the genitive. But
some u stems form also a dative singular in -um.*
The ablative singular case ending is -e, subjoined to the fuller stem ;
the -e after a or o melts into y, or rather 7t as a mere lengthening of
those vowels, but it absorbs into itself final i. Stems ending in -ean
make ablative singular in -erie, dropping a, those in -in make it in -ne,
dropping i. Sometimes in the ablative singular stems ending in a
vowel take m instead of their final vowel -before -e. Those o stems
which form genitive singular in -of, sometimes in the ablative singular
add -e to this instead of to the fuller stem. The ablative always has
I or y prefixed, which means in. The ablative plural differs from
genitive plural only by this prefix.5
The instrumental case ending is -v added to the vowel stems, but
absorbed by final u without lengthening it ; -b added to the stems
which end in a consonant and to some of those which end in -u,
especially those which in the reduced stem take r instead of u ; n
before b becomes m. The instrumental plural adds -&e to the instru-
mental singular ; -avlc and -amble may become -oJc.6
235. The adjectives are declined as the substantives. Many of
them, however, especially polysyllabic ones, which have the form of
reduced nominal stems ending in a consonant, are not declined.7
The comparative suffix of adjectives and adverbs is -guin, fuller
form -guni, joined immediately to stems which end in a vowel, final i
of stem being changed to e; but when it is joined to stems ending
1 Lauer, p. 8-13. - Ibid. pp. 14, 81. 3 Ibid. p. 15.
4 Ibid. p. 16. 8 Ibid. p. 17. 6 Ibid. pp. 17, 18.
7 Ibid. p. 25.
258
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARMENIAN.
[SECT. vi.
in a consonant, a is inserted between. If two or more adjectives are to
be taken as in the comparative degree, generally only the first or the
last has the suffix.1 There is no superlative form.1
236. The cardinal numerals are : min eg 1, erku 2, er 3, tors klar 4,
king 5, icef 6, evOn 7, uO 8, inn 9, tasn 10. They are inflected, the
numerals 11 to 16 according to the i declension being formed with the
unit before the ten without the copulative conjunction; those for 17,
18, 19 have the copulative, and both their parts may be inflected.
The multiples of 10 precede the units, and both may be inflected.
The ordinals are mi 1st, erkir 2d, erir 3d; 4th to 10th end in -ord
(245), llth to 19th in -erord*
Multiplicative numerals are formed with -patik, sometimes with
kin,
237. The following are the declensions of the pronouns :
IstPers.
2dPers.
this.
this.
this.
'Nominative .
es
du
sa
ais
su'in
Accusative . .
z'is
z-k'e'z
z'sa
z'ais
z-su'in
£<
Genitive . .
Dative . . .
im
ind
k'o
k'e'z
saga
sma
sm'in
aisr
aisor'ik
nun
aism'ik
sor'in
sm'in
CO
Ablative . . ! yine'n
inde'n
ik'e'n
isnia'rie
yaisma'ne
not found
\Instrumental . inev
k'ev soicav
aisu
sow-in
aisu'ik
soivimb
Nominative . mek'
duk*
sok'a
aisle
sok* 'in
saik*
aisok* 'ik
Accusative . .
z'mev
z'de'z
zfsosa
zfaiss
z-sos'in
FLUIIAL.
Genitive .
Dative .
Ablative . .
Instrumental .
mer
me'z
mevk1
der
de'z
idefz2n
devk'
z-sais
Isot'a I
sok'avlt
z'aisos'ik
aisf, or (
aisof "ik \
yaisf
yaist'a'ne
aisok1 'iok1
sot'-un, or
sot' -unf
isoC'unf
sole 'imbk*
mcdk*
fleavk'
sok'ulf
aisok* 'imbk*
sok'umbk*
deotf
Tlio reflexive pronoun is ii\ cv; genitive, dative, iur; ablative,
instrumental, ivrer>. There is also a form with n, ivn ; singular:
genitive, dative, ivrcan ; instrumental, ivreamb, ivpeav ; j)lural : nomi-
nativc, ivfcatilf' ; genitive, dative, ivreanf; instrumental, irreambk*.
Like tsa are declined da and na ; like ats, aid and ain ; like suin,
dnin and nuin ; t denotes the near, d the less remote, n the more
remote. The two latter groups are declined also as ending in -i, by
later writers as in -u, the ui of the last being changed by these to «.
The elements marked separate are strengthening pronominal elements.
Lauer, p. 26.
3 Ibid. p. 27-30.
SECT. VI.]
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARMENIAN.
259
The elements s, d, n, are affixed as demonstrative particles to nouns
and pronouns, also a and k. The genitive of the pronouns with -o,
those in a with -y (h), form possessive adjectives.1
Interrog.
Nominative o, oio
Accusative .... 20, zow
Genitive uir
Dative um
Ablative yurrie
Instrumental
Nominative .... uik'
Accusative .... zuis
Genitive uif
Dative uif
Ablative
Instrumental .
Kelative.
or
Indefinite.
ok1
zor
zok*
orui
orum
yorme
uruk'
umbk1
yumek'e
orow
ork'
...
orot'
orot1
yorof
orowk1
There is another interrogative pronoun rarely used, and only in
the singular, nominative i, accusative zi, genitive er, dative im, him,
ablative ime, instrumental iv ; also a third, int quid. There are also
ink'ean ipse, omn aliquis, ik', imn, int, aliquid.2
238. The Armenian verb forms a present stem by adding to the
root -e, -a, -u, or -i, but sometimes the vowel of the present stem is
not confined to it, but is radical. Sometimes the verb adds to the
root in the present stem, -ane or -ne, -ana or -ena, -nu, -at -ant -t or -nt,
adding to these last four -e or -i. The vowel -i is generally passive,
though very many neuter and deponent verbs have it also; it is
sometimes added in the passive to u of the present stem ; it is used
only in the present and the third singular imperfect. 3
Besides the present and imperfect tenses formed from the present
stem, there is an aorist and a future formed from the root.4
The stem of the aorist is formed by adding -tl to the root, immedi-
ately if it ends in a vowel, but if it do not, mediately, with a con-
nective vowel, with e if the conjugational vowel is e or i (except as
dicere, git scire, kar posse, which take a though they are of the e
conjugation), Avith a if this be the conjugational vowel, or with the
a or e which precedes the na of denominatives.5 Many verbs which
form their present stem by adding e or i to the root, also ta dare and
ga venire, 'all those which form it with -u, -ne, -t, -nt, and many which
form it with -nu, make an aorist without -tf,6 which may be called a
second aorist, the other being first aorist ; but the one verb forms
only one aorist ; though there is often, along with a first aorist, a
participle of the second aorist.4 In the second aorist the person
endings are connected with the root by the same vowels as with £
in the first aorist.6
The augment e- is in the third singular of first aorist, and in the
1 Lauer, p. 32-37.
4 Ibid. p. 43.
- Ibid, pp, 37, 38.
6 Ibid, pp, 48, 49.
3 Ibid. pp. 41, 42.
6 Ibid. p. 49.
260 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARMENIAN. [SECT. vi.
imperfect ei, also in the third singular of the second aorist, when this
would be a monosyllable without it, and throughout the three second
aorists etu, eki, and edi. Before a and o, and sometimes before con-
sonants, it becomes e.1
The first future stem is formed by adding -t* to the stem of the
first aorist, and the second future by adding -t* to the root, i being
prefixed to t' in the first singular in the active, and ai in the passive,
sometimes eai in second future passive. In the second plural first
future f before ik' becomes f.
In the other persons of the future i is not interposed except some-
times in second future, but the first tl of first future becomes s unless
when it is preceded by a radical vowel.2
There is a subjunctive mood for the present and sometimes for the
imperfect, and imperative and participles for present aorist and future.3
The person endings of the present indicative and subjunctive are
singular -m, -s, — , plural, -wt#, Jc, -n.
In the other tenses and moods the m of the first person singular
and plural is dropped except sometimes in the future. The s of
second singular remains in the future indicative and future impera-
tive ; but in the latter it sometimes is changed to y / it is dropped in
the aorist imperative of the e, a, and u conjugations, also in the
imperative of the first aorist in the i conjugation, though here it also
becomes r, as it always does in the imperative of the second aorist of
the i conjugation ; it becomes r also in the imperative of the present,
in the imperfect and in the aorist indicative. The endings Jc and
n of second and third plural are maintained throughout. But
besides ti of second plural there is also found in the aorists of the i
conjugation the ending -rule.* The third singular of the passive aorists
ends in v.b
In the third singular and second plural of the present the conjuga-
tional vowels e and a are lengthened to compensate for the dropped
f.6 In the third singular first aorist e before t' is increased to ea or e.
If third singular of first or second aorist would end in two consonants,
i is inserted between them for euphony.7
In the aorist, the person endings are connected with the stem by
the following vowels for each person in the active, except the verbs
ta and ga, which have no connective vowels ; singular, first i, second
?, third — ; plural, first a, second i or <~, third /. In the passive, a is
the connective for all the persons, lengthened in the first singular and
second plural, and often in the second aorist preceded throughout by
c. The passive formation of the aorist has very often an active
signification, especially in the second aorist.8
In the future the connective vowels of the persons are: active,
singular — , <', c, plural u, i, c. ; passive, singular — , i, i, plural, u, i, i.9
In Armenian there is only one simple imperfect, that of the verb
.substantive, whose root is c. Its persons are ci, cir, ert eale, (dti, tin;
the /• of third singular is radical and represents s. The imperfect
1 L.-im-r, p. 50. - Ibid. pp. 51, 52. 3 Ibid. p. 44.
4 Ibid. pp. 4.r», -I'!. b I bid. p. 48. 6 Ibid. p. 46.
7 Ibid. pp. 49, f,0. * Ibid. pp. 47, 48, 50. 9 Ibid. p. 51.
SECT, vi.] GKAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARMENIAN. 261
of other verbs is formed by coalition of their present stem with this
suffixed to it.1
The aorist participle with the present of the verb substantive
expresses a perfect, with its imperfect a pluperfect, with its future a
futurum exactum. The future participle with the same tenses forms
a present, past, and future, inchoative. These compound tenses have
both active and passive signification.2
239. The subjunctive is formed by subjoining -f to the present
stem, e becoming i before it, and a becoming ai. The vowels which
connect the person endings with £', are e lengthened to e in third
singular, for the e and a conjugations, u for the u conjugation, i for
the ?' conjugation.3
The imperfect subjunctive, which is rare, is formed by coalition of
the stem of the present subjunctive with the imperfect of the verb
substantive e.4
A prohibitive imperative is formed in second singular and second
plural by prefixing the negative mi to the present stem, and subjoin-
ing the person endings -*' singular, -Jc plural, e and a before K becoming
e and ai.4
The present imperative is lost, and instead of it is used the aorist
imperative, which has only the second singular and the second plural.
It has the acute accent on its last syllable.4
The second singular imperative, first aorist active, has no person
ending, and has also generally dropped £ and the vowel following it ;
e preceding becomes ea, sometimes e ; monosyllabic imperatives of first
aorist and second singular retain ?. Imperatives of first aorist of u
conjugation consisting of two consonants insert i between them.
The second singular imperative first aorist passive either drops
person ending and connective vowel, or these and also t\ increasing
in both cases e before £ to ea ; or it subjoins -ir to f.
The second singular imperative second aorist is in the active the
root, in the passive the root with -ir. The second plural first and
second aorist active and passive is same as the indicative.5
The imperative first and second future active and passive is same
as indicative, but has the acute accent on the last syllable ; but the
second singular sometimes has -ir, before which t' becomes t1.6
The infinitive subjoins -I to the conjugational vowel of the present
stem.7
Participles are formed from the stems of the present and aorist by
subjoining og', off ; the present stem drops the conjugational vowel.
First and second aorist participles of both active and passive signifi-
cation are formed by subjoining the participle of the verb substan-
tive e to the stem of the first aorist or to the root.7
Participles of the future, with active and passive signification, are
formed by subjoining to the infinitive -of or -i, the infinitive ending -ul
dropping u, and 41 becoming -el.7 These seem to be compound.
A second passive is expressed for all verbs by the aorist participles
with passive signification, and the auxiliary verb linil fieri.8
1 Lauer, pp. 46, 47. " Ibid. p. 53. 3 Ibid. pp. 53, 54.
4 Ibid. p. 54. 5 Ibid. p. 55. 6 Ibid. pp. 55, 56.
7 Ibid. p. 56. 8 Ibid. p. 57.
262 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARMENIAN. [SECT. vi.
The verb eg anil, yiynadai, in its aorist and future supplies those
parts of el esse as an auxiliary verb.1
240. The prepositions which are truly such and do not govern as
nouns are few in Armenian.2
241. In the formation of nouns which denote natives of places, or
members of sects, schools, parties, &c., the following suffixes are used :
eay, ean, eanf, i, ft, ok, ki, uk, k\ aiJc, ik', ank', kan, uni; fi is the
most frequent, generally with a prefixed to it, making the genitive in
-fui, and declined as ending in o.
Suffixes of place of the object denoted by the root are : stan, stani,
of, anof, enof, van, mni, ian, an, ean, ak, eak, «', ut, urd.
Suffixes of plants which produce the object denoted by the root
are : eni, i.
Suffixes of adjectives are as follows : of material, eg* en, i ; of moral
disposition, (Tan, ztit, zot, sot ; of form, ard, si; of time, eay, ean,
kan, ain, aini, in, ayin, i, ?, oy, oyin, ori, orin, oreay, orneay ; of
privation, at, ud,gar, zet.
Suffixes of diminutives : ak, oik, uk, ek, ik, eak.
Suffixes of abstract nouns of action : uOivn, but when the root ends
in s the suffix is t, when in n or r it is d, the final s, n, or % being
also preceded by u ; also st, mn, ad', nod", uad'oy, an, un, uiO, oB, ak,
uk, uif, ut1, of, k', ifc, &c.
Suffixes of nouns of the actor : it, ut, ak, eak, ik, uk, ku, kan, ker,
an, eay, aft, egim, ord, aur, nak ; of the instrument, of, it, o%d, i, ik,
iti, ki, kik', ai, arjak, an, aran, anak, eak, ak, uk, ek, ken, ut, uil,
uklak ; of person occupied about the thing denoted by the root, pan.3
Compound nouns are formed of two nominal stems connected by
the copulative ev or u. Possessive and other compounds are formed
of a noun preceded by a noun, pronoun, &c., which determines it or
depends on it.4
242. Denominative verbal stems are formed by -a, -e, -i (not -u),
-ana, -ena*
Verbal stems are compounded with prepositions.6
Intransitive verbs become transitive, and transitives become causa-
tive by composition with fufanel ostendere, reddere, the verb preced-
ing in its first aorist stem or in its root, and the first f of fufanel
being dropped. If the root of the verb ends in /, then -ut'anel when
attached to it becomes uzancl. The root of fufanel is fuf.6
Two verbal stems are often joined in composition by ev copulative
conjunction.7
243. There does not seem to be in Armenian any absorption of
elements into the root such as in Sanskrit, Teutonic, Lithuanian, and
Slavonic indicates a spreading quality of thought.
244. There is no determinate order for the arrangement of the parts
of the sentence except that prepositions and conjunctions precede
what depends on them.8
The adjective sometimes remains in the nominative singular, instead
of taking the case and number of its substantive. Of several adjec-
1 Lauer, p. 62. 2 Ibid. p. 69. 3 Ibid. p. 71-73. 4 Ibid. pp. 73, 74
6 Ibid. p. 75. 6 Ibid. pp. 75, 76. 7 Ibid. p. 76. 8 Ibid. p. 77.
SECT, vi.] GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : ARMENIAN. 263
tives belonging to a noun, all or some or none may take its case and
number. Sometimes the adjective and not the substantive has the
case and number.1
The numerals are attributes of their substantive ; but there are the
two following deviations from concord.
After the cardinal numbers above two the substantive is very apt to
be in the ablative plural ; often it is in the singular.2
The accusative prefix z is not repeated before a noun in apposition,
nor is a preposition.2
A verb is plural when its subject is a noun of multitude, but a
predicate may be singular with plural subject.3
The relative pronoun generally agrees with its antecedent in number,
but very often it remains singular, especially if nominative or accusative,
though the antecedent be plural. Sometimes the antecedent when a
demonstrative pronoun is omitted, and the relative takes its case when
it ought regularly to be in the accusative.4
The nominative is used absolutely where Latin uses the ablative
and Greek the genitive,5 but the genitive also is used absolutely, and
may be identical with the subject.6
The instrumental expresses also the relation with.7
The future tense is also used with an optative or potential signifi-
cance, subjunctively after zi in order that, or imperatively both
with the negative and without it. In these senses also the subjunc-
tive is used, as well as hypo the tically and interrogatively.8
The noun which is connected with the infinitive like a subject may
sometimes instead of being in the genitive be in the nominative, i.e.,
in the reduced stem.9
The present and aorist participles are to be regarded as verbal
adjectives.9
245. The Armenian language is doubtless a member of the Indo-
European family, as may be seen in th,e formations of the stem of the
verb, and in the person endings ; but it is not easy to identify some
of its forms with those of the other Indo-European languages.
The t which occurs so frequently in the Armenian forms is deduced
by Bopp from Sanskrit y, and the k' of the plural from Sanskrit s,
though he admits that it is only in the grammatical endings that these
correspondences can be shown.10 He argues with great force that in
the Armenian subjunctive f corresponds to y in the Sanskrit potential.11
The use and meaning, however, of the Armenian subjunctive corre-
spond to the Zend subjunctive rather than to the Zend and Sanskrit
potential (52, 244). And in order to maintain the correspondence
between Armenian £ and Sanskrit y, he has to deduce the Armenian
aorist from the Sanskrit causative formation,12 and the genitive plural
from the dative plural.13 The former is rather daring, and even the latter
does not seem to be correct. For it appears rather that the genitive
took the place of the dative, the latter still remaining in the singular in
1 Lauer, pp. 77, 78. « Ibid. pp. 78, 79. 3 Ibid. p. 79.
4 Ibid. pp. 79, 80. 5 Ibid. p. 80. 6 Ibid. p. 84.
7 Ibid. p. 87. 8 Ibid. pp. 92, 93. 9 Ibid. p. 95.
10 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., sect. 216. " Ibid. i. p. 371. 1J Ibid. i. p. 373.
13 Ibid. i. p. 425.
264 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: ARMENIAN. [SECT. vi.
those u stems which form their dative in -urn. This is plainly in cor-
respondence -with the Indo-European dative ending, whose original b'
readily becomes m (143, 184, 209), and it is very arbitrary to deduce it
as Bopp does from the pronominal element. But if it is the genitive
which has encroached on the dative, then the t' which is in both in
the plural, as well as the £ which some strong o stems have in the
singular, probably came from s (plural sam) rather than from y. This
is confirmed by the numeral for 6 icef, whose w Bopp accounts for by
comparison with Zend ksvas, without noticing that the £ of the former
should correspond to s of the latter.1 If this be the true corre-
spondence then the formative element of the aorist and future
corresponds in Armenian to the s of the other languages, and the
subjunctive formation is a slightly varied application of the same
element, the conjugation vowel tending to be weakened before it with
an infusion of i as from a reminiscence of the old potential.
But then, on the other hand, It seems to correspond to s, not only
in the plural of the noun and pronoun, but also in the person endings
of the verb. Now s is not the only Indo-European plural ending.
Masculine pronouns in Sanskrit, and the original a stems in Greek and
Latin, prefer i. The distinction of gender having been given up in
Armenian, the masculine forms tended to prevail,2 for the masculine is
the simple noun, the feminine is the special form which is called forth
by the sense of gender ; and the prevalence of one form for the plural in
nouns and pronouns would lead to its adoption in the person endings
also. The original Indo-European plural ending was probably syas or
yas (9), having close affinity with the ending iyans of the comparative of
adjectives ; and y, from which came the plural ending «', is near akin to
the gutturals. Accordingly the comparative ending in Armenian is guin,
guni, which Bopp connects with Sanskrit guna,3 an element of kindred
meaning indeed, and applied to express -plex, -fold (Armenian -kin),
but never used to express the comparative degree. It seems more
probable that g of the comparative and Jc of the plural both came
from y or i by a hardening of the utterance, which would fall in with
Armenian phonetic habits. For Armenian is remarkable for its dis-
tinction of hard and soft utterances, which is one of the causes of the
fulness of its alphabet ; and this distinction tends to make the hard
utterances harder, and the soft ones softer, each being relieved from
the associations of the other (97). An element used sometimes where
it had a stress of meaning, and at other times in a weaker sense, tends to
divide in such a language into distinct utterances. Thus the original
?/of the ending of the genitive singular (9) is represented in Armenian
by y. And the s, which in the forms above mentioned is represented
by £, remains in the accusative plural, and becomes g* in iho genitive of
the pronouns, often in the second singular person ending, and in the
third singular imperfect of the verb substantive, where it corresponds
to radical s.
The // of the second personal pronoun Bopp rightly deduces from
v, or rather w.4
1 Bopp, ii. p. 74. 2 Ibid. i. p. 471. 3 Ibid. ii. pp. 52, 53.
4 Ibid. ii. p. 108.
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: BASK. 265
The v or b of the instrumental corresponds to V in Skr. If is.
The ablative tends to be formed on the dative, expressing from
proximity ; its e corresponds to Sanskrit -at, being lengthened by drop-
ping t.
The declension of the pronouns is strengthened with additional
pronominal elements, but the m which occurs in their dative and
ablative seems to belong rather to the dative ending than to sma.
The d of the first person dative singular probably comes from y
(b'yam).
The future, which is represented as formed on the first aorist by the
addition of another t\ is in truth the Indo-European formation with
sy, the y being assimilated by the s and both hardened to f. In the
first singular the double letter is divided by i, expressive of a sense of
the active subjectivity of self, and by ai, expressive of the passive ; in
the other persons the first £ is apt to become s (238). Those verbs
which express the past without £ express the future with a single t*.
The -I of the infinitive Bopp deduces from n, and -cf of the parti-
ciple from -la l (214).
The ordinal suffix -ord may possibly be akin to Sanskrit krt in
sakrt semel, and in -krtvas, the suffix of numeral adverbs (Gr. -x/s).
The suffix -erord of ordinals of 11 to 19 is formed on the genitive
ending er (237) ; compare 13.
BASK.
1. There yet remains to be studied the Bask language, which is
European, but not Indo-European, and possesses a special interest of
its own as a specimen of the languages spoken in Europe before it was
overrun by the great conquering races of the Indo-European family.
Bask is still spoken on both sides of the "Western Pyrenees, in Biscay,
Guipuzcoa, Alava, and Upper Navarre on the Spanish side, and in
Lower Navarre, Labour, and Soule on the French side ; only, however,
in the country, and by the lower orders of the people.2 But the poorest
Bask workman regards himself as equal in point of nobility to the
richest estated lord.3
2. The Bask phonesis is vocalic, and wanting in versatility.
It has k, V, g, t, t\ t, t\ d, p, p, V, /, h, y, s, z, s, z, I, r, r, I, n, n,
m. By the grammarian Geze K is represented by kh ; t by it ; £ by
tch ; £ by x ; p by pli ; 6' by 6, which he says has a sound inter-
mediate between b and v ; s by ch, pronounced as in French ; z by s,
which he says has a special sound approaching the French ch, and in
some words a soft sound approaching French j ; s and z by z, which,
he says, has generally the sound of French c before e or i, but in a
small number of words the sound of French z; I by II ; n by n. He
says that r between vowels is scarcely uttered, and he gives in his
alphabet rr, to be sounded as in French.
1 Bopp, Vergl. Gram., iii. pp. 148, 309.
- Adelung, Mithridates, ii.p. 12. 3 Ibid. ii. p. 11.
VOL. II. S
266 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: BASK.
Van Eys says that there are two r's, a hard and a soft, and that / is
not properly a Bask letter.
The Bask vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and they combine in ai, oi, au,
eu, ia, in which combinations each of the vowels is fully sounded.1
The unversatile character of Bask utterance is shown by the wide
prevalence of euphonic change. Thus final k, when followed by a
suffix, is changed into t or y or dropped. Final h becomes k. Initial
h, when preceded by an agglutinated element, becomes k or y, or is
dropped. N before a labial becomes m ; s before s becomes t. R, as
in the Asiatic nomadic languages, never begins a word, from want of
supple utterance.
Medials become tenues after sibilants, r, or vowels ; tenues become
medials after I, m, n.- Hiatus is avoided by insertion of r between
the vowels, which do not coalesce, but e and u before a or e are apt to
form ia, ie.
The vocalic character of Bask appears from the fulness of the
utterance of the diphthongs and the limitations of the concurrent
consonants. Thus t is dropped before k, n before k, I, r, t.z
3. There is no distinction of gender. The noun forms a plural only
when it has the definite article, which is the suffix -a. To this the
mark of the plural is subjoined, and is k.
The noun has case endings and takes postpositions. The following,
somewhat differently named, are given as the case endings in the
Souletin dialect.3
The stem serves for subject to an intransitive verb, and also for
accusative and vocative ; -k denotes the agent whether as subject of an
active transitive verb, or as Latin ablative governed by a passive
verb.*;
The possessive ending is -en, in which n is perhaps a pronominal
arthritic element (7) ; the genitive -ko ; the partitive -ik.
The dative endings are -4 to, -ra or -la movement towards, -rat or
lat movement to completed ; locative -n ; ablative -tik from ; instru-
mental -s (instrument, material, or condition).
With -ik the noun is thought generally ; the meaning being (like
French de) some in affirmative propositions, none in negative. When
the noun is thought indefinitely, or in the plural, which is an indefinite
conception, -ho and -tik, which express of and from, -ra and -rat, which
express motion to, and -n, which expresses situation, require before
them a pronominal element fa to complete the thought of them with
that of an object, whereof, wherefrom, whereto, or whereon; this is
supplied for -ko and -tik by the noun itself when taken definitely ; but
-n, -ra, and -rat, when attached to a definite noun, take before them a
weaker element ia, and in all these cases the absence of ta defines the
noun by rendering necessary a defined idea of it, and there is no need
of the article.5
The language is unfavourable to concurrent consonants, and tends to
avoid such concurrences by insertion of e or by dropping one of the
consonants ; -tik with -ta before it becomes tarik euphonically, because
1 GtV.e, Gram. Basque, pp. 2, 3 ; Van EVB, p. 3. 2 Van Eys, pp. 3, 4.
3 G£ze, p. 7-10. 4 Van Eys, p. 45. 6 Geze, p. 12-18.
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: BASK. 267
tatik would be too hard an utterance. Hiatus also is avoided by inser-
tion of r. In the plural -ok is dropped, except in the stem form of
nominative, accusative, and vocative, and e accented is taken instead ;
and in the dative, instead of -ei, which would involve a hiatus, the
ending is -er.1
Proper nouns, also common nouns taken in a special sense, and
generally infinitives, differ in their declension from common nouns which
have not the article, in that the element ta is used with them only in
the locative case, and there only with the names of persons.2 They
are so definite that they dispense with ta except in the locative, which
involves the strongest sense of place, and with names of persons, which
are less readily thought in that sense.
The genitive in -en precedes the noun which governs it ; as also
does the noun with any other ending which determines another noun ;
if there are several nouns in the same case, they may all or only the
last take the ending ; subject, verb, and object may take any order.3
When a substantive is preceded by a possessive pronoun, and when
it is in apposition to another substantive, it takes the article.4
4. There are many postpositions subjoined to various cases of the
noun. Those of them which govern the accusative, and are therefore
subjoined to the stem, are scarcely to be distinguished from case
endings.
One of the case endings given above, namely toko, is also used as a
postposition governing the genitive in -en like a noun, with the meaning
for ; ta expressing, as a pronoun, the attention directed to the reason
or origin in or belonging to the genitive, to which the governing word
is related (ko). Those postpositions which govern the genitive in -en
have the nature of nouns rather than of pure elements of relation.
But there are postpositions which govern datives, and others which
govern the accusative or stem of the noun.
The ending -ho may be subjoined to any case forming an adjective,
which may be itself declined.5
5. When a substantive is qualified by an adjective, only one of
them, the last in order, takes the case ending ; but with the adjective
oro all, the substantive, though it precedes, may take the case ending.
The qualifying adjective follows the noun ; and if there are several,
the last only takes the case ending. The predicative adjective follows
the subject, and is followed by the copula; but in negative proposi-
tions it follows the copula.6
The comparative degree of adjectives is formed with -ago; the
superlative with -en. These are used also with adverbs and with
nouns, giving the latter an adjectival or adverbial meaning.7
The following suffixes are used with the stems of substantives and
adjectives, -to small, -far contemptible, -sar poor, -egi too, -se, -segi,
a little too.8
6. The cardinal numerals are : 1 bat, 2 bi, biga, 3 hirour, 4
laur, 5 bost, 6 zei, 7 saspi, 8 sortsi, 9 bederatsu, 10 hamar.
1 G^ze, p. 12-18. 2 Ibid. pp. 21, 24, 26. 3 Ibid. pp. 10, 25.
4 Ibid. p. 24. s Ibid. pp. 29, 30. 6 Ibid. p. 33-36.
7 Ibid. p. 38-41. s Jbid- p 55>
268 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: BASK.
The ordinals are formed with -gerren ; and ordinal adverbs (firstly,
&c.), with the compound element -korik subjoined, -gerrenekorik.
There are also such numeral words as hirouretan three times, hirour-
natan chacun trois fois, hirourna chacun trois, hirournaka trois a
trois. The cardinals except the first, and the ordinals precede the
substantive that they refer to. And 2, when it has a substantive, is
bi, when alone it is biga. When several ordinals refer to the same
substantive, the last only need take -gerren.1
7. There are three demonstrative pronouns, denoting the near, the
less near, and the remote. These are respectively, in the nominative
and accusative singular, hau, hori, houra ; their stems in the oblique
cases are houn, hor, har. They are declined, as well as the other
pronouns, like nouns which have not the article ; but they have the
plural, of which the stems are hoy, hori, and hay or h, except that the
nominative accusative plural of houra is hourak ; they form the
instrumental both with -s and -t'as.*
j. * There is a full supply of the various kinds of pronouns.3
The personal pronouns are, first, ni singular, gu plural ; second, hi
singular, zu respectful, ziek plural.
Their possessive genitives are respectively ene, gure, hire, zure, zien,
which may take -a to express le mien, &c., and they form the instru-
mental with -fas. The third personal pronoun is expressed by the
demonstratives ; the third personal reflexive is bera, sometimes more
strongly bere buria, his own head, the first singular reflexive nihaur,
second singular reflexive gihaur, second plural and respectful reflexive
zihaur.*
The relative pronoun is nur, declined like the other pronouns with
instrumental in -fas; likewise zun which, ker what.6 The genitives
nurentako, zunentako, suggest that the genitive ending -en is perhaps
arthritic (Def. 7).
The personal pronouns are rarely expressed separate from the verb.6
8. The great peculiarity of the Bask language is the way in which
the verb is expressed. There are in truth at present no verbs in the
language except two or three auxiliary 'verbs and nine or ten irregular
verbs.7 And all ideas of verbal realisation are, as a rule, expressed by
the auxiliaries in connection with a verbal noun which expresses what
the verbal stem signifies in other languages. It is to the auxiliary
only that the elements of person, tense, and mood are attached ; and
the elements of person are taken not only for the subject, but also for
the object, direct and indirect.
There are three tenses, present, past, and future. The past is
expressed by putting n before the stem of the auxiliary, and by sub-
joining n to its entire formation. The future subjoins to the stem of
the auxiliary -teke, or -ke, when there is no personal object, -"he, when
there is.
By prefixing n to the stem when the subject is first or second
1 Gfczo, p. 43-46. - Ibid. pp. 48, 49. 3 Ibid. pp. 52, 53, 66.
4 Ibid. pp. 57-59, 62. '•> Ibid. p. 64. « Ibid. p. 56.
7 Ibid. p. 21 3 -238 ; Van Eys, p. 32-44.
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: BASK. 269
person, by taking li- for the third person, the future becomes the con-
ditional ; and the conditional, by subjoining n to its entire formation,
becomes conditional past in the first or second personal subject, but in
the third it also changes I- to z-.
For intransitive verbs the auxiliary is iza or za be, for transitive it
is uk\ or rather «, have. And to these, modified as above, the elements
of person are attached.1
9. The person elements constitute the most striking feature of the
Bask verb.
The auxiliary for intransitive verbs takes a person element not
only for the subject, but also for the indirect object ; and the auxiliary
for transitive verbs takes a person element not only for the subject,
but also one for the direct object, and another for the indirect. The
person elements of the object, however, are not taken when the object
is the same as the subject ; for the idea of the verb then becomes
reflexive, and is expressed with a separate reflexive element (7). Nor
is there, except in the conditional, any subject element of third person
singular along with object elements, not even without them in the
past tense. But when the subject is third person plural, a plural
element follows the auxiliary stem for intransitives, and is at the
end of the auxiliary formation for transitives. The order of the person
elements with the auxiliary verb differs for these two classes. For
intransitive verbs it is subject, verb, indirect object ; for transitive
verbs it is direct object, verb, indirect object, subject ; but in the past
and conditional the subject goes first when the direct object is third
person, the element of third person object being then absorbed by n or
I. As with the intransitive, the plural element of third person subject
follows the verbal stem ; so with the transitives does the plural element
of third person direct object. It is to be observed, however, that an
element of the first or second person as direct object cannot be com-
bined in the one formation with person elements of indirect object,
but the pronouns have to be separated.2
A substantive being thought as plural only when it has the definite
article, it is only then also that it can be represented as object by a
plural person element.2 If a substantive expressed be indirect object,
it may or may not be represented by a person element in the auxiliary
formation.3 The person elements of first and second person, whether
as subject or object, are : first singular, n before the verb, t after it ;
second singular, h familiar, z respectful ; first plural, gu, g ; second
plural, zie, z. The third person singular, whether subject or direct
object, is d in the indicative, I in the conditional ; as indirect object
it is o. There is an element of plurality for all the persons, de or e,
besides ie also for the second.
In the combinations of these elements with the stems of the
auxiliaries there is often abridgment and euphonic change, the con-
sonants being weak in Bask compared with the vowels. Thus in the
past, d- of third person subject becomes z in absorbing the n of that
tense.
1 Geze, pp. 70, 82-204. - Ibid. p. 80.
3 Ibid p. 81.
270 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : BASK,
The auxiliary iza, za, with an indirect object subjoins i, and when
preceded at the same time by a subject person element has its z-
changed to t', so as to become ifai, t'ai. The auxiliary u with an
indirect object becomes ei, which may be contracted to i.
10. An optative mood is formed from the conditional by dropping
-teke, -ke, and prefixing ai-, and a hypothetical by dropping -teke, -ke,
and prefixing ba-.
The imperative for intransitives subjoins di to the auxiliary stem
iza when there is no object, ki when there is ; and prefixes the person
element of subject, that of the third person being be, the root of the
reflexive pronoun. Van Eys deduces it from the auxiliary edi.
The imperative for transitives is formed without di or ki from the
auxiliary eza may.
There are also further modifications of the verbal idea expressed by
the conjugated auxiliaries eza may, eroa move, edi can.1 Moreover, by
subjoining n or la to an auxiliary, like that of the imperative, a sub-
junctive is formed governed by the conjunction that, which with -n is
less positive than with -Za,2 because la more strongly expresses the
thought of an object to which there is movement. The particle bei
prefixed to an auxiliary formation makes it coincident with a principal
fact.3
11. But there is yet another element which enters into the forma-
tion of the auxiliary with first or third person for subject when it is
not dependent on a principal verb, nor interrogative, and when it is a
single person who is addressed.4 Under these conditions the auxiliary
takes a vocative element for the person addressed, which is either zu
to express respect, or, if familiar, is k for a man, n for a woman. The
u of zu has an assimilating influence on the preceding vowels of the
formation, and there is apt to be a similar infection with k and n as if
they too originally had u. When the subject or object is second
singular it excludes a vocative element ; but if it precedes, it is z when
respectful, h when familiar ; if it follows, it is zu when respectful,
and when familiar it is k for a man, n for a woman. The vocative
elements come last in the auxiliary formation, except that they are
followed by the person element of the subject when it does not pre-
cede the stem of the auxiliary, and by the n of the past.
A verb is negatived by prefixing to the auxiliary formation the
negative particle ez ; and more strongly by using ez separately before
the verb itself.5
12. The auxiliary formation, made up as above, is preceded by the
locative case of the infinitive of the verb, the infinitive being a sub-
stantive formed generally with -t'e added to the verbal stem, or by the
past participle, which is differently formed by different verbs, or by
the partitive or other genitive case of the latter, or by the verbal
stem itself. I>ut when the verb is optative or negative or emphatic
the auxiliary precedes.5
The verbal stem is used in the imperative and the potential, in
1 Van Eys, p. 38-43. = Ibid. p. 48. 3 Geze, p. 74.
4 Ibid. p. 77. 5 Ibid. p. 206.
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES : BASK. 271
the subjunctive present, past, and future, and in the future of the
other ideal moods, the verb having least actuality in these parts.
Some verbs also use it for a present whose process has ceased.
Where the verb is thought in its process, the locative of the infinitive
is used ; and where it is thought in its completion, the participle.
When the completion is thought indefinitely, as less defined by the
subject directing it, the participle is put in the partitive case.
Accordingly, this case is used when the sense is passive ; and with it
the auxiliary does not take a person element of the indirect object.
When the completion is thought more definitely and in the future,
the participle is put in either the possessive or the genitive case,
with present or future auxiliary.1
offer
Thus eskenfen ditikiozugu, we will offer them to him, sir ; eskent •
infin. loc. it have pi. fut. to him respectful we
fe • n, in offering • d • i • ti • ki • o • zu • gu, we will have
them to him, sir.
Interrogation is sometimes expressed by subjoining to the auxiliary
formation a, before which final u becomes i, final a is accented or
changed to e with y after it, and final e takes y after it.2
13. By subjoining the pronominal element n to the auxiliary forma-
tion, a noun is formed which expresses the thought of a person or thing
as defined by a relative clause,3 or of the verb thought substantively
as a fact.4
Substantives, adjectives, and adverbs, of any case or form, may take
the formative suffixes of the infinitive or participle and be used with
the auxiliaries as verbs.5 There is, moreover, a considerable number
of derivative suffixes of nouns and roots expressing inclination, fitness,
habit, abundance, possession.6
It may be observed that in the case endings of the noun and in the
tense elements of the verb, k expresses a sense of outgrowth, and to
this also corresponds g in the comparative element of adjectives.
man seen him have I rel. art. agent that done
14. Examples : (1.) Gizun itiusi d ' u'd'an'a ' k liori egin
it has I agent
d ' u, the man whom I have seen has done that.3 (2.) Ni ' k
know infm. loc. 3d per. obj. have I rel. woman virtuous super, art. 3d sing, is
ezagu'fe ' n d u ' dman emaste bertutus ' en'a d ' a,
death instr. well
she is the most virtuous woman that I know.7 (3.) Uil ' es unsa
remember thou be churchyard art. in enter infin. art. loc. thee as adj. 4
orhit h ' adi ilherri ' a ' n sar ' t'i ' a ' n hi nola ' ko
3d per. be pi. case ending alive 3d per. be pi. past time art. loc. dem. pi. like
z ' ira'de • la l)iki z ' ira'de ' n arti • a ' n he ' k bezala
die need it have thou masc. and not know moment art. prayer do 2dsing. masc.
hil behar d • u ' k eta ez zakin ordu ' a othoy egi ' k
God art. to it have to thee that pardon art.
Zeinko'd'ri d • ei ' k ' en bark a'mendiry'a, remember well, on
entering the churchyard, that they were like thee when they were
1 Geze, p. 197-205. - Ibid. p. 207. 3 Ibid. p. 74.
4 Ibid. p. 244. 5 Ibid. p. 249. 6 Ibid. pp. 255, 256.
7 Ibid. p. 246.
272 GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CONCLUSION.
alive. Thou must die like them, and without knowing the moment.
Pray God that he may pardon thee ; l hiles is the material (3) ;
moment art. loc. sign make 3d per. be to him pi. past he posi. father to
(4.) Ordu ' a • n keinu egin z ' iez • o • te • n liar ' en aita ' ri
how wish it have condl. rel. he named he be subj. that
nola nahi I • u • ke ' n hurd dei I • edi ' n, then they made
signs to his father how he would have him named j 2 in luken, I is
third person subject-object (9), and n is relative to nola ; in ledin, I is
third person subject, and n is the conjunction (10).
Except as stated in 3, 5 and 12, there is complete freedom of
arrangement of the members of a sentence in Bask.3
Bask is an agglutinative language.
It does not seem to differ in respect of quickness or slowness of the
movement of thought from the mean of Indo-European languages.
For the verbal auxiliary combinations do not, on the one hand, consist
of fragments, but of verbs and pronouns ; and, on the other hand, the
degree in which the elements maintain their identity. in various com-
binations, subject for the most part only to euphonic change, shows
how they are singled out by the mind and only partially joined on
one to another, as thought passes through them.
CONCLUSION.
From this review it appears that when the languages of mankind
are studied with reference to the magnitude of the parts into which
they break up thought, that is, the extent of the thought or largeness
of the view which is present at once to the mind of the speaker,
differences of structure come to view which are so characteristic as
to furnish a natural classification of them. Now the classes into
which the languages of the world are thus grouped are remarkable for
their geographical distinctness, and for the largeness of the areas to
which they belong : the African, except where affected by Asiatic
influence ; the American, north and south ; the Oceanic and Indian ;
the Northern Asiatic and Northern European ; the Mid- Asiatic ; the
Indo-European. The only indistinctness in the classes corresponds to
the geographical indistinctness of Arabia. For as Arabia is as much
a part of Africa as a part of Asia, its influence on the quarter of
Africa adjacent to it has moved the native languages of that quarter
out of the African group and caused them to approximate in respect
of the magnitude of the object of simultaneous thought to the Oceanic
and Indian group.
Now, the prevalence of a mental characteristic over a large area
when, like North and South America, it includes great diversities of
climate and production, indicates a cause lying deep in the nature of
man, as it is unaffected by those diversities.
When we turn to the mental character of the various races we see
such a characteristic varying from one quarter of the globe to another
in exact correspondence with the above-named feature of A language.
1 Van Ey.s, p. -19. = Ibid. p. 51.*] 3 Geze, p; 10.
GRAMMATICAL SKETCHES: CONCLUSION. 273
That characteristic is the quickness and mobility of thought varying
to slowness and persistence, and it belongs not only to thought but to
action, being seated not only in the brain, but in the nervous system
generally.
It has been shown deductively, in Book I., chap, i., how it were
to be expected that such differences in the movement of thought
should affect language. And now the effects there deduced have been
traced through language in corresponding variation. Not only has it
been traced from one great group to another, but within the same
family where the movement of thought has varied from race to race,
the corresponding variation has been traced in their respective lan-
guages. Attention has already been drawn to this fact in the Chinese
group, and in the Syro-Arabian family, as the latter is found in Asia
and Africa (V. 38, 171). But nowhere does it come out more clearly
than in the Indo-European family, especially when Teutonic thought
and speech are compared with Celtic (see VI. 173).
The Indo-European races have a movement of thought quicker than
that of the Syro-Arabian or Chinese (chap, i., Part I., Sect. VI.), and it
is interesting to observe how the comparative slowness of the Teuton
brings with it an approximation in his language to the latter groups.
This has been already noted in the vowel changes of the Teutonic
verb, but it may further be observed that in English the loss of for-
mative elements under the disturbing influence of French has brought
out the Teutonic strength of the root in a monosyllabic form, which
has a resemblance to Chinese ; so that it is possible to compose in
English a long popular address, quite suitable for any audience, which
shall consist altogether of monosyllables.
None of the Indo-European languages show a tendency to disyllabic
roots such as is found in Malay and Polynesian, for they all abstract
and generalise too much to satisfy the conditions of Book I., chap, i., 7.
And in general the concomitant variations of what have been con-
nected as cause and effect in the deductive theory prove inductively
that they are connected as such in fact, and the exact correspondence
of the facts with the theory proves the latter as laid down in Book I.,
chap. i.
( 274 )
CHAPTER II.
MENTAL POWER CONNECTED WITH UNIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTS
OF LANGUAGE, SUBJECTIVITY OF THE VERB, AND DEVELOP-
MENT OF GRAMMATICAL GENDER.
1. IT is a patent fact in the history of mankind, that in mental
productiveness the Indo-European and Syro-Arabian races have sur-
passed all other races of men. Nor has this distinction come slowly
to them as if by gradual improvement of their faculties, but as soon
as the establishment of civil order made room for the growth of
intellectual products, these came forth freely, exhibiting mental power
unsurpassed in later times. Wherever indeed civil order has been
established, and the organisation of a populous society has produced
division of labour, and assigned to distinct organs the functions neces-
sary for the general welfare, — there art has been developed, and a
certain amount of intellectual production has come into view. And
it may be difficult, and require learning which few possess, to estimate
the degree of mental power which has been exhibited in the produc-
tions of China, of aboriginal India, of Egypt, of Mexico, and of Peru.
Yet of all of them it may be said with confidence that in point of
productive originality they bear no comparison with the products of
the Indo-European and Syro-Arabian races. The individual works of
these two families are more charged with thought. In the fields of
mental production which they cultivated as suited to their genius,
their works have a fulness of suggestion which shows how full of
associated elements their ideas were.
2. Now in correspondence with this superiority of mental power
possessed by the Indo-European and Syro-Arabian races, is that feature
in their languages, the unification of elements, which in Book L,
chap, ii., 2, has been pointed out as a natural effect of mental power.
The agreement of these two families of language in this respect is the
more striking on account of their great unlikeness in other respects ;
while the races themselves agree only in the corresponding feature of
having high intellectual endowments.
The unification of elements in the Indo-European languages has led
to their being distinguished as inflectional from other languages which
are monosyllabic or agglutinative. The Syro-Arabian languages also
are classed by Max M tiller as inflectional ; and he explains the term
as denoting those languages in which the various elements which
enter into the composition of words are welded together and coalesce ;
CHAP, n.] MENTAL POWER : UNIFICATION OF ELEMENTS. 275
while in the monosyllabic languages they lie apart as separate roots,
and in the agglutinative they are felt as distinct, though fastened one
to another. The Aryan words, he says, seem made of one piece, the
Turanian words show the sutures and fissures as of bad mosaic.1
The term inflection itself implies this unity of the word ; for it
signifies that the grammatical accidents are thought as changes in the
form of the one word, rather than as ingredients making up different
combinations. And if this fusion of formative elements in the unity
of the word constitute them inflections, the Indo-European and the
Syro-Arabian languages stand apart from all others as inflectional
languages.
" In the Aryan languages," says Max Miiller, " the modifications of
words comprised under declension and conjugation were likewise
originally expressed by agglutination. But the component parts
began soon to coalesce so as to form one integral word." 2 And it may
be added that in the most ancient languages of this family, though the
constituent elements of the word may be distinguished, the unity of
the word is complete.
Still more striking is the unification of elements in the Syro-
Arabian languages in their pure original structure. For the absorp-
tion of grammatical accidents into the body of the word as changes of
its vowels not only combines those accidents in absolute union with
the root, but gives the same unity to the whole combination of subject,
reflex object, and derived verb which those vowel changes affect (see
V. 48). And though the peculiar singleness of the expression belongs
to the last chapter, the number of elements which are unified in that
single form brings it into this, as an instance of the fulness of the
thoughts which come from high mental power. Mind of the medium
degree of quickness tends to embrace in one integer of thought the
most closely associated elements, but it needs high mental power to
include so many.
Now in no other language is there a unification of elements at all
comparable to that which characterises these two families. In some
languages the elements lie apart ; in others they are more or less
agglutinated ; but in none are they fused together in so complete a
union.
What, then, is there in mental or bodily nature or habit, or in
condition of life, which may account for this peculiarity of language,
and which is common to the Indo-European and Syro-Arabian races
while it is absent from all other races of men ? Nothing but a supe-
riority of mental power.
3. Another feature in language which has been deduced in Book I.,
chap, ii., 3, as naturally increased by superior mental power, is the
sense of the subject in the verb. It is in this that the realisation
resides which it is the essential function of the verb to express (Def.
11) ; and it is the absence of this from the other parts of speech that
constitutes the difference between them and the verb. Now in all
1 Max Miiller, Lectures on the Science of Language, 1st series, Lect. viii. pp.
331, 336, 371. ," Ibid. Lect. viii. p. 336.
276 MENTAL POWER: SUBJECTIVITY OF VERB, ETC. [OHAP.H.
the other languages which have been studied in this book the distinc-
tion between the verb and the other parts of speech is weak compared
with that which is found in the Indo-European and Syro-Arabian
languages ; and the verb has a subjectivity in these languages which
is not to be found elsewhere (see Gram. Sketches, V. 53, VI. 16, and
the numbers in the table of contents which notice this feature in the
various languages).
Owing to this subjectivity going through the verb in the intellectual
languages, they did not admit a negative element in the verb between
the person and the stem, which is to be found in so many other lan-
guages. The realisation in the subject is too positive a conception
with these races to admit of their thinking the realisation of a nega-
tive. In negation as thought by them the fact must first be thought
positively and then affected with the negative. In many other lan-
guages the negation, because it affects the realisation, enters into it
and inheres as a verb in a subject, so as not only to produce negative
forms of the verb, but also, where the verbal stem is easily detached,
to make a separate verb of the negative (Gram. Sk., I. 33; IV.
90, 109, 134, 144, 151, 162). But this cannot be done in languages
whose verb has a strong sense of its realisation in the subject.
4. Equally striking is the sense of grammatical gender in these two
families of language. For though gender is developed in Egyptian,
Bari, Galla, and Hottentot, in no other language noticed in this book
is it to be found outside the Indo-European and Syro-Arabian families.
Its development throughout these two confirms the theory of Book I.,
chap, ii., 4, that mental power tends to promote it ; but its presence
in the above-mentioned four languages shows that this is not its only
source.
( 277 )
CHAPTEE III.
THE FEATURES OF LANGUAGE WHICH ACCOMPANY THE HABITS OF
THOUGHT WHEEEIN THE EACE HAS BECOME ADAPTED TO THE
EEGION.
Introduction : Pursuit, Search, and Production.
1. BEFORE we proceed to trace in the various languages the effects
of those mental aptitudes which have fitted the various races to pre-
vail each in a mode of life suited to its region, it may be well to take
a brief survey of the principal forms of activity by which man supplies
his wants, as it will be found that amongst the mental aptitudes which
affect language there are certain variations which are to be referred to
such varieties in the direction of practical effort. Those forms of
activity are determined by the resources of the region ; and they may
be briefly stated as pursuit, search, and production.
2. In regions well stocked with animals which man may capture
and which are fit for food, he is naturally a hunter, and lives by pur-
suit of his game. This is the case in both North and South America ;
and most parts of Africa also are supplied with animals on which
man might live.
In regions which are poorly stocked with animals, man will seek
his sustenance in the spontaneous products of the soil, and will live
by searching for what may supply his wants. Such regions are to
be found in Australia and in the islands of the Pacific, whose
poverty in animals useful to man is one of their most striking char-
acteristics. To these are to be added the lowlands of the south-east
of Asia, for with the density of population which seems naturally to
belong to these regions (vol. i. pp. 77, 78), any supply of animals would
quickly be exhausted, and man would be reduced to live on the pro-
ducts of the soil. Certainly nothing is more remarkable in the
Chinese character than their sharpness in finding what they may turn
to useful account. Indeed, this one aptitude seems to govern all their
activity. For so imitative are they, that their arts may be regarded
as derived in the main from direct observation, so that productive action
and process are found by them in the same way of eager search as
they find the spontaneous gifts of nature.
In regions which supply things useful to man, but not sufficient for
his wants, he must live by increasing their supply, and the aim of his
activity will be production. Such regions are the plains inhabited by
the nomad races, and the highlands to which the Indo-European
family owes its origin.
278 PURSUIT, SEARCH, AND PRODUCTION. [CHAP, in.— mTBOD.
3. Now it is to be observed that in each of these three groups
there are exceptional regions in which, owing to their nature, the pre-
valent form of activity is less strongly marked, and some in which
one form is blended with another. In North America, the Eskimo is
still a hunter, though the mammalia which he pursues inhabit the
sea ; for it is by a veritable pursuit that he captures them. But those
American races which live by fishing are engaged rather in search
than in pursuit. And those which dwelt amidst the exuberant
fertility of the lands adjacent to the Mississippi might be led to find
what they wanted ready to their hand, or adopting the obvious sug-
gestions of its natural growth to increase its supply by using means to
produce it Still more might production be followed in the mountain
regions, where animals were few and spontaneous produce scanty.
But on the dry tableland of Mexico production was difficult and
search was needed.
In Africa there is a still greater mixture of the fundamental forms
of activity. In the fertile valley of the Lower Nile and on its delta
there is comparatively little room for animals which man might capture
for his use ; and the fertility of the land irrigated by the inunda-
tions yields a supply almost spontaneous for the few wants of life, so
that man might live there mainly by an agriculture needing no art.
In the tropical regions of Africa, though animals are abundant, the
produce of the soil is so plentiful that man is in a great degree spared
the fatigue of hunting by the facility of search. And in the less fertile
regions of South Africa, a similar advantage is gained by combining
production with pursuit.
That quarter of the world south-east of Asia, where men seem to
live by search, includes regions little known, to which apparently the
Melanesian races belong, and to which probably they owe their
character. In those regions it would seem, from the indications of the
languages, that more care was needed in the guidance of action and
more attention to the lessons of experience than was necessary in the
other Oceanic regions. In them, therefore, the mental aptitudes for
search were tempered by a tendency to generalise their experience of
nature and of life.
The regions also to which in the main production belongs, in the
form of pastoral industry, reach into those in which, owing to their
Arctic climate, production becomes so difficult that it has to be helped
by pursuit and search. And some of those which are now occupied
by the productive Indo-European seem originally to have favoured
similar combinations of activity.
These mixed forms of life may be discerned in language in the
mixture of the effects which belong to the three fundamental varieties ;
but these must first be understood in their leading outlines.
4. Pursuit thinks objects as they are in themselves, rather than as
means and conditions, and has a sense of difficulty in making them
amenable to its purpose, so that the ideas of them do not fall readily
into the correlations of action and fact. Search thinks objects as
they are, without the sense of difficulty in use ; but in proportion to
the carefulness which it requires it strengthens the effort of observa-
CHAP, ill.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUBJECT. 279
SECT, i.] SELF-DIRECTION OF THE LIFE.
tion, and gives a concrete fulness of particularity to ideas. A life of
eager search involves also in a fully peopled region a tendency to
mutual collisions amongst those who are seeking each his own
advantage. And these are so detrimental that an effort to avoid
them by mutual conciliation is a necessary condition of success, which
will give an advantage to a race, and fit it to prevail in the region.
An habitual inclination therefore to make such an effort is an aptitude
proper to such a life in such a region, and cannot fail to show itself
in language in the prevalent use of respectful expressions.
Action itself, too, is thought differently, according as it is directed
by these different aims.
Pursuit has its object in its eye ; and the action involves a sense
of the object. Search directs action to the object without involving
in the action such a sense of the object. Production directs action
not to an object, but to a combination of objects, means, and con-
ditions, and it is such a combination that productive action contem-
plates. And these varieties in the thought of objects and actions,
arising respectively from the life of pursuit, of search, and of pro-
duction, are accompanied by corresponding varieties in the construction
of the noun and the verb.
I. — The development of the subject, and the power of self-direction
of the life.
1. The distinct expression of the subject as such, or, in other words,
the development of the nominative case of the substantive, is hardly
to be found outside the Indo-European languages. For though Arabic
has a nominative case, it is a weak sense of the subject that is ex-
pressed in the Arabic nominative (Gram. Sk., V. 60) ; and in none
other of the Syro- Arabian languages is it to be found (ibid. 83, 107,
143, 153, 166) except in Ethiopia in four old nouns which retain a
trace of it (ibid. 132).
There are, indeed, the following instances, in other languages, of
affixes taken by nouns when they are related as nominative to a verb,
but on examination none of them are found to be true nominative
elements expressing the relation of subject.
In Eskimo the substantive takes -p when it is the subject of a
transitive verb with a direct object ; but this is the genitive ending,
and shows that the verb, having incorporated the person of its object,
is thought as in a genitive relation with its subject, rather than as
realised subjectively in it. When the verb is intransitive, the sub-
stantive, which is its subject, is in the stem form (ibid. II. 14). So,
in Samoiede, the suffixes which express the persons of the verb are the
possessive suffixes when the verb is transitive and has taken up a sense
of its object; otherwise they are subjective suffixes (ibid. IV. 76).
In Choctaw the element t refers to a noun, connecting it with a
sentence as subject, but it is also used as a copulative conjunction, and
is in fact a connective element (ibid. II. 48).
280 DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUBJECT. [CHAP. m.
POWER OF SELF-DIRECTION OF THE LIFE. [SECT. i.
In Australian (Adelaide), in Tibetan, and in Selish (North America),
the subject of an active verb takes the ablative or instrumental ending
(Gram. Sk., II. 64; III. 83, 90, Ex. 2, 4, 5, 13; V. 37), a striking
proof of the weak sense of the subject.
And a similar peculiarity is found in Bask, in which the substantive
with -k subjoined is nominative to an active verb, and ablative
governed by a passive verb (ibid^Bask, 3).
In Galla the nominative takes -n or -ni ; but this is also taken by
the instrumental and in other relations. And in Kanuri the nomina-
tive takes -ye ; but this same suffix is sometimes taken by the direct
object, and sometimes followed by postpositions which govern the
noun. In both these languages these suffixes seem to be pronominal ;
they are plainly not subjective (ibid. III. 162, 173) ; and the same
is to be said of -nem in Yakama (II. 56). The pronoun ffl is in the
same way used after the nominative in Burmese (ibid. V. 24), and
in Mongolian a pronominal element demonstrative of the subject is
attached to the nominative, and to other cases (IV. 36).
2. Now, the exclusive possession of a true nominative with a
subject element by the Indo-European and Syro-Arabian languages
in their original form, naturally connects itself with the high sub-
jectivity of the verb in these two families, which in the last
chapter was attributed to the superior mental power of those races.
And no doubt the strong sense in the verb of its realisation in
the subject must have tended to produce in the subject a strong
sense of its being the realiser of the verb. But how is it that in the
Syro-Arabian languages, in which the subjectivity of the verb is so
strong, the sense of subject in the nominative is so weak 1 Now a
similar weakness affects in these languages the distinctive expression
of the other cases, and indicates a weakness of interest in the relations
of substantive objects. And this corresponds to the Syro-Arabian
development in history, which was rather spiritual than material. In
truth, the nature of the region made it so. For in the desert there
were not external objects to attend to, and in the oases there was little
scope for material production (Book II., chap, i., Part I., Sect. V., 5).
The race which was fitted to prevail in such a region was one which
would dispense with much of the material interests of life, not being
able to promote them on account of the difficulty of the region. And
with such a race its own experience of life was so little under' the
control of its will, that it could have little sense of self as governing
the life. On the other hand, the Indo-European races, the inventors
of art and explorers of nature, began from the first, where their breed
was pure, to subdue the world to their purposes, and to govern the
conditions of their life. And thus we find that the efficacy of self-
directing originality in determining the course of life, which in the
inferior races is low fur want of mental power, and in the Syro-Arabian
races small on account of the restrictions of the region, reaches its
maximum in the Indo-European races, while the original development
of the nominative accompanies it in corresponding variations according
to the theory of Book T., chap, iii., 1.
CHAP, in.] NOMINATIVE TENDS TO FOLLOW VERB. 281
SECT, ii.] LITTLE DELIBERATION AND CHOICE.
II. — TJie nominative tends to follow the vert), if the race has little
habit of deliberation and choice^
1. In the natural order of thought the subject precedes the verb
(Def. 23). But in the Polynesian and Tagala (Gram. Sk., III. 53)
languages, the nominative as a rule follows the verb more or less
closely. In Tagala, if the verb is active, the subject following it is
followed by the object. In Polynesian the qualifying, the directive,
and the locative adverbs come between the verb and the subject, and
the object follows the latter (ibid. 9) ; but in Tongan the subject
is somewhat less bound to follow the verb than in Hawaiian,
Maori, or Tahitian, and in Samoan still less bound to do so (ibid. 13,
16, 3).
In Fijian the ordinary arrangement is verb, object, subject, but
the more subjective personal pronouns precede the verb (ibid. 17) ;
and this also is the order in the language of Annatom (ibid. 21), the
most southern of the New Hebrides. But in the other Melanesian
languages it is different. In Mare", Duauru, and Bauro, the subject
generally precedes the verbal element and verbal stem (ibid. 34, 40,
41); in Lifu it generally follows (ibid. 37); in Mahaga it may
precede or follow (ibid. 42) ; in Erromango and Tana, in Sesake
as a rule, in Ambrym and Vunmarama, it precedes (ibid. 24, 26, 28,
31, 32).
In Australian (Adelaide) there is great freedom of arrangement,
but the conditions and object tend to go before the verb, the subject
either preceding or following it (ibid. 87). In Malay generally the
subject precedes the verb (ibid. 77).
2. In Old Egyptian the subject generally followed the verb, some-
times with the object between ; but in the later language it seems
to have had a greater liberty to precede, and there was greater use of
personal suffixes combined with detached verbal elements (ibid. 124).
In Kafir the subject may either precede or follow the verb ; it may
come last in the sentence ; it generally follows the detached verbal
particle ti. When a conjunction precedes, the subject generally goes
before the verb. The direct object generally follows the verb, but it
often precedes it (ibid. I. 13). In the other African languages the
subject generally is before the verb.
3. In the American languages the following are the displacements
of the subject from before the verb :
In Cree the ordinary arrangement is object, verb, subject ; then
the rest in the natural order (ibid. II. 38)..
In Selish and in Maya the subject sometimes, perhaps generally,
follows the verb (ibid. 64, 99) ; the object intervening in Selish.
In Mexican the subject seems to tend to follow the verb, though
sometimes the order is subject, verb, object (ibid. 88).
In Caraib the subject follows the verb (ibid. 104, 3, 4).
In Quichua the order is object, verb, subject (ibid. 114).
In Kiriri the verb usually stands before the subject (ibid. 128).
VOL. II. T
282 NOMINATIVE TENDS TO FOLLOW VERB. [CHAP. m.
LITTLE DELIBEKATION AND CHOICE. [SECT. II.
In Chikito the grammarian gives no information on this point, but
three or four examples occur in which the subject follows the verb.1
In Bauro there are similar examples of its following,2 but also others
of its preceding.3
In Chilian, the subject may be placed before or after the verb
(ibid. 143).
The subject ordinarily goes before the verb in Eskimo (ibid. 16), in
Dakota (ibid. 43), in Choctaw (ibid. 53), in Yakama (ibid. 56), in Pima
(ibid. 73), in Otomi (ibid. 82), in Chiapaneca (ibid. 90), in Guarani
(ibid. 119). Its place in the other American languages is not stated.
In Otomi, when a personal pronoun is subject, it is taken up as a
suffix by the verb in a reduced form, having been already partly
expressed in the personal prefix of tense and being weakened as
subject thereby.
4. In the languages of Central and Northern Asia and Northern
Europe, and in the Dravidian languages of India, the subject, as a rule,
precedes the verb, but in Hungarian there is great freedom of
arrangement (ibid. IV. 121) ; and in Sirianian the nominative some-
times follows the verb ; but this may be due to the verb being preceded
by a conjunction (ibid. 146, 5), and may not be the normal order.
The' rule in the Chinese group of languages is that the subject
precedes (ibid. V. 8, 18, 29, 37, 47).
5. In Arabic and Ethiopic the normal order is verb, subject, object,
but in Hebrew and Syriac the subject seems to have more tendency
to take the lead. In all there is great freedom of arrangement, espe-
cially in Ethiopic, perhaps partly owing to the Greek literary influence
to which Ethiopic was subject (ibid. 72, 95, 117, 139). In Amharic
and Haussa the nominative precedes the verb (ibid. 148, 170) ; in
Tamachek it follows (ibid. 164).
6. In Sanskrit the verb is usually, though not always, last in the
sentence (ibid. VI. 42).
In Greek and Latin also, though there is great freedom of arrange-
ment, the normal order is subject, conditions, object, verb (ibid. 88).
In Irish the order is verb, subject, object, conditions, and if the
verb be the copula it is followed by the predicate ; if the copula be
not expressed, the predicate goes first. Sometimes the object goes
before the subject (ibid. 129). In Welsh the verb or predicate takes
the lead, the predicate being followed by the verb substantive, or by
the verbs equivalent to nominari, elif/i, &c. ; but negative and inter-
rogative and some other particles if they precede cause the verb sub-
stantive to go before the predicate ; the other members are arranged
as in Irish (ibid. 130). In Anglo-Saxon the order was subject, object,
verb, the verb being last; but this was liable to be changed by
emphasis or by the strength given to a member of the sentence by a
relation in which tho sentence stands and which specially affects that
member. In Anglo-Saxon, however, the subject held its precedence
more strongly than it does in Xew High German (ibid. 172). In
1 Arte, p. 5'J-Gl. '-' Ibid. pp. 68, 96. j5 Ibid. p. 70.
CHAP. III.] NOMINATIVE TENDS TO FOLLOW VERB. 283
SECT, ii.] LITTLE DELIBERATION AND CHOICE.
Lithuanian the subject precedes the verb (ibid. 196), and in Slavonic.
In Armenian there is no rule (ibid. 244). In Bask, subject, verb,
and object may take any order (ibid. Bask, 3).
7. Now it appears from this review that the more careful races
tend to leave the subject in its natural place before the verb, meaning
by the subject, the substantive or pronoun, which as a separate word
is nominative to the verb. Such are the nomad races of Central and
Northern Asia and Northern Europe, the Dravidians, the Chinese
group of races, the Malay, and the Indo-European, except the Celtic,
who all give careful attention to production or to search. The hunt-
ing races of America, who give no heed to industry, and have game
without careful search, tend to place the subject after the verb. The
Hungarian, who was both nomad and hunter, places it before or after.
The Polynesian and Tagala agree with the American hunter in this
respect, that nature supplies their wants with little care on their part ;
and with them the subject follows the verb. Hunting indeed requires
attention. But when the game is present the pursuit is suggested
without deliberation. And where there is plenty of game the life of
the hunter, like that of the Polynesian and the native of the Philip-
pine Islands, is not guided by thought and deliberation, as the neces-
sity for these is dispensed Avith by the bounty of nature. Where
production or search receives attention, choice of ways and means is
needed. The general fact, therefore, seems to be that the absence of
thoughtful choice and deliberation characterises the races which put
the subject after the verb, while habits of more deliberate action
characterise those which leave it before the verb.
8. Now, when thus analysed, the presence of the mental habit as
condition of the linguistic fact may be traced even in those cases
which seem to be exceptions.
The Melanesian islanders are perhaps as well supplied by nature as
the Polynesians. But they are akin to the dark races of Borneo, New
Guinea, and Australia, who amid the difficulties of the interior of
those countries had to exercise more care to gain their subsistence.
The Fijian is intermediate between the Polynesian and the Melanesian.
The Kafir has more game, and is more of a hunter than the industrial
trafficking Negro ; so that the latter leaves the subject before the verb,
while the Kafir often puts the subject after the verb, his industrial
development being at the same time such as leads him often to put
it before the verb. The Hottentot, as a nomad following, however
indolently, an industrial life, leaves the subject in its natural position ;
as also does the Galla, whose original life was nomadic. The Australian
has no industry, but he has to search for his subsistence, and in his
speech the place of the subject is indeterminate.
The Egyptian in the fertility of Egypt could live without care.
His industry was the fruit of civil organisation ; for the great works
of Egypt could be accomplished only by the organisation of combined
labour under the direction of strong authority. And the native
character of the Egyptian corresponding to an easy life in a fertile
region, appears in the original position of the subject after the verb.
284 NOMINATIVE TENDS TO FOLLOW VERB. [CHAP. in.
LITTLE DELIBERATION AND CHOICE. [SECT. n.
The industry of the Peruvians also, and of the Mexicans, like that of
the Egyptians, bears the impress of civil organisation, and sprang
from this squrce rather than from native tendency. And as they were
originally American hunters, they placed their subject like the others.
The Chilians, however, lived in a lower temperature than the Peru-
vians, and therefore probably in a region where subsistence was more
difficult and required more care ; and they placed the subject some-
times before and sometimes after the verb.
The Eskimo in his frozen region could not subsist without a careful
outlook for what he needs, and careful adaptation of means for its
attainment. And the timid and agricultural Guarani of Brazil is of
necessity careful and deliberate. And both these races place the sub-
ject before the verb.
The prairies and fertile lands on which dwell the Dakota or Sioux
and the Choctaw races, rendered unnecessary the ardour for the chase
which was required where the means of subsistence were less abun-
dant, and drew the attention of those races towards agriculture. So
that the Sioux, though they could take buffaloes at will, not only
lived partly on wild oats,1 but also cultivated large tracts of land;2 and
the Choctaws were quite agricultural in their tendencies (Gram. Sk.,
II. 47). The Yakarna, who lived by catching fish in the season and
storing them for future use, exercise a certain degree of careful search
in providing for their subsistence, and are exempt frohi the habits of
the hunter's life. And all these races show the weakness of the hunting
impulse by leaving the subject in its natural place before the verb.
Of the native condition of the Pima, the Otomi, and the Chiapaneca,
information is wanting.
9. There is little room for industry in Arabia, and what the Arab
gets at all, he gets without care in the fertile oases. He accordingly
places the subject after the verb. This, too, is the normal tendency in
Tamachek, and in a less degree in Ethiopia But Amharic was altered
in this respect, probably by Galla influence, and Haussa by Negro
influence.
The Hebrew, dwelling outside the desert, and the Syrian still more
so, had more industry, and with them the subject tended more to hold
its natural place.
The Greek and the Latin exercised the choice and deliberation
involved in inventive industry, but they were sufficiently masters of
the conditions of their life to be free also to follow impulse, so that
they readily thought the verb as undetermined by the subject, and
could put the subject after it as well as before it, when emphasis or the
course of thought strengthened it into an independent conception.
The Teuton had more of deliberate purpose in the selection of his
ends, and with him the subject had stronger precedence.
But it is most striking that the Celt alone of Indo-Europeans put
the subject as a rule after the verb, and that he, perhaps owing to the
favourable nature of his region, is naturally the least devoted to
1 Charlevoix's Letters from Canada, ic., p. 110 ; Keating's Narrative, p. 395.
a Prichard's Researches, vol. v. p. 410.
CHAP, in.} SUBJECTIVE PERSONALITY IN VERB. 285
SECT, in.] SELF-DIRECTING VOLITION IN ACTION.
industry or subject to care. This is a remarkable confirmation of
what results from this entire review, that where action is guided
habitually with deliberation and choice the subject retains its natural
position before the verb ; where action is habitually more impulsive
the subject tends to follow the verb.
And this is the theoretical deduction of Book I., chap, iii., 2.
III. — The sense of the personality of the subject in the verb is propor-
tional to the guidance of action by self-directing volition in the
mode of life to which the race has been adapted.
1. The difference between the proper subjective person in the verb,
and the nominative which is subject to the verb, is, that the person is
part of the verb, expressing a sense of the inner life or subjectivity of
the subject in which the fact is realised, while the nominative is
distinct from the verb, and expresses the subject thought as the seat
of that inner life or subjectivity. This difference of meaning, however,
between the two is not always perfectly maintained. The person, in
expressing the inner life of the subject, often suggests the subject
itself with sufficient strength to dispense with the separate expression
of the subject. And often the subject when expressed separately
suggests sufficiently its own inner life in the verb, so as to dispense
with the expression of the person. But when there is at the same
time the subject separate from the verb, and the subjective person
element corresponding to it in the verb, the difference between the
two is that which has been stated.
The person element, however, in the verb is sometimes not truly
subjective, but possessive. In that case the verb is not thought pro-
perly as realised in the person, but rather as an emanation from the
person, or a possession acquired by the person ; and the realisation is
more or less outside the person, abstracted from it and involved in the
act or state itself. The person then as possessive partakes of the
nature of a predicate, the rest of the verb being subject and copula, as
if, instead of saying, I loved, we were to say, Mine was the loving.
That the verb should take this form, in which the person is the same
as when possessive of a noun, and in which its meaning approaches
to this construction, it is evident that the person must be thought with
very weak subjectivity.
Another evidence of weak subjectivity of the person is when the
same person elements which are used in the verb are used also in
participial forms. For these involve no subjective realisation (Def.
13), and the sense of this must be weak in the verb when it prompts
no expression proper to itself.
2. It is remarkable that generally in the Polynesian, Tagala, and
Malay languages there is no person element in the verb, and in Poly-
nesian the elements which express the succession of being or doing
are sometimes not assertive, but only participial. So also it is in the
Melanesian Loyalty Islands, in Mari, and Lifu (Gram. Sk., III. 6, 34,
37, 46, 53, 78).
286 SUBJECTIVE PERSONALITY IN VERB. [CHAP. in.
SELF-DIRECTING VOLITION IN ACTION. [SECT. in.
In Dayak the three personal possessive suffixes, which may be
plural in their personality as well as singular, may also be suffixed as
the person singular or plural of the most subjective verbs, such as
those which mean to know, to see, to say, to find (ibid. 74) ; and
also in Australian (Adelaide), and in the languages of the New Hebrides
and of other Melanesian islands, person elements appear in the verbs
(ibid. 21, 24, 28, 31, 42, 44, 84). In none of these languages has the
verbal stem enough sense of the subject to be specialised as verbal
(ibid. 5, 17, 3 ; 21, 37, 41, 46, 75).
Now, while in the Polynesian and Philippine islands by the
favour of nature the conditions of life are such that man realises his
ends with little self-directing thoughtfulness of action, and on the
ocean he trusts himself in proportion to his boldness to the guidance
of external indications (this chap. IV. 1), the dark race acts with
more care (this chap., Introd. 3 ; II. 8). And the use of the person in
the verb corresponds to the self-directing volition in action. As one
race mixes with another, it partially takes up the characteristics of
that other.
The care which the Malay exercises, whether as a fisherman or on
the land, is care in search ; and it consists in watching and following
external indications. Once he has chosen his action, his guidance in
performing it is not from within, but from without ; and except in
Borneo, where he is affected by the dark race, he has no person
elements, as he has little self-directing volition.
3. Throughout the Chinese group of languages also there is an
absence of person elements from the verb (Gram. Sk., V. 4, 13, 18,
27, 36, 45), and of any sense of subjectivity from the verbal stem, as
well as a strange deficiency of personal pronouns, which strikingly
corresponds to the absence of spiritual subjective elements from the
mental habits of those races, and to the utterly material character of
their development and civilisation. These races have been referred
to in the last section as careful ; and therefore as habitually exercising
a sufficient degree of deliberation and choice to maintain the nomina-
tive in its natural place before the verb. But though this much must
be necessarily involved in the careful adoption of useful actions, how
little there is of self-directing volition in carrying out those actions in
China may be seen from the following testimony :
" A firm purpose of abiding by everything once acknowledged as
useful and proper is the leading feature of Chinese industry. The
nation excels in that which is to bo effected in the beaten track, but
it is wretchedly deficient in everything that requires thought and
judgment."1
"Determined unwearied industry remedies all defects" (of division
of labour and of machinery and implements).2 "There is an instinctive
propensity for work." - " All articles, the making of which requires
more than mere mechanical .skill, are beyond Chinese ingenuity."
" Whenever they have a very good pattern, the natives of Canton will
1 Gutzlaff'n China, vol. ii. p. 2. 3 Ibid. p. 3. 3 Ibid. p. 4.
CHAP, in.] SUBJECTIVE PERSONALITY IN VERB. 287
SECT, in.] SELF-DIRECTING VOLITION IN ACTION.
endeavour to imitate it, but they attempt nothing further." l "The
minute work and finish of all their industry is remarkable." 2
This gives a full and clear idea of the nature of the industry of the
Chinese ; and the other races of this group partake of the same char-
acter. The intense devotion of the Chinese to industry implies a keen
outlook for profitable modes of employment. And this involves, in a
proportional degree, choice and deliberation. But the course of work
once entered on is guided by an external rule. And when the mode
of carrying it on has been learned, it proceeds thenceforward by habit.
Even before it has been learned, the volition of adopting an external
rule dispenses with volition in the process of following it, the copying
of each step coming by suggestion from the rule. An industrial life
of this kind is occupied by such processes of imitation or by processes
of routine which have become habitual, and are carried on by mere
association. In the habitual process, the end to be attained being
kept in view, the stage Avhich the operation has reached suggests the
next step, or the end itself suggests all or many of the successive steps
of the process of attainment ; and in both the habitual and the imi-
tative the attention is given up to the external process, and to the end
at which it aims, or to the end as the principal object. With such
thought of external objects and external aims the Chinese are quite
engrossed, without either martial enterprise or industrial originality to
call into play self-directing volition. And the absence of this from
their life corresponds to the absence of person elements and of sub-
jectivity from their verb.
4. The nomad races of Central and Northern Asia follow an industry
which, though it requires care in ordering it according to its con-
ditions, is in its details a traditional routine, but whose necessary
condition has often to be secured by vigilant enterprise, which affects
the habits of life. For though the care of flocks and herds follows old
methods, the acquisition and the continued possession of the requisite
range of pastures demands determined energy in proportion to the
severity of the struggle for possession. Now the pasture-grounds of
Asia are distinguished by their natural conditions into three principal
divisions.
Mongolia is the most elevated region of the high plain of Eastern
Asia,3 and as it includes the great wilderness of Gobi, in parts of which
are wide plains affording pasture in summer,4 the pastures are more
scattered as well as less productive than in the other two divisions.
These are the comparatively fertile region of the Turkish or Tartar
race to the west of Mongolia, and the less fertile region of the Tun-
gusian race to the east and north of it. One fragment, however, of
the former race, the Yakuts, has got separated from the remainder, and
dwell in the extreme north. Now the struggle for pasture must be
less keen, and life must have less enterprise in the Mongolian region
where the communities are most scattered, than in the other two where
they are within easier reach of one another. And, accordingly, while
1 Gutzlaff's China, p. 144. a Ibid. p. 142.
3 Prichard's Researches, vol. iv. p. 297. 4 Ibid. p. 290*
288 SUBJECTIVE PERSONALITY IN VERB. [CHAP. in.
SELF- DIRECTING VOLITION IN ACTION. [SECT. IIL
a very deficient subjectivity corresponding to deficient originality of
self-direction in their ordinary occupations is to be noted in the verb
in the languages of these races (see Gram. Sk., IV. 8, 14, 1 ; 40, 42,
55), the verb has person elements in the Tartar languages, and in the
Tungusian of Nertchinsk, of which it is destitute in Mongolian, and
which are only partially developed in Buriat Mongolian, in which
the pronominal subject is not always quite taken up by the verb
(ibid. 50) so as to become truly a person.
Perhaps Mongolian and Manju both lost the persons of the verb
owing to their cultivation under Chinese influence. However that
may be, the person element of the verb in the other languages is
developed the more where there is the more of free volition in the
race. Not only the Tartar, but the Tungusian also, is a stronger race
with more of independent volition than the Mongolian; the latter being
in great part subjected to Tungusian dominion.1 In Turkish the verb
has more subjectivity than in any of the other languages, just as the
race has shown more enterprise and strength of independent volition
(ibid. 25).
5. In Finnish (ibid. 150, 151), Lapponic (ibid. 159, 160),
Tscheremissian (ibid. 130, 132), and Sirianian (ibid. 142, 143), the
person elements of the verb differ generally from the possessive
suffixes of the noun, the difference, however, being less in the two
latter languages than in the two former ; so that at least in Finnish
and Lapponic they seem to be more distinctly subjective than in the
preceding languages. And also the Dravidian languages of India have
person elements (ibid. III., 93) appropriated to the verb. And
this corresponds to the fact that these races are less bound to the one
routine occupation than those Asiatic nomads, and have a more free
development of their own enterprise and volition. But in Samoiede
there is little subjectivity ; and attainment of possession, which, under
the urgency of want, is an object rather of desire than of volition, is
thought with such interest that the conception of the verb as transitive
to its object tends to be cast in this mould, the verb taking up a sense
of its direct object, unless this be thought with special distinction,
and the person element being then a possessive suffix (ibid. IV.,
76). The Ostiaks, and also the original Hungarians, belonged to
regions where want is less pressing, and the attainment of possession
less urgent, because there is a bettor supply of game, and in these
regions life, though also nomad, is partly that of the hunter, as is proved
by Castren's account of the Ostiaks (ibid. 99), and by the accounts of
the original Magyars and their kinsmen quoted by Prichard.2 In
Ostiak and Hungarian the direct object suggests not possession as in
Samoiede, but rather the hunter's interest which gives energy to the
action, and this it does more strongly the more distinctly it is con-
ceived. The verb shows a stronger sense of the succession of the
subject's doing when it has an object thus distinctly thought ; and
the person elements are mostly distinguished as subjective in corre-
1 Prichard, vol. iv. p. 297. - Ibid. vol. iii. pp. 325, 327.
CHAP, in.] SUBJECTIVE PERSONALITY IN VERB. 289
SECT, in.] SELF-DIRECTING VOLITION IN ACTION.
spondence with the free volition of those races (ibid. 104, 106, 119)
whose energy is not limited to a traditional industry.
6. It is, however, in the languages of America that the hunter's
interest is most expressly developed. The hunter's action is partly
the outcome of self-directing volition, and partly the suggestion of the
object ; awakening his energy. And his transitive verb, instead of
being purely subjective, has generally a person element representing
the object combined with the person element representing the subject,
and sometimes united with the latter, so that the two are indistin-
guishable from each other.
Of this, the Eskimo language furnishes a most striking illustration.
And it is to be observed that as this language has been shown by the
massive nature of its formations to be essentially an American lan-
guage (Gram. Sk., II. 5, &c.), it must be regarded as the language of
an American race specially adapted to the Greenland region ; and
therefore a hunter's language though the principal game is seals.
Now, in the wonderful system of person suffixes which belong to
the Eskimo verb (ibid. 15), it may be noted that the transitive
person elements are in the indicative connected with a stronger
element of process than the intransitive (ibid. 15) ; which is a point
of resemblance to what has been said above of Ostiak and Hungarian.
In Greenland also, the urgency of want is as great as in the region of
the Northern Samoiedes, and the attainment of possession being
more difficult, has even greater interest. Hence the subject when
separate from the verb is in the genitive case when the verb has an
object (ibid. 14) ; because the action passing to its object suggests
the idea of attainment of possession.
7. The language of the Cree is remarkable as an example of
a hunter's language. The prevailing interest is the subject exerting
his energy on the object (ibid. 18). The person elements of the
transitive verb express the volition of the subject as suggested by
the thought of the object; for the two persons tend to be united
indistinguishably (ibid. 19). The only exception is when the subject
is first or second person, and the mood indicative. The first and
second persons are thought in this language with remarkable strength
and distinction of personality. It is a characteristic of the American
races in general, that in their intercourse great attention is paid to
the person addressed, and to self, that discourse may be duly adjusted
to both (Book II., chap, i., Part I., Sect. II., 1). And this would
naturally strengthen the thought of the two persons, and the distinc-
tion of the one from the other. In the indicative, whether of tran-
sitives or intransitives, the realisation in the first or second person
awakens the full thought of those persons respectively, by reason of
their habitual nearness to the attention of the speaker. And being
thus thought in the general associations of their personality, their
person element precedes the verbal stem, their plural element, if they
be plural, coming after the verbal stem, so slight is the connection
between the plurality and the personality. The object person follows
the stem, and thus the person element of the first and second person
290 SUBJECTIVE PERSONALITY IN VERB. [CHAP. in.
SELF-DIRECTING VOLITION IN ACTION. [SECT. m.
indicative is separated from the object in the transitive verbs. But
in the other moods the first and second persons, and in all moods the
third person, follow the verbal stem, and combine with the object
person when the verb is transitive (Gram. Sk., II. 26, 27).
The volition of the hunter, which is thus seen in the association of
the subject with the object in the transitive verb, may also be observed
in the strong distinction in Cree between the subject and the object,
the life of the former dominating that of the latter. For it is thus
only that we can understand the law that the second person cannot be
object to either the first or third, nor the first to the third (ibid. 27).
Such constructions are avoided by making the verb passive ; because
the person who is object of the action becomes then a subject instead
of being an object, and the high sense of the personal life of the second
person and of the first, which is natural to the race, is not violated by
the predominance of the life of another person whose life is less
strongly thought. This great difference between the subject and object
also explains the law, that in a compound sentence the subject of the
first clause cannot be object of the second (ibid. 27) ; the change of
thought would be too great, and it is made the subject of a passive
verb instead. So that the principal peculiarities in the use of the
persons in the Cree verb correspond to the peculiarities in the voli-
tions of a hunting race.
8. The Dakota also is a hunter, but less exclusively than the Cree ;
as he has an interest in agriculture too (this chap. II. 8). His tran-
sitive verb has person elements of the subject and of the object
associated together, but not combined so closely as in Cree ; for the
object may be distinguished as preceding the subject, except when the
second person is object to the first, the two persons then coalescing in
one element (Gram. Sk., II. 43). This is probably due to the diffi-
culty of thinking with distinctness the second person as dominated
by the first, the second being thought the more strongly in its per-
sonal life. The difficulty does not arise when the second person is
object to the third, for the third person has no subject element, and
there is therefore no express predominance of that person over the
second as there would be if they were in juxtaposition.
That the second person can be thought even indistinctly as object
to the first, indicates that the sense of predominance of the subject
over tho object is less in Dakota than in Cree, which corresponds to
the life of the race being less devoted to hunting. The volition of
the subject also does not embrace tho whole act which is to be accom-
plished, but only part of it, and the remainder follows the subject
which is engaged with that part, and follows it as determined by it ;
for the persons in Dakota intervene between the root and the verbal
element when there is one (ibid. 41); whereas in Cree they follow or
precede both the energising clement and the root. This also corre-
sponds to the volitions of a race less bound to the attentive prosecution
of their aims;. Their circumstances are easier than those of the Cree,
and there is less need for intelligent attention in carrying through the
accomplishment of their ends. And the comparative freedom of self-
CHAP, in.] SUBJECTIVE PERSONALITY IN VERB. 291
SECT, in.] SELF-DIRECTING VOLITION IN ACTION.
directing volition which they enjoy, corresponds to the superior sub-
jectivity of the subject persons of the verb, as evidenced by their
difference from the possessive suffixes as well as from the object
suffixes (ibid. 41). There is more subjectivity in the Dakota persons
than in the Cree ; though the Cree verb has a stronger sense of the
subject, as appears from its having a third person, which the Dakota
has not. The Cree subject persons being the same elements as the
possessive are not as true persons as the Dakota (1). They rather
represent the subject than express the subjectivity, and hence it is that
the first and second tend to precede. And there is a strong sense of
the subject as the source of the strong doing or being that is in the Cree
verb, rather than a sense of his inner volition.
9. The agricultural Choctaw does not combine the subject person
with the object person. The subject person of his verb is the same
suffix as the possessive of his noun (ibid. 54), indicating a low sub-
jectivity, which corresponds to the small exercise of self-directing
volition in following the routine of a traditional industry.
10. Crossing the Eocky Mountains to the west, we find races who
live along the rivers by fishing ; or who inhabit regions which, com-
pared with the plains towards the east, remind one of Mongolia com-
pared with the pasture-grounds of the Tartar race. For though the
Tartar steppes differ greatly from the American prairies, yet the
region west of the Rocky Mountains and southward to Mexico may
be compared to Mongolia in the elevation of its tablelands and in
the intermixture of desert and fertile country. In such a region
the struggle for life is less keen ; for the habitable parts are more
secluded from attack than in the open plains east of the Mississippi.
Those who live by fishing in the rivers have a comparatively easy sub-
sistence ; so that all those races are under less necessity to exercise
an enterprising activity or a self-directing guidance of action in their
ordinary life.
In Central America also and in South America life is comparatively
easy on account of the abundant production of vegetable and animal
life within the tropics and in the adjoining regions. Only on the
dry tableland of Mexico would a searching outlook be needed to
secure subsistence ; and there and in the mountain region of the Andes
attentive intelligent action would be required for success.
11. ISTow of all these American languages of the west and south,
the Peruvian or Quichua and the Chilian are the only ones which, like
the Eskimo and the Choctaw, put the person as a general rule at the
end of the verb. And as the excessive rigour of the Eskimo region
demands, that action shall be carefully aimed at its intended effect,
in order that life may be sustained at all, a similar necessity in a
much less degree, in the mountain region of the Andes, would require
in the native races somewhat of the same utilitarian character. Eor
the hunters who had to subsist there would need well - directed
energy to supply themselves with the necessaries of life, and in their
self-directing volition would note strongly the efficacy of their actions
to that end. That the Choctaws were strongly marked with a utili-
292 SUBJECTIVE PERSONALITY IN VERB. [CHAP. m.
SELF-DIRECTING VOLITION IN ACTION. [SECT. ra.
tarian character appears from their industrial habits ; while the Cree
and still more the Dakota could follow the suggestion of object or
circumstance \rith less regard to the effect. So that the tendency to
note in the volition the effect of action seems to correspond to the
tendency to put the person at the end of the verb, according to the
theoretical deduction of Book L, chap, iii., 3.
This connection of person endings in the verb, with a regard to the
effects of action in the life of the race, is confirmed by the concomi-
tance of the same features in the life and languages of the races of
Central and Northern Asia and Northern Europe, and in those of the
Dravidian and Indo-European families. For the life of all those
races was more or less governed by self-directing volition of an indus-
trial character, and which, therefore, looked habitually beyond the
objects to the effects of action. And they all put the person element
at the end of the verb.
On the other hand, the Syro- Arabian races, occupied always with
doing and being rather than with material effects, put the essential
element of the person before the verb, unless when a sense of com-
pletion so weakens the sense of the subject in the verb, that the verb is
thought rather as an external fact than as an experience of the subject.
12. In their treatment of the person there is a noticeable simi-
larity between the Syro- Arabian languages and some of those Ameri-
can languages of the west and south. For while those languages
generally except the Peruvian and the Chilian put the essential
element of the person before the verb, they generally, like the Syro-
Arabian Languages, put the plural element of the person when there is
one at the end of the verb. And some of them in the past tense put
the person itself at the end. Such is the place of the person in the
past tense of transitives in Selish except in first plural (Gram. Sk.,
II. 63 j. in the past and future of neuter verbs in Maya (ibid. 97), in
the perfect of transitives, and in negatived verbs and verbs of being in
Caraib (ibid. 102) : in ail which the sense of the subject is weakened
either by the verb not being in present realisation, or because it is
thought more in the object or with weaker volition of the subject.
In Yakama the first and second persons are at the end in all the
tenses, while the third is at the beginning (ibid. 56), as if there was
a sense of effect in connection with the first and second person which
was absent from the third.
In Quichee a verbal element expressive of tense comes first and is
followed by the jx-rson. this U-in^ followed by the verbal stem (ibid.
94i. a? if the thought of the position in time took the verbal element
out of the limitation of th-- subject into the realm of external fact.
When the volition of the race c-s not contemplate the effect, the person
precedes the st*?m. i:nk-- - it lx- possessive, and as such has to follow.
13. In accor-lanc-? with Ik-uk I., chap, iii., 3, a weakness of sub-
ectivity may >>--nvd in the verb in these languages proportional
to the small degrv-e of self-direction which their life demands. Thus
the subjective and the po- -ssive personal affixes are the same in the
following ijit-ertropical larcnaa^es. the abundant production of nature
CHAT. m. J SUBJECITYE PERSONALITY TS TZEB. 1 : 3
SECT, in.] SELF-DIEECTISG YOLTTIOS IS ACTIOSf.
carelessly to fallow desire or habit, and so lower-
ing the self -directing volition in die life and subjectivity in the verb ;
in Quichee (ibid. 94), in Maya (ibid, 97), in Caiaib (ibid. 102), in
Cbibcha (ibid. 107), in Kim (ibid. 123), and almost the same in
Chikito (ibid. 135). That such want of distinction between the
subjective and the possessive affixes shows a weakness of subjectivity
in the verb fa»« been pointed out in L
In Maya the person endings of the past and future of neuter verbs,
and in Caralb the person Muling* of verbs of being, of negatived verbs,
and of the perfect of tzansitives, are the object persons (ibid. 97, 102).
On the other IIMM^ the timiil and careful Gnarani distinguish, tlie
possessive from the subjective affixes (ibid. 118).
14. In most of these Amgriram languages of the west and south.
may be observed a failure of the sense of the subject to penetrate
the verb. They generally, indeed, think their verbs as aimed at
their objects so as to take np person elemental representing these;
Jhangh some, as tike Yakama and Kirm,, think their verb too exclu-
sively as an affection of the subject to give it this objective reference
(ibid. 56, 124). And none of them cnmbme the object person and
subject person in so close m union as is given to them in Eskimo and
Cree. For none of these races have to pursue their game with such
ardour. The Peruvian and t^kSKmit ^nmlJi^ the object person and
the subject peon rather mom dosfily than the often.
But 'though many of them thus involve s inference to the objects
in A* verb, »«•»« of them, except the Peruvian, driliian^ «n«| Mexican,
carry the subjectivity of the person through the verb. In the others
the person is ***m*f**A with am eVimnat which, axpreews the succes-
sion of being or doing, and the verbal stem is mom or less (ibid. 104)
dntarhH And accordingly it is only the above three races that have
developed thoughtful volition *•»•«««* through the accomplishment of
The others have an easier life and less call for such self-
direction. The Chilian and Peruvian have been noted above (11),
as having a strong sense of the effect of action and, therefore, patting
the person at the end of the verb, while the HJMTIM^ as being natu-
rally less artful, put it at the beginning. The latter race depended
more on things, the former on effects. They all bad strong volition,
and distinguished the subject persons from the possessive and objective.
The strong volition of the CV^*** is to be seen in the compactness,
approaching to unity, which the Chilian verb has got from being
penetrated by the subjectivity, and in the absence of auxiliary verbs.
QuBchna forms compound tenses with auxiliary verbs (ibid. 113),
showing less penetration of the subjectivity through the verbal idea ;
as if the self-direction was less thorough, being perhaps less needed
than in fl»«* higher latitude of Chili.
In Mexican the person can combine direct with the verbal stem
without the intervention of abstract verbal elements which take up
the subjectivity (ibid. 85) ; and there is no subject element of the
third person. Both peculiarities probably are due to the outerness of
thought which arose from a very searching outlook for subsistence,
294 SUBJECTIVE PERSONALITY IN VERB. [CHAP. in.
SELF-DIRECTING VOLITION IN ACTION. [SECT. ni.
and which would withdraw attention from the subjective succession,
and in the third person from the subjectivity itself. The failure
of the other races to carry the subjectivity through the verb corre-
sponds to the less thorough action of their self-directing volition, and
confirms the theory of Book I., chap, in., 3, which is supported in all
its details by this review of the American and other languages.
In Bask, ,also, there seems to be a shortcoming in the volition.
The subject and objects are gathered about the auxiliary and the
stem detached, as if the volition was directed to the objects, and they,
thus regarded, suggested the action (Bask, 8).
15. The African races are in general distinguished above the rest of
mankind by the weakness of their will. This it is which has made
them at all times so liable to slavery, for the weak will naturally
submits to the stronger will. And in consequence of this weakness,
they have in general little self-directing guidance of action, but are led
by circumstance or by habit. There are, however, great differences in
this respect among the natives of Africa. In the east, contact and
mixture with the Arabic race naturally exerted a strengthening
influence, which may be observed in Galla and Nubian, and was
carried even to Bornou, though the fertile valley of the Nile produced
a national development which could maintain its native character. In
South Africa also a conquering race was developed which overran
almost all the continent south of \\IQ equator, and which made lodg-
ments also north of it. And the Kafir race, and also the Ashantee or
Dahoman race, show a strength which is not possessed by the others.
Now it is interesting to trace through the languages of these races a
subjectivity in the verb corresponding in its degree to the comparative
strength of volition in the race.
In Galla the verb has persons, and they are at the end of the verb
(Gram. Sk., III. 166), as is natural in a nomadic race which, following
an industry, habitually note the effects of action. There is a similar
development of the person in the Nubian verb, though its stem takes
up little subjectivity (ibid. 132), and in the Kanuri or Bornou verb
(ibid. 130, 176). In Barea, also spoken in the north of Abyssinia,
the verb has its person endings (ibid. 140). But in Dinka, on the
White Nile, near the equator, the verb has scarcely any person element
(ibid. 147), and in Bari, further south, it has none (ibid. 155).
The Kaiir verb has strong allinity for the subject, taking always a
representative of the subject into union with itself ; but even it shows
a weakness of subjectivity such as might be expected in a genuine
African language (ibid. I. 11).
A still greater weakness of subjectivity is to be seen in the other
African languages.
The Hottentot verb can scarcely be said to have any true person
element, for the personal suffixes are used only when the personal
pronoun is the subject, and is not otherwise expressed. Even then
they are used only in short energetic speech or in dependent sentences
(ibid. 68). Moreover, there is an evident tendency to think the verb
as embodied in the .subject, and part of its external manifestation,
CHAP. IIL] SUBJECTIVE PERSONALITY IN VERB. 295
SECT, in.] SELF-DIRECTING VOLITION IN ACTION.
rather than of its inner life (ibid. 68). And the same may be
observed in Kanuri (ibid. III. 175).
In Egyptian also there is a weakness of subjectivity in the verb,
and a strangely objective nature in the verb substantive (ibid. 11, 114).
In Woloff there is an excessive weakness of subjectivity, and a
tendency to think fact in its externals (ibid. I. 27, 28), so that verbs
are differently conjugated according as they are thought with more or
less of external manifestation in the subject.
16. And in all the African languages there is a marked tendency to
think the verb in two parts, one of which has closer connection with
the subject than the other (ibid. III. 132, 149, and I.), as if the
volition did not embrace the entire action. With what extraordinary
separateness of fine fragments such division is carried out has been
seen in Grammatical Sketches, I.
In Kafir indeed the tendency to divide the verb seems to spring from
the fragmentary tendency rather than from the want of volition, for both
parts have connection with the subject, as if the volition was renewed.
But in Mandingo and Vei the subject is wont to have connection
only with a mere abstract fragment, and the verbal stem is immersed
in the objects (ibid. 33, 36).
In Vei the verbal stem is strangely weak, as if the action was not
an important element in the fact, and the subjective fragments are
more developed in consequence.
In Susu the subject is altogether separated by the object from the
verb (ibid. 50).
In Yoruba the subjective part of the verb is not of so abstract a
nature (ibid. 22), because thought is less bent on the object. In none
of these four languages has the verb a true element of person.
In Egyptian fine verbal elements are separated from the verbal
stem, and these take subjective personal suffixes, as if there was only
a partial self-directing volition (ibid. III. 113). There is strong sense
of the subject though it does not penetrate the verbal stem. This
corresponds to the easy agriculture, in which there was little need for
intelligent self-direction in carrying accomplishment through, though
there was great interest in setting on foot what led to it.
In Nubian there is a stronger sense of the subjectivity through the
verb (ibid. 130), but how faint it is appears from the weak connection
of the person (ibid. 132), and from the realisation being so weak that
the negative can have it like a verb (ibid. 131, 133 ; IV. 90).
In Bullom, which shows affinities with Kafir, the verb has larger
connection with the subject, as if the volition grasped the action in
its principal part. For the verbal stem has connection with the sub-
ject, and the part which is broken off is rather of a prepositional nature,
carrying on the action to the objects (ibid. I. 23).
In Oti (ibid. 54, 59) and the kindred languages, the verb has
persons prefixed to it, showing a subjectivity which is absent from
the neighbouring language of Yoruba; and though it divides the verb,
the sense of the subject is carried remarkably through the sentence.
This is in exact correspondence with the strength of volition which
296 THE SUCCESSION IN THE VERB. [CHAP. in.
PROCESSES OF ACTION IN THE LIFE. [SECT. IV.
characterises the Ashantee and Dahoman race, to whom these lan-
guages belong, and which makes them so different from the people of
Yoruba (see Book IL, chap, i., Part I., 7).
In Pul also the representative of the subject adheres closely (Gram.
Sk., III. 186) as a prefix to the verb, showing a subjectivity which
corresponds to the superiority of the race over the negroes with whom
they are in contact.
17. The subjectivity of the verb in the Syro- Arabian and the Indo-
European languages, and the correspondence of this with the origi-
nality of self-directing volition in these races, have been already
noticed (chap. ii. 3).
And the special strength of the subjective engagement of the persons
in Gothic corresponds to the strong volition of the Teuton (Gram. Sk.,
VI. 158).
18. On the whole, the correspondence which has been traced in this
section between the development of the person in the verb and the
volitional character of the race shows that the one varies with the
other according to the principles arrived at deductively in Book I.,
chap, iii., 3.
IV. — Tlie element of succession of being or doing in the verb is
connected with the root as the needful processes of action are
connected with the accomplishment of their ends in the mode of
life to ichich the race has been adapted.
1. The Polynesian language is remarkable for two features : the
separateness of the elements which express the succession of doing or
being, both from the subject and from the verbal root ; and the
association with the verb of elements which express the direction of
the action in the view of the speaker, towards him, from him, down
to him, and up to him (Gram. Sk., III. 6, 9, 16).
The distinction of the Polynesian race is that it has spread over
vast spaces of the ocean, being found in islands as widely separated
from each other as the Sandwich Islands and New Zealand, and
showing its identity through them all by speaking the same language.
Such a race must have had a singular aptitude for making long
voyages, and for finding its way on the ocean.
Now there seems to be a correspondence between the above features
of the language and this remarkable aptitude of the race. The use of
the directive particles shows that the race think facts as movements
which they observe ; the clement of succession (Def. 11) suggesting the
motion, and the particle denoting its direction, in reference to them-
selves. And the tendency in think movements thus in their directions
relatively to self is natural as a habit and advantageous as an aptitude
in a navigating race. For the navigator who has no compass steers
his course by the bearings of whatever objects he can observe in the
sky or on the ocean, and he has to allow for the currents coming to
him below, and to watch the winds coming to him from above. And
CHAP, in.] THE SUCCESSION IN THE VERB. 297
SKCT. IV.] PROCESSES OF ACTION IN THE LIFE.
as he takes his proper direction with reference to each, he naturally
reduces all these directions to the one point of view, guiding his
course in reference to each, so that they shall all seem to approach
him or to recede from him in the due directions. A sense of such
directions, is' the navigator's instinct ; and the Polynesian language, in
distinguishing facts according to the four directions mentioned above,
expresses the Polynesian's view of the movements of doing or being
around him as if he was on a voyage through life.
That facts should be thought by him as movements, and that the
movements of fact should be thought separately from the subject,
and from the accomplished act or state which the verbal root denotes,
is also characteristic of a navigating race. It shows that the race
thinks facts in conformity with one dominant model, to which its
habitual thought and volition is adapted. And that model corresponds
to navigation. For navigation is movement directed by indications
external to the mover ; and these he follows as the guides originally
adopted, without renewing his volitions to follow them. The move-
ment consequently is thought in connection with these indications,
and not with his own volitions ; so that the process is separate from
the subject. It is, moreover, movement leading to an object, at which,
when it is reached, the movement ceases, and which the movement does
not at all affect; so that the process does not in any degree mingle with
the accomplishment. And a universal conception of fact in the Poly-
nesian form is an adaptation of mental action to the navigator's life.
2. In the Melanesian languages also there is a separation of the
element of succession from the verbal root (Gram. Sk., III. 45),
which gives in some degree a similar character to these languages, and
would indicate, as in Polynesian, an aptitude for the navigator's life.
But this element, though separated from the root of the verb, is not
always in these languages separate from the subject (see preceding
section, 2 ; and this corresponds to the weaker and more timid char-
acter of these races who are not bold enough to trust themselves
unreservedly to the external guidance of those objects by whose bear-
ings the mariner steers his course, but would take care for themselves,
and be conscious of new volitions, to avoid what seemed too adven-
turous. It accords with this diminished aptitude for navigation, that
though there are directive particles in these languages, they are not
used so generally with verbs as in Polynesian ; and belong rather to
the accomplishment than to the process, being used to form derivative
verbs. The directives are associated with the end ; as in the reduced
navigation the bearing of the end of the voyage determines the course.
In the Melanesian languages, however, as in the Polynesian, the suc-
cession is separate from the root, as in the life the process is separate
from the accomplishment.
3. Both these features of the Polynesian language we lose in
Malay. For the Malay is rather a fisherman than a navigator over
the spaces of the ocean ; and he attains his ends with such ease that
there is little or no sense of process in his life, or element of succession
in his verb.
VOL. II. U
298 THE SUCCESSION IN THE VERB. [CHAP. in.
PROCESSES OF ACTION IN THE LIFE. [SECT. r?.
4. In Tagala there is a strong sense of the succession of being or
doing, but instead of being separate from the verbal root it is closely
connected with it or incorporated in it (Gram Sk., III. 56). Tagala
is remarkable for its tendency to think fact in its result as an accom-
plished process (ibid. 57), and with little or no sense of 'the subject ;
as if the aptitude of the race was to attain results by processes which
are involved with little volition in a growing accomplishment. And
in the absence of information it may be conjectured that in the large
and fertile Philippine islands the natives would not only be exempt
from the necessity of taking to the sea, but might attain their ends
as results of nature's own processes of accomplishment, which they
merely helped or guided. ,
5. The processes of Chinese industry are not so simple. They
need attention that they may be performed correctly. In learning
them thought is occupied with the prescribed method which is to be
followed ; and in practising them when learned, the series of steps
connected together by association is kept before the mind that it may
be gone through correctly. So that though there is an absence of
self-directing originality, as has been said in the last section, there is
considerable sense of subsidiary processes in the occupations to which
the race has been adapted. These processes, however, being thought
as wholes when their parts are connected by habit, and the connec-
tions of their parts as successive steps towards accomplishment being
little noted in the effort of imitation, involve little sense of succession.
And those occupations being mainly of an agricultural nature, the
process ends before the accomplishment begins. Accordingly, the
adaptation of the race to these habits of life shows itself in thejuse of
auxiliary verbs subsidiary to and separate from the principal verb, and
not themselves involving succession of being or doing any more than
it (ibid. V. 11).
6. In Japanese, the succession of being or doing goes through the
expression of fact to a remarkable degree (ibid. 45). It differs from
the Chinese structure in pervading largely the verbal stems of the
language so as to be incorporated in them instead of being separate
from them. And this corresponds to what we are told of Japanese
industry, its artistic tendency, and its exquisite finish going beyond a
merely imitative process (Book II., chap, i., Part I., Sect. V., 4). For
the processes of the artisan are carried through the accomplishment
of his work ; and it grows under his hands as he works at it until
it is finished. And as the process is carried through the accomplish-
ment, so the succession tends to penetrate the root of the verb.
In Tibetan also the verbal stems are apt to take up a sense of pro-
cess (Gram. Sk., V. 48). And this corresponds to the patient continu-
ance of action which accomplishment is wont to require in the rigorous
climate of Tibet.
7. The processes of pastoral industry have closer connection with
the accomplishment which they subserve than those of the cultivation
of the soil For the shepherd and the herdsman partake of the fruit
of their flocks and herds while thev attend to their health and increase.
CHAP. III.] THE SUCCESSION IN THE VERB. 299
SECT. IV.] PROCESSES OF ACTION IN THE LIFE.
The industry and the attainment of its end go on together, but they are
distinct from each other. The herdsman does not make the produce
which he uses. He has it in consequence of his pastoral care ; but it
is not the work of his hands. He does not fashion and complete it,
so as to carry through it the process of his art. The process and the
attainment are in contact with each other, and yet distinct ; and being
in contact the presence of the accomplishment to the mind subordinates
to it the thought of the process.
There are, moreover, other necessary parts of his business which are
less immediately connected with the attainment of his end. The care
of his pastures, and the provision of food for his cattle when these fail,
are as separate from the accomplishment of what they aim at as the
processes of tillage. And these tend to give independent strength to
his thought of process.
Now, the nomad races live continually immersed in attention to all
these processes of pastoral industry, as the life to which they are
specially adapted. Accordingly they have a strong sense of the
element of process or succession of being or doing in their verb ; and
that element, though it may be closely connected with the verbal root, is
never taken up into it, just as in their life the processes of their industry
may be contemporaneous with the accomplishment of their purpose,
but never are themselves accomplishing processes. The structure of
their verb in this respect corresponds to the activity of a race which is
always occupied with processes connected with accomplishment rather
than itself accomplishing. And as there are processes of industry in
the pastoral life less closely connected with attainment though subser-
vient to it, so in the languages of the nomad races there is a corre-
sponding tendency to think process, when it engages the subject more
strongly, as an auxiliary verb (Gram. Sk., IV., 7, 14, 2 ; 40, 50, 55, 61).
In the Turkish language the more self-directing volition of the race
tends to grasp the end more strongly along with the process, and to, incor-
porate the auxiliary in the principal verb as an element of succession so
as to increase the development of the latter (ibid. IV. 24, 29). But in
the nomad languages generally the element of succession of being or
doing is connected with the verbal root or element of accomplishment
in the verb just as the industrial process is connected with the end at
which it aims in the life to which the race has been specially adapted.
In Hottentot also, the nomadic character shows itself in elements
of process and auxiliary verbs (ibid. I. 69) ; and amongst the Indo-
European races in Lithuanian (ibid. VI. 190, 198), and in Slavonic
(ibid. 227, 229, 230).
8. In the Dravidian verb the element of succession is more appro-
priated to the verbal root ; the various roots having elements of
succession proper to the idea which they express (ibid. III. 93).
This indicates that the process is carried through the stem as the
process of its accomplishment, just as it has been said above that
the artisan carries his productive art through his work till he finishes
it. There are abundant remains of Dravidian art in India ; and these
show that the race had the aptitudes of the artist and the artisan ;
300 THE SUCCESSION IN THE VERB. [CHAP. in.
PROCESSES OF ACTION IN THE LIFE. [SECT. iv.
that they cultivated those processes of production in which the skilled
•work is carried through to the end of the finished performance ; and
that consequently the development of the element of succession in the
verbal stem corresponds to that of their processes in their productions.
9. In the unproductive regions of Northern Asia and of Northern
Europe the pastoral life assumes a somewhat different form from what
it has in Central Asia. The northern races still tend their flocks and
herds where these can be kept. But the keeping of them is less easy,
and leads less surely to the end for which they are kept, while its
difficulty causes it to become itself in some degree an end to be
accomplished. There is therefore less sense of process subordinated
as such to the accomplishment, and less of such elements in the verb
or connected with it as auxiliaries. The difficulty of life also causes
accomplishment to be less under the command of volition, so that it
depends more on traditional methods, as well as to require patient
perseverance. And hence arise two features of the most northern
languages, a greater want of union between the element of subjectivity
and the stem of the verb, and a larger development of derivative
verbal steins involving elements of continuity or amount of action or
parts of the series of activities, all suggestive of habits of perseverance
(ibid. IV. 90, 109, 118, 134, 135, 144, 145, 151, 161, 162).
The Ostiak, according to the account given of him by Castren (see
Gram. Sk., IV. 99), lives by a variety of methods according as he
finds them most practicable — by hunting, by fishing, some by keep-
ing cattle, a few by agriculture. His versatility hinders him from hav-
ing the hunter's grasp of the object with his volition. He is, as has
been observed above in III, 5, both nomad and hunter, and the hun-
ter's habit of thought has drawn the element of succession into the root
of his verb, tending to be included within the root in intransitives, but
often subjoined to the root in the transitive verbs (ibid. IV. 106, 108).
For the natural order of thought is person, root, object ; and in the
hunter's life the process of action is strongly associated with the
thought of the object in the attention which he fixes on his game.
The element of succession, therefore, in his verb tends to the object,
there being a supplementary element of succession in the root when
that which is in connection with the person does not sufficiently, as is
the case in Ostiak, reach towards the object or the completion.
10. Hence, in accordance with Book I., chap. iii. 4, the American
languages generally have an element of succession which refers strongly
to the object, and where the volition does not grasp the accomplish-
ment (preceding section, 14), there is apt to be a subjective process
connected with the person, and .an objective connected with the root,
the latter expressing process towards the object of a transitive, towards
the completion of an intransitive.
There is no such separation in Eskimo (Gram. Sk., II, 15), in
Cree (ibid. 19), in Dakota (ibid. 41).
But such twofold elements are to be seen in Yakama, -es- and -sa
(ibid 56) ; in Selish -es-, &c., and -i or -m (ibid. 63) ; in Pima -igi-, &c.,
and -da (ibid. 71) ; in Maya active verbs, -kak and -ah- (ibid. 97) ; in
CHAP, in.] THE SUCCESSION IN THE VEEB. 301
SECT, iv.] PROCESSES OF ACTION IN THE LIFE.
Caraib transitive -i-, -u-, -a-, and -kua (ibid. 104) ; in various Bauro par-
ticles (ibid. 140). In Chibcha and Chikito the elements of succession
are only suffixed to the stem, the persons prefixed (ibid. 107, 135) ;
the process being probably suggested by the end to be attained.
In Mexican also the element of succession is at the end of the stem,
as appears from the curtailment of the vowel of the last syllable in
the formation of the perfect (ibid. 85), the person is at the beginning,
the volition probably reaching in a single act towards the object.
In Chilian, .and apparently also in Quichua, there is an expression
of the succession in the vowel which is subjoined to the root in the
verbal stem (ibid. 113, 143). But this element is in close relation
also with the person, which is at the end of the verbal formation.
The tendency in these languages to connect a person of the object with
that of the subject (preceding section, 14), indicates that this process
is directed towards the object according to the hunter's habit of thought.
11. In Choctaw, and perhaps also in Kiriri, the element of suc-
cession is obscure, but in all the other American languages it is a
distinct element in the verb.
In Choctaw, the extraordinary development of pronominal elements
used as defining and distinguishing articles, shows that the special
aptitude of the race is " for the observation of things (ibid. 47).
Such a mental habit would lead thought to the end of action
rather than to the process, so as to think the process in its end.
In the fertile plains which the Choctaws inhabited, the observation
of useful products of the soil would be natural to such a race, and
the processes of production being thought in their end would be-
come part of the end which action should accomplish, and which the
verbal stem expresses, giving to the thought of it elements akin to process,
and expressing continuity, or various parts of the succession of actions.
To this association of process and accomplishment the small develop-
ment of the succession in the Choctaw verb, and the development of
derivatives referring to the series of actions, corresponds (ibid. 49).
In the tropical region of the Kiriri, life probably needs little
process for the attainment of its ends, and there is proportionally
little of the element of succession in the verb.
12. In the African languages generally, the element of process,
or succession of being or doing, is brought into view by the tendency
to break the verb into separate parts, which arises from the character
of thought, which has been studied in Grammatical Sketches, I.
In such fracture there is an element of process generally attached to
the person, but such elements are also attached to the root, as in Susu
(ibid. 50), in Bullom, in Vei, and in Kafir, whose verb ends in -a,
changed in negative and subjunctive to -e or -i (ibid. 11, 23, 37).
This expression of process at the end of the root corresponds to the
life of those who subsist, like the hunter (10), by seeking the gifts of
nature, and is to be seen also in Australian (ibid. III. 84). In the
Woloff, the verbal stem has less reference to the object than in Kafir, or
in any other of the West African languages, and the element of process
is abundantly developed in connection with the subject, as if the race, not
302 THE SUCCESSION IN THE VERB. [CHAP. in.
PROCESSES OF ACTION IN THE LIFE. [SECT. iv.
greatly bent on material acquisition, was interested mainly with its
own beings and doings, and so thought largely the successions of these.
In Egyptian, the process is separate from the accomplishment, and
precedes it in its natural place (ibid. 117), which corresponds to a
race living by an easy agriculture, in which accomplishment followed
process without needing to be much governed by it
In Xubian, which belongs to a far less fertile country, there are
combined with the verbal stem elements of direction towards the
object as if aiming at the material objects within reach, as well as the
more subjective process preceding the person, which corresponds to
more enterprising activity (ibid. 130, 131).
Of the latter, there seems to be less in Kanuri ; for the n of the
subjective verbs is rather of the nature of a derivative element forming
a particular species of verb.
In Barea, the verbal increments are elements of process subjoined
to the root, and separate from the subject, as if the life of the race
involved a more patient seeking after the gifts of nature (ibid. 137).
In Dinka, the verbal prefix a (ibid. 147) is probably of the same
nature as Egyptian a.
In Bari, there is a great development of elements which are sub-
joined to the various roots as expressions of process determined by
them (Def. 23), and appropriate to them to form verbal stems (ibii
155). There is little reference to objects ; and the patriarchal life of
the race (ibid. 151) has an unworldly character, as of those who, com-
pared with other races, did not busy themselves much about material
things. They would in that case be interested largely in their own
beings and doings, especially as thought in their general associations ;
and to this would correspond the development of process in their verb,
subjoined to the root.
The Gallas, as a nomadic race, express process in connection with
the verbal root (ibid. 166), and incorporate in their verbal formations
an auxiliary verb.
13. In the Syro-Arabian and Indo-European languages, there is
abundant expression of the succession of being or doing ; and,
moreover, this element enters into the root of the verb (ibid. V.
48 ; VI. 15). For these races fashion their own ends ; the Syro-
Arabian being adapted to place his main interest rather in the beings
and doings of life than in their material accessories (see above, I.),
and the Indo-European to produce by his own art what he needs for
his welfare and enjoyment. The former, surrounded by the desert,
had little to interest him in the external world ; and the successions
of being and doing were thought with corresponding fulness. As he
came out of the desert, these were thought less fully in Hebrew
(ibid. V. 77), still less in Syriuc (ibid. 102). In the African branches
(ibid. 125, 128, 145, 156, 168), there were further changes in the
same direction. But with the original Syro-Arabian, the succes-
sion of being and doing are themselves the end, so that process and
accomplishment unite. With the Indo-European, the principal ends
are produced by processes of art, carried through the accomplishment
CHAP, in.] TENSE IN THE VERB. 303
SECT, v.] PROCESS AND INTEREST OF EXTERNAL EVENTS.
till it is finished. And it is to be observed that this sense of pro-
cess in the stem of the verb is stronger in Greek and Latin than in
Sanskrit, being carried in them beyond the present part of the verb.
This agrees with their greater development of the arts (ibid. VI. 65,
70, 84). Thus, in the languages of these races, the element of succession
has the same kind of connection with the root of the verb that pro-
cess has with accomplishment in their life ; a correspondence which
may be traced between life and language through all the races accord-
ing to the deduction of Book I., chap, iii., 4.
V. — The development of tense accompanies the sense of succession in
the verb and the full supply of interesting events external to the
doings and beings of the speaker.
1. The languages which are most deficient in the expression of
tense are : the Eskimo, which has only one tense, and supplies the place
of others by derivative verbs (Gram. Sk., II. 16) ; the three northern
Samoiede dialects (ibid. IV. 88), Ostiak (ibid. 106), Tscheremissian
(ibid. 132), Sirianian (ibid. 143), Finnish (ibid. 151), and Lapponic
(ibid. 160), all which have only two tenses, a past and a present,
the future being expressed by an inchoative verb in Samoiede (ibid.
96) by auxiliaries in Finnish and Lapponic, by the present in the
others ; the Polynesian, which has no really distinctive expression of
tense (ibid. III. 6) ; the Syro-Arabian, which distinguishes only what
is completed and what is not completed (ibid. V. 54) ; and the Bari,
on the White Nile, which also makes only a similar distinction (ibid.
III. 155). Now, all these races live comparatively secluded, in the
dreary regions of the north, in the small and widely scattered islands
of the ocean, or in the desert ; and in such regions the supply of facts
external to the beings and doings of the individual is comparatively
scanty. And this, according to the deduction of Book I., chap, iii.,
5, should be accompanied by an imperfect development of tense in
the verb. In the American languages of the Cree and Dakota there
is scarcely any true expression of tense. There are at most only two
in Dakota (ibid. II. 41), a, present or past, and a future. And the
same seems to be the case in Cree, as the other elements either are
adverbial suffixes or are themselves treated as verbal stems (ibid. 38).
The hunters in the prairies make a solitude by the wide bounds which
they require for themselves, so that they have a small supply of external
facts. The Chikitos of South America also, and their neighbours the
Bauros, have only two tenses, a present and a future (ibid. 135, 137) ;
and they, too, live secluded (ibid. 129).
2. The expression of position in time is separate from the verb,
and, therefore, not properly tense in Chinese (ibid. V. 11) and in Malay
(ibid. III. 76, 81, 2, 6, 10) ; and this also agrees with the above
deduction, as the verb in these ^languages involves little or no sense of
succession (preceding section, 3, 5) ; and therefore according to it the
expression of tense should be separate from the verb. And in those
languages in which the sense of succession in the verb is weak, the
304 DEVELOPMENT OF MOODS. [CHAP. in.
INTEREST IN FORTUNE AND CIRCUMSTANCE. [SECT. VL
expression of tense is more external than in those in which it is strong.
The former is the case in Samoiede, in the Yurak and Yenissei dialects,
which are the least exposed to foreign influence (Gram. Sk., IV. 88) ;
also in Kanuri (preceding section, 12) among the African languages
(Gram. Sk., III. 176), and in Choctaw (preceding section, 11) amongst
the American languages (Gram. Sk., II. 55).
The tendency in the African languages to separate the element of
tense from the verbal stem corresponds to their separation from it of
the succession (preceding section, 12).
3. The element of tense appears in the verb in that part of its
structure where the sense of the succession in the verb has strongest
attraction for that of the position of the fact in the general succession
of the facts of the world. In the past tenses of the Indo-European
languages in their original form it is remarkable how the expression
of tense goes through the verb, affecting the person and the stem,
besides introducing an element between these, and affecting the whole
with the augment. This corresponds to the penetration of the verb
by the element of succession.
4. In Latin there is less development of past tense than in Sanskrit
or Greek, because it has less sense than these of succession in the
past (Gram. Sk., VI. 84).
The astonishing development of tense in Turkish and Turki is due
to the great sense of succession incorporated in the verb (ibid. IV. 24,
25, 29) ; and the large development of tense in Yakut, Mongolian,
and Tuugusian (ibid. 14, 2, 4; 40, 50, 55, 61) is due to the same cause
existing in a less degree. And a similar cause is found in the "Woloff
language in Africa (preceding section, 12), accompanying a remarkable
development of tense (Gram. Sk., L 29).
In Chilian also there is a great development of tense (ibid. IL
143) ; the energy and enterprise of the race generating an abun-
dant supply of facts in their intercourse with those who dwelt within
their reach, and their sense of process being at the same time strong
(preceding section, 10). The Peruvian had less enterprise, living
therefore more to himself, and had a smaller development of tense
(Gram. Sk., II. 113).
It is probably due to a tendency in African thought to think the
verb in some degree as embodied in the subject in its outer manifesta-
tion, rather than properly as in its inner life (this chap. III. 15), that
in many African languages a so-called tense is formed which is indefi-
nite as to time. For such a conception of fact withdraws it from the
suggestions of time that arise from the successive states of a subject's
consciousness (Gram. Sk., I. 29, 33, 59, 69 ; III. 116, 176, 181, 186).
So that the principles of Look I., chap, iii., 5, prevail through all the
families of language.
VI. — Dci-iA<ij,incnt of moo'h arror<1ing in the tendency of the race to
icatch for fortune or a>:ail themselves of circumstance.
1. The Kafir language has a subjunctive mood, and it expresses a
potential by an auxiliary verb (Uram. Sk., L 5, 11). It has also a strong
CHAP, in.] DEVELOPMENT OF MOODS. 305
SECT, vi.] INTEREST IN FOKTUNE AND CIRCUMSTANCE.
tendency to combine, as if by a copulative, the realisation of one fact
with that of another (ibid. 12), the first predominating over the
second and reducing it.
There is no true subjunctive mood, expressive of subordination to
another verb as part of the sentence which the latter governs, in any
other of the African languages not of the Syro- Arabian stock, which
have been studied in this work, except in Barea, Dinka, and Galla
(ibid. III. 140, 147, 166) ; though there are conditional or other ideal
formations in most of them. And it is remarkable that the Kafir and
the Galla are the two most formidable races on the continent. As to
the Dinka and Barea, information is wanting. But the success of
the two others indicates an aptitude for policy and combination of
circumstance, which, as accompanying the development of a true
subjunctive, agrees with Book I., chap, iii., 6.
2. In Eskimo there is a remarkable development of dependent and
ideal moods (Gram. Sk., II. 10, 15), which corresponds to the aptitude
of the race under the necessities of the region to avail themselves
of facts and circumstances, as well as to wait on fortune, for the
attainment of their ends.
In Cree also there is a subjunctive, an improbable ideal, and a sub-
junctive indefinite as to time (ibid. 24, 38), which last corresponds
with the so-called nominal participle in Eskimo (ibid. 10), and
indicates close subordination to the principal verb.
In Dakota there is a subjunctive, formed, as in Kafir, by changing
-a to -e, and which by being affected with the article may be used as
a noun (ibid. 45).
The hunting races had to look out for what might promise a
supply of game, as well as to watch whatever might threaten the
integrity of their hunting-grounds, and to take measures to preserve
them, and they therefore had habitually an eye to circumstance as
ancillary to the accomplishment of what their mode of subsistence
demanded. =
In the Choctaw verb there is not enough sense of being or doing
(see above, IV. 11), to take up a sense of subordination and develop
a true subjunctive, though the suffix km marks a dependent verb
(Gram. Sk., II. 48).
In Yakama the conditional formation with -tarnei seems to be only
ideal ; and there is no true subjunctive, as the attention to objects and
conditions as parts of a fact is not sufficient to think a verb distinctly
as an object or mere condition of another. But in Selish, the forma-
tion with -&s- is used as a true subjunctive (ibid. 63), the race bein"
probably very dependent on circumstance (ibid. 64).
There is no true subjunctive in Pima, Otomi, Maya, or Caraib,
though Pima and Maya have ideal formations (ibid. 71, 97) and
Caraib an ideal suffix (ibid. 103). In Kiriri there is no true develop-
ment of mood except by optative and imperative prefixes (ibid. 124)
nor in Chikito except an imperative (ibid. 135) ; and not even this in
Bauro (ibid. 137).
306 DEVELOPMENT OF MOODS. [CHAP. in.
INTEREST IN FORTUNE AND CIRCUMSTANCE. ; [SECT. vi.
In Chibcha the participles are formed by reduction of the subjec-
tivity of the tenses, but there is no subjunctive (ibid. 107).
All these races, from the Yakama to the Chibcha, with the excep-
tion of the Selish, who are high up the Rocky Mountains, live under
conditions which do not require strong attention to means, and aims,
and favouring circumstance (this chap., III. 10).
In Mexican and Quiche"e there is no true subjunctive, though there are
ideal formations (Gram. Sk., II. 85, 94). For on the tableland of Mexico
they were occupied rather with search for what would directly satisfy
their wants (Introd. 3) than with combination of means which might
help them to attain it (Gram. Sk., II. 84), and so did not combine one
fact with another as subordinate to it, so as to produce a subjunctive.
In Quichua there is no true subjunctive, though there are potential
and other ideal formations (Gram. Sk., II. 113) ; and though in Chilian
there is said to be a subjunctive mood formed with -U-, it is not clearly
ascertainable whether it is a true subjunctive or not (ibid. 143). In
both these languages the sense of relation is so strong, and the connection
so close between the verb and what it governs, that the realisation of
the principal verb might overpower that of a dependent verb and
reduce it to a verbal noun.
In Guarani the contingent and dependent has extraordinary develop-
ment (ibid. 116, 119), in accordance with that waiting on fortune
and using of circumstance to which their nature and position would
naturally lead them (ibid. 115).
It appears therefore that where there is in the verb a sufficient
sense of the being or doing realised in the subject to be reduced with-
out being destroyed by a sense of its subordination to another verb, a
true subjunctive mood tends to be developed, according as the mode
of life to which the race is adapted is such as to develop a strong
sense of fact or circumstance as object or accessory part of beings or
doings, and yet not so strong that the fact or circumstance is thought
so completely as part of what is realised by the subject of the being
or doing that it is incapable of being realised in a subject of its own,
and is consequently thought as a verbal noun. And this agrees with
the deduction of Book I., chap, iii., 6.
3. In Polynesian and Tagala the subjectivity of the verb is so weak
that though the sense of relation or dependence of the members of a
sentence on the verb is weak also, yet a verb when thus subordinated
to another verb loses its subjectivity and becomes a participle or a
noun (ibid. III. 7, 9, 13; 55).
But in the Melanosian languages thorn is sufficient sense of the
subject in the verb (this chap., II. 8 ; III. 2) to admit of the reduction
without losing the subjectivity of the doing or being by subordination
to another verb, and in sonic- of thorn sufficient sense of the sub-
ordination f>f fact or circumstance as aim or accessory part of a doing
or being to effect such reduction. And so a subjunctive mood is
formed in Annatom, the most southern of the New Hebrides (ibid.
23, 5), as well as a potential and a hypothetical (ibid. 23, 7, 9). These
dependent and ideal moods are not in Erromango or Sesake (ibid. 24,
CHAP, m.] DEVELOPMENT OF MOODS. 307
SECT, vi.] INTEREST IN FORTUNE AND CIRCUMSTANCE.
28), which belong also to the New Hebrides. But there is a sub-
junctive and also two ideal moods in Mare", the most eastern of the
Loyalty Islands (ibid. 36, 3, 4, 8, 11-13); andia subjunctive, but
not an ideal, in Lifu, which belongs to another of the Loyalty Islands,
and which has a stronger sense than Mare of accomplishment, and
result, and of the succession of being or doing, and less than Mar£ of
the quiescence of completion or of the subject (ibid. 37, 39, 11, 14,
15, 17). Whether these moods are absent from the other Melanesian
languages it is hard to determine. The languages of Mare and Lifu
are near akin to each other, but that of Lifu has the characters of a
more practical people. And as the subjectivity of the Melanesian
languages compared with the Polynesian has been attributed above
(III. 2) to the weaker quality of the race producing more care and
caution, the lower subjectivity of Lifu than of Mare should indicate a
stronger and bolder people. It corresponds with these differences
that there is less sense of the contingent and ideal in Lifu than
in Mare", as if there was less dependence on chance and fortune
in the former and more sense of the subjunctive, as if more use of
fact and circumstance (ibid. 37). The future is expressed in Mar£
by the particle of the ideal mood, but this particle is used only for
the future in Lifu, there being there less waiting on what may happen
and more determination of what will happen. But they both, as well
as Sesake, look out for helping accessories, and include fact and cir-
cumstance in their plans for the attainment of their ends, having at
the same time sufficient sense of the subject for the expression of such
subordination by a subjunctive mood.
In Malay the deficiency in the verb of the being or doing of the
subject (III. 2; IV. 3) hinders the development of moods, as it is in this
element that mood is expressed. But in Australian of Adelaide there
is enough sense of the being or doing to admit of the development of
an ideal mood, a prohibitive, and a preventive (Gram. Sk., III. 84), but
not sufficient plan or combination for a subjunctive, for the race lives
merely on what it can find (Book II., chap, i., Part L, Sect. III., 3).
4. In Tamil the strong sense of connection and dependence which
is to be seen in the cases of the noun, when it is applied to the
thought of subordinate verbs, overpowers their subjectivity, so that
the so-called verbal and relative participles take the place of a sub-
junctive mood. In the same way the ideal is expressed without
verbal subjectivity, not being properly thought as realised in a subject,
and therefore imperfectly conceived as a fact (Gram. Sk, III. 95).
This indicates a want of ideality, natural to a practical race such as
the Tamil, which is earnestly bent on matters of fact, and not content
to wait on fortune (ibid. 91).
5. In all the languages of Central and Northern Asia and Northern
Europe which have been studied in the fourth section of the Gram-
matical Sketches, except Sirianian, there is a development of ideal
moods, but in none of them is there a true subjunctive. In general
the connection of dependence or government between the verb and
the objects and conditions is sufficient, the subjectivity being weak
308 DEVELOPMENT OF MOODS. [CHAP. in.
INTEREST IN FORTUNE AND CIRCUMSTANCE. [SECT. vi.
(this chap. III. 4, 5), to reduce a dependent verb to a verbal noun.
But in Hungarian this connection is weaker. There is less adjust-
ment of the verb to what it governs. And such a shortcoming in the
adjustment of plan to fact and circumstance, arising probably from
their favourable region dispensing with the necessity of it, accounts
for the absence from Hungarian of gerund as well as of subjunctive
(Gram. Sk., IV. 121).
In Samoiede the gerund or verbal noun may take person endings
which give it an appearance of subjectivity, but they are in truth
possessive suffixes, and indicate close connection, but not subjective
inherence (ibid. 98, 8).
6. In the Chinese group of languages there is no subjunctive mood.
For those races have not sufficient originality of plan or design to
adjust a fact or circumstance as aim or accessory part of a being or
doing, carrying this subordination to the latter into the idea of the
former, so as to affect its element of succession or process. They are,
moreover, too realistic for the development of ideal moods, though
they may express potentiality and such ideas as a matter of fact by the
indicative of auxiliary verbs. In Japanese the verbal stem can take
postpositions like a noun to express its government by another verb
(ibid. V. 45), the weak subjectivity (this chap., III. 3) yielding to
the subordination, so as to let the verb be treated as a noun, and the
subordination corresponding to the degree of plan and combination
shown by the race.
7. In Arabic, Ethiopic, and Amharic there is a subjunctive, in
which the sense of realisation in the subject is reduced, and an ideal
mood, in which in Arabic it is reduced further still (Gram. Sk., V.
55, 125, 136, 145). But neither of these is preserved in Hebrew,
Syriac, Tamachek, or Haussa.
In the desert the Arab needed contrivance and plan so far as objects
and circumstances furnished materials for them, and when these could
not be formed he had to wait on fortune, so that he had sufficient sense
of object or aim and of condition to affect a verb with dependence as
such on another verb, and to develop a subjunctive mood (ibid. 55),
and sufficient sense of the imagined to develop an ideal mood. There
was use too for a subjunctive and an ideal in Ethiopic and Amharic,
for in Africa attention is attracted strongly to the external accessories
of being and doing as well as to the gifts of fortune. But in Tama-
chek cind Haussa there is not sufficient sense of the being or doing in
the verb to maintain an ideal mood or a true verb in a dependent
position, and it is apparently an infinitive or verbal noun that is used
instead of the latter (ibid. 158, 161).
In Palestine and in Syria life was easier than within the desert,
and though thought tended more to external objects than in Arabia,
there was less necessity for plan and contrivance, and less dependence
on fortune. The contingent and ideal, therefore, was less thought.
And the weaker sense of relations or dependence on the principal
verb which arose from there being little plan accounts for the absence
from Hebrew of the subjunctive mood. It explains also the more
CHAP, in.] DEVELOPMENT OF MOODS. 309
SECT, vi.] INTEREST IN FORTUNE AND CIRCUMSTANCE.
verbal nature of the Hebrew than of the Arabic infinitive (ibid. 92) ;
for the stronger sense of relation or dependence reduced the latter to
a verbal noun. In Syriac the infinitive is very rarely used as a noun
(ibid. 117) ; but there being less sense of the subjective process in the
Syriac verb than in the Hebrew (this chap., IV. 13), it did not develop
a more verbal as well as a less verbal infinitive.
In Ethiopic, and in Ainharic and Tamachek, there is a so-called
verbal infinitive and a nominal infinitive, the former of the nature of
a gerund, the latter a noun (Gram. Sk., V. 128, 145, 158). The
nominal nature of both was due, probably to the sense of relation or
government by the principal verb in these languages, which, however,
though greater than in Hebrew, is less than in Arabic, for there are
no case endings, and to this is due the more verbal nature of one of
the infinitives compared with the Arabic infinitive.
8. The Indo-European races had such art and plan that in their
conception relations are thought with more distinctness than by other
races. The thought of a relation with them involves a sense of the
two correlatives, but may be clear of both of them ; whereas other
races lose' the true thought of a relation by losing the simultaneous
sense of the correlatives or think it in connection with one correlative.
Thus the Syro- Arabian tended to think a relation in connection with
the second correlative ; and in thinking one fact as a related part of
another, the relation tended to be thought with the former, and to be
carried into the idea of its verb, the subordination to the principal
verb falling mainly on the verb of the subordinate sentence (ibid.
93). By the Indo-European, the relation was thought more distinctly
from the subordinate fact, and this retained more sense of its own
organisation. Its verb was less affected in the being or doing realised
in its own subject, and was thought more strongly as the governing
member of the subordinate sentence. Hence, when one sentence
governed another through an expressed relation, it did not, except in
Latin when the relation was close, so subordinate the latter to the
former as a part of it, that it was expressed by a subjunctive mood ;
although when the governed sentence was direct object to the principal
verb, its verb was reduced to the infinitive. This use by the Latin of
a true subjunctive in relative sentences is a striking feature of the
language, as it corresponds to the practical genius of the race, by virtue
of which they had a stronger sense of the bearing of facts and circum-
stances as accessory to their beings and doings, and of the subordina-
tion as such of the former to the latter. With this also agrees their
more matter of fact and less ideal character than that of the Greeks, in
consequence of which they had less interest in the imagined, and had
only one ideal mood, while the Greek had two.
Sanskrit had less ideality than either ; for it did not carry its one
ideal mood into the past or the future so as to give it any tense except
the present. Sanskrit was evidently affected by a Dravidian influence
which lowered the life of its conception of fact. Hence came its
reduced use of the tenses. And hence also came the loss of the second
ideal mood which Zend had (ibid. VI. 52), and its large use^of the
310 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PASSIVE VERB. [CHAP. in.
ACTION THOUGHT IN ITS END. [SECT. vii.
gerunds (ibid. 42), as well as its loss of the elements of relation
thought separately from both correlatives.
Perhaps it was the superior productiveness of his native region,
enabling the Latin to supply his wants more independently of fortune,
which made him more practical and less ideal than the Greek. But,
however this may be, the fact that he was so is certain ; and his genius
being such would lead him to note circumstance more strongly as sub-
servient to his purposes, and to think less of the possibilities of the
unknown. His development and use of moods, as compared with that
of the Greek, is a strong confirmation of the principle of Book I.,
chap, iii., 6, which has been borne out by all the languages that have
been examined.
9. Bask, too, in accordance with the strong sense of objects and
conditions which is shown in the cases of the noun and the object
elements of the verb, has a subjunctive as well as ideal moods (Gram.
Sk., Bask, 10).
VII. — Development of the passive verb, according to the tendency of the
race to think action in its end ; that of derivative verbs according
to what gives interest to doing and being in the life.
1. The use of the passive verb is carried farther in Tagala than in
any other language studied in this work. And, therefore, in that
language its nature may be best seen. Now, its great use in Tagala
arises from a tendency to think the fact in its end, as accomplished
in the objects and with the conditions (Grain. Sk., III., 57) ; in conse-
quence of which tendency, the fact is so generally thought, not from
the standpoint of the agent, but from that of the object or condition.
And there is a tendency of the same kind, though not nearly to the
same degree, in Polynesian (ibid. 7), which also thinks fact as process
to an end.
In Tongan, though the verb passes to the object more immediately than
in the purer Polynesian dialects, there is at the same time a stronger
sense of the action of the subject which keeps the verb from being thought
in its accomplished end, and no passive is formed (ibid. 16, 2, 3).
But in Fijian the verb is thought with stronger reference to the
object, and a passive is formed (ibid. 17).
2. In the Melanesian languages fact is thought less in its end, and
is more tenacious of the subjective standpoint of the agent. But the
languages of ManS and Lifti have a strong sense of the end of accom-
plishment, which they think as quiescent (ibid. 34, 37). And in
them the verb lias a passive construction, and there is a tendency
towards this construction in subordinate or dependent verbs, which,
when active, lose subjective energy, and are thought rather as states of
action (ibid. 36, 3 ; 37).
3. Malay also has a strong sense of the end of action as a state of
the object (ibid. 75, 76).
4. Among the Syro- Arabian languages the Arabic only, which only
CHAP. III.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE PASSIVE VERB. 311
SECT, vii.] ACTION THOUGHT IN ITS END.
had an accusative case ending, thought the verb sufficiently in relation
to the object to be able to carry the simple verb into the object so as
to think it completely from the standpoint of the object as a passive
state of the object. Hebrew could do this only with the strong
derived forms the causative (Hiphil) and the intensive (Piel), which
from their nature have strong reference to the object. To the passive
of the simple verb it could only approach by thinking it as a reflexive.
The reflexive and the passive agree so far that the object of the action
is in both the subject of the verb ; but when the reflexive is used to
express the passive, the subject realises the verb as thought from the
standpoint of another who is the agent ; whereas in the passive the
subject realises the verb as thought from his own point of view. Into
this point of view of the object the Hebrew could not enter with the
simple verb, nor could the other Syro-Arabian languages, except
Tamachek and Haussa, enter into it with any verb, all of them, with
these exceptions, using reflexives for passives, because their verbs
were not carried to the object as much as the Arabic verb. For when
the action is thought in its end in the object, the mind passes more
readily to the thought of it as realised by the object and seen from the
object's point of view, this being the end, which is subsequent to the
action. Tamachek and Haussa acquired under African influence a
tendency to think the verb in connection with related objects. At
least in Tamachek this is shown by the effort to form pronominal
connections (Gram. Sk., V. 162).
5. So among the African languages a passive is formed by Kafir,
in which the verb is thought with strong reference to the object, so as
to take up a representative of it (ibid. I. 11) ; also, though less dis-
tinctly, by Mandingo and Susu, which have strong sense of the object
(ibid. 33, 50), but not by Woloff, in which the verb has little refer-
ence to objects, nor in Bullom, in Avhich the verb has to be supple-
mented by an additional element to carry it to the object, nor in Vei,
in which, what the subject does or is forms so unimportant an element
of fact (ibid. 36) that it is little thought as affecting an object, nor
in Yoruba, which in its fracture of the verb shows that the object has
not that attraction for the main body of the verbal root that it has in
Mandingo (ibid. 22, 33).
On the other hand, a passive is formed in Hottentot (ibid. 70), in
Galla (ibid. III. 165), in Bari (ibid. 155), in Barea (ibid. 140),
in Nubian (ibid. 131), in Egyptian, though not much used (ibid.
119), and in the Dinka auxiliaries of the past and future U and bi by
lengthening their vowel, the subjective element of the present being
apparently too weak to admit the modification (ibid. 147) ; but Kanuri
and Pul form only a passive participle (ibid. 178, 186). The nomadic
life which belongs to the Hottentot and Galla belongs also in part to
the Dinka (ibid. 142) and Bari (ibid. 151) ; and the material industry
with which it is occupied leads thought strongly to the object and
effect. As to the Barea, information is wanting. But in Nubian the
elements of relation to the objects which are infixed in the verb
(ibid. 131) show a strong tendency to think the verb in reference to
312 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PASSIVE VERB. [CHAP. in.
ACTION THOUGHT IN ITS END. [SECT. vn.
the object, and the same tendency in Egyptian is involved in the
sense of the accomplishment which distinguishes it (ibid. 116). In
Kanuri the classification of the verbs as more or less subjective (ibid.
176) shows that they are thought so strongly in connection with the
subject that they have little reference to the object And in Pul,
while the verb takes subject prefixes like Kafir, showing close con-
nection with the subject, it does not, like Kafir, take object infixes,
showing that it is not thought in close connection with the object.
6. In the nomad languages Tartar, Mongolian and Tungusian, a
passive is formed (ibid. IV. 7, 22, 41, 50, 56, 62). For the care
of flocks and herds involves habitual attention to external objects
and effects ; and action is thought with strong reference to these.
But in the more northern regions objects which may be useful for the
purposes of life are scarce, and methods of procuring subsistence
become necessary which involve persevering action, and which engage
the interest of the race as their main occupations. The interest is
thus drawn rather to courses of action than to objects, and the thought
of action becomes associated with elements of continuity thought as
defining what is to be accomplished. Accordingly, the remarkable
feature appears in these languages of a surprisingly large development
of derivative verbs with the absence of a passive distinct from a
reflexive. This is the case in Samoiede (ibid. 96), in Ostiak (ibid.
105, 109), in Tscheremissian (ibid. 135), and in Sirianian (ibid. 145).
But in regions of somewhat milder climate, in which useful objects of
action were somewhat more abundant, a passive is found, as in Hun-
garian (ibid. 118), in Finnish (ibid. 151), and even in Lapponic (ibid.
161), the climate of Lapland being mitigated by the Gulf Stream.
7. Passing to the most northern region of America, we find in
Eskimo also a great development of derivative verbs of process, with
the absence of a passive distinct from the reflexive (ibid. II. 5, 15).
But in Cree there is an intensely strong sense of the object and a
passive form of the verb (ibid. 18, 27). In Dakota the verb is not
thought in its reference to the object (ibid. 42), and there is no
passive (ibid. 41). In Choctaw the verb seems to be thought in its
end (this chap., IV. 11), and therefore in connection with its object,
and there is a passive, which, however, involves no general passive
element, and is developed by observation of the object, on account of
the intense interest with which objects were observed (Gram. Sk., II.
47, 49). In Yakama the verb is not thought in close reference to the
object (ibid. 56), and there is no passive (ibid. 56). In Selish the
verb is thought so much in the object, that when this is plural the
verb takes up the plurality (ibid. 64); and the root of a transitive
verb may take the intransitive persons and verbal element, and
become passive in its meaning (ibid. 63). But in Pima, although the
verbal stem is thought in close connection with the object it is not
thought in its end, there being a strong sense of the activity of the
subject (ibid. 68). Hence there is no passive in Pima (ibid. 72). In
Otorni the verb is thought in very close connection with the subject
(ibid. 81, 82), and there is no indication of its being thought in
CHAP, in.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE PASSIVE VERB. 313
SECT, vii.] ACTION THOUGHT IN ITS END.
strong reference to the object; and accordingly it has no passive.
The Mexican verb has a strong sense of effect in the object (ibid.
84), and a passive form (ibid. 85). In Quiche'e and Maya the verb
is thought in close connection with the object, as appears from the
object persons which it takes up into connection with the verbal
element of tense or with the verbal stem (ibid. 93, 96) ; and in both a
passive is formed (ibid. 91, 98). So also both features concur in Caraib
(ibid. 102, 104). The Chibcha verb shows little tendency to incor-
porate an object (ibid. 107), and forms no passive. But Quichua
and Guarani think the verb in closer connection with the object (ibid.
113, 118), and form a passive (ibid. 113, 119). Kiriri thinks the
verb only in its subject, so that it is never transitive (ibid. 120), and
it has no passive form, but only distinct stems to express passive states
(ibid. 124). The Chikito verb has more sense of the object, for it
takes object persons ; and it forms a passive (ibid. 135). In Bauro
and Chilian the verb can incorporate an object; and it forms a
passive (ibid. 140, 143).
8. In Chinese, the verb is referred strongly to the object, and there
is a passive conception of fact, but there is not sufficient sense of
being or doing connected with the root (this chap., IV. 5) to take up
the passion, and it is expressed by a separate verb (Gram. Sk., V. 11).
In Burmese and Japanese the object precedes the verb, as if the
idea of the verb was particularised in the object, and in these lan-
guages there is more capability of formation (ibid. 28, 38, 46) ; and a
passive is formed (ibid. 27, 45). But in Tibetan, though the object
precedes the verb, and a passive is expressed, there is no passive form.
The passivity is expressed in the subject by the absence from it of
any case ending ; the subject of an active transitive having the instru-
mental case ending (ibid. 36, 37). The verb is thought with so little
subjectivity that it passes from the subject as an effect or does not
pass from him, rather than inhere subjectively in him ; and conse-
quently there is not enough sense in the verbal stem of the affection
of the subject to take up the passion.
9. The Indo-European races, inventive and observant as they always
were, thought action in strong reference to its effect in the object,
and accordingly developed a passive. There is a noteworthy difference
between the Sanskrit passive and the Greek passive. The former is
distinguished from the middle only in the parts of present realisation,
while the Greek passive is undistinguished from the middle in these
parts, but develops in the other parts a special passive element.
Now, in order to understand this, it is necessary to remember that in
the parts which do not involve present realisation, and for the most
part even in those which do, the passive is expressed in Sanskrit by
the verb substantive and the participle ; a construction which
expresses the passive more as completed effect than as the simple
passive. In the conjugational or present parts, the Sanskrit passive
is distinguished from the middle as passive effect more strongly than
the Greek, and in the non-conjugational parts also it is distinguished
more strongly as such by the above construction (Gram. Sk., VI. 74).
VOL. II. X
314 DERIVATIVE VERBS. [CHAP. m.
INTERESTS OF DOING AND BEING. [SECT. VIL
So that Sanskrit thought tends more to effect and result than Greek.
Of this there are other indications, one of which is the great use of
the passive, -which is the most remarkable feature in the syntax of the
language (ibid. 42).
The Bask, in accordance with the sense of the object which appears
in the object elements of its verb, formed a passive with an auxiliary
verb and past participle (Gram. Sk., Bask, 12).
In all the above languages the development of the passive follows
the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 7.
So also the principle there stated with regard to the development of
derivative verbs may be traced through the languages.
10. The Kafir is one of the strongest and most practically energetic
of the native African races ; and in Kafir speech this character appears
in the development which is given to the stem of the verb. For the
tendency to form derivative stems shows a strength in the thought of
the action or state ; which takes up what the derivative elements
express, so as to reduce them to mere accessories, and attach them to
itself as parts of what the subject does or is. And the particular
development which the stem of the Kafir verb receives, shows the
interests of an active practical race.
For the stem must acquire a special interest by union with the
derivative element, or it would not take up the latter. The derivative
elements, therefore, which the stem takes up, indicate the special
interests in the life of the race. And on this principle the Kafir
verb, which has such a development of active and inactive deri-
vatives, is seen to belong to an active race ; for the more conscious
a race is of action, when there is occasion for it, the more conscious
will it be of inaction when it is at rest. The relative formation of
the Kafir verb indicates an interest in action when aimed at on object,
and the causative an interest in action or state, thought in its accom-
plishment as an effect. And it agrees with this activity towards
external objects that the verbal stem takes up a representative of the
object into union with itself. The reciprocal formation indicates an
interest in action in reference to each other, which would correspond
to a social character ; and this, too, agrees with the nature of the
Kafir (Orarn. Sk., I. 11).
The AVoloff thinks not so much of external performance or practical
utility. His interest being that of a pleasure-loving social race, lies
rather in the action or state itself as it goes on, or as it affects himself,
or others also reciprocally with himself, producing an inceptive verb,
an iterative, and a diminutive, as well as a reflexive, and a reciprocal.
And the action or state being thought as an end in itself, is readily
thought as nn effect ; and a causative also is developed (ibid. 31).
The Mandingos are the leading people on the northern slope of the
highlands of Western Sudan, and have spread from thence in all
directions into the neighbouring countries, forming everywhere an
upper class, and in still more distant regions are found exerting
influence as traders, propagators of Islam, artisans, and diplomatists.1
1 Hitter, Erdkundc, vol. i. p. 3C2.
CHAP, in.] DERIVATIVE VERBS. 315
SECT, vii.] INTERESTS OF DOING AND BEING.
Their interest seems to be in things rather than in action ; and they
have only two derivative formations of the verb. These, however, cor-
respond to practical energy, for they are a neuter or passive, and a
causative, the former implying a sense of action and inaction or of
object, the latter, a sense of effect (ibid. 33).
The Susu is akin to Mandingo, and has a somewhat similar deve-
lopment of derivative verbs (ibid. 50). But neither the Vei nor the
Oti family, nor Yoruba, think the accomplishment which the stem
expresses with sufficient strength to take up derivative elements, the
interest in Yei being drawn off by the objects, in Oti by the energy of
the subject directed to the objects, and being divided in Yoruba
between the subject and the object (ibid. 36, 54, 20).
The Bullom verb is thought in close connection with the subject as
cause, or source from which it proceeds to the object, and this gives
an interest in causation, so that a causative is formed (ibid. 23). And
the Kanuri verb also is thought in close connection with the subject,
so as to be distinguished into two classes according as it is manifested
externally in the subject, or dwells in the subject internally. The
latter, and a few of the former, when thought transitively, acquire a
special interest from reference to an object, and take up an element
of relation. But the stem is thought in its action on the object only
when this is most vivid, the object being the first or second person.
Only these are taken up into union with the stem. The verb is
thought so much in the subject as cause that there is a special interest
in causation which gives rise to a causative formation. And being
thought so close to the subject it also forms a reflexive, especially
when it is itself internal to the subject (ibid. III. 175, 177, 179).
The Hottentot forms a reflexive, a reciprocal for plural, a reciprocal
for dual, a causative, a relative to an object, and a diminutive (ibid.
I. 70). The Hottentot also shows a tendency to think the verb in
the subject (ibid. 68) ; and accordingly its development of derivative
verbs is like that of the Kanuri. But the race being nomadic are
more social and more indolent, and form accordingly reciprocals and a
diminutive.
This African conception of the verb, as embodied in the subject
rather than as belonging to its inner life (this chap., III. 15),
corresponds to a sense of action as originating in the subject, yet
without strength of volition. Such a conception naturally produces
the above development of derivative verbs. Yet there is something
similar in Egyptian (Gram. Sk., III. 113, 114) without any such
development. This arises from the facility of life in Egypt, which
rendered action less necessary, and accomplishment a less important
factor. The verbal stem was consequently too weak to originate
derivatives.
Nubian life is more dependent on exertion, and requires an outlook
for what may supply its wants. And accordingly, Nubian speech
forms derived verbs expressive of external aim, outgo, and effect (ibid.
131, 133).
The Galla formations show an intense interest in effect, and of effect
316 DERIVATIVE VERBS. [CHAP. in.
INTERESTS OF DOING AND BEING. [SECT. vn.
produced for self, which corresponds to their overpowering pre-
dominance and conquests (ibid. 160, 165).
Dinka, like Egyptian, and probably for the same reason, forma
apparently no derivative verbs. But Bari forms a transitive or causa-
tive, and uses for that purpose a prefix (ibid. 155), like the Syro-
Arabian languages, and perhaps for a similar reason (18).
Pul forms transitive, reciprocal, reflexive, and causative verbs ; and
this corresponds with their character, active, social, mild, and practical.
" The Fulahs are a mild, gentle people, not following trade or seeking
dominion like the Mandingos, but leading an agricultural and pastoral
life. Still, like so many active highland nations, they move in great
numbers to the lower countries to earn by their greater industry, and
to return with their gains." l
11. That the development of derivative verbs in the American lan-
guages corresponds with the interests which prevail in the life of each
race may be seen in Eskimo (Gram. Sk., II. 5), and in Cree (ibid. 18).
The life of the Dakota is easier than that of the Eskimo or the Cree.
Action is with him less important than with them, and the verb
consequently is thought with less interest, and has less power to take
up derivative elements. It, however, forms a causative (ibid. 41) in
accordance with the sense of effect as distinguished from object
which the substitution of agriculture for hunting would tend to give
(this chap., III. 8).
The Choctaw has a development of derivative verbs corresponding
to the aptitudes and interests of the race (this chap., IV. 11), as well
as the Yakama (Gram. Sk., II. 56), the Selish (ibid. 64), and the
Pima (ibid. 68, 72).
In Otomi the formation of derivatives is hindered by the singling
action of thought which is characteristic of the race (ibid. 153). But
derivatives, characteristic of the race, are formed in Mexican (ibid. 84).
And the active character of these, contrasts strongly with the inactive
character of the Quichee development, which exhibits so strong an
interest in the varieties of inactive states, causation being thought as
causing these. This character belongs in a still greater degree to
Maya, for though the development in Maya is less than in Quichee,
the proportion of active derivatives is smaller (ibid. 91, 98). Such a
sense of inactivity is natural in the climate, and amid the productions
of Guatemala where Quichde is spoken, and still more in the lower
region of Yucatan, to which Maya belongs. For Guatemala, though
on the tableland where it has been said (Introd. 3) search is needed
for subsistence, is lower than Mexico, more fertile, and affording an
easier life ; while Yucatan is lower still, and its exuberance of pro-
duction makes life .still easier, and at the same time attracts interest,
so as to draw thought from doings and beings, and give less develop-
ment to the verbal stem. On the other hand, the fierce Caraib
combines his verb with elements expressive of impulse towards
accomplishment (ibid. 103) ; while the weak and timid Guarani
combine it with elements expressive of watching and using what
1 Hitter, Erdkundc, vol. L p. 349.
CHAP, in.] DERIVATIVE VERBS. 317
SECT, vii.] INTERESTS OF DOING AND BEING.
chance may bring (ibid. 115, 119). There is no development of
derivative verbs worthy of notice in Chibcha, Kiriri, or Chikito. But
in Bauro there are many derivative forms ; and these, as they indicate
an interest in action and effect, and in the external relations of fact,
correspond to the industrious character of the race (ibid. 137, 138,
140). In Chilian and Quichua the synthetic formations of the verbal
stem are so numerous that they cannot be characterised (ibid. 113, 143).
12. In the Polynesian dialects the verbal stem being thought with
little sense of either subject or process (this chap., III. 2 ; IV. 1),
involves an interest in end or effect, and naturally develops a causative.
In Samoan the verbal stem has more sense of the subject, while, at
the same time, it is thought in more immediate connection with the
object, and develops a passive. Being thus a stronger element than
in the purer Polynesian dialects, and more in relation with the object,
it forms reciprocals and causatives of reciprocals, as well as simple
causatives (Gram. Sk., III. 13). But in Tongan it is a weaker
element, not carried so strongly to the object, and only causatives
are formed (ibid. 16. 3).
In Fijian it is strong, as in Samoan, and forms intensives, recip-
rocals, and causatives (ibid. 17).
13. The Melanesian languages generally form causatives, and subjoin
directives to the verbal stem (this chap., IV. 2 ; Gram. Sk., III. 21,
24, 27, 34, 38, 40, 41, 43). In some the directive elements are separate,
as in Polynesian (ibid. 40, 41). Mahaga forms reciprocals (ibid. 43).
14. In Tagala the wonderful development of derivatives corresponds
to the tendency to think fact in the accomplished end. For this leads
to the conception of the verbal stem and the conditions of its accom-
plishment, all brought together because all thought in their end. The
development is too great to indicate clearly any special character ; but
the reciprocal derivatives indicate a social character.
In Malay, verbs are formed by men-, me-, which expresses to bring
into realisation what the root denotes, "and by ber- to have it, the
former being either transitive or intransitive, the latter intransitive,
and in Dayak there is a middle or reciprocal prefix /tare-. There are
also derivatives -lean and -i, which make the stem transitive or causative,
and which seem to be of a prepositional nature (Gram. Sk., III. 75).
In these Oceanic languages the derivative elements of the derived
verbs are prefixed, except those which are of a directive nature
qualifying the stem, or of a prepositional nature leading to what
follows. The former seem to be thought as antecedent conditions of
the accomplishment, and to occupy therefore as well as the latter
their natural place.
But in the continental languages the root or stem generally goes
first ; because in such regions generally there is more scope and more
need for observation than in the islands, where everything quickly
becomes familiar. This agrees with the principle of Book I., chap,
iii., 7. A habit of observation gives interest to facts and objects as
thought in the genera and species in which they are classed ; and
thus strengthens the root as thought in its general associations. And
318 DERIVATIVE VERBS. [CHAP. in.
INTERESTS OF DOING AND BEING. [SECT. vn.
hence it is that in the continental languages generally the root stands
first so as to be thought clear of its present accidents.
In this respect the Syro-Arabian region is similar to the islands ;
there is so little in it to attract observation, and the Syro-Arabian
derivative elements tend to precede the root
15. In Australian an inchoative and a neuter are formed by
elements subjoined to the root (this chap., IV. 12); and in Tamil a
causative, which corresponds to the interest in effect in an industrial
race (Gram. Sk., III. 91, 94).
16. In the nomad languages of Asia the development of derivative
verbs in Yakut comprises reflexives, causatives, inchoatives, propera-
tives, intensives, co-operatives, and reciprocals; and two or three of
these formations are sometimes accumulated one on another. This
corresponds to a life of industrial efficiency and process, which in-
volves movement, exertion, and co-operation, and leads to social
habits while it admits also inactive indulgence of self. Turkish and
Mongolian do not form inchoatives, properatives, or intensives, nor
does Manju form properatives (ibid. IV. 7, 22, 41, 62).
In the more northern regions the development became much
enlarged with elements of process in accordance with the life of the
northern races, which requires perseverance (this chap., IV. 9).
17. In Chinese there is not sufficient sense of succession in the
verb (ibid. 5) to think parts in the accomplishment. And in con-
sequence no derivative verbs are formed. Nor are there any true
derivative verbs in Siamese, Burmese, or Tibetan. But in Japanese,
in which the verb has more sense of succession (ibid. 6), there are
derivative verbs of completion of causation, of progress of causation,
of process (Gram. Sk., V. 45), which corresponds to what has been
said of the race in this chap., IV. 6.
18. The Syro-Arabian derivative verbs in their original develop-
ment are highly characteristic of an active race restricted in the
sphere of its external interests, and whose interests in consequence
are largely subjective. Having by reason of this subjectivity a strong
sense of fact as originated in the subject, it has a strong interest in
effect as originated in the cause, and it forms a causative ; but the
prevailing character of the development is reflexive. And according
to what has been said above (14), the causative and reflexive elements
precede the root, the former because that is its natural position, the
latter because the interest of the root is heightened when thought in
combination with them (see above, 10). There is so little sense of
external relation that the subjective act or state itself is apt to be
thought as in connection with an object rather than as bearing a
relation to it (this chap., X. 11). And this could give an extension
or intensity to the root so as to produce a derived form (Gram. Sk., V.
52, 53).
The Hebrew and Syrian dwelling outside the desert had a some-
what reduced sense of the subjective process, and not being under the
same necessity as the Arab to note whatever objects could be made
available, had less distinct sense of the object as such, whether exter-
CHAP, in.] DERIVATIVE VERBS. 319
SECT, vii.] INTERESTS OF DOING AND BEING.
nal or reflex, and consequently had not so large a development of
derivative verbs (ibid. 79, 92, 102).
The Ethiopia forms causatives and reflexives ; and in consequence
of the tendency of African thought to contract the objects of its
single acts, the root became lighter and more ready to take up deriva-
tive elements. The derivative formations, too, came by use to express
such light thoughts as to be capable of taking up new elements, so
that the formations were accumulated one on another, the reflexives
supplying the place of passives. Intensives, frequentatives, and con-
tiuuatives also were formed by reduplication (ibid. 124).
The Amharic development is like the Ethiopic (ibid. 145).
Tamachek forms causatives, neuters, reciprocals, and habituals by
prefixes, verbs of becoming by a suffix, and habituals by an inserted
or subjoined vowel ; and it combines these formations on one another
(ibid. 158). Thus, throughout this family there is a development of
causatives, reflexives or reciprocals, and reiteratives ; Tamachek, how-
ever, being less subjective than the others, so that it has neuters and
reciprocals instead of reflexives, and less energetic, so that it has no
intensive. This corresponds to an African influence reducing the
Syro-Arabian subjectivity and energy.
Haussa shows only a special interest in process in its derivative
verbs, as, besides a passive, it forms only inceptives and completives,
both of them with subjoined elements (ibid. 168). Its suffix -sie,
formative of verbs, reminds of Kafir -sa (ibid. I. 11).
19. With regard to the development of derivative verbs in the
ancient Indo-European languages, Sanskrit differs from Greek and
Latin in this respect, that from every Sanskrit root may be formed a
causative, a desiderative, and an intensive verb, although the last two
forms are not much used (ibid. VI. 31-33) ; while in Greek and Latin
the freedom of formation had almost ceased, though the formations
were to be found among the verbs of the language. Sanskrit thinks fact
more in the result and effect than Greek and Latin (see above, 9).
These have more interest in production compared with their interest in
what is produced. And Sanskrit, thinking fact more in its end, has
more tendency like Tagala to incorporate the conditions of the accom-
plishment in the verbal stem so as to form derivative verbs. For
being all thought in the end they tend to be brought together in it.
The Indo-European development as seen in Sanskrit is remarkable
as showing an even interest in the whole course of action, volition,
process, accomplishment, corresponding to the originality, the skill,
the performance of the Indo-European, each respectively being a source
of special interest in the desiderative, the intensive, and the causative.
It is worthy of note that Latin has no form so distinctly reflexive as
the Greek middle, which corresponds to its more outward practical turn.
20. In Bask there is scarcely any proper development of derivative
verbs, for there are no true verbs but the auxiliaries. But there are
derivative stems expressive of inclination, fitness, habit, abundance,
possession (Bask, 13).
And from all this review the inductive inference which arises is the
principle which has been stated in Book I., chap, iii., 7.
320 VERB FOLLOWS WHAT IT GOVERNS. [CHAP. in.
ACTION SUITED TO OBJECT AND CONDITION. [SECT. vm.
VIII. — The verb tends to follow what it governs when action has to be
habitually suited with care to object and condition.
1. In the Tartar, Mongolian, and Tungusian languages those parts
of the sentence which in the natural order of thought follow the verb
(Def. 23), all precede it, retaining the same order of succession back-
ward from the verb which they have forward from it in the natural
order of thought. In such an arrangement, according to Def. 23, the
interest of the verb as thought in its natural place before its objects
and conditions is overpowered by the interest which it has when it
has been combined with all these one after another ; and the habitual
interest of the race in doing or being is fully awakened only by such
combination. When this combination comes to be expressed, the
member last added to it is first separated and expressed as it lies next
in the mind, having been present in the last act of thought, and after
it the others in the order in which they have been added, so that the
verb is last.
Now it is to be observed that in this combination the objects and
conditions are fully thought and then combined with the verb, not
merely glanced at while thinking the verb with attention directed
to them such as is expressed by pronominal elements. The whole
verb also is thought in combination with them, this being necessary
for its highest interest. And the idea of the verb is brought
into close affinity to the objects and conditions (Gram. Sk., IV.
14, 3).
When we turn to the life of those races we find that in the serious
business on which their welfare depends, action is governed by its
objects and conditions. It is not merely guided in the performance
of it by noticing these or by aiming at them. But what is done is
determined after attention has been given to the objects with which
they are occupied, the aids and appliances which are available for the
occupation, and the conditions under which it is carried on. Such is
the nature of the nomad life, and the normal construction of the
nomad sentence gives an exact representation of it. The nomad as he
moves from pasture to pasture moves always tending his flocks and
herds, and caring for them with intelligent volition. In the exercise
of that care he determines his action with a view to his animals and
to whatever means and instrumentalities he possesses ; but while he
thus determines his own action there are two conditions which he
accepts as governing his activity — the season and the pasture. The
sentence in which ordinarily he expresses his conception of fact repre-
sents him as lie thus lives subject to the time and the place, concen-
trating his instrumentalities on his flocks and herds with industrial
attention ; for first comes the expression of the time, then that of the
place, then the subject, then the means, &c., then the object, followed
in the last place by the verb (ibid. IV. 27, 44, 64). And this arrange-
ment corresponds to the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 8.
In Samoiede also the order of the words is like that which prevails
in the nomad languages (Gram. Sk., IV. 98). But in less rigorous
CHAP, in.] VERB FOLLOWS WHAT IT GOVERNS. 321
BKCT. vin.] ACTION SUITED TO OBJECT AND CONDITION.
regions, where life does not require such adaptation to objects and
conditions, and where, moreover, it is not bound to the routine of
nomadic industry, the words are more free to follow the natural
order. Such is the case in Sirianian, Finnish,1 Lapponic, and Hun-
garian (ibid. 121, 146, 155, 163) ; probably also in Ostiak and
Tscheremissian.
2. According to the above principle, the inverse order, with the
verb last, is the arrangement proper to a race whether engaged
in industry or involved in difficulties, whose action is habitually
determined by a close regard to the objects and conditions, that so
its ends may be obtained. But when a race, though industrial, is so
far master of its circumstances that it is not bound to give constant
attention to business, then in proportion to the freedom of its life
there is freedom in the arrangement of its sentence ; and either
the natural order may occasionally prevail or special interests in
members of the sentence, whether arising out of the fact itself or
from the tenor of discourse, may single them out, causing them to
be thought in some degree clear of their accompaniment so as to
change their position.
The industrial order belongs in the main to the African nomads,
the Galla (ibid. III. 169) and the Hottentot, though the indolent
Hottentot has an easy life, and accordingly has great freedom of
arrangement (ibid. I. 72).
It belongs also to the industrial Asiatic races, who adjust their
actions to the objects and conditions, the Tamil (ibid. III. 105), the
Burmese (ibid. V. 29), the Tibetan (ibid. 37), the Japanese (ibid. 47).
But in Chinese and Siamese there is less of this adjustment, because
the action is performed more from imitation or in obedience to tradi-
tion (this chap., III. 3 ; IV. 6) ; and the verb is apt to hold its natural
place before the objects and conditions (Gram. Sk., V. 8, 16).
The industrial order is also the normal order in Sanskrit (ibid. VI.
42), and in Greek, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon (ibid. 88, 172), but with
great freedom of arrangement, just as these races were distinguished
for productive art without being constantly engaged. But in Celtic,
which belonged to that member of the Indo-European family which
lived most free from care, this order is quite discarded, the verb being
followed by the other members of the sentence (ibid. 129, 130; this
chap. II. 9). In Lithuanian and Slavonic the members of the sen-
tence seem to be free to follow the natural order, as if life was not
strictly bound to industry. They lived a nomadic life under easy
conditions, and gave little heed to any other industry.
In Bask, subject, verb, and object may take any order (Gram. Sk.,
Bask, 3).
3. In the Syro- Arabian languages the object generally follows the
verb, sometimes with the subject between. But in Aramaean, subject,
object, verb is a common arrangement ; and in Amharic the industrial
order prevails, owing probably to an African nomad life. Ethiopic,
being intermediate between Arabic and Amharic, has very great free-
1 Prichard's Researches, vol. iii. p. 286.
322 VERB FOLLOWS WHAT IT GOVERNS. [CHAP. m.
ACTION SUITED TO OBJECT AND CONDITION. [SECT. vm.
dom of arrangement (ibid. V. 72, 95, 117, 148, 164, 170). This
accords with the small degree of attention which in the desert, where
objects are scarce, is habitually paid to the object in order to adjust
action to it, and the increased attention which the object naturally
receives outside the desert in Syria and Abyssinia.
4. In none of the Oceanic languages do the object or conditions
precede the verb, except that in the Melanesian Mahaga, spoken in
one of the Solomon Islands, the object sometimes precedes the verb
and sometimes follows ; and in the Sesake, spoken in one of the New
Hebrides, it precedes exceptionally (ibid. III. 42). In Australian
(Adelaide) the object and conditions tend to go before the verb (this
chap., II. 1). This corresponds to the easy life of the islanders, in
which they have comparative mastery over things to use them
at will ; and the difficult life of the Australian, in which he must
accommodate himself to object and circumstance in supplying his
wants.
5. The Kafir is sufficiently master of his circumstances to be con-
scious generally of using objects at will, but he has an industrial
aptitude which makes him ready to adjust action to its object for the
attainment of his end. In his language the object generally follows
the verb, but it often precedes (Gram. Sk., I. 13).
In AVoloff, Pul, Bullom, Yoruba, and the Oji family of languages,
spoken by races who live comparatively with ease in the fertile
lowlands, the objects and conditions follow the verb (ibid. 22, 23,
27, 53 ; III. 187). But the more careful and industrious Mandingo,
belonging to the highlands, where life is less easy (this chap., VII. 10),
and the kindred races the Vei and Susu, put the direct object before
the verbal stem (Gram. Sk., I. 33, 39-47, 50).
The Egyptian, in his easy life in the fertile valley of the Nile, was
conscious of using objects at will for the attainment of his ends ; and
lie put the objects and conditions after the verb. But the Nubian
and the Barea inhabited less favourable, more highland regions, where
more careful adjustment of life and action to circumstance was needed ;
and they put the objects and conditions before the verb (ibid. IIL
124, 128, 141).
In Dinka the direct object follows the verb in the present and
imperative, but precedes it in the past and future, as if action was
habitually so far adjusted to the object that it was only the stronger
sense of the subject, as determining the verb in the present and im-
perative, which keeps the verb from being thought as determined
by the object (ibid. 148) ; but in Bari the objects follow the verb,
the indirect object before the direct (ibid. 157).
6. In the region of the Eskimo, life is so difficult that not only has
action to be adjusted to its object with careful attention to the latter,
but it has first to be adjusted to the application of whatever means or
conditions are to be used in the operation, the use of these requiring
great cure and skill. Anil in the language not only does the object
usually precede the verb, but the conditions come between the object
and the verb, determining the latter more nearly (ibid. II. 16).
CHAP, in.] GENITIVE AND ADJECTIVE PRECEDE. 323
SECT, ix.] CAREFUL ATTENTION TO THE NATURE OF THINGS.
In Cree the object precedes the verb, for it is the object which
rouses the hunter's activity and determines his action ; but the indirect
object and conditions come after, the appliances and conditions of the
chase being freely used as natural consequents of the volition to carry
it into effect (ibid. 38).
In Dakota and Choctaw the industrial arrangement — subject, con-
ditions, object, verb — prevails (ibid. 43, 53) in accordance with the
industrial aptitudes of those races (this chap., II. 8).
The Yakama and Selish live with comparative ease along the
Columbia river and its affluents on fish and game, and they arrange
the members of the sentence in the natural order (Gram. Sk., II. 56,
64), except that often in Selish the subject follows the verb, as they
have more need than the Yakama to help their subsistence by hunting
(this chap., II. 7).
In Pima the object precedes the verbal stem (Gram. Sk., II. 73).
But in the more southern languages the object and conditions ordi-
narily follow the verb, as might be expected from the easiness of life
in those climates.
In the languages, however, of the careful Guarani and of the Chilian
the object may either precede or follow the verb (ibid. 117, 143).
In Quichua the hunter's order prevails (this chap., II. 8), object,
verb, subject (Gram. Sk, II. 114).
And through all the languages there is a correspondence between
the arrangement of the sentence and the life of the race which agrees
perfectly with the principle of Book L, chap, iii., 8.
IX. — Genitive and adjective precede when careful attention has
habitually to be given to the nature of things. The adjective is
developed according as qualities are supplied in the region which
are appreciated as useful.
1. The order also in which substantive objects are thought as
correlated with each other, as well as the order in which they are
thought as affected with a quality that results from comparing them
with others of the same kind, differs often from the natural order of
thought. And the cause of such disturbance is to be traced through
the languages in which it occurs, that the correctness of the principles
laid down in reference to it in Book I., chap, iii., 9, may be tested by
comparison with facts.
The Kafir by his activity and skill dominates for the most part his
surroundings. His verb accordingly is felt throughout the sentence as
its principal member, and the doings and beings of the subject engage
his principal interest. Those races, like the "Woloff, the Pul, the
Bullom, and the Yoruba, who live comparatively free from care
or tension of energy, are not constrained to attend with care to the
objects about them. But those races which belong originally to a
less favourable region, the Mandingo, Vei, and Susu (preceding section,
5), are obliged to do so. These are much weaker races than the
Kafir. They do not dominate their surroundings, but rather are
324 GENITIVE AND ADJECTIVE PRECEDE. [CHAP. in.
CAREFUL ATTENTION TO THE NATURE OF THINGS. [SECT. ix.
dependent on them. Their verb does not govern the sentence with
such power as the Kafir verb ; nor is it thought with such interest
(this chapter, VII. 10). And their principal interest lies rather
in substantive objects. This is to be seen most plainly in Vei, in
which the verb is weakest (Gram. Sk., I., 36) ; and there the pre-
vailing interest in substantive objects shows itself in a remarkable
tendency to combine substantives with each other in correlations in
which the natural order of thought is reversed. The careful attention
which the race gives to substantive objects is accompanied by a special
interest in these as combined in correlations which define them more
particularly ; and in proportion as the power of the race is small, the
necessities of their life require that objects should be attended to with
such particular interest. The interest of the substantive objects as
combined with their correlatives overpowers their interest as thought
separately. The idea as thought separately is dropped ; and the idea
as combined with that of the correlated object after this has been
thought, takes the place of the former so as to reverse the natural order
(Def. 23). This tendency is to be seen not only in Vei, but also in
Mandingo and Susu (Gram. Sk., I., 36, 49, 32, 50), and even the
strong family to which the Ofci belong show the tendency to think
substantive objects in the same fashion (ibid. 61). These latter,
though their strong volition may bo seen in the sense of the subject
which goes through their sentence (this chap., III., 16), yet show by
the readiness with which their verb yields to the fragmentary ten-
dency of African speech, and the power which direct and indirect
objects have in breaking "the thought of it (Gram. Sk., I. 54), that
the volition does not go through the action, but looks with strong
interest to the objects and conditions for carrying out the perform-
ance. And the particularisation with this view which substantive
objects derive from thinking them as appertaining to another object
from which they may be thought to take their nature, imparts a
special interest to that correlation, which leads, as above explained, to
the synthesis of the correlatives and to the reversal of their order.
So also on the east side of Africa the fertility of Egypt and the
favourable circumstances also of the Dinka and the Bari dispensed
with the necessity of giving such careful attention to things as to
have special interest for them as thought in a genitive relation which
emphasises their nature ; but in the less favourable regions of
the Nubian and the P>arca these had to be attended to, and in the
languages of these races the genitive tends rather to precede the
governing noun.
The (jalla, as appears from their remarkable development of causa-
tive verbs, have an intensely strong sense of producing by their own
energy the (-fleets which they need (this chap., VII. 10). They
are therefore comparatively independent of things, and do not think
them as particularised by a genitive with such attention as to reverse
the order of the correlatives.
l»ut tho Hottentots are of an indolent habit, and look with strong
interest for useful things. Their interest in these is heightened by
CHAP, in.] GENITIVE AND ADJECTIVE PRECEDE. 325
SECT, ix.] CAREFUL ATTENTION TO THE NATURE OF THINGS.
thinking them specially as characterised by another object to which
they belong like parts of it, as if having their nature from it. And
in the Hottentot language the genitive precedes the governing
noun.
2. Those races of North America which have to pay particular
attention to things, think substantive objects with special interest
when combined in correlation with a genitive. Such combination, as
has been said, particularises the nature of substantive objects as par-
taking of that of the genitive to which they belong, as if they were
parts of it. And thought in this connection, after the genitive has
been thought, they overpower the idea of them as thought separately,
and this being dropped the genitive precedes. So it is in Eskimo
(Gram. Sk., II. 16), in Cree (ibid. 34), in Dakota (ibid. 45), in
Choctaw (ibid. 53), in Yakama (ibid. 56), in Selish (ibid. 66). In
the languages of Sonora the genitive generally precedes, but in the
languages of Central and South America it does not in general tend to
do so, just as amid the abundant production of those regions there is
less necessity for careful attention to the nature of things that sub-
sistence may be secured. In Chibcha, however, the language of
Bogota, in Quichua, the language of Peru, and in Chilian, the geni-
tive precedes (ibid. 108, 114, 142). The two latter languages belong
to the mountain region, in which life is more difficult, and in which
the great material development of the Peruvian civilisation took
place, showing a sense of things and of their combinations such as
industrial art requires. Bogota, too, was involved in that develop-
ment.1 And it is remarkable that these three languages should differ
from the other South American languages studied in this work in
putting the genitive before its governing noun.
In the Syro- Arabian region subsistence was easy in the oases, pro-
duction impossible in the desert. And as there was little utility in
giving careful attention to things, the substantive was not thought as
determined either by correlatives or by qualities, and preceded these
in the natural order.
3. In the languages of the industrial races the genitive precedes the
governing noun as the normal arrangement. So it is in Tamil (Gram.
Sk., III. 105), in all the languages of Gram. Sk., IV., in Chinese
(ibid. V. 8), in Burmese (ibid. 29), Tibetan (ibid. 37), and Japanese
(ibid. 47) ; in Amharic (ibid. 148 ; see VIIL 3 of this chapter), and
in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and Teutonic.
4. In all these industrial languages, except Tibetan, the adjective
also as a rule precedes its substantive (ibid. III. 105 ; V. 9,
29, 33, 47, 148 ; VI. 43) ; and this too is the order in Quichua
and Chilian of the American languages (ibid. II. 114, 143), and in
Hottentot of the African (ibid. I. 72). In the other languages
the adjective, if thought as au adjective, follows in its natural
order.
Siamese differs from Chinese, and Celtic from Sanskrit, in putting
both the genitive after its governor and the adjective after its sub-
1 Eobertson's History of America, Book IV., Sect. IV., 4.
326 GENITIVE AND ADJECTIVE PRECEDE. [CHAP. in.
CAREFUL ATTENTION TO THE NATURE OF THINGS. [SECT. ix.
stantive (ibid. V. 18 ; VI. 129, 130) ; and this corresponds with
the less careful life of these races, and the less earnest attention
which they give to the nature of things.
There is a great difference between the particularisation of the
nature of a substantive object by a genitive and its particularisation
by an adjective. The former expresses some adaptation or association
with the genitive object which affects the idea of the governor so as
in some degree to assimilate the governor to the genitive, or cause it
to be thought as derivative from this, suggesting the genitive relation.
The latter involves an act of comparison of the particular object
with the general idea under which it is thought. And if this act of
comparison be weakly performed, the particularisation which it gives
to the nature of a substantive object may not have sufficient interest
to postpone the thought of the object till it has been affected with it,
even though particularisation by a genitive have this effect. It
requires a more careful attention to the nature of things to tend thus
to combine the thought of a substantive object with an adjective than
with a genitive. And it is only those races who follow an industrial
life demanding such attention who not only put the genitive before
its governor, but the adjective also before its substantive.
In proportion, however, as the race can live released from attention
to its serious occupations, it has freedom in the position of its genitive
and adjective, as well as in the arrangement of the other words in the
sentence. And the races which, like the Polynesian, Melanesian,
Tagala, and Malay, have an easy life, let the adjective as well as the
genitive follow in the natural order, even though there is a strong
sense of the comparative qualities of objects.
5. There is weakness in the comparative sense of qualities if the adjec-
tive tends to be expressed as a participle or verb. For it is then thought
rather as a mode of existence of the person or thing comparatively with
other modes of its existence than as part of the idea of the person
or thing when compared with the generality of such persons or things.
Such is apt to be the conception of the adjective in Cree (Gram. 8k.,
II. 24), in Choctaw (ibid. 49), in Maya (ibid. 99), in Caraib (ibid.
101), in Chibcha (ibid. 108), in Chikito (ibid. 133). There is weak-
ness also in the compnrative sense of qualities if the adjective tends
to be compounded witli the substantive or with an abstract idea of
the substantive object, for which the adjective has special affinity.
For in cither case there is want of distinctness in setting before the
mind the general substantive idea in order to compare with it the
particular object. This is to be seen in Cree (ibid. 24) and in Kiriri
(ibid. 120), in Burmese (ibid. V. 21), and sometimes in Japanese
(ibid. 43). This weakness also is evidenced by the adjective being
expressed as a substantive or with little distinction from a substantive.
For it is the comparative thought of the object which makes the dif-
ference between the substantive and the adjective, and when that
difference is small the comparative sense of qualities must be weak.
Tins is the case in the Oceanic and Dravidian languages (ibid. III. 5,
21, 24, 34, 40, 41, 42, 99), the languages of Sect. IV., the Chinese
CHAP, in.] DEVELOPMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE. 327
SECT, ix.] SUPPLY OF QUALITIES NOTED AS USEFUL.
(ibid. V. 4), the Syro- Arabian (ibid. 66), and also in the Slavonic (ibid.
VI. 219). And to these may be added all the languages in which
the adjectives are few (ibid. I. 9 ; II. 16, &c.)
Sometimes it appears in a want of aptitude to think a quality as
attributed to a substantive. Thus in Yoruba the adjective when
attributed is reduplicated, as if the comparative thought of the object
was difficult (ibid. I. 20). There are signs of such inaptitude in
Teutonic (ibid. VI. 151), Lithuanian (ibid. 186), and Slavonic (ibid.
219, 225). The same weakness appears also in the want of a true
adjectival expression of degrees of comparison. This may be seen
generally throughout the languages outside the Indo-European family, '
and it shows an aptitude in that family not to be found elsewhere
for making a twofold comparison of a substantive object, first with
the generality of objects denoted by the same substantive, and secondly
with certain of those objects which also possess the same quality.
This double comparison the Indo-European makes without letting go
his apprehension of the substantive object, but keeps it present to his
mind so as to think the quality in the higher degree adjectively as its
attribute.
This aptitude for the comparative thought of substantive objects
belonging so specially to the Indo-Europeans corresponds to the fine
discriminations of the nature of things evinced by such an artistic and
artisan development as theirs. The signs of weakness in this respect
which have been noted above in the Texitonic and Slavonic languages,
due perhaps to the unfavourable nature of the region, less abundant in
objects possessing interest so as to invite comparison, perhaps to the
influence of the northern races, corresponds to the late development
of these races and to their inferior aesthetic genius.
In the Syro- Arabian family also it is to be noted that the more they
came out of the desert the more was their comparative sense of quali-
ties developed, so that there are more adjectives in Syriac than in
Hebrew (Gram. Sk., V. 110).
And thus through all the languages the principles hold true which
have been laid down in Book I., chap, iii., 9.
6. It is to be observed that there is a general tendency to make the
personal possessive affixes of the noun prefixes or suffixes, according as
the subjective personal affix of the verb precedes or follows the verbal
stem. The noun is thought most vividly as belonging to the person
when it is thought to belong to him as his own doing or being belongs
to him.
There is a remarkable feature in Kiriri, and also in a less degree in
Chikito, and also in Eijian and in the language of Ambrym, in the
expression of personal possession. General substantives denoting the
class to which the substantive object belongs are used between the
possessive and the noun to facilitate their connection (ibid. II. 126,
131 ; III. 31). This indicates a weakness in the thought of posses-
sion as an habitual element of the life of the race. And the general
noun helps it as applied to a concrete object by recalling the thought
of possession of other objects of the same kind
328 GOVERNMENT CLOSE, RELATIONS DEVELOPED. [CHAP. ill.
SKILL AND AKT IN THE RACE. [SECT. x.
X. — The governing word or element is carried into close connection
with the governed, and elements of relation thought with a due
sense of both correlatives, according as skill is developed in the
race. The development of elements of relation in the language
corresponds to that of art or ingenuity in the race.
1. In the Polynesian language there is a very weak sense of rela-
tions. For though there are many words used to supply the place of
prepositions, they are rather nouns or verbs than pure particles of
relation. They are not thought in transition from one correlative to
the other, with the thought of both correlatives present to the mind
along with them ; but they are thought as separate objects of atten-
tion, and are therefore expressed as principal words of the sentence.
The only pure prepositions in the language are the genitive preposi-
tions a and o, and those which express the relations by and to (Gram.
Sk., III. 4); and the only pure conjunction is a or na, which carries
on thought from one fact to another (ibid. 6).
Now skill in navigation follows external indications according to
the original purpose of the voyage, without renewed volitions of
action applied to these as objects, means, or conditions (this chap.,
IV. 1). And on the land the wants of the Polynesian race are satis-
fied with such ease that there is little need for skill or art in the
application of action to objects and conditions, or of substantive
objects to one another in order to supply what they require. There
is therefore little call to attend to the modes in which action may be
applied to object and condition, or these to each other as fitted to-
gether. The development of true prepositions and conjunctions is
due to such modes of adaptation needful to be practised by a race in
the life which is adapted to its region, and inspiring an interest in
such relations as one of the mental aptitudes whereby the race is fitted
to prevail there, according to the principle of Book L, chap, iii., 10.
And that principle is fully borne out by the Polynesian language.
A striking indication in that language of objects not being thought
on into their connections among the members of fact is the use of an
arthritic element (Def. 7) to connect proper names or personal pro-
nouns with the rest of a sentence, as members of it, when the connec-
tion in which the personal pronoun or the proper name stands in the
sentence does not readily fall in with the thought of it (Gram. Sk., III.
3). This expresses an act of attention directed to an object wherein the
mind keeps hold of it to connect it with another object of thought, and
shows an inaptitude to think objects as connected with other members
of fact; a want of organic connection, which corresponds with the
life of the race, whose wants are supplied by the bounty of nature
without need for skill ; according to the principle of Book L, chap,
iii., 10.
2. In the Melanesian languages there is a somewhat larger develop-
ment of elements of relation (ibid. 21, 24, 34, 37, 40, 44, 45). And
this, taken in connection with the nearer reference of the verb to the
object which is to bo observed in the Melanesian languages compared
CHAP, ill.] GOVERNMENT CLOSE, RELATIONS DEVELOPED. 329
SECT, x.] SKILL AND ART IN THE RACE.
with the Polynesian (ibid. 21, 28, 31, 32, 34, 37, 40, 41), so that in
two of the former, Sesake and Mahaga, the object may even precede
the verb (ibid. 42), and with the tendency of the subject to precede
the verb, indicates a certain degree of care in guiding action (this
chap., II. 1) in reference to its objects, and in adapting it to its objects
as well as these to each other, which makes a difference from the
Polynesian. The Melanesian races are evidently more akin to the
dark races of Borneo, New Guinea, and Australia, than to the Poly-
nesian, Tagala, or Malay. Now the former, compared with the latter,
are continental races formed amid the difficulties of the forests and
wastes in the interior of those great countries, and the traces of these
difficulties may be seen in the above features of the Melanesian
languages ; the original necessity in the life for noting the modes of
applying actions and using objects corresponding to the development
of elements of relation in the language.
Fijian, and even Tongan and Samoan, partake of those features in
their tendency to give more prominence to the subject, and to think
the verb with more reference to the object, than is done in Polynesian
(this chap., II. 1 j Gram. Sk., III. 13, 16, 17) ; but Tongan and
Samoan are as deficient as Polynesian in elements of relation, and
Fijian nearly so.
In Australian of Adelaide the objects and conditions tend to go
before the verb, showing the adjustment of action to those (this chap.,
VIII. 4) which is necessary in that region ; and there is a development
of elements of relation about equal to the Melanesian, but, unlike the
latter, subjoined as postpositions (Gram. Sk., III. 85). The Austra-
lian having less command of the conditions of his life, is obliged to
attend to them with care in order to suit to them the way in which
he will handle them. And he uses his elements of relation as post-
positions in accordance with the principles of Book I., chap, iii., 10.
3. Tagala and Malay agree with Polynesian in the small develop-
ment of elements of relation as in the easiness of the life of the races,
which made little demand on their ingenuity. In Tagala the strange
deficiency of relation is accompanied by a tendency to use the sense
of direction or locality which is in the demonstrative pronoun to help
it out (Gram. Sk., III. 47, 48) ; and there is, as in Polynesian, great
use made of the method of connecting one correlative with another
by representing the former by a pronominal element in connection
with the latter (ibid. 50), biit there are no arthritic pronominal
elements, that is, none referring to the word to which they are
attached. The correlatives do not take up a sense of correlation into
the idea of them, so as to fall into the connection without a special
thought of them as connected. But they do not require such thought
to modify the idea.
In Malay, as in Polynesian, there are many words used as preposi-
tions which are in truth nouns and participles. And this indicates a
similar inaptitude to note relations distinctly as such with a simul-
taneous sense of the correlatives, a want of organic connection between
the latter, which, according to Book I., chap, iii., 10, corresponds to
VOL. II. T
330 GOVERNMENT CLOSE, RELATIONS DEVELOPED. [CHAP. in.
SKILL AND ART IN THE RACE. [SECT. x.
the little need for the exercise of skill in the life of these races. There
is not in Malay so great use as in Tagala of pronominal elements
representing one member of the fact and united with another, in order
to bring the two together, the members of the fact being less closely
connected (ibid. 70), as if there was less skill in the Malay. See Book
I., chap, iii., 10.
4. As in Australian of Adelaide, so also in Tamil, in the languages
of Northern Asia and Northern Europe, in those of America north of
the tropic of Cancer, and in Guarani, Chibcha, Quichua, and Chilian
in South America, the elements of relation, instead of preceding what
they govern in the natural order of thought, are subjoined to it as
postpositions. Now, on comparing the conditions of life of all these
races with those of the islanders of the Pacific and those of the remain-
ing American races whose elements of relation precede what they
govern in the natural order (Def. 23), we see in the comparatively
difficult life of the former a need for careful adjustment of use in
handling the objects and conditions, which is not required in the easy
life of the latter. This is the cause to which this peculiar feature is
attributed in Book I., chap, iii., 10 ; and the broad fact which has
been mentioned confirms the principle most strongly.
Moreover, the closeness with which the postpositions in those lan-
guages are combined with what they govern is proportional to the
need there is for skill in using the objects and conditions. And the
number of elements of relation which are developed corresponds to
the art which is called for in that use.
In the abundant production of India less skill and less ingenuity are
needed in using the objects and conditions of life than in less favour-
able regions. And accordingly the postpositions in Dravidian are less
closely united to the noun, and they are less numerous than in the
more northern languages. The Dravidian postpositions themselves
have almost the nature of nouns ; and heavy pronominal elements
often intervene between them and the stem to connect them with the
latter. And the stem, instead of having an element of relation attached
to it to correlate it, may be merely connected by the medium of an
arthritic or other pronominal element (Gram. Sk., III. 100, 101).
5. The postpositions attached to nouns in Yakut have much closer
connection with the stem than in Tamil. There is much less use of
pronominal elements in the former to connect the postpositions with
the stem ; and the element which is sometimes used arthritically for
that purpose in Yakut is much lighter than the Tamil connectives
(ibid. IV. 8, 10, 11). The postpositions also themselves are less of
the nature of nouns in Yakut, and they are more numerous than in
Tamil.
In Turkish the postpositions are more numerous than in Yakut,
which corresponds to the greater development of the arts of life.
And they are more separable from the noun, the noun being thought
more distinctly as an object and the postposition more in transition
to it, as if the greater development of art rendered practical skill less
necessary (ibid. 19). The postpositions are fewer in Mongolian and
CHAP. III.] GOVERNMENT CLOSE, RELATIONS DEVELOPED. 331
SECT. X.] SKILL AND ART IN THE RACE.
Manju, and more loosely attached than in Yakut, but Tungusian of
Nerchinsk has as many (ibid. 36, 48, 52, 59). There seems to be a
weaker volition in Mongolian and Manju (this chap. III. 4), and this
would naturally be accompanied by less skill and less art.
6. In the more northern languages the close combination of post-
positions with the nominal stem forming cases of the noun, and the
large number of these, are a striking feature of those languages. Of
such cases, not counting the so-called nominative, but including all
others which are given in the grammars, Samoiede has 9 (ibid. 70),
Ostiak 8 (ibid. 103), Hungarian 18 (ibid. 113), Tscheremissian 11 (ibid.
128), Sirianian 14 (ibid. 139), Finnish 15 (ibid. 148), and Lapponic
11 (ibid. 157). And it is remarkable that whereas in the Dravidian,
Tartar, Mongolian, and Tungusian languages, plural nouns take the
postpositions subjoined to the element of plurality, in the most northern
languages, the Northern Samoiede dialects and the Lapponic, the post-
positions tend to get inside that element. This shows when it takes
place that the postposition affects the individual, and that the indi-
vidual is multiplied as affected with the relation (ibid. 70, 157).
This development of case in these northern languages is in accord-
ance with the principles of Book L, chap, iii., 10. For in those
regions greater adroitness is needed in dealing with the objects and
conditions of life than is necessary for those who live with their flocks
and herds in the "land of grass." And in the most northern parts
especial skill is needed in conforming life to its surroundings and
resources that it may subsist at all. The remarkable closeness of
union between a relation and its object which corresponds to this
skill is to be seen also in the attachment of elements of relation to
the stem of the verb in Northern Samoiede (ibid. 90).
7. Amongst the American languages also it is the most northern,
the Eskimo, which subjoins elements of relation, most closely united
to its nouns (ibid. II. 12). But except the five case endings and the
genitive ending, and the three postpositional conjunctions, and, but,
or, there is no pure element of relation in the language. Instead of
pure relations nouns are sometimes used and incorporated in the verb,
the object of the relation being taken as object by the verb (ibid. 9).
And the subordinations of one fact to another are expressed without
conjunctions by verbal forms (ibid. 10). This paucity of relations
corresponds to the small development of the arts of life by American
hunters ; while the close union of the relations which are expressed
with that which the relation governs in Eskimo corresponds to the
skill with which the race are obliged to exercise such arts as they
possess.
Throughout the American languages generally may be observed a
striking inaptitude for the proper expression of relations and a ten-
dency to connect the objects of thought by joining to the expression
of one of them a pronominal element representing the other, instead
of connecting them by the relation in which the one stands to the
other. This mode of construction is to be seen in all languages where
the sense of relation is weak. It is increased in the American Ian-
332 GOVERNMENT CLOSE, RELATIONS DEVELOPED. [CHAP. in.
SKILL AND ART IN THE RACE. [SECT. x.
guages by the instincts of the hunter's life. For as his energy is
roused by the thought of his game, the volition of the subject is
associated so strongly with attention directed to the object that the
incorporation in the verb of elements representing its objects is a
feature which characterises largely the languages of America (this
chap., III. 6-8, 14). But in other relations also besides that of
verb and object this method of pronominal connection instead of
express correlation is to be observed (Gram. Sk., II. 9, 30, 31, 36,
105, 136, 139).
8. The hunter thinks his objects, not as materials of use or con-
struction, but in their own independent existence in which they are to
be captured by him before they can be made to serve his purpose.
And the strength with which he fixes his attention on them in this
view affects his habits of perception and thought, leading him to think
substantive objects as they are, independently of the combinations of
fact into which they may enter.
Hence arises the prevalence in the American languages of arthritic
constructions. For this thought of substantive objects independent
of their connections as members of fact, gives them such separateness
that to make them amenable to construction a special act of attention
has to be directed to them in putting them into construction. And this
mental act suggests no expression of the particular relation in which the
object stands, but merely joins it into construction. It is to be seen
in Cree (Gram. Sk., II. 32-34), Mikmak (ibid. 39), Iroquois (ibid. 40),
Dakota (ibid. 43), Selish (ibid. 66), Sonoran (ibid. 77), Otomi (ibid.
83), Mexican (ibid. 88), Chiapaneca (ibid. 90), Quiche'e (ibid. 94), Maya
(ibid. 99), Caraib (ibid. 105), Arawak (ibid. 106), and Bauro (ibid.
139). It is absent from Eskimo on account of the greater tendency
to correlation (ibid. 35), and from Chibcha, Quichua, and Chilian for
the same reason. Choctaw, Yakama, Guarani, Kiriri, and Chikito,
had too little of the hunter's eager study of his game to develop it.
9. In Cree there seems to be no pure element of relation except a
locative ending -k (ibid. 37). In Dakota, relations are expressed so
cumbrously that they are evidently, as in Malay, thought not transi-
tionally with a due sense of the correlatives, but independently (ibid.
43). The Dakota verb involves little immediate sense of the objects
and conditions by reason of its weakness in the fact, and is thought
with less interest than these. It is connected with them by an
element on which thought fixes without having a due sense of it or
them. For the race lived in an abundant region where there was
little need for skilful action (Book I., chap. III. 10). In Yakama the
verb is stronger as an element of the fact than in Dakota, and has
therefore more reference to the objects and conditions, but substantive
objects are thought with less interest, and the genitive relation does
not unite the two correlatives as it would if thought with a simul-
taneous sense of them. The genitive consequently has to be affected
with the postposition of its governor in addition to its own (ibid. 56).
In Choctaw there are no prepositions except such as are used in
forming derivatives Cibid. 49). And in general there is a remarkable
CHAP, in.] GOVERNMENT CLOSE, RELATIONS DEVELOPED. 333
SECT.*.]] SKILL AND ART IN THE RACE.
deficiency of elements of relation in the American languages. This
corresponds to the general deficiency in the arts of life, and bears out
the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 10.
But there are four languages which have especial interest in this
respect on account of the development of arts and civilisation which
the races attained, the Mexican, the Quichua, the Chibcha (this chap.,
IX. 2), and the Chilian. The Mexican seems to have a considerable
number of elements of relation (Gram. Sk., II. 85). But only some of
them unite closely with the noun, others require pronominal or arthritic
constructions to connect them with it ; and arthritic constructions
prevail much in Mexican with the verb also (ibid. 88). On the con-
trary, in Quichua and Chilian there are no arthritic constructions.
And in both there is a large development of postpositions attached
immediaLtely to the noun, two of them so fine that they are called case
endings (ibid. 110, 142). In Chibcha also there are no arthritic con-
structions, and there are three case endings of remarkable fineness,
but there seem to be scarcely any other elements of relation (ibid.
108). The Peruvian and Chilian, therefore, or, in other words, the
Andian race, would seem, according to the principle of Book L, chap,
iii., 10, to have more aptitude for the arts of life than the Mexican.
They were certainly less fierce and sanguinary than the Mexican, and
where he used force they often used policy.1 The great works of
both were due to their civil organisation (this chap., II. 8) ; but the
more peaceful temper of the Andian race was probably connected with
greater art and skill. Their region required more ingenuity to over-
come its difficulties than was called for in Mexico ; and it is the region
which determines the special aptitudes of the race.
10. The Kafir is remarkable among the native races of Africa for
his practical ability and for his advancement in the simple arts which
minister to his comfortable subsistence ; and just in the same degree
his language is distinguished by its closely knit organisation. In parti-
cular the close connection of elements of relation with his noun, so as to
form cases, marks his tendency to turn to his use what is within his
reach. For such close combination arises from the interest which objects
acquire from being viewed in such utilitarian aspect. The interest of
use vivifies the thought of them and leads the mind to think them as
adapted to present use, taking up into the idea such abstract elements
of relation as fit them for it. There are, however, scarcely any pure
elements of relation except those of case. And the fewness of these,
with the strength of the organic connections through the sentence,
indicate less art than practical sense of utility in the life of the race.
Their power over the conditions of their life is sufficient to dispense
with the necessity of very careful attention to things or to the nature
of things, and the genitive and adjective partially combined with their
noun follow it in the natural order (this chap., IX. 1). Only occa-
sionally their action is determined by the object (this chap. VIII. 5).
And only in the locative case formed Avith se-ini, does an element of
relation follow the noun (Gram. Sk., I. 9). The race pay such atten-
1 Prescott's History of Peru, Book I., chapi v.
334 GOVERNMENT CLOSE, RELATIONS DEVELOPED. "- [CHAP. in.
SKILL AND ART IN THE RACE. [SECT. x.
tion to localities that the idea of the particular place specialises and
particularises the general element of locality. But the other relations
hold their natural place before what they govern (Def. 23), which,
according to the principle of Book L, chap, iii., 10, should imply that
there was in general no great need for care in handling the objects
and conditions of their life. This quite agrees with the habits of the
Kafir, and therefore supports that principle, to which the features of
the language which have been noted strikingly correspond.
The Fulahs have few pure prepositions (Gram. Sk., III. 187). Their
language contains strong concord of the adjective and its substantive
(ibid. 184), but only a trace of the concord between the verb and
subject (ibid. 186) when the subject is plural. And there is, there-
fore, not such combination or sense of relation as in Kafir. The
language has, no doubt, been greatly disturbed by negro influence.
But the race do not show such evidences of practical skill as the
Kafirs j and the inferiority of their language in the above respects is
therefore in accordance with the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 10.
The case is similar with the Bullom (ibid. I. 23).
The Woloff has still less combination, though it has a highly
developed verb ; and its four or five pure prepositions lie apart from
the noun (ibid. 26). This corresponds with an easy careless life of an
active race in a fertile region where there is little call for skill or
contrivance.
And the Yoruba, without combination even in its verb, and having
no pure prepositions (ibid. 20, 22), shows the careless and artless
inactivity which belongs to the race.
On the other hand, the industrious Mandingo (this chap., VII. 10),
and the kindred races of the Vei and the Susu, show careful attention
to things (this chap., IX. 1). They also show careful attention to
adjust the application of actions or things to substantive objects by
subjoining their elements of relation as postpositions to their noun.
Of these they have five or six purely expressive of relations (Gram.
Sk., I. 32, 36, 50).
In the Oti or Ashantee group of languages the objects and conditions
are strongly thought (preceding section, 1), and the elements of relation
which are not verbal are subjoined as postpositions. They, are, how-
ever, mostly substantives (ibid. 61), as if the race depended more on
force than on art and skill, and had therefore little sense of pure
relation. The strong sense of the subject going through the fact
corresponding to the volition governing performance, is seen in the
verbal prepositions (this chap., III. 16).
11. On the east side of Africa the Egyptian language shows great
tendency to combination in the remarkable use of pronominal con-
nective elements (Gram. 8k., III. 121). For it is to be observed that
though there are several prepositions, the ordinary relations of case are
replaced by pronominal elements representing what governs the noun
(ibid. 110). This indicates a deficient sense of relations, and a failure
to carry the governing word into connection with what it governs ;
yet, at the same, time, a combination of action, means, and condition
CHAP, in.] GOVERNMENT CLOSE, RELATIONS DEVELOPED. 335
SECT, x.] SKILL AND ART IN THE RACE.
to attain their ends. And, according to Introduction 4, and the
principle of Book I., chap, iii., 10, the language should belong as it did
to a race on a fertile soil, whose wants were supplied by production
without requiring ingenuity or skill.
The great works of Egypt are due not to the genius of the people,
but to their organisation under despotic rule, and to their numbers.
The life of the Egyptian in his fertile country dispensed with special
care in dealing with objects, and the elements of relation preceded
what they governed (this chap., VII. 10).
In one important respect the Egyptian language differed from the
Kafir. It did not incorporate in the verb pronominal representatives
of the object. And this corresponds to a life more engaged in pro-
duction and less in pursuit or searcli ; just as the region from the first
determined the race to a life of easy agriculture (Introd. 3, 4).
In Nubian, the verb is thought much more than in Egyptian, as
involving a sense of the object. And this is carried farther than in
Kafir, for the verb incorporates a strong element of transition to the
indirect object (Gram. Sk., III. 131). Yet the sense of the direct
object in the verb is weaker in Nubian than in Kafir, though that of
its indirect object is stronger ; as if it regarded its objects more widely
and less closely. The region does not invite production like Egypt.
It is less favourable than South Africa, requiring of the race a larger
attention to their surroundings. It offers less materials for art and
skill, and it requires action and use to be determined more strictly by
the objects with which they deal. And to this all the features of
the language correspond. The verb and the transition are adjusted to
the object, so as to be thought with special interest after they have
been combined with it, and to follow it in expression (this chap.
VIII. 5). But though thus determined by the object, they are not
carried on to the object. Practice is governed by the objects, but not
applied to them with skill. There is an inaptitude for connecting the
verb and the object in an element expressive of the relation of the
former to the latter. Such an element of transition in Nubian, instead
of involving a sense of the two correlatives so as to bring them to-
gether, has very loose connection with the object (Gram. Sk., III.
128). And so far does the thought of the verb fail of being carried
to the object that this requires the same element of transition as the
indirect object. There is greater care than in Egyptian or Kafir in
thinking substantive objects in connection with other substantive
objects, so that the genitive tends to precede its governor (preceding
section, 5), as well as in adjusting relation to its object so that rela-
tive elements are postpositional. And all this indicates more care
bestowed on objects than was called for in the fertile valley of the Nile
along its lower course or in South Africa. But there is remarkable
deficiency in the sense of relation (ibid. 128, 134), indicating, accord-
ing to Book I., chap, iii., 10, a want of art which corresponds in fact
to the small progress of the race. As compared with the Mandingo
languages, the Nubian shows much greater sense of action going
towards the object. But Mandingo has closer correlation of substan-
336 GOVERNMENT CLOSE, RELATIONS DEVELOPED. [CHAP. in.
SKILL AND ART IN THE RACE. [SECT. x.
tive objects with each other, as if when there was less force there was
stronger attention to things.
Barea uses not prepositions but postpositions, as might Jbe expected
in the region (this chap. VIII. 5), and has apparently small sense of
relation (Gram. Sk., III. 138).
The Dinka and Bari use prepositions, of which Bari has very few ;
both races seem to live an easy life (ibid. 142, 144, 151, 156).
The Hottentot and Galla use postpositions, in accordance with the
adjustment to external conditions which is required in the nomadic
life. But, whereas the Galla takes small note of relations (ibid. 162),
the Hottentot has a fair supply of postpositions, though most of them
are reducible to verbal stems (ibid. I. 65). According to Book I.,
chap, hi., 10, there should be an aptitude for the arts of life in the
Hottentot race to correspond with this feature of the language ; and
that there is we are informed by Kolben. " In agriculture," he says,
" they excel all the Europeans who reside among them, who often call
upon them for advice in the management of their lands. And in
many other arts and customs, as I shall show in their proper places,
these people discover good marks of capacity and discernment They
make excellent servants. And with regard to capacity, they are often
employed by the Europeans in matters that require no small capacity ;
and generally acquit themselves very handsomely."1 Though the
Gallas are an intelligent race, there is no such evidence as this for
their practical aptitude.
Kanuri has more sense of relation than Nubian, and less pro-
nominal reference of the verb to its objects (this chap., VIL 10). The
postpositions are, as in Nubian, loosely connected with the noun
(Gram. Sk., III. 173, 181).
12. In Chinese there is only an approach to elements of relation.
For the prepositions and postpositions are not only reducible to verbs
and nouns, but retain the strength of meaning which belongs to
them as such (ibid. V. 8). This corresponds to the imitative
character of Chinese production (this chap. III. 3), which, according
to the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 10, should tend to produce a
want of organic connection between the parts of the sentence. For
the Chinese do not note for themselves the relations of things,
observing how the correlatives are fittingly connected in the relation ;
but they copy the adapted things in their concrete identity. So it is
also in Siamese (Gram. Sk., Y. 16). But in Burmese there seem to
be about thirteen proper postpositions (ibid. 24), and some conjunc-
tional particles subjoined to the verb (ibid. 28). In Tibetan there
seem to bo three proper postpositions (ibid. 32), and a few conjunc-
tions (ibid. 37). In Japanese there arc nine postpositions, and one
or two conjunctions (ibid. 41). The elements of relation have slight
connection with the noun (ibid. 37, 47). These races, though imita-
tive, are less confined to imitation. The Burmese are no doubt affected
with Indian influence ; and the Japanese have great ingenuity (this
chap., IV. 6). All three adjust to the objects the ways they are to
1 Kolben's Cape of Good Hope, chap. iv. 3, 4.
CHAP, in.] GOVERNMENT CLOSE, RELATIONS DEVELOPED. 337
SECT, x.] SKILL AND ART IN THE RACE.
be dealt with (this chap., VIII. 2), and subjoin the relation to what
it governs.
13. The native region of the Syro- Arabian race was unfavourable
to the development of art and skill in using things. The incentives
to production were small in such a region, and the suggestions of con-
trivance few. The race which was quite adapted to it gave more atten-
tion to beings and doings^ and less to material objects than other races.
Their verb had little reference to objects and conditions, and was
liable to be imperfectly carried on in thought to these, so that some-
times the connective element was thought with separate strength as a
noun (Gram. Sk., V. 85) ; and the modes of dealing with object and
circumstance were weakly noted in their life, and the elements of
relation got small development in their language. Sometimes the
antecedent in a correlation was almost lost sight of (ibid. 68).
Though life was easy in the oases it had sometimes to be spent
amid the difficulties of the desert, and difficulty must be met with
contrivance. So that though the languages of this region put the
element of relation generally in its natural place before what it
governs, corresponding to the little care with which their life in
general required object and circumstance to be handled, yet in
Arabic there is a somewhat greater development of relation than is
found in Hebrew on the edge of the desert, or in Syriac outside it,
and a tendency to carry correlation or government into the thought of
the governed, with adaptation to it, so as to produce cases with an
element of relation subjoined (ibid. V. 60, 73, 85, 92, 109). The
weakness of the thought of transitional elements of relation produced
a tendency to take up a sense of correlated objects (this chap., VII.
18), and to affix to verbs and nouns pronouns in correlation with
them (Gram. Sk., V. 51, 52, 56, 80, 92, 115). Ethiopic differed little
from Arabic ; it retained the accusative ending -a, showed the ten-
dency to take up pronominal elements, and did not develop any
additional pure elements of relation (ibid. 131, 134). In Amharic
there is an accusative ending -n, which has very loose connection with
the noun; about six pure prepositions attached to the noun, and
rather more conjunctions (ibid. 147, 148). Tamachek has three pre-
fixes of case, but shows an inaptitude to note relations, and a tendency,
to connect by means^of pronominal elements (ibid. 153, 162) ; all
which corresponds to the influence of the desert region. Haussa
has very few prepositions or conjunctions (ibid. 169).
14. In the Indo-European languages the expression of relation
reaches its highest development ; and the races which have spoken
those languages surpass all others in invention of art and in skilful
practice. The Indo-European case endings are elements of relation
which, being subjoined to the stem of the noun, show that the race
was not satisfied with the thought of the relation till it was carried
into the noun and specialised by application to the noun (4). But
a further careful accuracy in applying them appears most strikingly
in the cases of dual and plural nouns, for the relation is not adjusted
roughly to the dual and plural aggregate, but it gets inside the
element of number to reach the individual object, so that the relation
338 GOVERNMENT CLOSE, RELATIONS DEVELOPED. [CHAP. in.
SKILL AND ART IN THE RACE. [SECT. x.
as adjusted may be more exactly defined (Gram. Sk., VI. 11-13).
This remarkable feature is not found elsewhere except in the most
northern languages of Asia and Europe, the Samoiede (ibid. IV. 71)
and the Lapponic (ibid. 157), where the difficulties of life require
great skill in dealing with things; the distinctly lower sense of
relation in American speech accounts for its absence from Eskimo.
The penetrating adjustment of relation in Indo-European is shown
also in its affecting not only the substantive, but the adjective as well.
To the Indo-European case endings all other relations are fitted and
are brought by them into adjustment with the noun ; and this adjust-
ment being sufficient to satisfy the care required in the application to
the object, the relation precedes in its natural place. For the Indo-
European is not so subject to his surroundings, as to have his use of
objects and conditions determined quite by these.
In the distinct sense of relations Greek and Latin have a great supe-
riority over Sanskrit The scarcity of conjunctions in Sanskrit, and
the rare use of prepositions except in composition (ibid. VI. 38, 42),
betray an inferior distinctness in the thought of relations. For though,
as shall be shown in the next chapter, a special influence affected Greek
and Latin, which made them more general in all their parts, and
thereby tended to reduce inflections and to increase the use of prepo-
sitions, this does not account for the greater use of conjunctions in
Greek and Latin. The element of relation in Sanskrit, instead of
being thought distinctly as transitional, tends to be used in combina-
tion with the antecedent in forming compound verbs which pass to
their objects through the relation or with the consequent in forming
adverbs which consist of a preposition and a substantive (ibid. 40).
In the former use they express a particular aim, in the latter a particular
application ; in neither are they abstracted as generally applicable.
This superior distinctness of relation, which probably always belonged
to the Greek and Latin, corresponds to the superiority of these races
in invention and discovery.
The greater number of case endings in Latin than in Greek corre-
sponds to the genius of a race more immersed in practical use of sub-
stantive objects, and with a greater tendency in consequence to
particular adjustments to objects.
In all the Indo-European languages, the case endings as well as
other added elements acquired a peculiar nature as inflections from
that unification of elements, which was due to abundant mental
energy, according to chap. ii.
15. Bask has many postpositions, which are attached to the stem of
the noun, some which govern datives, and some which are connected
with the noun by what seems to be an arthritic element (Bask, 3,
4, 7). They have loose connection with the noun (ibid. 5), so that
though there is considerable sense of relation, there is little skilful
exactness of application.
And the inferiority of the language in this respect to the Indo-
European, corresponds to the inferior progress of the race ; bearing
out the general agreement which has been traced in this section with
the principles of Book I. chap, iii., 10.
CHAP, in.] PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. 339
SECT. XI.] WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL.
XI. — Particularising elements are developed according as there is weak
concentration of practical aim. The plural number in the noun
is favoured by skill in use, and affects the objective part or sub-
stance of the noun. Interest in the nature of objects favours the
dual number. Concrete fulness of substantive idea renders neces-
sary auxiliaries in counting.
1. The American nations on the fertile lands about the lower course
of the Mississippi found themselves surrounded by abundant natural
production and large stock of game. Their instinct was to look out
for what could be taken to supply their wants ; and to do this
required little skill. The productions of the soil and the animals
that lived on it attracted their attention everywhere without pre-
senting special aims to be particularly attended to, so that their
practical interest was little concentrated on definite objects. And this
want of definite concentration of the practical interest is accompanied
in the language of the Choctaws, according to the principle of Book I.,
chap, iii., 11, by an amazing development of the article which follows
the noun (Gram. Sk., II. 48, 49). For so general an interest in sub-
stantive objects accompanies the substantive idea, that in fixing his
attention on an object, the Choctaw is conscious of withdrawing his
attention, first from the generality of objects to an object having a
certain nature by which it is designated, then from the generality
of objects having that nature to one or more of them, and it may be
to that particular one or more as distinguished from other individuals
among them.
Now it is to be observed that this process of concentrating atten-
tion on a substantive object, which is felt as a process, because the
practical interest in definite objects does not quite destroy those
general interests from which attention is withdrawn, is felt also in
Choctaw in thinking a fact ; so that a verb also may be affected with
an article after it, because there is a general interest in facts as in
things accompanying the particular idea.
According to the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 12, the sense of the
individuals in a plurality is weak when there is a want of that exacti-
tude in the applications of action or use, which causes these to be
thought with completeness up to their objects. This want exists in
Choctaw. The verb bears little on the noun. And the only elements
of relation in contact with the noun are faint traces of relation in
the articles. Accordingly the substantive in that language has no
plural form, nor even the third personal pronoun. The first and
second persons have plurals on account of the strength of the several
personalities, and the first has an inclusive plural and an exclusive,
which will be considered in the next section.
But the only other plural in Choctaw is the adjective or verb
which belongs to a plurality. This forms a plural sometimes by
internal change (Gram. Sk., II. 49, 54) ; for it is to the individual
that the attribute belongs, and in thinking it the sense of the indivi-
duals in the plurality is strengthened and taken up into the thought
340 PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. [CHAP. in.
WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL. [SECT. XL
of the adjective or verb. And there being little sense of substance in
the noun (Def. 4), because there is little thought of it as in the rela-
tions of action, the manifold individuality is expressed by the inner
plural, according to Book L, chap, iii., 12.
2. The Dakota also lived in a fertile region abounding in valuable
production, where there was little need for skill in the application of
action or use to substantive objects. Their verb consequently does
not quite reach to the objects and conditions, nor do their elements of
relation (Gram. Sk., II. 42, 43). And there being an habitual want
of definiteness in concentrating the practical interest, the sense of
things in general gives rise to a definite article and an indefinite or
individualising article, both which follow the noun. The substantive
forms no plural unless when it means a plurality of men, for it is only
then that the interest of the individual is such as to give a sense of the
manifold in the plural ; this interest being stronger than in Choctaw,
as the martial enterprise of the race is greater. The plural ending has
weak union with the stem, so that in the persons of the verb, and the
possessive affixes of the noun, the personal element precedes the verb
or noun, and the plural element of the pronoun follows it. This
looseness of connection of the plural element with the stem is usual
in the American languages, and corresponds to the want of close
application of the action to the object above mentioned. For this,
according to Book L, chap, iii., 12, leads him to think the plurality
after having thought the object in the singular.
In the first person, however, the plurality falls on the stem of the
pronoun and alters it, self being undistinguished from the associated
persons. And there is no difference between an inclusive and an
exclusive first plural (Gram. Sk., II. 46).
In no other of the American languages studied in this work is there
such want of definiteness in concentrating the practical interest on its
objects as to produce a pure particularising or individualising article ;
though in Selish (ibid. 66), Southern Sonoran (ibid. 77), and Otomi
(ibid. 79), there is an article, which, however, is rather an arthritic
(Def. 7) than a particularising element, connective with the fact rather
than distinctive from the general.
3. In Eskimo the closeness of union of the case relations with the
stem of the noun indicates the close application of action and use to
its objects (preceding section, 7) ; and this develops, according to the
principles of Book I., chap, iii., 12, a sense of the individuals, such
as to require a different expression for duality when strongly thought
from that which is given to plurality. The duality, however, needs
to be emphatic in Eskimo, or it is not distinguished in expression
from the plurul. The close application also of action develops so
strong a sense of the manifold substance that sometimes the attri-
butive, part of the idea is imperfectly thought, as when the plural of
kayak expresses a kayak and its crew. In this case the kayak is
only the principal individual in the plurality ; and the mind omits
to think the other individuals except in an abstract plurality includ-
ing it and them (Gram. Sk., II. 12).
CHAP, in.] PARTTCULARISATION — NUMBER. 341
SECT. XL] WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL.
4. In Cree the verb is carried on in thought to the objects not
closely, yet more than in either Choctaw or Dakota, as is manifest
from the great development of elements expressing the energy of the
agent exerted on the object of the action (ibid. 18). And accord-
ingly, in agreement with Book I., chap, iii., 12, the noun both of
the animate and inanimate has a plural ending (Gram. Sk., II. 37). It
is remarkable that a noun of the animate, if possessed by the third
person, takes the inanimate plural ending. The personality of the
third person is so weak, the sense of life in it so low, compared with
that of the first or second (ibid. 27), that possession by it, implying as
it does subjection to it, reduces the sense of life to the level of the
inanimate.
The plural ending in Cree is loosely connected with the stem both
of the noun and of the personal pronoun, so that though the personal
element of the first and second persons precedes the verb in the indi-
cative, their plural element follows it, and when the personal affixes
are attached to a noun as possessive, the personal element precedes the
stem of the noun, and the plural element of the possessive follows it,
the plural element of the noun following that of the pronoun (ibid.
37). The plural element of the pronoun, on account of its detach-
ment, has not the connection with the verb or noun that the personal
element has, and the latter connection having been established, the
plural element follows, and the nominal stem when thus affected with
possession is followed by its plural element. This detachment of the
plurality corresponds to the small degree in which the hunter thinks
the action on into close application to the object (preceding section,
8), according to Book I., chap, iii., 12.
5. In Yakama the case endings of the noun show that the applica-
tions of action or use are thought up to their objects, and the noun
has a plural ending (ibid. 56).
In Selish the noun has no element of case, and the prepositions are
very few (ibid. 61, 66). The verb is thought not exactly as passing
to its objects, but rather as embracing them in its operation (ibid.
64, 65), so that there is no sense of application to them ; and this being
absent the sense of the substance, and also that of plurality, is weak.
Only, according to Book I., chap, iii., 12, some nouns denoting animate
objects have a plural prefix, others form a plural by internal change.
It is remarkable that in Selish the plurality of the third plural posses-
sive is taken up altogether into the noun, and reduplicates the vowel
which precedes its last letter. This shows that the noun takes up a
sense of its possessor as the Selish verb does of its object, and gets a
plurality from the possessor as the verb does from the object.
In Pima also the noun has no element of case, and the words used as
postpositions do not combine'closely with the noun (Gram. Sk., II. 69).
Though the verbal stem is thought in close connection with the objects
and conditions, it is detached from the volition of the subject (ibid. 68),
so that there is little designed application of action to its objects, and
little interest in these as objects. Accordingly, the sense of the sub-
stance is weak (Def. 4), and the formation of the plural of nouns in
342 PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. [CHAP. in.
WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL. [SECT. XI.
Pima is by internal change of the stem (Gram. Sk., II. 69), according
to the principle of Book L, chap, iii., 12.
In Otonii the verb spreads into its object without any appearance
of a sense of fitting application (Gram. Sk., II. 82), and the noun forms
no plural (ibid. 79).
6. In Mexican, when the verb does not take up its object but pass
to it, the sense of application of action or use falls short of its objects,
so that there is a considerable arthritic development to connect the
objects and conditions with the verb, and even with the elements of
relation which may intervene between them and the verb (ibid. 84).
There seems, however, to be a considerable number of elements of
relation (ibid. 85) ; but great attention to the attributive nature of
the noun (Def. 4), so that the sense of it as object is weak. In
accordance with this imperfect sense of the application of action or
use, only nouns expressive of the animate form a plural ; and some of
these form it by reduplication, some by merely dropping a subjoined
element of particularity, as if, according to Book I., chap, iii., 12, the
sense of the individual substance was weak. But others of them
form it by changing the particular element which is suffixed to them,
and which forms a remarkable feature of the Mexican language (Gram.
Sk., II. 87).
The use of these particular or demonstrative elements in the forma-
tion of the Mexican noun shows the strength of concentrated attention
with which the substantive object is thought; for they do not
particularise that object as distinguishing it from a generality, nor are
they arthritic. They express attention fixed on the object, and involve
a sense of the attributive part of the idea of it, for they are not so
abstract as to be the same for every noun (Introd. 3). They are some-
times dropped in the plural, for a plurality is indefinite compared with
an individual. But more frequently they are changed in the plural
for others of plural significance. Some of them are dropped when the
noun takes possessive prefixes, because then the attention given to
the substantive object is diminished, being partly taken up by the
possessor. But sometimes the noun has to take an arthritic element
instead of the element which it has dropped to connect it with the
possessive. And on account of the concrete particularity with which
the object is thought, tho idea often is too full to be used as a unit in
counting, and a part of the idea has to be taken instead (ibid. 87 ;
V. 6), according to Book I., chap, iii., 12.
7. In Chiapaneca the action is imperfectly applied to its object, for
the direct object has to be connected with the verb by a remark-
ably heavy arthritic element (Gram. Sk., IL 90). And accordingly,
only some nouns form a plural (ibid. 89).
In Quiche'e the action is not thought in close application to the
object (ibid. 94). And only nouns expressive of the animate form a
plural, the plural element being subjoined. But adjectives and pro-
nouns belonging to a plurality of inanimate objects as well as of
animate form a plural, because it is to the individual that they refer,
and consequently they have more sense than the substantive of the
CHAP, in.] PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. 343
SECT. XL] WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL.
individual in the plurality. Numeral particles or nouns are used in
Quich^e, as in Mexican, to facilitate counting (ibid. 92).
In Maya there is a similar imperfect application of action to its
object (ibid. 99), and the noun has no plural (ibid. 96).
In Caraib it seems to be as in Quiche"e (ibid. 101, 104, 105).
In Chibcha and Guarani there is little sense of the application of
action or use to its objects, and the noun has no plural (ibid. 107, 117).
But in Quichua and Chilian there is development of number at the
end of the noun, corresponding to that of the elements of relation
attached to the noun which give so full an expression to the applica-
tion of action and use to its objects (ibid. 110, 142).
In Kiriri the sense of the application of action to its objects is
singularly weak, for there is no transitive verb (124) ; and accordingly
the noun is said to have no number. But it appears that personal
nouns take -a to express plurality, some names of kindred taking -te
instead of -a (ibid. 122). This shows a special strength in the sense
of personality.
In Chikito also a weakness in the application of action or use to its
objects appears in the imperfect construction of the preposition with
what it governs (136). And accordingly there is a weak sense of the
plural of the noun, so that when the noun governs a genitive its
plurality is not expressed. For the expression of the plurality depends
on the demonstrative element which is subjoined to the noun as in
Mexican, and which is dropped when the noun governs a genitive,
because the genitive divides the attention. This element shows that
the noun is thought with strong particularity like the Mexican noun.
And it is to be observed that as that particularity impeded numeration
in Mexican, so in Chikito there is 'no native numeration (ibid. 133).
It was not easy to the Chikito, and there was no traffic to make it
necessary to him, as it was to the Mexican.
In Bauro there is no expression of relation carrying the action close
to its object ; and there is little expression of the plural of the noun,
the plural ending being little used (ibid. 137). So that in all the
American languages studied in this work, the principles of Book I.,
chap, iii., 12, are borne out. And where a plural element is added to
the noun it is almost always subjoined, the only exception being in
Selish, which shows the interest taken in the nature of substantive
objects penetrating the whole substantive idea, so that the substance
is thought specialised by it.
8. The fragmentary nature of African speech is most strikingly
illustrated in the prefixes of the Kafir nouns (Gram. Sk., I. 2, 3).
But though that nature belongs to all the African languages which
are remote from Asiatic influence, the system of nominal prefixes
detached in concord does not by any means prevail throughout those
languages. There are therefore special causes in Kafir speech which
bring the fragmentary tendency into play in that particular part of
the language.
Now, in the Kiriri and Chikito languages in South America, owing
to the weakness of the habitual sense of possession, the possessive
344 PAETICULARISATION — NTJMBEK. [CHAP. m.
WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL. [SECT. xi.
affixes often take a general noun, which includes under it the par-
ticular noun which they affect in order to help their connection with
that particular noun. And in Kiriri certain classes of adjectives take
much more abstract elements in the same way, connecting them with
the substantives to which they belong and proper to those substan-
tives, being superficial thoughts of the substantive objects (ibid. II.
120, 126, 131).
The Kafir prefixes differ from these South American elements in
being parts of the noun instead of being only connectives with the
noun. But they agree with these in being partial thoughts of the
substantive object. Not in certain connections but generally in every
connection, the substantive object is thought in Kafir with a partial
disregard of its attributive nature (Def. 4). And this introduces in the
formation of the substantive idea a difference between the part which,
as substance, is thought in the connections of fact and the attributive
part which in those connections is comparatively disregarded, bringing
into play the fragmentary tendency of African thought.
The effect is increased in Kafir by the strength with which the
connections of the constituent members of fact are thought. And the
full account of the Kafir noun is, that it is the form taken by the
substantive idea where thought is fragmentary, and the race thinks
with great interest the uses of things, and with little interest their
nature (preceding section, 10).
The combination of the members of fact is much weaker in Pul,
Bullom, Woloff, and Yoruba, and in these the nominal prefixes are
proportionally weak (Gram. Sk., I. 20, 23, 26 ; III. 183).
In the Oti family the interest lies rather in the objects and con-
ditions of action than in the end at which it aims (this chap., IX.
1), so that though there is a special interest in these, as objects and
conditions, which tends to distinguish an objective part of the sub-
stantive idea from an attributive part, yet there is not that strength of
connection between the parts of the sentence, as all aiming at an end,
which in Kafir divides the substantive in forming its connections.
The nominal prefixes consequently are reduced in the Oti family, and
are not taken up in the concords of the sentence except by the stronger
demonstrative pronoun (ibid. I. 51).
In some of the Kafir languages also south of the equator a weaken-
ing of the nominal prefixes may be observed.
Thus the Bituana, on account of the comparative difficulty of their
life, have to give more attention to the attributive nature of substan-
tive objects, and this weakens the nominal prefix (ibid. 14).
The Kisuahili and Kinika languages think the substantive part of
the noun more as particularised by the attributive part, tending to
put the attributive part first (ibid. 15). And in Pul this particularisa-
tion has in a remarkable way caused the prefix to become a suffix,
though leaving behind it traces of its former presence at the beginning
of the noun (ibid. III. 183).
Those languages which approach the negro region generally have
this characteristic feature impaired.
CHAP, in.] PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. 345
SECT. XL] WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL.
In some of those languages in which the nominal prefix is reduced,
it is in the connections of the substantive with other members of the
fact that it is best preserved (ibid. I. 26 ; III. 184). But this is not
so in the Oti family, as above explained.
9. In Mandingo, Vei, and Nubian, there is often subjoined to the
noun an element of a pronominal nature expressing an act of attention
directed to it, and indicating the interest with which substantive
objects are thought. When an adjective affects the noun it divides
this interest and weakens in Mandingo the pronominal element. The
applications of action are not thought on close to their objects (preced-
ing section, 11), and the sense of plurality consequently being weak in
the idea of the plural substantive, it is thought in the act of attention
which follows, and is expressed with the pronominal element separably
from the noun, according to Book I., chap, iii., 12. As the quality
belongs to the individual, the adjective comes between the stem and the
plural element, except those adjectives, such as all, which belong to
the plural aggregate (Gram. Sk., I. 32, 36 ; III. 127, 128).
In Hottentot also there is a pronominal element at the end of the
noun. But this is personal, the three persons belonging as an ending
to all substantives and pronouns. For the pronouns too, both personal
and demonstrative, have a root to which the person ending is attached.
All objects in Hottentot enter into the connections of fact as persons,
and the personal substance has imperfect union with the root.
Amongst these African races the difference is striking between the
Kafir, who thinks actions in their result more strongly than things,
the Mandingo, Vei, and Susu, who think things more strongly than
actions, and the Hottentot, who sees personality everywhere. The
two latter groups put the radical part of the noun first on account of
the interest which they take in the nature of substantive objects,
and the consequent tendency to make the thought of it precede the
whole substantive idea.
10. The Egyptian, like the Choctaw, found himself in a fertile
land. And the production which was necessary to supply his wants
did not demand the direction of his energies with concentrated
attention to special objects. Hence the Egyptian, like the Choctaw,
had great sense of the general, and though his thought did not spread
on the act of signalising a particular object, because he was an African,
not an American (Gram. Sk. II. 4), yet he was conscious of separat-
ing it from others as an individual, or of specially distinguishing it
from others of the same designation. So that in the Egyptian lan-
guage a substantive was preceded for the most part by a definite or
an indefinite article (Gram. Sk., III. 109).
In WolofF also, there is an absence of the direction of energy with
concentrated attention to special objects, and objects not being
signalised by such direction in the thought of the action are indicated
by an element of that kind in an article of position (ibid. I.
26). This, however, involves no sense of the general, as the Woloff
region on the border of the desert is not one which inspires general
interest.
VOL. II. Z
PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. [CHAP. HI.
WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL. [SECT. xi.
There is in Egyptian a weak sense of the application of action
or use to its object, for instead of being thought completely up to its
objects it is connected with them by pronominal elements, or relations
imperfectly thought as such. And there is a weak sense of the sub-
stance and of plurality, as appears from the imperfect development of
the plural of the noun (ibid. 109, 110), agreeably to the principles of
Book L, chap, iii., 12. In general, Egyptian nouns have no plural.
Of those which have it, far the larger portion have a plural ending
with more or less internal change; the remainder, internal change
only.
The plural prefixes of the Kafir nouns do not retain a distinct sense
of the individual in the plurality. The prefixes themselves are due,
as has been said, to the imperfect attention which is given to the
nature of substantive objects in the applications to them of action
or use. And the connections of fact formed with such imperfect
attention and without much development of relations (preceding
section, 10), indicate the absence of exactness in such applications ;
which, according to the above principle, corresponds with a weak
sense of the individuals in the plural. For the Kafir accomplishes
his ends rather by his discernment of utility, than by skilful handling
of things according to their nature.
In Woloff, the sense of the applications of action and use is still
weaker (ibid. 10), and the plurality is weaker in the noun. For
when the plural noun has the article it gives its plural prefix to the
article ; which shows that the sense of plurality is helped by the act
of attention which the article expresses, and is in that case not noticed
in thinking the noun (Gram. Sk., T. 26).
In Bullom the sense of plurality seems to be much as it is in Kafir
(ibid. 23). But in the 0£i family it is weaker (ibid. 51); just as the
application of action or use to its objects is less close (preceding
section, 10). And in Yoruba there is no plural (Gram. Sk., I. 20) ;
as there is no combination in the sentence, arising from close appli-
cation of verb or preposition to the noun (ibid. 22).
In Pul, the plural is expressed like the Kafir plural, only that the
prefixes have become suffixes (ibid. III. 183).
In Mandingo, Vei, and Nubian, there is, as has been said before, an
expression of plurality, which affects the separable pronominal suffix.
Susu has less plurality, as action has less volition, and therefore less
exactness of application (ibid. I. 32, 36, 50; III. 127, 128).
Hottentot has singular, dual, and plural numbers (ibid. I. 64).
But this is due to the personal substance which belongs to all the
nouns and pronouns ; and which, according to Book I, chap, iii., 12,
favours the development of number.
The Barea and Ban substantives seem to involve a sense of sub-
stance (I)of. 4), particularised by the attributive part of the idea, and
so far separable from it that they afford footing for a plural ending
(Gram. Sk., III. 137, 138, 152) ; but Bari less than Barea.
But in Dinka and (Jalla this does not appear. And in Dinlja
there is an inner plural, in Galla scarcely any plural ; there being
CHAP, in.] PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. 347
SECT. XL] WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL.
more elements of relation in Dinka than in Galla to carry on the
applications of action and use to their objects (ibid. 144, 162).
The Kanuri substantive tends to have a substance distinct from the
attributive part. In abstract nouns it is a strong element prefixed to
a verbal or nominal stem ; and these abstract nouns, owing to their
signification, form no plural. In other nouns a plural element is at
the end. But plurality is often unexpressed (ibid. 173) ; for the
applications of action or use are not carried close to their objects, as
appears from the separability of the postpositions of case from the noun.
Thus in the African languages generally the development of the
plural is according to the principles of Book I., chap, iii., 12.
11. The Polynesian lives as the Choctaw did (1), amid manifold
spontaneous productions of nature, and the conditions of his life do
not require concentration of practical aim in the direction of his
energies. In fixing his attention on the objects with which he is
concerned, he is conscious of singling an individual or of distinguish-
ing it from others of the same designation, or from those which are
not of the same designation • and he uses before his substantives an
indefinite article which individualises, or a definite article which
particularises or else distinguishes the object from those which are not
so designated, being sometimes applied in the latter use to a proper
name. There is also an emphatic article which brings with it a sense
of particularisation, and therefore requires always to be accompanied
by the definite article (Gram. Sk., III. 3).
In Polynesian there is a remarkable deficiency of truly connective
elements to bring action or use into close application to its objects
(preceding section, 1), and there is corresponding weakness in the
sense of the individuals in a plurality, according to the principle of
Book I., chap, iii., 12. So that only in a few instances a plural is
formed ; and in them by internal change, the substance being weak
(Gram. Sk., III. 4). The definite article, however, has a plural ; the
manifold individuality being felt in the act of attention which the
article expresses. Substantive objects being little thought as objects
of action or use, the substantive idea involves little of that sense of
substance (Def. 4) which distinguishes the substantive from other parts
of speech, and there being a similar absence from the stem of the verb
and from the adjective of what is distinctive of them (this chapter,
III. 2 ; IV. 1 ; IX. 5), the same word may be used as substantive or
verb, or to qualify as adjective or adverb (Gram. Sk., III. 5).
12. Passing from the Polynesian to the Melanesian languages
through Tongan and Fijian, we find in both of these latter a diminished
development of the article, each having only one article, besides the
emphatic article. This one article merely directs attention to the
substantive object as an entire object of thought (Def. 4), without
defining it or distinguishing it from others, its function being reduced
to that of supplying the want of a substance in the substantive idea.
And the emphatic article does not bring with it a sense of particularisa-
tion, so that it may be used without being accompanied by another
article (Gram. Sk., III. 16, 1 ; 17, 3).
348 PARTICULARISATION— NUMBER. [CHAP. m.
WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL. [SECT. xi.
In the Melanesian languages generally there is less development of
the article before the noun than in Polynesian ; and this is in
accordance with the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 11. For those
languages bear the traces, like the people which speak them, of being
in their origin connected with regions in which the production of
things needful was less abundant, and in which somewhat more
concentration of practical aim was needed that the race might flourish
there (preceding section, 2). Still they do not think the applications
of action and use close to their objects ; and the parts of speech are
as little distinguished as in the Polynesian. The article, however,
though it involves less distinction of the object from other objects
than it has in Polynesian, is more expressive of attention directed to
the object as an object than in Polynesian ; and this agrees with the
features of the Melanesian languages which have been noted in pre-
ceding section, 2. It also agrees with the expression of plurality of
the substantive. For, in accordance with the principle of Book I.,
chap, iii., 12, the stronger reference of action or use to its objects
which is to be seen in Melanesian is accompanied by a higher sense of
the plural. The plural is often expressed in Melanesian by a separate
element involving a distinct act of attention to the noun, and generally
preceding it (Gram. Sk., III. 21, 24, 28, 34, 37, 40). This, though
greater expression of plurality than is in Polynesian, does not in
general belong to every noun, except in Mare", which thinks substantive
objects with more interest than the other languages (ibid. 37).
In Mare\ also, there is a definite and an indefinite article, and the
Polynesian emphatic article ko, which is used in Mar6 with the
indefinite as well as with the definite article ; so that it does not
bring with it particularisation as in Polynesian. Moreover, Ico is
found with the direct object also in Mare ; which use, though it is
exceptional, corresponds to the stronger sense of the object in the
Melanesian languages (preceding section, 2). And there is a weaker
emphatic article, ono, used with both subject and object, and also with
the genitive and other cases, and a still weaker o used with the object,
and exceptionally with the subject (Gram. Sk., III. 34). It appears,
therefore, that there is in this language somewhat more particularisa-
tion than in the other Melanesian languages, though less than in
Polynesian, the emphatic article of the object indicating also more
interest than Polynesian has in the object.
The separate plural corresponds to a want of close application of
action, which leaves the plurality to bo thought in a second act of
attention to the plural object. But still it gives more expression of
plurality than is in Polynesian, and there is also a partially developed
dual ; and this corresponds with the higher sense than in Polynesian
of the applications of action and use to their objects, according to the
principles of Book I., chap, iii., 12.
13. In Tagala, though there is an excessively weak sense of rela-
tion, there is a certain degree of attention in applying action and use
to their objects (preceding section, 3) ; and there is a separate plural
element, as in the Melaucsian languages, preceding the noun and
CHAP, in.] PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. 3-49
BECT. XL] WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL.
pronoun (Gram. Sk., III. 51). This application, however, is not
thought in immediate connection with the noun, but generally through
the mediation of pronominal elements. And the noun, in consequence,
has so weak a substance that it needs an article which, without par-
ticularising it, expresses attention directed to it as an entire object of
thought (Def. 4).
14. In Malay there is less combination of action and use with its
objects, but more relation, though imperfectly connected, and less
strength of practical aim, and in accordance with these features respec-
tively there is somewhat less expression of plurality, less objectivity
connected with the noun, no objective article to supply that element,
and some particularisation (Gram. Sk., III. 72, 73).
There is little difference between Malay and Polynesian in the
sense of plurality, as there is little difference between them in the
reference of action and use to their objects. Moreover, they both
have a concrete fulness of thought (ibid. 8, 80). And in Malay, this
causes the substantive idea to be too heavy for counting as a unit,
and a portion of it is used instead.
In Polynesian, substantive objects are thought with less strength
of interest, because what the Polynesian needs he has more readily
than the Malay. His substantive therefore is light enough to serve
as a unit. Yet it is concrete enough to burden the act of counting
so as to make this felt in Polynesian as an element of succession, and
consequently to interpose between the noun and the number an
element of verbal process (ibid. 6, 12). In Melanesian, the numeral
is preceded by a heavier element of counting, and is most cum-
brously expressed ; as if there was little traffic, and therefore little
expertness in numeration (ibid. 36, 1). It is probably due to the
concreteness of the unit, that in Fijian there are different nouns for
tens of things of different kinds, and others for hundreds (ibid. 17, 3).
15. The Australian carries his application of action or use close up
to its objects, attaching postpositions close to his nouns (preceding
section, 2), and he has not only a plural number, but also a dual
(Gram. Sk., III. 85, 86).
In Tamil, the action is not closely applied to its object by a pure
element of relation closely attached to it ; and there is little sense of
number (ibid. 97, 100).
In Australian, in Tamil, and in the languages of Northern Asia
and Northern Europe, the radical part goes first in nouns and verbs
because these races have to give strong attention to the nature of
things and to the modes of action.
16. The conditions of life in Northern Asia and Northern Europe
render necessary for the most part such an attention to the objects
with which life is concerned, as causes action and use to be thought in
closer application to their object than in Tamil. And there is in
those languages more expression of the plural ; while in the most
northern of them, the Northern Samoiede dialects, in which the
difficulties of life require action and use to be thought with closer
application to their objects, and in which accordingly the element of
350 rARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. [CHAP. IIL
WEAK PRACTICAL AIM— SKILL. [SECT. xi.
case gets in between the stem of the noun and the element of number
(preceding section, 6), the substantives and personal pronouns have a
dual as well as a plural (Gram. Sk., IV. 8, 70, 83, 128, 139, 148,
157). The personal pronouns in Ostiak and Lapponic being of stronger
individuality than the noun, have a dual and plural, and the nouns
also in Surgut Ostiak (ibid. 103, 104, 159). In Mongolian, hoAvever,
and Manju, the postpositions, which are few, have loose attachment
to the noun (preceding section, 5), and the plural has corresponding
weakness (Gram. Sk., IV. 36, 59). In Turkish also, the postpositions
have loose attachment, but there are more of them, which shows a
higher sense of relation. The noun in consequence of higher sense of
relation is thought more distinctly as object ; and accordingly there is
a strong sense of plurality (ibid. 8, 19).
17. The Hungarian only has developed an article, and the use of
this corresponds to the variety of resource which always characterised
the race (this chap., IIL 5), and to the consequently diminished con-
centration of practical aim which would be especially natural to them
when they came to their present fertile region (Gram. Sk., IV. 112).
It has no proper case ending, as if there was little need for skill ; and
its sense of plurality is proportionally weak (ibid. 113).
18. The Chinese and Siamese nouns have no plural, just as,
according to the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 12, there is in Chinese
and Siamese no sense of a close application of action or use to its
objects (preceding section, 12), as is indicated by the absence of organic
connection of the parts of the sentence and of pure elements of relation
(Gram. Sk., V. 8, 16).
The Chinese and Siamese, in accordance with their intense definite-
ness of practical aim, use no article.
They think substantive objects with such concreteness that the
eubstantive idea is too full for counting as a unit, and a part of it has
to be taken for that purpose (ibid. 6, 16).
This peculiarity belongs also to other races in this part of the
world, the Japanese, the Burmese, and, as has been mentioned before,
to the Malay. But it is in the Chinese that it may best be studied.
For that concrete particularity of thought to which it seems to be due
is manifested most strikingly in the Chinese. This tendency of
thought is involved in their intensely realistic character, their want of
analysis and abstraction, their unaplness to single out a cause or a
condition and generalise its connection with a result, their consequent
imitativeness in the concrete of what is found useful, their keenness
in finding what may profit them. These all show an absorption of
interest in concrete reality which is at the bottom of most of the
peculiarities of Chinese thought, and of the Chinese language. For
though the intermediate degree of quickness which belongs to the
former gives singleness to the elements of expression in the latter
(ibid. 13), yet that singleness is heightened by the concrete particu-
larity of Chinese thought. The imitativeness which springs from this
lias been already connected with the absence from the Chinese verb
of elements of person, succession, tense, mood, voice, and derivation
CHAP, in.] PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. 351,
SECT. XL] WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL.
(this chap. III. 3 ; IV. 5 ; V. 2 ; VI. 6 ; VII. 8, 17), and from the
Chinese noun of elements of case, as well as from the language of pure
elements of relation (ibid. X. 12), and now as a consequence of the
want of that carrying on of the thought of action or use into close
application to its objects which arises from the same cause (ibid. X.
12) has been noted the want of elements of number in the noun.
Moreover, by the concrete particularity with which the substantive
idea is thought, the singleness of the noun is increased, for the dis-
tinction between an attributive part as general, and a substance as
particular (Def. 4), is thereby well-nigh abolished. And thus the
intermediate quickness of thought is helped in giving absolute single-
ness to the Chinese verb and noun.
Now the substantive thus thought has too much concrete fulness to
serve as a unit in counting substantive objects, and a noun or particle
expressing part of the idea is used, whose meaning is light enough for
that purpose.
The Siamese, Burmese, and Japanese races partake in different
degrees of the peculiar nature of Chinese thought, probably owing to
the action of similar influences, and the Malay also seems to share
that concrete particularity of thought to which probably the use of
the numeral particles or nouns in counting is due (Gram. Sk., III. 73,
80 ; V. 23, 44).
All these races find what they want supplied by nature to them
when they look for it with care. They have little need to study the
properties of things and the efficiency of actions, so as to know the
essential conditions of success in the use of means and in the conduct
of operations to attain their ends. Such rudiments of natural law are
needed for invention. But these races have not to invent, but to find.
And the concrete particularity of sense is stamped upon their thought
and language.
The Mexican and Quiche"e also seem to have a strong particularity
of substantive idea indicated by the pronominal endings of their
nouns ; and this, though perhaps different in its origin, yet leads to a
similar result (Introd. to this chap., 2, 3 ; Gram. Sk., II. 87, 92).
In Burmese, Japanese, and Tibetan, there are postpositions attached
to the noun, arid accordingly there is sufficient sense of the application
of object and use to their objects to maintain a sense of plurality,
though not sufficiently close to give a sense of it in the idea of the
plural object. The plural element follows as a separate element, refer-
ring to the noun in a second thought of it, and is followed by the
postposition. In Tibetan the adjective follows the noun, and is fol-
lowed by the element of plurality (ibid. V. 22, 32, 33, 41). These
constructions all agree with the principles of Book I., chap, iii., 12.
The singling particles which follow the noun are a remarkable
feature in Burmese, Japanese, and Tibetan (ibid. 24, 32, 41). They
seem to be of a similar nature to the emphatic article in Polynesian,
and, like it, to express an emphasis due to the position of the noun in
the fact. Their use must be due to the want of distinctive expression
of such function of the noun in the sentence, so that they may be
352 PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. [CHAP. in.
WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL. [SECT. xi.
compared in some respects to the use of a pronominal suffix to mark
the subject (this chap., I. 1). They seem sometimes to be arthritic.
Tibetan has also an article which follows the noun, and which, like one
that precedes it in Melanesian, marks out the noun as such, directing
attention to it as an entire object of thought (Gram. Sk., V. 32).
19. In the Syro-Arabian and Indo-European languages, the develop-
ment of number and the use of the article follow the principles of Book
L, chap, iii., 11, 12.
The peculiar genius of the Syro-Arabian languages is to be seen
most clearly in Arabic. For it is to the desert that it is due ; and in
the desert, therefore, it is to be found in its highest purity. The
difficulties of the desert require a degree of skill and ingenuity in the
treatment of substantive objects ; and consequently Arabic has case
endings which evidence a thought of relations in close application to
the substantive idea. But, at the same time, the possibilities of pro-
duction, acquisition, or use, are extremely limited in the desert, so
that the practical application of action to object has a very restricted
range. Substantive objects are consequently more the objects of
thought, and less the objects of action and use, than in other regions.
The substantive idea is thought more in the attributive part which
designates it to the mind, and less in the objective part or substance in
which it is apprehended in reference to action (Def. 4), than in any other
Syro-Arabian or Indo-European language. In Hebrew, though there
is less relation and less closeness of application to the noun, because
the difficulties of the region being less there was less need for ingenuity
and skill, yet, owing to the larger supply of useful objects, the sub-
stantive was thought more in reference to use and action, and the
interest of the substantive idea was less concentrated in the attributive
part, and it strengthened the substance. This change of thought
which took place in Hebrew on the edge of the desert was carried still
further in the regions outside the desert in Syriac and Ethiopic.
In Arabic the substantive being thought principally in the attri-
butive part of the idea, it is in that part that the manifold individuality
of a plural is thought. And this being too heavy to be carried with
distinctness through a large number, the plural idea changes rapidly
from two to the higher numbers. A dual is developed, and in general
the distinction of the individuals is impaired when the number exceeds
ten, so that they merge in an aggregate with various alterations of
the attributive part of the idea. Even in the lesser numbers, the
plurality of feminine nouns is thought in some degree as a mere
extension ; and only in masculine nouns is it thought with a due
sense of manifold individuality, this being apprehended in the indi-
vidual differences of the attributive nature, and then referred to in a
plural pronominal element. Even the dual is similarly thought with
a subsequent pronominal act of attention. The attributive part being
thought with such interest precedes the substance, and therefore also
the element of number ((Jram. Sk., V. 59, 62).
In Hebrew the plurality is thought sufficiently in the attributive
part of the idea to make a difference to be felt between the plurality
CHAP, in.] PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. 353
SECT. XL] WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL.
of two and that of higher numbers, so that a dual is formed. But in
the higher numbers it is thought in the substance, this being strong
enough to take it up. And even in a plurality of two, the substance
is apt to take up the twofold individuality, so that this is expressed in
the general plural form, unless the objects be such as by nature or art
exist in pairs so as to have duality associated as an element in the
idea of their nature. The substance, however, in Hebrew nouns is
not such as to furnish a very distinct sense of manifold individuality,
so the plural form may be used to express merely extension or great-
ness (ibid. 82). And ideas being more objective than in Arabic, there
is not sufficient strength in the sense of personality to support a dual
form of personal pronouns, the second and third expressing a plurality
of two objectively in their substance by the general form instead of
having a dual form as in Arabic. The sense of self in Arabic over-
powers that of a person associated with self, and makes it be thought
weakly, as in plurality, so that there is no dual of the first person
(ibid. 51).
Syriac and Ethiopia have only some traces of a dual. The strength
of the substance is seen in Syriac in the feminine plural, which, instead
of being a mere extension of the stem, as in Hebrew and Arabic, adds
an element as if the thought of the individuals remained distinct in
the plural, and that of the plurality was added to it. In Ethiopic,
also, the plural element of feminine nouns is added to the singular
stem (ibid. 106, 130).
In Amharic, Tamachek, and Haussa there is no dual. The plural
is formed by a subjoined element in Amharic (ibid. 143). Tamachek
shows African influence in using also prefixes in the formation of the
plural (ibid. 152). Haussa forms the plural by subjoined elements,
or by inserting a before the last syllable (ibid. 166).
The construct state of the noun which is so characteristic of Arabic
and Hebrew is due to the weakness of the substance of the noun
(ibid. 69, 83, 88, 89). And when the language came out of the desert
and became more objective, the substance became stronger and the
two correlative nouns more distinct in Syriac (ibid. 114), Ethiopic (ibid.
131), Amharic (ibid. 143), Tamachek (ibid. 153), and Haussa (ibid. 166).
Arabic and Hebrew, which have less of an objective practical
character than the other languages that belong to regions giving more
scope to practical habits, use a definite article, in accordance with their
want of definiteness of practical aim. The other languages have no
article, except that the Syriac has an emphatic article, which follows
the noun because it does not determine and limit the substantive idea
as the Hebrew and Arabic article does (ibid. 112). It probably, like
the Polynesian emphatic article or like that of Burmese, Tibetan, and
Japanese, expresses sometimes an emphasis due to the position of the
noun in the i'act. Thus a cardinal number is emphatic after its noun
but not before, being strengthened when it follows by the sense of
the noun which it then involves. But when the emphatic form is
used for a superlative it has a strength of its own not derived from
its position in the fact (ibid. 110, 114).
354 PARTICULARISATION — NUMBER. [CHAP. IIL
WEAK PRACTICAL AIM — SKILL. [SECT. xi.
20. In Sanskrit substantive objects were thought so strongly both
in the attributive part of the idea and in the substance, that two of the
same were thought with a fulness which could not be carried through
a larger number, and it consequently developed a dual as well as a
plural, not only in the noun but also in the personal pronoun. The
nature of things was thought with such interest that it went through
the whole idea so as to specialise the substance and cause the radical
part to take the lead in the substantive.
Both Latin and Greek acquired more generality than Sanskrit (see
next chapter). Both the attributive nature and the substance of the
substantive were thought with less fulness of particularity. But the
attributive part retained more strength in Greek, the substance in
Latin. For the practical genius of the Latin led him to think sub-
stantive objects more as objects of action and use, than the Greek
who was less immersed in utilities. The spirit of the Greek, more free
from the particularities of practical application, had more interest for
the nature of things. And the attributive part of the substantive idea
being stronger with him than with the Latin, he thought objects so
fully when there were only two of the same, that he retained the
dual ; which the Latin dropped, because the Latin thought a duality
and a plurality alike in the substance or objective part.
As the Indo-European had a stronger sense than the Syro-Arabian
of personal power in directing the life (this chap., I. 2), so he had
more sense of the inner personality in the personal pronoun. And in
consequence of this fulness of individual personality, the dual was
carried throughout the personal pronouns in Sanskrit. As thought
became less particular, it was weakened ; and Latin, being so objective,
lost it in the pronouns as in the nouns. Greek retained it except in
the first person of the verb, in which it was lost, because the sense of
self as subject overpowered that of the associated person and reduced
it to the weakness of a plural element. When, however, self was
thought more objectively as in the separate pronoun, and as a person
of the middle or passive, in both which it is object as well as subject, it
had not this effect ; and the two were thought with the fulness of the
dual.
Gothic seems more objective than Greek, and like Latin had no
dual of the third person or of the noun. But it had such a sense of
the person associated with self, and of the second person, that it had
a dual of the first and second person in verb and pronoun (Gram. Sk.,
VI. 154, 158).
21. Latin shows much more sense of practical use of things than
Greek (preceding section, 14). And the Latin genius was much
more practical than the Greek. And hence it was that, according to
the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 11, the Greek made such use of
the article; with the noun and of particles witli the sentence as dis-
tinguish his language in so marked a manner from Latin. He had
loss concentration of practical aim and more tendency to general
thought than the Latin.
22. .Busk also has a definite article subjoined to the noun, as if the
CHAP, in.] INCLUSIVE AND EXCLUSIVE FIRST PLURAL. 355
SECT, xii.] NEED FOR HELP.
race had not a strong definiteness of practical aim. It appears from
the loose connection with the noun of elements of relation, that there
is little closeness of application of action (preceding section, 15).
And accordingly the noun has a plural only when affected with the
definite article (Gram. Sk., Bask, 3), agreeably to the principles of
Book I., chap, iii., 12).
So that the principles 11 and 12 of that chapter hold through all
the languages, and harmonise all the facts to which they refer under
general statements of correspondence with the life which is suited to
the region.
XII. — Is the inclusive and exclusive first person dual and plural con-
nected with need for help in the life of the race ?
The Polynesian language is remarkable for the strong sense of per-
sonal individuality which it evinces. Thus proper names and personal
pronouns are thought with such strength and independence that they
need an arthritic element (Def. 7) to put them in a relation ; but they
do not need it as possessors nor do the personal pronouns as subjects,
these being relations natural for persons (Gram. Sk., III. 3). The
distinction also between active and passive possession indicates a
strong sense of personal activity (ibid. 4). The personal pronouns
have a dual as well as a plural, and in both dual and plural the first
has forms inclusive and exclusive of the persons addressed (ibid. 5).
In Fijian the personal pronouns have four numbers, singular, dual,
small plural, and large plural, and the first has inclusive and exclusive
forms in the three last numbers (ibid. 17).
The Melanesian languages also have kindred features. The personal
pronouns have the singular, dual, trial, and plural numbers, showing
a sense of personal individuality stronger than the Polynesian, and
in the three last numbers the first person has inclusive and exclusive
forms, in Annatom (ibid. 21), Erromango (ibid. 24), Tana (ibid. 26),
Sesake (ibid. 28), Ambrym (ibid. 31), and Vunmarama (ibid. 32). In
Mare" (ibid. 34), Lifu (ibid. 37), Bauro (ibid. 41), and Mahaga (42),
they have the singular, dual, and plural, and the first has inclusive and
exclusive forms. In Fijian and Ambrym there are three general nouns
which denote respectively property, food, and drink ; and these sub-
join the personal possessive suffix, and are followed by the particular
noun which denotes the particular possession. In Ambrym this noun
is followed by the particle ge, as if to particularise the connection as
that of possession. Nouns in Ambrym which do not come under
these categories take themselves the possessive suffixes and are followed
by ge. Nouns denoting members of the body take the suffixes and
dispense with ge. Some nouns seem to take after the suffixes not ge
but im (ibid. 31).
In Annatom, only personal nouns take a plural element before them
(ibid. 21).
In Mare" and Lifu proper nouns and personal pronouns are treated
356 INCLUSIVE AND EXCLUSIVE FIRST PLURAL. [CHAP. in.
NEED FOR HELP. [SECT. XH.
differently from common nouns, apparently as if they had more defi-
niteness (ibid. 34, 37). There is also in Tagala an apparently similar
distinction between proper and common nouns (47). And the first
person plural has inclusive and exclusive forms, but there is no dual
personal pronoun except kita, I and thou (ibid. 51, 52).
In Malay of Sumatra the personal pronouns have no dual or plural
forms, except the first, which has an inclusive and an exclusive plural.
In Dayak the first has a dual and all of them plurals, the first an
inclusive and an exclusive plural, the distinction, however, not being
strictly observed (ibid. 74). There seems to Be no distinction in
nouns with reference to personality.
In Tamil there is strong distinction between personal nouns and
non-personal, which appears most clearly in the demonstrative pro-
nouns referring to them. The personal pronouns have a singular and
a plural, and the first has inclusive and exclusive forms (ibid. 97, 98).
In Hottentot personality is so universally imputed to substantive
objects that all substantives and pronouns take the personal suffixes,
and in the relations of action and fact are thought as persons. The
personal pronouns have the singular, dual, and plural numbers, and
the first has inclusive and exclusive forms, which are distinguished
by different roots bearing the first plural and dual suffixes (ibid.
I. 64, 67).
Some of the American languages also have inclusive and exclusive
forms of the first personal pronoun plural.
In Cree these are found along with a distinction between the plural
forms of nouns of the animate and of the inanimate, a more remarkable
distinction of the verbs which have an animate object from those
which have an inanimate and a sense of a stronger personality in the
subject than in the object, in the second person than in the first, and
in the first than in the third (ibid. II. 18, 26, 27, 37).
In Choctaw the first personal pronoun has the twofold plural, and
the second has a plural, and there is no other plural except in the
adjective or verb (ibid. 49, 54).
In Quichua not only has the first personal pronoun the twofold
plural, but there is a great variety of plural elements which may be
subjoined to nouns (ibid. 110, 112).
In Kiriri and Chikito, which have the same feature, the personal
pronouns as possessors do not readily combine with certain classes of
nouns as possessed, and take abstract nouns to facilitate the connec-
tion. In Kiriri personal nouns only form a plural, and in Chikito
nouns of the animate are exempt from entering into compositions
(ibid. 122, 123, 126, 131, 134, 136).
Of the other languages studied in this work, Guarani in South
America, Pul in Africa, and Manju in Asia, have an inclusive and an
exclusive plural of the first personal pronoun (ibid. 118; III. 185;
IV. 60).
This double first plural which is thus strangely scattered through
different languages is accompanied in them by different features,
which, though they may seem to be connected with it in each separate
CHAP, in.] INCLUSIVE AND EXCLUSIVE FIRST PLURAL. 357
SECT, xii.] NEED FOR HELP.
language, are yet shown by their not accompanying it in others to have
no connection of causation with it.
In the Polynesian and in the Melanesian languages it is accom-
panied by a strong sense of personal individuality, stronger in the
latter than the former. This seems to belong naturally to the inhabi-
tants of these islands, in which there is so little life besides human
life ; and in which, therefore, the ordinary interest in human person-
ality is heightened by the interest in almost exclusive life. The
Polynesian was more active than the Melanesian, the Melanesian less
bold than the Polynesian ; and while to the latter there was more
interest in possession for active use or inactive experience, to the
former the individual person was a more potent influence. They both
distinguished the individuals in the personal pronouns according to
their sense of personal individuality, and to this corresponds the
development of number in those pronouns.
In Malay there is no such special sense of personal individuality,
and therefore not such a development of number in the personal pro-
noun. Yet to it and Polynesian belong in common the exclusive and
inclusive plurals of the first person.
In Tamil the interest is not so much in the personal individual as
in the personal nature, thought in contradistinction to the non-personal.
And this seems to point to the great struggle in India between man
and the beast ; which would necessarily give a special interest to
rational beings.
The indolent Hottentot lived on his herds without caring to subdue
nature and bend it to his purposes ; and to him, therefore, it retained
the personality which man attributes to it till he finds it passive to
his will.
To the hunting Cree the capture of the animal was the necessary
labour of life. And this imparted a special interest to the animate
and to energy expended on an animate object. It also gave a sense
of lower vitality to the object of action, and a keen sense of present
life which strengthened the thought of the second person.
Now to all these various races co-operation was most necessary in
their various difficulties, to the islander navigating the ocean, to the
Indian in his struggle with the beasts, to the Hottentot looking for
help to spare himself, to the American hunter of large animals in
herds.
With the industrious Choctaws, the laborious Peruvians, and the
careful and timid Guarani, co-operation had similar value. And
with all those races this might give vivid distinction to the persons
associated with self, according to the principle of Book I., chap,
iii., 13.
But as to the Kiriri, Chikito, Pul, and Manju, there is nothing
known which gives support to the principle, and it cannot be regarded
as more than a conjecture.
358 GENDER. [CHAP. in.
DOMINATING POWERS OF NATURE. [SECT. xni.
XIII. — Gender tends to be distinguished as masculine and feminine,
the more the race is dominated by the powers of nature.
1. The nature of grammatical gender, as explained in Def. 16, is
strikingly illustrated by what has been said of Teutonic gender in
Gram. Sk., VI. 164 ; and also by Arabic and Hebrew gender (ibid.
V. 58, 81, 82).
2. It is also worthy of note that as the Syro- Arabian races sub-
dued nature to their purposes less than the Indo-European, the living
power which they perceived in things is less restricted than it was in
the thought of the latter, according to the principle of Book I., chap,
iii., 14. For the Syro- Arabian had no neuter; every substantive was
to him masculine or feminine. Owing to this strong sense of living
force also, the personal pronouns and the person elements, subjective,
objective, and possessive, had the two genders (Gram. Sk., V. 51). Yet
there was a strange uncertainty sometimes in the agreement of the verb
or pronoun with the substantive in gender. There was a similar un-
certainty of agreement with it in number. And both arose from the
same cause which produced the weakness of the substance in the
substantive idea (this chapter, XL 19), namely, the weakness with
which it was thought in the connections which combine the members
of fact (Gram. Sk., V. 72, 96).
The strong Teutonic race submitted less to nature, dominated it
more than the Greek and Latin, and tended more to the neuter
gender (ibid. VI. 164).
On the contrary, the modern Celtic, Lithuanian, and Romance
nations (chap, iv., 12) gave up the neuter gender as they tended
more to submit and accommodate themselves to the world around
them (Gram. Sk., VI. 109, 183); but the Slavonic, like the Teutonic,
tended to the use of the neuter (ibid. 220).
3. The apparent anomaly of the Syro-Arabian numerals, above 2,
having the masculine form with feminine nouns, and the feminine
form with masculine nouns (ibid. V. 63, 85, 108, 133), also illus-
trates remarkably the nature of gender. For masculine nouns being
more easily counted on account of their stronger individuality, the
thought of their number engages less mental energy, and admits a
co-existent sense of the objects counted. This causes the number
to be thought as a subordinate appendage to the objects, and there-
fore as feminine. Whereas feminine objects being less easily
counted by reason of their weaker individuality, the number engages
more mental energy and leaves less room for a co-existent sense of
the objects, and the number consequently is not reduced to a subordi-
nate idea and does not take the feminine form. This curious feature
is due to the weakness of the substance of the Syro-Arabian noun
rendering so faint the individuality of the feminine ; and therefore
it does not appear in the Indo-European languages. But in these too
may be observed a difference in the substantive strength and gender
CHAP, in.] GENDER. 359
SECT, xiii.] DOMINATING POWERS OF NATURE.
of the numerals, according to the degree in which they engross thought
so as to draw it from the objects counted.
4. Thus in Sanskrit the first four numerals, like the first two in
Arabic, admit so strong a co-existent sense of the objects counted, that
they are adjectives agreeing with the noun in gender, number, and
case. The numerals 5 to 10 admit such a sense of the objects that in.
the oblique cases they take the plural case endings, which do not
distinguish gender ; but in the nominative and accusative they are
thought as combining with the noun, and drop the final n. The case
elements of the nominative and accusative are too weak to impress
themselves on the numeral, because the latter engrosses the mental
energy too much to admit a full sense of the objects counted ; and for
the same reason the gender of the objects counted is not felt in those
numerals. The multiples of 10 are so far separated from the objects
numbered that they are substantives singular in apposition to these.
But they still admit such a sense of the objects that they are thought
as subordinate to them and are feminine. The numerals for 100 and
1000 so engage the mental energy that they are quite abstracted, and
therefore (Def. 16) they are neuter (Gram. Sk., VI. 6).
The Teutonic numerals 1 to 9 are found declined as adjectives
agreeing with their nouns, but those for 10 to 19 in Gothic and Old
High German were declined as plural substantives masculine ; and the
higher numerals are less abstract than in Latin and Greek, as Teutonic
thought tended to embrace a larger object in its ideas (ibid. 153, 173),
and consequently retained more sense of the objects counted.
Sanskrit also had greater largeness of idea than Greek and Latin
(ibid. 45), and the numerals in these had become by use more general
and detached from their particular application ; in these, therefore, the
numbers above 4 were abstracts, and 4 in Latin ; for it engrossed the
mental energy more than 4 in Greek, as if counting was easier to the
Greek. The multiples of 100, which in Sanskrit were summed in
totals, were in Greek and Latin plural adjectives, characterising
individuals as belonging to or constituting the numbers, rather than
comprehending them in counted aggregates. For neither Greek nor
Latin could readily comprehend so large a thought, and consequently
it was not distinctly formed. The objects numbered were not summed
up into a total. They were merely counted in succession ; and they
left a sense of plurality, because the numeration was not completed by
thinking distinctly the aggregate number.
5. It is very remarkable that outside the Syro- Arabian and Indo-
European families grammatical gender is found in none of the
languages studied in this work except Egyptian, Bari, Galla, and
Hottentot (ibid. I. 64; III. 109, 152, 162).
Now, although there is a strong affinity between the Egyptian
and Syro- Arabian personal pronouns (ibid. III. 112), and striking
marks in Galla of original connection with the Syro-Arabian, there
is a total difference from Syro-Arabian in the structure of these
languages ; and they must have a tendency favourable to gender or it
would not have been preserved in them, even if it came to them
360 SYNTHESIS OF THE SENTENCE. [CHAP, in
INTEREST IN RESULTS. [SECT. xiv.
originally from Arabic ; while in Hottentot no community with
Arabic can be supposed.
It has been observed above that according to the principle of Book
L, chap, iii., 14, the Syro-Arabian had more sense than the Indo-
European of the living force in nature which gender expresses, just as
he subdued nature less to his purposes. And amongst the other
races of the world none dominated nature less than the African
nomads, who lived dependent on their herds, fed for them with no
effort on their part ; and the Egyptians, sustained by the abundant
produce of the soil which was watered for them by the Nile. So that
the development of gender by these races is in accordance with the
principle of Book L, chap, iii., 14.
6. The variableness of the gender of Hottentot nouns according to
their applications, corresponds to the partial detachment from the root
of the noun of its personal substance (this chapter, XL 9), to which
the gender belongs (Gram. Sk., I. 64).
XIV. — The degree of synthesis in the sentence corresponds to the
interest with which the race looks to results,
The Tagala, in its use of the passives (Gram. Sk., III. 57), shows
plainly that the principal interest of fact in that language lies in its
end or result. And this is accompanied by an extraordinary synthetic
tendency (ibid. 58, 59), according to the principle of Book L, chap,
iii., 15.
Something of the same kind is to be seen in Sanskrit ; in which
the prevalence of a passive construction is noted as the most remark-
able feature of its syntax ; the passive participle, which expresses
completion without passive subjectivity, usually taking the place of
the past tenses of the passive verb (ibid. VI. 42).
And along with this tendency to think fact in its completion, is
found in Sanskrit the remarkable degree in which each word runs
into the following one, and in which compounds are formed of syntac-
tical combinations (ibid. 2, 39).
Latin is free from this tendency to run one word into another ; but
Greek is remarkable for the separateness of its words (ibid. 60). And
while Latin gives no such evidence as Sanskrit of a predominant
interest in the result, the character of the Latin race, so much more
practical than the Greek, exhibits an interest in results which quite
corresponds with the greater synthesis of the Latin sentence.
The synthetic tendency in Teutonic (ibid. 163), which, though very
much less than in Sanskrit, is yet remarkable, may be correlated in
the same way with the synthetic conception of fact which may be
seen in the remarkable constructions in which German sums up a fact
Ly inserting it all between a simple verb and a separable prefix
belonging to that verb, or between an auxiliary verb and a participle
or infinitive which forms with the auxiliary a compound tense. For
tiiis seeins to indicate that the German has a strong interest in fact as
CHAP, m.] STRONG PRESSURE OF BREATH FROM THE CHEST. 361
SECT, xv.] STRENGTH OF PURPOSE.
summed up in its result ; which would correspond with the persever-
ing thoroughness of the race in carrying its work to completion.
Even in Chinese there is a tendency to the formation of compounds,
and also to the summation of fact, as if from an interest in its total
result (ibid. V. 5, 12), corresponding to the practical bent of the
race.
The differences which have been observed among the American
languages in respect of synthetic construction seem to arise from the
various degrees in which the races think fact in the result (ibid. II.
5, 64, 144).
Amongst the African languages the Kafir tends to synthesis in
accordance with the practical genius of the race (ibid. I. 7).
And the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 15, agrees with the structure
of language viewed in connection with the mental habits of the race
so far as these can be made out.
XV. — Utterance of the consonants with strong pressure of breath from
the chest corresponds to strength of purpose in the race, their hard
and full utterance to laborious and active habits respectively, their
unrestricted concurrence to versatility, their predominance over the
vowels to thoughtfulness.
1. The phonesis of the African languages of the south and west is
remarkable for the weak pressure of breath from the chest with which
they are uttered (Gram. Sk., I. 8, 24, 35, 57 ; V. 141). And this mode
of utterance, when affected with the indolence of the Hottentot, pro-
duced the clicks (ibid. 74). On the east of Africa a weak pressure of
breath from the chest has been noted by Lepsius in Nubian, and may
be observed also in Galla (ibid. IIL 126, 161). And it seems to char-
acterise more or less all African speech. Now the opposite character
of utterance, with strong pressure of breath from the chest, prevails
similarly in the languages of North America (ibid. II. 11, 44, 52, 57,
60, 68, 78), and is found in Kiriri in South America (ibid. 121).
But in Guarani the pressure seems to be weak (ibid. 116).
Maori seems to have more pressure of breath than Hawaiian or
Tahitian (ibid. III. 2).
The Dravidian phonesis has full pressure of breath from the chest
(ibid. 92).
The Arabic has strong pressure (ibid. V. 50), Hebrew less strong
(ibid. 75), Syriac stronger than Hebrew (ibid. 100), Ethiopia so weak
that it approximates to the African (ibid. 120), and Amharic still
weaker (ibid. 141).
Latin seems to have stronger pressure of breath from the chest
than Greek (ibid. VI. 80), and Irish than British (ibid. 92, 107).
Lithuanian and Slavonic have weak pressure (ibid. 175, 176, 203),
apparently also Finnish (ibid. IV. 147), and certainly Samoiede
(ibid. 66).
Now, the contrast between the African and the North American in
VOL. II. 2 A
362 STRONG PRESSURE OF BREATH FROM THE CHEST. [CHAP. in.
STRENGTH OF PURPOSE. [SECT. xv.
respect of this characteristic of utterance supports most strongly the
principle of Book L, chap, iii., 16. For as the African races utter
with less pressure of breath from the chest than any others, so they
have also the least strength of purpose. While the native races of
North America are surpassed by none in this quality, the New
Zealander has more of it than the native of the Sandwich Islands or
Tahiti. The Tamil is the most persevering race of Hindoos (Gram. Sk.,
III. 91). The Arab has great strength of purpose, as he has great
need for it in traversing the desert. But the Hebrew had less need for
it on the edge of the desert, the Syrian more scope than the Hebrew
for persistent enterprise, as dwelling in a less secluded country. The
Latin shows in history more persistence than the Greek. And the
Irish have given more proof of it than the "Welsh, in the persistence
with which they have clung to their religion as well as to their
nationality, and the strength of purpose with which they are recover-
ing their position in their native land.
But one of the most remarkable phonetic facts in language is the
development of pressure of breath from the chest which has taken
place in the Teutonic languages, and produced the two successive
changes in the mutes which are stated in Grimm's law (ibid. VI. 132).
And there is no doubt that as all the Teutonic races have developed
the first access of pressure from the chest in their utterance, so, in
accordance with the principle of Book L, chap, iii., 16, they are all dis-
tinguished for strength of purpose among the nations of the world ; and
as the High Germans have developed also the second access of pressure,
so they are remarkable above the rest for persistent perseverance.
But if a change of character was the cause of this change of
utterance, how can we suppose it to have arisen? Now, if national
character consist of the qualities which, under the circumstances of
the nation, have given advantage in the struggle for life, any change
in those circumstances which would alter the conditions of that
struggle would tend to alter the character which would prevail Such
a change took place when the Roman Empire was consolidated in
Europe, and the German tribes became aware of that great field for
plunder, and of that mighty foe. A new value then became attached
to persistent resolution in carrying an enterprise through. And how
this influence moved Germany throughout may be seen in the great
combination of the German nations which terrified the Romans in the
reign of Marcus Antoninus, and which comprehended all nations of
Germany, and some of Sarmatia, from the mouth of the Rhine to that
of the Danube.1 This was towards the end of the period during
which the first change of Teutonic utterance was accomplished, namely,
the first two centuries of our era (Gram. Sk., VI. 132). For the
change began as soon as the empire was established, and would tend
to spread as a condition of success in the internal struggles of the
German nations.
That the moving cause was the stimulus given to martial enterprise
1 Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. be.
CHAP, in.] HARDNESS OF UTTERANCE. 363
SECT, xv.] LABORIOUS LIFE.
by the Koman Empire is confirmed by the fact that it -was only
amongst the High Germans, the nations nearest to the Roman pro-
vinces, that the second change took place about the seventh century.
And this change did not spread, because the Roman Empire attracted
High German enterprise away from internal wars in Germany.
2. The rpsa and Zulu language is distinguished by a softness of
utterance due to a relaxed action of the organs of the mouth (Gram.
Sk., I. 8). And it is very remarkable that the kindred language of
the Bichuana is hard in its utterance compared with that of the 'josa
and Zulu (ibid. 14). Now these latter are a much stronger, braver
people than the Bichuana, whom Livingstone calls effeminate com-
pared with them.1 He says that the country of the Kafirs or Zulus
is well wooded, and its seaboard gorges clad with gigantic timber.
" It is also comparatively well watered with streams and flowing
rivers. The annual supply of rain is considerable, and the inhabitants
are tall, muscular, and well made. They are shrewd, energetic, and
brave. Altogether they merit the character given them by military
authority of being magnificent savages." The country of the Bichuana
" consists for the most part of extensive, slightly undulating plains.
There are no lofty mountains, but few springs, and still fewer flowing
streams. Rain is far from abundant, and droughts may be expected
every few years. Without artificial irrigation no European grain can
be raised, and the inhabitants, though evidently of the same stock
originally with those already mentioned, and closely resembling them
in being an agricultural as well as a pastoral people, are a compara-
tively timid race and inferior to the Kafirs in physical development."2
It is natural that the stronger people should secure for themselves the
better territory and should flourish there. But it is a striking fact that
the brave and manly race have the soft utterance, the timid and
effeminate race the hard utterance. The paradox, however, disappears
when it is remembered that the latter have the harder life, are forced
by their conditions to be more laborious, and naturally carry into their
utterance the muscular tension to which they are habituated, accord-
ing to the principles of Book I., chap, iii., 16.
A precisely similar difference of utterance distinguishes the language
of the Cree south of Hudson's Bay from the same language as spoken
by the Chippeway in their better country about the head waters of
the Mississippi (Gram. Sk., II. 17), and also the language of the
Yakut from that of the Turk (ibid. IV. 18). The insular Caraibs
have a softer utterance than the continental (ibid. II. 100). The
Eskimo has a hard utterance (ibid. 11). The Dakota and Choctaw
in the fertile plains adjoining the Missouri and Mississippi have
rather a soft utterance, or at least not hard (ibid. 44, 52). The
Yakama, on the Columbia river east of the Cascade Mountains, have
apparently a hard utterance ; and the Selish, more to the north and
higher up the Rocky Mountains, a harder (ibid. 57, 60). Chiapaneca
in Central America has a soft utterance (ibid. 89), which cannot be
1 Livingstone, Missionary Travels, p. 32. J Ibid. p. 95.
364 INCOMPLETE UTTERANCE. [CHAP. m.
INDOLENCE. [SECT. xv.
said of the neighbouring languages of Mexico, Guatemala, or Yucatan
(ibid. 91, 95). And it is remarkable that Chiapa is lower and less
mountainous than these countries. Quichua, spoken in the moun-
tains by the laborious Peruvians, is hard ; Guarani, spoken in the
fertile parts of the basins of the Amazon and Paraguay, is soft (ibid.
109, 116). The Chikitos live an easy life and have a soft utterance
(ibid. 129). The other American languages studied in this work are
not characterised as either hard or soft, for want of decisive infor-
mation.
In the fertile plains of Southern India the Dravidian utterance is
remarkable for its softness (ibid. III. 92) ; the Egyptian not so (ibid.
108), probably on account of Egyptian agriculture involving more
labour than a partly pastoral life. But the Galla utterance is very
soft, which corresponds with the conditions of the life of the race.
For " they occupy vast and noble plains which are verdant almost all
the year round and afford nourishment to immense herds of cattle "
(ibid. 160, 161).
Buriat has softer utterance than Mongolian, as it belongs to a lower
and less rigorous region around Lake Baikal, in which life is easier
than in high Mongolia (ibid. IV. 46).
The northern languages of Asia and Europe have a soft utterance,
the Samoiede (ibid. 66), the Ostiak (ibid. 100), the Tscheremissian
and Lapponic (ibid. 125), and the Finnish (ibid. 147). There is in
these regions little scope for useful labour ; and where life can be sus-
tained, it is sustained by cattle, fish, or game, with little labour.
Syriac utterance and Arabic were harder than Hebrew (ibid. V.
75, 100), as life was more laborious in the less fertile countries.
Greek utterance was harder than Sanskrit or Latin (ibid. VI. 60,
80), as the more rugged soil on which the Greek character was formed
required harder labour than India or Italy.
Irish utterance was harder than British (ibid. 92, 107), as the
wetter climate of Ireland made the conditions of Jife less favourable
than those in England (see also chap, iv., 21). And High German
was harder than the other Teutonic languages (Gram. Sk., VI. 139),
as the highlands to which it belonged demanded more labour than
the German lowland.
And so far as the various languages are decisively marked with a
hard or a soft character, the co-existence of this character with a
more or a less laborious life may be traced throughout them all, in
accordance with the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 15.
But in action there is another factor besides intensity, namely, con-
tinuity. And in respect of this there are differences among the races
of mankind which are quite independent of the former. For a race
may be active and like to be always engaged in action, though it be
not laborious. It may be indolent though occasionally disposed for
great exertion.
"When activity is combined with a laborious habit, then, according
to Book I., chap, iii., 16, utterance will be not only tense or hard,
but also full throughout. But indolence leads to an imperfect utterance.
CHAP, in.] VERSATILITY" OF UTTERANCE. 365
SECT, v.] VERSATILITY OF ACTION.
The nomad races of Asia have an indolent utterance of this kind in
those vowels which are called soft on account of their imperfect inde-
cisive pronunciation (Gram. Sk., IV. 2). And the partial development
of this feature corresponds to the life of those races.
The nomadic life in summer admits great interruptions to its
inactivity when pastures have to be changed, and provision has to be
made for the winter. But in the winter the inactivity must be con-
tinuous. These two parts of the nomad's life, when the difference
between them is very great, seem to be distinct sources of ideas
having respectively active and inactive associations, and expressed
accordingly with a full or an imperfect utterance. For the division
of words into those with hard or fully uttered vowels, and those with
soft or imperfectly uttered vowels, is confined in its origin to that
part of the world where the difference between summer and winter is
extreme, where the July temperature is above 59°, and the January
temperature is below 23° (ibid. 4, 67).
The Hottentot utterance seems to be marked with indolence (ibid.
I. 74) ; and indolence is one of the most striking characteristics of
the race.
An indolence of utterance appears in Hebrew compared with
Arabic (ibid. V. 75) ; and the former was a less active race than the
latter.
Irish utterance was indolent compared with British (ibid. 92, 107),
which also corresponds to the respective characters of the races.
Lithuanian and Slavonic are characterised by an indolence of
utterance which naturally belongs to those whose life was nomadic
(ibid. 175, 204).
And in general, where indolence or activity characterises the utter-
ance, in the same degree it is found in the life of the race, according
to the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 16.
3. A further difference among races arises from the degree in which
they have developed promptitude of volition for a new action. For
it may be a necessary aptitude for the life of a race, that they should
have slow volition for a new action, so as to be tenacious of an action
once begun, or, on the contrary, versatility may be an advantage. And
according to Book I., chap, iii., 16, tenacity should show itself in
speech by want of facility in the transitions of utterance, leading to
many restrictions on the immediate sequence of letters, versatility by
unrestricted concurrence of different elements.
Now the former feature is to be observed in the nomad languages
of Asia, in correspondence with the continuous sameness of their occu-
pations ; but less in Mongolian than in the Tartar languages (Gram.
Sk., IV. 2, 35), just as the more scattered pastures of Mongolia (this
chap., III. 4) brought more change into the life of the Mongol ; and
less in Turkish than in Yakut (ibid. 18), by reason of the larger sphere
of various activity which the Turks have enjoyed.
A certain want of versatility seems to be observable also in the
phonesis of Nubian (ibid. III. 126) and Kanuri (ibid. 172). As to
the character of these races information is wanting.
366 PROPORTION OF CONSONANT TO VOWEL. [CHAP. HI.
PROPORTION OF THOUGHT TO TALK. [SKCT. XV.
Greek utterance was more versatile than Latin, and Latin than
Sanskrit (ibid. VI. 2, 60, 80) ; which corresponds to the characters of
the three races.
Lithuanian and Slavonic are marked with want of versatility (ibid.
178, 204) agreeably to the monotony of the nomadic life. So that
the principles of Book I., chap, iii., 16, hold through the languages.
4. Polynesian is remarkable above all the other languages for a
predominance of the vowels over the consonants (Gram. Sk., III. 2) ;
and the conditions of life of the race are equally remarkable for the
degree in which they favour sociality and dispense with care, so that
the tendency is rather to expression than to thought.
The Melanesians being weaker and more timid, have more care ;
and their languages are more consonantal (ibid. 20).
The conditions of life of the Malays are not so easy. They belong
to the group of races referred to in Section XL of this chapter (18 ;
and in the Introduction 2) who find what they want supplied to them
by nature, but have to look for it with care ; and there is no such
predominance of the vowel over the consonant in their language as
there is in Polynesian (Gram. Sk., III. 71).
It is very instructive to observe that the languages of the most
northern nations, whose life is passed under the most rigorous con-
ditions, are also marked with a highly vocalic character, the Eskimo
(ibid. II. 11), the Samoiede (ibid. IV. 68), the Sirianian (ibid. 137),
the Tscheremissian, the Lapponic (ibid. 125, 156), the Finnish
(ibid. 147). And the same feature, in a somewhat less degree, may
be observed in the nomadic languages, but more in Yakut (ibid. 2)
than in Mongolian (ibid. 35, 46) or Tungusian (ibid. 51).
Now, though all the conditions of life for these races are so
different from those of the Polynesian, in one respect they agree with
the latter. For as the Polynesian has no need for thought, these
have little scope for thought, and less scope the further north they
live. So that both are naturally little characterised by thoughtful
habits. The inhospitable region of the northern races renders
necessary on their part ingenuity in acquiring the necessaries of life,
and in the extreme north, the utmost skill in practising such arts as
they have. But it limits the range of their interests, and furnishes
little for them to think of. At the same time, the long darkness
of the northern winters invites indoor occupations and promotes
sociality. So that in their languages as well as in the Polynesian,
we should expect to find the vowel predominant over the consonant,
according to the principle of Book I., chap, iii., 16.
The Africans are generally talkative and unthinking ; and their
languages generally have large use and development of the vowel
Kafir (Gram. Sk., I. 8) and Yoruba (ibid. 24) have a marked vocalic
character. Woloff has eight vowels distinguished by the grammarian
(ibid. 25), Vei eight vowels (ibid. 35), Oti nine vowels (ibid. 57),
Barea eight vowels (ibid. III. 136), Dinka eight (ibid. 143), Ban
seven (ibid. 151) ; and Galla and Kanuri have each a decided
vocalic tendency (ibid. 161, 172).
CHAP, in.] PROPORTION OF CONSONANT TO VOWEL. 367
BKCT. xv.] PROPORTION OF THOUGHT TO TALK.
Amongst the American languages other than Eskimo, which has
been mentioned above, Choctaw has rather a vocalic than a consonantal
character (ibid. II. 52) ; Selish is predominantly consonantal (ibid.
60) ; Otonii has nine vowels, besides nasalisations of some of them,
and eighteen consonants (ibid. 78) ; Chiapaneca seems to have a vocalic
character (ibid. 89), and also Caraib (ibid. 100) ; Kiriri has twenty-one
consonants and ten vowels distinguished by the grammarian, but no
diphthongs (ibid. 121) ; Chikito has sixteen consonants, six vowels,
no concurrence of consonants, and few concurrences of vowels (ibid.
129). The other American languages seem to have no marked
character in this respect. With regard to the habits of these races
information is so deficient that nothing more can be said than that
there is no inconsistency between the above facts and the principle
of Book I., chap, iii., 16.
Chinese and Siamese have a vocalic character (ibid. V. 2, 15),
which accords with the social convivial character of the people.
Gutzlaff says that the Chinese " are in general a cheerful people, and
never more so than at their meals, when all is joviality, and care is
drowned in present enjoyment. They then talk incessantly, and
endeavour to exhilarate their companions." l Burmese and Japanese
are less vocalic (ibid. 20, 40) ; Tibetan has a marked consonantal
character (ibid. 31).
Arabic is remarkable for the balanced use of the consonant and the
vowel, corresponding to the habits of the Arab, both thoughtful and
social, characterised by "grave cheerfulness and mirthful composure."2
And the proportion between the two elements is much the same in
the other Syro- Arabian languages (ibid. 75, 100, 119).
Greek is more vocalic than Latin, and Latin than Sanskrit (ibid.
VI. 60, 80), and the talkativeness of the races varies in similar pro-
portion. The most talkative of the Indo-European races and the
least burdened with care are the Celts, and in Celtic the vowel is
more predominant than in any other of the Indo-European languages
(ibid. 92).
The native character of Teutonic in respect of the proportion of
the vowel utterance to the consonant utterance was similar to that of
Sanskrit (ibid. 133) ; both vowel and consonant being less developed.
And to this corresponds the comparative taciturnity of the Teuton.
Old High German had a fuller vocalisation than Gothic (ibid. 137,
147).
Lithuanian is vocalic, probably owing to Finnish influence (ibid.
175). But Slavonic shows a striking curtailment of vowel utter-
ance (ibid. 202).
Bask is vocalic (ibid. Bask, 2).
And throughout the languages studied in this work the phonetic
characteristics of the language correspond to the habits of the race so
far as the information of the writer reaches, according to the principle
of Book L, chap, iii., 16.
1 Gutzlaff's China, voL i. p. 436. 2 Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 68.
( 368 )
CHAPTEE IV.
Decay of inflections and formative elements, tendency to detached
singleness of stem, and detached elements of definition and
connection, phonetic decay. Migrations, mixtures, progress in
knowledge, arts, and civilisation.
1. THE reduction of the inflections both in fulness and in number
in Greek and Latin compared with Sanskrit is a striking feature
in those languages. The diminished fulness of the utterance of
the inflections cannot be attributed to foreign influence ; for such
fine elements of expression are just those parts of a language
•which are liable to be ignored by foreign speakers. The change
must be due to some influence affecting the native speakers of
those languages ; and that influence must have been one from which
the speakers of Sanskrit were free. Now the Greeks and Latins
migrated to distant lands, while the speakers of Sanskrit remained
nearer to their native seats. And such migration must have very
greatly enlarged the stock of ideas of the former, and increased the
range of applications of their words. The words would thus acquire
greater generality of idea ; for they would be thought as applicable
to a larger variety of objects of thought, and the meaning connected
with them would become one which was common to a greater number
of different applications. As the words thus became more general
in meaning, and thought was in some degree drawn away from the
present object to the more general associations which it awakened,
the connections with the present fact, and other specialities belonging
to the present object, would be more weakly thought. And accord-
ing as the fulness diminished with which these elements were thought
the fulness of expression with which they were uttered would
diminish likewise ; for the lighter thought naturally suggests the
lighter utterance.
As the inflections thus tended to be thought more abstractly, they
would need to be supplemented in particular instances, in which the
connection or modification was not adequately expressed by the abstract
inflection. The supplementary expression, as it represented a second
thought of what the inflection denoted, would tend to be detached as
an independent member of the sentence, and might weaken or destroy
the use of the inflection. In this fashion the stronger elements, for
which originally there wore inflections, would tend to be expressed.
For as the inflections which originally expressed them became finer
and more abstract in meaning, they would fail to give the due expres-
CHAP, iv.] DETACHMENT OF ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION, ETC. 3G9
MIGRATIONS, MIXTURES, PROGRESS.
sion. Their reduced meaning might coincide with what used to be
expressed by other inflections and what these were still sometimes
used for. By these, then, with the proper supplements when neces-
sary, they would tend to be expressed, and to fall out of use them-
selves. And thus the great tendency to refine and to drop inflec-
tions, and to supplement or replace them by separate elements, is to be
accounted for in its earliest appearance by the growing generality of
the stems, according to the principle of Book I., chap iv., 6.
2. This tendency to increased generality in the elements of speech
was carried further by the advance of knowledge, arts, and civilisation,
according to Book I., chap, iv., 8. And as it increased the need for
particularisation, it developed in Greek the great use of the article, and
of particles which signalise the sentence, that distinguish the Greek
language from the Latin, and indicate the more general interests of
Greek thought (chap, iii., Sect. XI., 21).
3. A great literature which is taken by the educated classes as
giving a standard of correct language powerfully resists the tendencies
to change ; because a mode of expression unknown to literature is
regarded as uncouth and barbarous. Such changes, however, are apt
gradually to come even when the language has been little exposed to
disturbing influences ; for tendencies cannot but make themselves felt
in time. But they affect the spoken language more readily than the
written, as there is ordinarily less care for correctness in speaking than
in writing. So the modern Greek differs from the ancient language
more as it is spoken than as it is written.
4. It is not only the inflections which tend to decay as the mean-
ings of the stems become more general ; but also the formative
elements added to the root to form the stem of the primitive noun or
verb. For according to Book I., chap, iv., 6, the tendency is for the
common essence of the various applications of the stem to take the
place of the thought of the radical element, so that this becomes
fainter, and the formative element of the stem which is relative to
the root must become fainter along with it. The elements, however,
which continue to be used to form derivatives from other words will
of course retain the strength of meaning necessary for that purpose.
In consequence of the Aveakening of the stem formatives, the variety
of forms of the same inflection which was due originally to the variety
of those elements added to the root to form the stem, lose the reason of
their being. And as the distinctions of the stem formatives tend to
disappear, the distinctions of inflections which have the same meaning
with different forms will tend to disappear, and the most usual forms
to take the place of the others.
In the same way, when it happens that inflections which had
originally different meanings lose by the Aveakening of their significance
their distinctions of meaning, they will tend to lose their difference
of form, and those Avhich are most in use Avill tend to prevail over
the rest.
5. These various changes are promoted by the influence of foreign
speakers failing to note the finer elements of expression, and replacing
370 DETACHMENT OF ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION, ETC. [CHAP. iv.
MIGRATIONS, MIXTURES, PROGRESS.
them when necessary by coarser methods, according to Book I., chap,
iv., 4.
6. The process above described explains the various changes which
have taken place in the structure of Greek, and which distinguish the
modern from the ancient language.
Thus the dative inflection having a stronger meaning than any
other case endings, has disappeared from the spoken language.1 For
in accordance with what has been said above, its due meaning could
not be maintained as an element in the thought which the word
expressed when thought was drawn away to the more general associa-
tions of the stem. And being thought only in part of its significance,
it came to coincide in meaning with the more abstract genitive
inflection, which then naturally took its place. Or it was supple-
mented by the preposition «/;, which then reduced it to the still more
abstract accusative.2
The dual inflections also had too strong a meaning to be maintained.
And they declined in significance so as to coincide with the plural
inflections, and to be replaced by them.
There was a general tendency to uniformity according as the
original causes of the differences of forms passed out of the conscious-
ness of the race.
Feminine nouns ending in a make the genitive singular in -a; 3 in
the spoken language; because the dative having disappeared every
other case had a except the genitive plural, which having always had
-«» in all nouns, retained it in all.4
The inflection of the accusative singular being the most abstract of
all the case endings, could not bear much reduction, and almost
vanished out of thought and expression in the spoken language. Its
final > in the first and second declension came to be very faintly
uttered, and the accusative singular of the third declension lost the
sense of being the accusative, and came to be thought as the stem,
adding -( for the nominative when it was masculine, so that a^cav was
replaced by ris%ovra.(, but -rarg/; by T<xrj/3a.5 The genitive singular
of masculines of the first declension, instead of taking -ou, tended to
take the final vowel of the stem under the assimilating influence of
the other cases.
The final ; of the plural tended to be universalised from the
third declension so far as to be added in the first, so that the nomi-
native plural came to end in -a/;, but when the final vowel of the
stem is very strong, or belongs to a foreign word to be preserved with
distinctness, the ending is more distinct, and 3 is taken to prevent
hiatus, so that the ending is -&;. The accusative plural is the same
as the nominative, for there is no sense of difference between them.6
The masculine nouns of the second declension maintain their
ancient forms, except that they drop > in the accusative singular.
This shows a superior strength in their inflections (Gram. Sk., VI. 8).
1 VlachoH, Modem Greek Grammar, pp. 8, 9. 2 Ibid. p. 83.
1 Ibid. p. 10. 4 Ibid. p. 9. • Ibid. pp. 12, 17.
6 Ibid. pp. 10, 12, 18.
CHAP, iv.] DETACHMENT OF ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION, ETC. 371
MIGRATIONS, MIXTURES, PROGRESS.
The declension of neuters in -//AOV, as if they were neuters in -ipa, arose
from the assimilating influence of those in -pa, -paro; ; but -//AO* is
preserved in the nominative accusative and vocative singular.1
7. The article remained as it was, for it had no stem to be changed
into a general essence and weaken the inflection. But the noun
having no dative, the article could not have one.2
The stems of the first and second personal pronouns tended to
become uniformly tp- and iff- in singular and plural, except that the
nominative singular was eyw and <s\> or iov, the other differences having
lost all significance.
The accusative singular took -ca, probably from nva. For the
generalising and detachment of the stem produced in the first and
second persons an increased sense of personality, and this rendered
necessary a stronger element to express them as objects. But it
weakened the distinctive sense of the case relations (1), and con-
sequently the genitive and dative, both singular and plural, tended to
be expressed by the accusative.3
8. In the verb the third plural present has -OUK or -ovvt instead of
-ovai • because every other tense, that is, the imperfect and the aorist,
having v, it prevailed over a. The imperfect is apt to take a from the
first aorist, except in the second and third singular ; for in these persons
they both have -is, -t, probably on account of -us being the stem of the
second personal pronoun. For the same reason the second singular
passive has -taai present, -f.eo imperfect, following the analogy of
-troii, -tro. The future is expressed by da before the present or aorist
subjunctive, da being from diXu ica, or by 0fXw, followed by present or
aorist infinitive ; the perfect by s%u, pluperfect by w%o», followed
by aorist infinitive. In these compound tenses the present infinitive
active drops -v, and the aorist infinitive active is assimilated by chang-
ing -at to -11 ; in the passive it is shortened by dropping -mi. Con-
ditional tenses may be expressed by 6u, followed by imperfect or pluper-
fect. The third person imperative singular and plural is expressed
by a; = af eg before the subjunctive. The auxiliaries were rendered
necessary, according to the principles above stated, by the weakened
inflection not being sufficient to express the tense or mood. The
first aorist passive has a strange form, sometimes eXvdqx.a. for e'Xutfjji'.4
9. The definite article is always used before the Christian name,
and the names of cities and countries.5 With the former it particu-
larises amongst those of the same name. With the latter it probably
defines or distinguishes from what is outside the limits.
The growing generality of words, as it promoted the use of the
article in ancient Greek (2), extended the use of it in modern
Greek. It also threw more stress on the relative pronoun ; because
the sense of the present connections of the noun which the relative
had to express, was weakened in the idea of the noun (1). And in
forming those connections, the relative tended to grasp the noun more
strongly, so as to get a sense of its nature and be expressed by 6™/b;
1 Vlachos, p. 18. 2 Ibid. p. 8. 3 Ibid. pp. 35, 36. * Ibid. p. 46-51.
5 Ibid. pp. 40, 80.
372 DETACHMENT OF ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION, ETC. [CHAP. iv.
MIGRATIONS, MIXTURES, PROGRESS.
instead of by oj.1 The numeral ii; («»«;) and r!t are used for an
indefinite article.1
10. In the Romance languages the growing generality of -words
rendered necessary the development of a definite and of an indefinite
article, unknown to Latin, to express respectively the definite and the
indefinite individual, as distinguished from the general idea which the
noun expressed. In Wallachian the definite article was suffixed to the
noun ; 2 which seems to indicate that in itself the noun was thought
in Wallachian less generally than in the other languages (compare
Syriac, Gram. Sk., V. 112).
11. In the decay of the formative elements of the stem of the
noun, according to what has been said above (4), the fourth and fifth
Latin declensions fell away in Romance, the fourth into the second,
the fifth into the first or third. And some nouns passed from one of
the first three declensions to another.3
In the confusion of the stem formatives, the more usual tended not
only to take the place of the less usual, but also to bring with them
the gender which usually belonged to them. Thus femiuines of the
fourth declension often became masculines of the second.
Masculines of the first also tended to become feminine ; for this
was the most usual gender of nouns in -a. Sometimes the common
essence of its applications which, according to Book I., chap iv., 6,
the noun came to express, suggested a different gender from that
which belonged to the old idea ; 4 as when potestas became masculine
from being used to denote a man.
12. The Romance languages gave up the distinction of a neuter
gender in the substantive.5 For the life of these nations had become
easier and more passive than it once was, so that they dominated
nature less than of old (chap. iiL, Sect. XIII. 2).
13. In the decay of the inflections in the Romance languages the
other oblique case endings tended to become as abstract as the old
accusative, and to be replaced by prepositions with an accusative.
And the accusative thus becoming the most usual case tended to take
the place of the nominative, according as the distinctive sense of the
two cases grew weaker in the consciousness. The Provencal, how-
ever, very generally retained the nominative along with the accusa-
tive ; and Old French also sometimes did so. And the Italian and
Wallachian, though retaining only one case, sometimes kept the nomi-
native instead of the accusative.6 Perhaps these failures of the
accusative to overcome the nominative were due to its having had
a longer struggle with the other cases, so as not to gain the same
predominance in the language.
The Italian ablative preposition da, contracted from de ad, is in-
teresting.7 Ad gives motion to de, so as to distinguish of and from
by the motion in the latter (Gram. Sk., VI. 8).
1 VlachoH, pp. 40, 80.
* Die/., Gram, der Komanischen Sprachen, vol. ii. pp. 15, 16.
* I»ud. p. 16. * Ihid. ii. pp. 24, 25. » Ibid. p. 4.
* Ibid. p. 5-9. 7 Ibid. p. 27.
CHAP, iv.] DETACHMENT OF ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION, ETC. 373
MIGRATIONS, MIXTURES, PROGRESS.
14. It is remarkable that in the pronouns a nominative for the
most part maintained itself, and that the oblique case which prevailed
was not the accusative, but, according to Diez's view of -ui, the dative
in the singular, and the genitive in the plural. In Spanish and
Portuguese, however, the accusative prevailed over all the cases
both in the singular and in the plural. In Proven9al the accusative
was used in all the oblique cases, as well as the dative in the singular
and the genitive in the pluraL In French the accusative prevailed
over all the cases in the plural.1
The pronouns always had a stronger sense of the inflections than the
nouns, because the fineness of the thought of the stem left more room
for that of the inflection in the idea. And therefore they generally
maintained the sense of the subject so as to distinguish the nominative.
Perhaps the sense of attention directed to, which is in the nature
of a pronoun (Def. 7), imparted to every relation of which a pronoun
was object a dative element, which in the decay of the inflections was
maintained by the nature of the pronoun (Gram. Sk., IV. 10) ; and
this, when directed to a plural pronoun, was thought not as compre-
hending the plurality in its aim, but as affecting the parts of the
plurality which were included in the plurality as in a genitive.
The Wallachian genitive of a defined noun both in singular and
plural, taking for its preposition a ( = ad), whereas that of an unde-
fined noun takes the usual preposition de,z shows that pronominal
demonstration favours the dative element, making the genitive rela-
tion to be thought as attached to, or belonging to.
The Spanish article, when used with an adjective for an abstract
noun, and the Spanish demonstrative and the Portuguese demon-
strative, retained a form for the neuter. The latter in the remote
demonstrative esse changed the stem, the neuter being isso.z
The Spanish, and still more the Portuguese, were comparatively
secluded from the influence of foreign invasion ; and perhaps to this
is due this fuller retention of gender. Diez remarks that Portuguese
preserved the ancient forms better than Spanish, which was more
exposed to Bask influence.4 But they both and Provencal preserved
them better than the other languages.
15. Of the active verb, the Romance languages retain the present,
imperfect, and perfect, indicative in the written languages. In some
spoken dialects the perfect has been impaired, and retains only some
of the personal forms. In others it has quite disappeared and is
replaced by habeo with the past participle, or by facio with the infini-
tive, like English did love.
The pluperfect appears in Italian only in fora (fueram). But it is
preserved complete in Provengal, Spanish, and Portuguese. It is
also to be found in the oldest French.
The future indicative has disappeared, leaving only fia (fiam] in
Italian, and er (ero) in Proven£al and French.
1 Diez, ii. p. 81-88. 2 Ibid. p. 54. 3 Ibid. pp. 32, 92, 93, 97.
« Ibid. i. p. 98.
374 DETACHMENT OF ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION, ETC. [CHAP. iv.
MIGRATIONS, MIXTUEES, PROGRESS.
The present and pluperfect subjunctive are retained in all the lan-
guages, while the imperfect and perfect have disappeared. Spanish
and Portuguese alone retained the future subjunctive.
The imperative second person singular remains in all the languages
also the infinitive present, and the gerund in -do. The second plural
imperative is only in Proven£al, Spanish, and Portuguese. In
"Wallachian only is there a trace of the supine. The present parti-
ciple remains, but almost always as an adjective, its place as parti-
ciple being taken by the gerund ; the future participle is found in a
few instances as a Latinism.
The inflections of the pluperfect indicative, and the imperfect,
perfect, and future, subjunctive, having by phonetic decay almost
entirely lost their distinctions of form, disappeared, according to the
principle of Book I., chap, iv., 9, from those languages which were
more exposed to the effects of foreign invasion ; the pluperfect sub-
junctive, or in Provengal, Spanish, and Portuguese, the pluperfect
indicative, being sometimes used for the imperfect subjunctive. But
generally they came to be expressed with an auxiliary.
The inflection of the future indicative, when weakened by the
growing generality of the stem (1), was not sufficient to express the
strong thought of the future, and it was replaced by an auxiliary
habeo, preceded by the infinitive. This auxiliary, when used with
the past participle to express a past tense, went first, because it was
the subjective part of the expression, and the subject was clear of the
past action. But when used in the present tense with the infinitive
to express a future, or in the past tense with the infinitive to express
a past future or conditional, it followed the infinitive because the
subject was thought as engaged with anticipation of the action, and
was therefore expressed as determined by it (Def. 23). And so fully
was the subject thought as engaged with the anticipation that the
auxiliary coalesced with the infinitive into one word.1
16. It is remarkable that in the present tense the accent of the
Romance verb tended to move forward from the antepenult to the
penult, as if the word had come to express a less simple idea (Def.
27), and the person had come to be felt as a more distinct element so
as to attract the accent. Now this would follow from the growing
detachment of the stem as it tended to be thought in the common
essence of its applications, according to Book I., chap, iv., 6. But in
the other moods and tenses the stem was kept more particular by
taking up the elements of mood and tense in their reduced condition.
And the union between the stem and these elements being closer than
it was of old by reason of their reduction, gave more weight to the
stem and increased its attraction for the accent, so that its movement
forward was checked or reversed.2 The root of the verb, however, by
tending to be thought in the common essence of all its applications, was
liable to lose its verbal nature (22), and then the subjoined verbal
elements were stronger, and had more attraction for the accent.8
1 Diez, ii. p. 117-123. * Ibid. pp. 126, 127. » Ibid. pp. 131, 136.
CHAP, iv.] DETACHMENT OF ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION, ETC. 375
MIGKATIONS, MIXTURES, PKOGKESS.
The passive inflection came to be too weak to express the passive,
and was replaced by various auxiliaries.1
17. The lightness of pronominal elements which is so characteristic
of Celtic (Gram. Sk., VL 114, 115, 131) may be traced also in the
Romance languages.
It was probably the strong subjectivity of the verb which in French
weakened the negative element preceding it, and rendered necessary a
supplementary negative after it ; for the former negative separated the
verb from the subject.
The substantive in the Eomance languages precedes the adjective
of tener than it follows ; but when the attribute affects the main part of
the elements of the idea of the substantive the adjective may precede.2
18. The Romance phonesis is soft and vocalic, the tenuis being
liable to become a medial, and the medial a vowel, and the surd breath
of aspiration to be given up,3 and both these characters are stronger
in Italian than in the other languages. This seems to be due to the
ease and social pleasure which resulted from the civilisation and
affluence of these parts of the Roman empire (preceding chapter,
XV.)
It is remarkable that the southern dialects of Italian are more
vocalic and softer than the northern, whether this be due to climate
or to a greater mixture in the north with northern races. In conse-
quence of their soft utterance the Romance languages do not tolerate
hiatus ; 4 it requires too strong and definite a muscular action in
changing the position of the organs (ibid. III. 92).
19. In Modern Greek, on the other hand, there is a curtailment of
vowel utterance compared with the ancient language, as if there was
a diminution of social vivacity in the race. Thus rj, v, si, and 01 are
all sounded *', at = e,ov = u; au = av, and tu - ev, before vowels, medials,
and liquids, otherwise af and ef ; r>v = ef, uv = off.
There is little relaxation of consonant utterance ; fi and 5 are aspi-
rated, and y before the close vowels t, /, and u, becomes y.b " All
consonants are pronounced by the Greeks with the utmost force
and distinctness of which they admit." 6
20. The great change of thought which was promoted by advance
in knowledge, arts, and civilisation, gave increasing singleness to the
idea expressed by the primitive word in Romance (Book I., chap, iv.,
8). Derivative words felt as such, because formed with derivative
suffixes still in use to form derivatives, have not this singleness. On
the contrary, the primitive has acquired such distinct singleness that
it is in a certain degree detached from the derivative suffix, so that
this must be syllabic, and is generally accented.7 But the growing
singleness of old words produced some interesting effects in the
Romance languages.
The accent (Def. 27) is on the point where the sense of the whole
1 Diez, ii. pp. 127, 128. 2 Ibid. iii. p. 450-453. * Ibid. i. p. 289-305.
* Ibid. pp. 82, 198. s Vlachos, p. 2-4. « Geldart, Mod. Greek, p. 74.
7 Diez, ii. p. 278.
376 DETACHMENT OF ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION, ETC. [CHAP. iv.
MIGRATIONS, MIXTURES, PROGRESS.
word is a maximum, and it strikes the vowel with a force of utterance
due to the sense of the whole word. According as the common
essence takes the place of the radical idea (Book L, chap, iv., 6-8), the
whole idea of the word becomes more concentrated at the maximum
point, and prompts additional expression where the accent strikes the
word. The accented vowel, if it be i or u, tends to be not only
accented but opened, to e or o, so as to be a fuller utterance ; in French
it is half opened, so as to become ei (changed to of) or ou, but u becomes
0 before a nasal ; if it be e or o, it gets additional force from being
preceded by a compression (Def. 26) which produces the closer vowel
1 or u, so that it becomes ie or uo, ue in Spanish ; if it be a the com-
pression tends to change a to e, but more frequently in French than
in the other languages ; a remains unchanged before m and n, into
which it passes as a nasalisation.
In position before two consonants these leave less room for addition
to the accented vowel; but in Spanish and Wallachian this is not
such a bar to the increase as in the others. The long vowels do not
admit of increase like the short ones ; but in French e is apt to
become ei changed to oi, and o to become ou changed to eu. 'Wal-
lachian can subjoin a to e and o, short, long, and in position.1
Owing to the vocalic character of Romance utterance a vowel
in contact with a consonant affects the utterance of the consonant
as in Celtic (Gram. Sk., VI. 93), so that it is apt to be uttered with
the volition present to utter the vowel, the vowel which is to follow
the consonant making itself felt before it. This is increased by the
additional expression accompanying accentuation before the con-
sonant ; so that by attraction of i from a following syllable a is often
changed to a?', ei, ie, or e.1
The absorption of the word into the accented syllable which arose
from the growing singleness of the idea was accompanied by an abbre-
viation after the accented syllable, which is especially remarkable in
French and Proven£al.2
21. In Celtic also, as in Romance (12), the neuter gender was given
up, so that in modern Celtic all nouns are either masculine or femi-
nine (Gram. Sk., VI. 109). This agrees with the easy passive character
of the Celt, who dominated nature less than the Teuton (preceding
chapter, XIII.)
The loss of the cases of the noun in British (Gram. Sk., VI. 113)
is doubtless due to foreign influence (Book L, chap, iv., 4), from which
Irish was comparatively free. Perhaps the influence of Roman civilisa-
tion was in part the cause of the greater softness of British utterance
(preceding chapter, XV. 2), according to Book L, chap, iv., 9.
To foreign influence also doubtless is due the auxiliary prefixes of
the verb in Celtic (Gram. Sk., VIL 117).
Celtic also develop! an article (ibid. 109, 110, 130) in the grow-
ing generality of thought (above, 2, 10).
22. The Teutonic weak declension (Gram. Sk., VI. 144) appears
1 Dkz, i. i>. 146-172. 8 Ibid. p. 197.
•CHAP, iv.] DETACHMENT OF ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION, ETC. 377
MIGRATIONS, MIXTURES, PROGRESS.
from the nature of the nouns affected with it to be due to the attrac-
tion of thought to the associations of the noun from its present
connections ; which weakens that part of the substantive idea in which
the substantive object is thought as in the connections of the fact
•(Def. 4), and renders necessary an, arthritic element to put it in
'connection. It was therefore developed by the growing generality of
thought and the tendency to substitute a common essence for the
radical idea, according to Book I., chap, iv., 6. The weak conjugation
iu Teutonic (Gram. Sk., VI. 159) is another consequence of the same
•cause, by virtue of which, as in Romance (above, 16), the radical pait
in becoming a common essence lost its verbal succession, and this had
to be subjoined.
It is probably to the influence of foreign speakers not accustomed to
.a relative pronoun that the cumbrous expression of the relative in
Teutonic is due (Gram. Sk., VI. 156). But it is very remarkable that
Teutonic, like modern Greek, and no doubt from the same cause,
developed a stronger relative (9), and that as this was orrolog in Greek,
so it was hveleiks (qualis) in Teutonic (Gram. Sk., VI. 154). Probably
to the influence of the northern nations, who had only a past and a
present tense (preceding chapter, V. 1), the loss of the future is due ;
for in Gothic and Old High German the Greek and Latin future is
rendered by the present (Gram. Sk., VI. 157).
Such an influence would also promote the use of auxiliary verbs
(ibid. 162), according to Book I., chap, iv., 4 ; and the loss of the
passive voice (ibid. 167).
The growing generality of thought required an article in all the
Teutonic languages ; and in Norse, as in Wallachian (above, 10), it
was suffixed to the noun (Gram. Sk., VL 171).
23. The Slavonic, and still more the Lithuanian numerals, as if
comparatively little used, remained particular, so as to be less ab-
stracted from the objects numbered (ibid. 183, 212 ; see preceding
chapter, XIII. 4). But also throughout Lithuanian and Slavonic
there are fewer marks of growing generality of thought than in the
other modern Indo-European languages. The inflections of nouns
.and verbs are less weakened and reduced in these than in the others ;
they retain the dual number ; and they have only a partially developed
article (Gram. Sk., VI. 184, 188, 195, 207, 208, 214-216, 223).
There would seem to be a narrower range of ideas, and therefore less
growth of general associations with the nominal or verbal stem, tend-
ing to weaken in the idea of the word the particularities of the
present instance, or to require a particularising element.
24. One of the most interesting illustrations of the principles of
Book I., chap, iv., is what has been called the umlaut in the
Teutonic languages (ibid. 142, 173). This appeared only in later
times, when the inflections were going to decay. It was a partial
•absorption of a formative element into the accented syllable of the
root, and is quite analogous to the strengthening of the accented
vowel in Romance (above, 20), owing to the concentration of the
idea which the word expressed. The same cause is operative in both
VOL. II. 2 B
378 DETACHMENT OF ELEMENTS OF DEFINITION, ETC. [CHAP. iv.
MIGRATIONS, MIXTURES, PROGRESS.
cases ; the growing singleness of idea as a common essence took the
place of the old radical idea and became more concentrated as the
race advanced in knowledge, arts, and civilisation (Book I., chap, iv.,
8). The difference of the result in Teutonic from what it was in
Romance was due to the more spreading action of Teutonic thought
in consequence of which the formative element came to affect the
root even through an intervening syllable (Gram. Sk., VI. 142, 173).
And thus the principles of Book L, chap, iv., are found to explain
the great changes to be traced in the history of language where the
mental power of the race admits, and its migrations and progress have
been such as promote, a marked generality of idea ; as those of the
other chapters of that Book have been found to be general laws
governing the structure of language so far as the information available
in this work enables them to be tested.
APPENDIX.
Comparison of the Mental Powers of Man with the Intelligence of
Lower Vertebrate Animals.
LANGUAGE is the prerogative of man, and a study of its principles
would hardly be complete at the present day without an effort to see
what light it throws on man's essential superiority in thought to all
other creatures. For at the present day Darwin's theory of evolution
has given a new interest to the comparison of the powers of the human
mind with the intelligence which is manifested by the lower animals.
The importance, however, of such a study is quite irrespective of that
theory, and it may be carried on without any reference to the question
of the origin of species. For whatever view may be taken of that
question, the fact is patent that comparative anatomy and comparative
physiology set before us a great course of development in structure
and function from the lowest animal to the highest, whether we con-
ceive that this is due to distinct acts of creation or to natural laws of
evolution. And it is equally a matter of fact that a thorough scientific
knowledge of a structure or a function in any species of animals can
be obtained only by the comparative method, which studies them in
the light of the great series of animal development.
Now mind as a power in human nature, and the brain as its instru-
ment, form no exception to this rule. For though thought be not
regarded as a function of the brain, yet it is the function of the brain
to minister to the acts of thought, so that cerebral action is the condi-
tion of mental action. Between these two actions there must be an
exact correspondence ; so that both must be studied if we would
understand either. And that study must be carried through the
series of animal life, so far as this can be done, in order that it may
have a solid basis. When the correspondences of cerebral structure
and animal intelligence have been ascertained, we shall have the out-
lines of a truly scientific psychology legible in the structure of the
human brain. This, however, is at present a distant prospect
Before it is realised, the development of intelligence in the lower
animals must be known in order to be compared with the development
of the brain. And though the latter is well known, of the former
scarcely anything is known with the scrutinising analysis which is
necessary. For just as in the study of the human mind, the great
effort is to distinguish the essential powers of the mind from the mere
380 APPENDIX.
association of mental states ; so in the study of animal intelligence
the great effort must be to distinguish its powers from those con-
genital associations which are called instinct. Mere observation with-
out such analysis is misleading ; for there is scarcely any action of the
rational faculties of man which may not be simulated by animal
instinct. And it may be long before this attractive field of investiga-
tion has been at all adequately worked. Meanwhile, however, our
views of truth must be harmonised with the best knowledge that we
have, and provisional anticipations formed of what seems likely to
prove true.
Such a provisional anticipation the present writer ventured to offer
in a paper published in the Journal of Anatomy and Physiologrj for
November 1874. And though it is so meagre and imperfect, he sub-
joins it entire with some slight corrections and additions as preparatory
to the consideration of what it is that makes language peculiar to
man.
ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POWERS OF THOUGHT IN VERTE-
BRATE ANIMALS IN CONNECTION WITH THE DEVELOPMENT
OF THEIR BRAIN.
Although Mind can never be identified with Matter, nor the acts
and states of the mind reduced to acts and states of the brain, yet as
the latter are the physical antecedents of the former, the study of the
one class of phenomena is calculated to give light and guidance in the
study of the other. The object of the present paper is to consider
some general outlines of the development of the powers of thought
in vertebrate animals in connection with the development of their
brain, in the hope that such a general view may throw some light,
both on the powers of the mind and on the functions of the brain.
An obvious characteristic of mental action in the lower animals as
compared with the higher is, that it is to so large an extent instinctive.
Now the nature of such instinctive action as involves thought may be
well studied in the case of the beaver, though his mental action is not
limited to instincts. The following is an instructive account given by
Mr. Broderip of one which he kept in his house. I quote it from Dr.
Carpenter's work on " Mental Physiology," p. 92.
"The building instinct showed itself immediately it was let out of its
cage and materials were placed in its way ; and this before it had been a
week in its new quarters. Its strength even before it was half grown was
k'reat. It would drag along a lar^re sweeping-brush or a warming-pan,
grasping the handle with its teeth, so that the load came over its shoulder,
and advancing in an oblique direction till it arrived at the point where it
wished to place it. The long and large materials were always taken first
and two of the longest were generally laid crosswise, with one of the ends
of each touching the wall, and the other end projecting out into the room.
The area formed by the cross-brushes and the wjxll he would fill up with
hand-brushes, rush-baskets, boots, books, sticks, cloths, dried turf, or any-
thin.,' portable. As the work grew high he supported himself on his tail,
DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND BRAIN. 381
which propped him up admirably • and he would often, after laying on one
of his building materials, sit up over against it, appearing to consider his
work, or, as the country people say, 'judge it.' This pause was sometimes
followed by changing the position of the material 'judged,' and sometimes
it was left in its place. After he had piled up his materials in one part of
the room (for he generally chose the same place), he proceeded to wall up
the space between the feet of a chest of drawers, which stood at a little
distance from it, high enough on its legs to make the bottom a roof for
him, using for this purpose dried turf and sticks, which he laid very even,
and filling up the interstices with bits of coal, hay, cloth, or anything he
could pick up. This last place he seemed to appropriate lor his dwelling ;
the former work seemed to be intended for a dam."
Here we see that though the labours of the beaver .in its natural
condition seem to be full of purpose and guided by a wonderfully
intelligent reference to the end which they are to serve, the animal is
really urged to form its constructions by an impulse which is quite
irrespective of that end and purpose. Mr. Broderip's beaver can
hardly have had any idea of a dam acting as such, connected with its
successive acts of construction, and guiding those acts as what they
were to realise ; for its surroundings were inconsistent with such an
idea. And if its successive acts were not quite independent of such
an idea, they would not have been performed under the circumstances.
At the same time, however, the labours of the beaver were far from
being destitute of thought. On the contrary, it seems to have had a
very distinct idea of the particular step of construction in which, it
was engaged, and to have been careful to make its work conform to
that idea. Each constructive act was in continuation of what had
been already done, and its regulative idea was suggested by the then
state of the work. But the realisation of each such idea was sought
in succession as an end, without reference to the ultimate result of the
entire series of actions.
In our own mental constitution we are familiar with a process by
which means come to be sought for themselves without reference to
the end which they subserve ; the desire having been transferred from
the end which was originally its object to the means which have been
successfully used for the attainment of that end. The money which
was first prized only for what it could purchase comes gradually to be
desired for itself, and is sometimes preferred to anything that it could
buy, the means having become the end, and the original end being
comparatively disregarded. And in truth many, if not most of the
objects which we seek in mature life, are examples of desire similarly
transferred. In such cases the means successfully used to attain the
object of our desire become associated in the mind with the pleasure
of that attainment, so that a sense of such gratification combines with
the thought of those means, and forms part of the idea of them ; and
in proportion as this takes place the means attract to themselves the
desire, and are sought as an end. When a variety of ends are attained
by similar means, as when money is found to purchase all other com-
modities, then a corresponding variety of desires become combined
\vith the idea of those means, and the compound attractiveness which
they thus acquire is different from any of the original desires, and
382 APPENDIX.
may supplant them all. But when the same means continue to be
used only for the attainment of the same end, it is the gratification of
the original desire which is combined with them, and this desire,
after having sought the means, goes on to seek the end. The desire
which is transferred from an end to the means whereby it is habitually
attained, might, when the means have become an end, be transferred
again to the habitual means of their attainment. And so a succession
of means might come to be sought, each one for its own sake attract-
ing action after the other, and leading to the attainment of the original
end. And this process as it grew might be transmitted to offspring as
an hereditary tendency, so as to generate an instinct ; though there
are some instincts which could not have been originated in this way.
Now in human nature, according as such series of acts become more
and more habitual and easy, they are performed with less and less
thought, till at length they may be performed without any thought
at all, being guided only by sensation. But when they do engage
thought, that thought generally involves intelligent purpose ; and the
mind thinks not only the present act but what that act will effect.
The peculiarity of instinctive action, like that of the beaver, is
that it is not an unthinking hereditary habit connected only with
sensation, but that each successive act is performed with thought ;
while, at the same time, thought is confined to the present act, or at
most includes very little beyond it. The native impulse or desire
seeks each step in succession irrespective of the result of the whole,
because thought cannot take in the end of the series.
But this limited scope of thought, which is unable to take in a
series of acts, is far from being characteristic of the intelligence of
vertebrate animals in general On the contrary, those which have a
more developed brain plainly exhibit in their actions intelligent
purpose, a power of thinking the means in connection with the end,
so as to have present to their consciousness a sense of a series of acts
leading to a desired result. Of this many examples might be given,
but it may be sufficient to quote as an illustration of it the following
anecdote of a dog from Mr. Watson's book, on the " Reasoning Power
in Animals," p. 130.
"Count Tilesius, a Russian traveller, who wrote at the beginning of the
present century, relates a most remarkable proceeding of a dog of his,
which he himself witnessed. The dog in one of his excursions from home
had been worried by an animal of greater strength than himself, and
returned crest-fallen. For some time afterwards it was observed that he
abstained from eating half of the food given him, but carried away the
other half and laid it up as a private store. When he had gone on thus
for some days, he one day went out and gathered round him several dogs
of the neighbourhood, whom he brought to his home and feasted on hia
hoard. This singular assemblage attracted the count's attention. He
watched their movements, saw them all go out together, and followed them
at a distance. 'Jhey proceeded deliberately onwards through several
streets till they came to the outskirts of the town, where, under the
guidance of their leader, they all fell upon a large dog, whom they
punished with great severity."
Xow this series of actions is of such rare or merely occasional
DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND BllAIN. 383
occurrence in the life of a dog, that it cannot be accounted for on the
supposition that .by that process of association which grows out of
frequent repetition, the gratification of attaining the end had
mingled with the thought of all the means, and rendered them in
themselves attractive in succession. There may, indeed, be in the
dog, as a gregarious animal, an inherited tendency to look for help in
circumstances which make help needful, and possibly a tendency to
court the alliance of other dogs by giving them food, though this is
more probably due to his own intelligent sense of their feelings. But
the further step of saving his food instead of eating it can hardly be
an instinctive impulse awakened by the circumstances but without
conscious purpose ; for it requires so strong an impulse that the
instinct should be one in full action, and therefore of frequent occur-
rence. The sense of injury would arouse the instinct of revenge.
This from inherited or acquired association would be followed by a
desire for help. This would suggest the giving of food, and this the
storing of food. And each time that food was present the sight of it
might awaken these thoughts in succession. But if it was only in
succession that the dog could have these thoughts, losing the con-
sciousness of each as he passed to the next, the original desire for
vengeance, which would mingle in some degree with the second
thought, and perhaps might even tincture the third, would be so faint
in the fourth, if it were present at all, that the strong instinct of eat-
ing the food would prevail over the mere idea of storing it. That
there might be an active desire to store the food sufficiently strong to
make the dog abstain from it, there must have been present to his
consciousness along with the idea of storing it a thought of giving it
to the other dogs, and gaining their help to gratify his revenge. He
must have had a power of thinking a particular act as a part of a
series, combining with the idea of that act a thought of the series of
acts leading to their result.
Now wherein does this differ from the power which the human
mind possesses of forming a plan to attain an end ? If what has been
stated contains the whole of the action of intelligence which was
involved in the proceedings of the dog, then those proceedings reveal
only a power of thinking, as a whole, a series of acts, each with its
effect, and all with their result. But the human mind adds to this the
further power of believing, with more or less certainty, that each step
in the series of acts which it plans will be followed by the consequence
connected with it in thought. Now this implies inference from past
experience ; and after all that has been written on the process of infer-
ence or reasoning properly so called, we must, if we are to distinguish
it from mere association of facts, come back to the old theory,
that inference is the process of imparting to the idea of a fact
the degree of assurance which belongs to it, as a case of a general
principle.
Mr. Darwin, in his "Descent of Man," p. 41, mentions a female
baboon who adopted young dogs and cats, which she continually
carried about ; and he tells that an adopted kitten scratched this
affectionate baboon, " who," he says, " certainly had a fine intellect,
384- APPENDIX.
for she was much astonished at being scratched, and immediately
examined the kitten's feet, and without more ado bit off the claws."
Now, such an act of intelligence seems to be beyond the powers of a
dog. In the " Wonders of Animal Instinct," from the French of Ernest
Menault, p. 363, the following acute distinction is drawn between the
intelligence of the ourang-outang and that of the dog.
" The ourang-outang, without being instructed by man, does accomplish
acts of which the most sagacious and best instructed of our dogs is incapable.
If the dog is chained up, and the chain becomes entangled, the animal pulls
it forcibly towards him, and often increases the evil, instead of removing it..
If the obstacle continues, he becomes frightened and cries out, but never
thinks of searching into the cause of the mischance. It is not so with the
ourang-outang. The moment a similar accident happens to Mm, he tries
to find out the real state of things. You will not see him pulling against a
powerful obstacle with blind force. He stops at once, as a man would do
in similar circumstances. He turns round to examine the cause of the
occurrence. If the chain be entangled by a heap or weight of any kind, he
disengages it. In every case he seeks the why and the wherefore. Is not
this seeking for causes a manifest sign of intelligence ? "
Now it is much more than a sign of intelligence, it is evidence of
the power of thinking a fact with belief as a case of a general principle;,
and that power is the power of reasoning. The dog whose chain is
entangled linds himself unable to perform the action which has become
usual to him under the circumstances ; and he is merely disturbed by
this impediment to the regular play of his associations. The ourang-
outang sees in this check to his usual action something more than the
fact that he is checked, namely, the presence of a thing not yet known,
altering the usual action of the chain. If, indeed, such a thing had
been observed before acting in this way sufficiently often to form an
association, the dog would think of it as well as the ourang outang.
And if its removal on those occasions had relieved him, the dog too
would think of removing it. The supposed case, therefore, is one in
which such an association has not been formed. The ourang-outang
may never before have been contined by a tangled chain ; the baboon
may never before have been scratched by a paw. The thought which
each occurrence suggests to them is a fine abstraction from a far
wider experience, namely, the presence of a new condition when there
is a new action. This is a fine element of fact which belongs in
common to a number of facts. It might be connected in thought
with the present fact by mere association of those other facts in which
it was an clement. ]>ut when thus thought, it would be too faint to
attract the attention of the mind and govern action. In order that
such an abstract clement of past experience should govern action, it is-
necessary that it should be strengthened with a new element of belief
and combined in a sense of reality with the present object To the
ourang-outang in tin; one case, and to the baboon in the other, the
thought of a new circumstance as condition of a new action was no
abstract conception, but a special part of the idea of the present fact ;
ami it attracted action, suggesting the way in which the unpleasant-
ness was to be n-muveil. It was thought with a power which the dog
DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND BRAIN. 385
does not possess, the power of combining in an assured sense of reality
with the idea of an object some abstract co-existence or succession which
has been gathered from similar objects as a uniformity of experience ;
the power, in a word, of thinking a case of a general principle with
the belief which belongs to it as such.
Now this step of mental development which may be observed in
the ourang-outang, as compared with the dog, is similar in its essential
nature to the previous step to which it is superadded, and which may
be observed in the dog compared with the lower vertebrate animals.
The dog can combine with the idea of an act, a thought of a further
series of acts leading to a result, so as to think the act with purpose
as part of the series. The ourang-outang can combine with the idea
of a fact or thing, a thought of other similar facts or things, singling
out an element in which they more or less uniformly agree, so as to v
think the fact or thing with more or less assurance as another instance
of the uniformity. Each is a new power of combining thoughts which
otherwise would have required a long course of repetition in con-
junction with each other, before they could have grown together.
And each combines those thoughts in a closer and more vivid union
through the medium of a new element, namely, sense of progress
towards an end in the one case, and belief in the maintenance of a
uniformity in the other.
But can the progress of mental development be traced through the
vertebrate series of animals as having advanced by these steps ? Can
they be classed in reference to their mental powers in three groups, of
which the lowest can comprise in one act of thought only what can be
perceived by sense all at the same time, the second can comprise in
one act of thought a series of successions in time so as to think a
single object of sense as part of such a series, and the third can com-
prise in one act of thought a class of co-existences or successions so as
to combine with a particular fact the common element of co-existence
or succession belonging to the class 1
The operations of birds in the building of their nests are evidently
of the same character as those of the beaver in the construction of
his dam. They plainly proceed from an instinctive impulse which is
independent of conscious purpose, and which acts even where the
circumstances are inconsistent with the end to which it leads. They
indicate therefore no larger power of mind than that which is limited
in each of its acts to the thought of one object of sense, and which
cannot think a successive series with its result ; and the same may be
said of the migratory instincts of birds. But it is rather in occasional
manifestations of intelligence that the highest mental power possessed
by any class of animals is to be seen ; for in every class the actions
which are habitual come to be performed by the lower powers. Now
the intelligence of birds never reaches to the comprehension of a
number of different successive acts, nor to the thought of a principle.
The case of the jackdaws, quoted from Mr. Jesse by Dr. Carpenter,
seems indeed to indicate a power of thinking in one thought a series
of acts leading to a result, but closer examination shows that this is
only apparent.
386 APPENDIX.
" A pair of jackdaws endeavoured to construct their nest in one of the
small windows that lighted the spiral staircase of an old church-tower. Aa
is usual, however, in such windows, the sill sloped inwards with a con-
siderable inclination ; and consequently there being no level base for the
nest, as soon as a few sticks had been laid, and it was beginning to acquire
weight, it slid down. This seems to have happened two or three times ;
nevertheless, the birds clung with great pertinacity to the site they had
selected, and at last devised a most ingenious method of overcoming the
difficulty. Collecting a great number of sticks, they built up a sort of cone
upon the staircase, the summit of which rose to the level of the window-sill,
and afforded the requisite support to the nest. This cone was not less than
six feet high, and so large at its base as quite to obstruct the passage up the
staircase ; yet, notwithstanding the large amount of material which it con-
tained, it was known to have been constructed within four or five days.
Now, as this was a device quite foreign to the natural habit of the bird, and
only hit upon after the repeated failure of its ordinary method of nest-
building, the curious adaptation of means to end which it displayed can
scarcely be regarded in any other light than as proceeding from a design in
the minds of the individuals who executed it"
The question is, does this indicate that jackdaws possess the power
of comprising in one act of thought a series which sense could perceive
only in succession ?
Now the cone of sticks is a single object of sense. The idea of it
may have been formed by successive acts of thought, suggested first
by the need for a support at the base of the nest, and then by the
need for an additional sxipport for this, and so on, till a bottom was
reached ; but eacli such thought would [combine with the preceding
ones into an idea of a single object of sense. The last element added
to the idea would be the thought of the foundation, and this would
suggest the first act of construction ; and the process of construction
would proceed, realising in succession the ideas of the successive parts
without ever involving the thought of more than a single object of
sense. The device was foreign to tthe natural habit of the bird, yet
not quite foreign to the thoughts which the nest-building instinct
involves. For the various peculiarities of the sites chosen for nests
must awaken in birds instinctive associations of corresponding varieties
of construction, and these must involve ideas of supports, and of the
other requisites for stability.
The nest-building instinct must also often involve a desire for
shelter and protection ; and with those birds which have vivid and
distinct mental action, a special need for shelter may awaken in-
stinctive associations which suggest the construction of artificial
shelter. Such constructions may seem to require a number of different
ideas thought together in a plan, but they do not really imply the
thought of more than a single object of sense at one time. Thus a
pair of magpies, in a neighbourhood where there were no trees, built
their nest in a gooseberry bush, and frequented it for years. But as
it was accessible to foxes, cats, and other animals, they barricaded
with a circle of briars and thorns not only the nest, but the whole
bush.1 In this case the desire for protection would operate succes-
1 Watson's " Reasoning Power in Animals," p. 343.
DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND BRAIN. 387
sively with regard to each side of the nest, and would suggest suc-
cessively the erection of each piece of the barricade, without ever
thinking more than a single object at once.
For it is to be noted that when an object is thought with desire,
and when it suggests through former association what led to its own
attainment, the desire will attach itself to this suggested idea, even
though there be no power of thinking means and end together. In
order that the original desire should thus be taken up by a series of
means, so as to cause them to be sought after one another as ends, a
process of association is necessary which requires a long course of
repetition ; but this would never take place, unless there was a partial
transfusion of desire to the nearest means in the first instance. And
Avhen the desire is strong this transfusion will be sufficient to cause
the immediate mean to be sought even where each thought is limited
to one object of sense. Thus birds as well as mammalia seem to have
intelligence enough, when accustomed to the company of man, to
associate human intervention with relief of their distress in special
cases, and to apply to man for help ; and when his help has come to
them in a painful form, as for example in a surgical operation, they
continue to desire it notwithstanding the present pain. But there is
no evidence that any animal below the order to which the beaver
belongs can think a series of sense-perceptions or a general principle,
though there may be cases which simulate these powers. The old
story of the raven throwing pebbles into water as if to raise its level,
seems to indicate the knowledge of a general principle ; but if the
incident ever occurred, it was more probably a suggestion from the
familiar act of standing on a stone to drink in a stream, in which the
bird thought only this single act.
In the order of rodents, to which the beaver and the rat belong, we
first meet the power of thinking a series of acts, but this power is still
so limited in them that the series of acts which they perform with
conscious purpose consist only of one or two acts, or of one or two
acts repeated over and over again. A more diversified series of acts,
like that which is required in the construction of the beaver's dam, is
with them instinctive. Moreover, they seem to have a tendency to
perform those actions which involve the most design in combinations
in which several are engaged, each one doing a part of the action.
This is a feature of resemblance to the intelligence of insects, and
corresponds to a limited power of thinking a series of acts. For this
simultaneous performance by the community of all the steps leading
to an end helps to enable each to perceive by sense the entire series
all at the same time. The ruminants have a larger power of thinking
a series of acts, as may be seen in the artifices of the hunted stag,
though it is hard to say how much of these may be instinctive ; and
still more clearly in the intelligence of the oxen of the Hottentots,
which in war fight with the Hottentots against their enemies and in
peace perform for them the same services that are elsewhere performed
by dogs. In the pachydermata, the power of plan and purpose and
of understanding a series of acts which is expected from them is
clearly manifested by the elephant. And though the other pachyder-
388 APPENDIX.
mata are so inferior in intelligence to the elephant, the inferiority is
not in the nature of their thoughts, but in vividness and distinctness.
In the carnivora, the intelligence of the dog and of the fox, and of
the other animals of the order, exhibits clearly the power of design ;
and the dog, moreover, shows his power of thinking a series of acts
by the signs which he gives of feeling guilty, or ashamed, or proud
on account of his conduct. In the quadrumana there appears for the
first time, in addition to the powers of purpose, a sense of general
principles ; and this, as has been shown, appears with clearness in the
anthropoid apes.
Now, such being in outline the development of the powers of intel-
ligence in vertebrate animals, what is the course of development of
their brain ?
This question may be answered by the following quotation from
Dr. Carpenter's "Mental Physiology," p. 116.
" That the different portions of the cerebrum should have different parts
to perform in that wonderful series of operations by which the brain as a
whole becomes the instrument of the mind can scarcely be regarded as in
itself improbable. But no determination of this kind can have the least
scientific value that is not based on the facts of comparative anatomy an d
embryonic development. In ascending the vertebrate series we find tha t
this organ not only increases in relative size and becomes more complex in
general structure, but undergoes progressive additions, which can be defined
with considerable precision. For the cerebrum of oviparous vertebrata
is not a miniature representative of the entire cerebrum of man, but cor-
responds only with its ' anterior lobe,' and is entirely deficient in that great
transverse commissure, the corpus callosum, the first appearance of which
in the placental mammals constitutes ' the greatest and most sudden modi-
fication exhibited by the brain in the whole vertebrated series ' (Huxley).
It is among the smooth-brained rodentia that we meet with the first distinct
indication of a ' middle lobe ' marked off from the anterior by the fissure of
Sylvius ; this lobe attains a considerably greater development in the carni-
vora ; but even in the lemurs it still forms the hindermost portion of the
cerebrum. The 'posterior lobe' makes its first appearance in monkeys,
and is distinctly present in the anthropoid apes. The evolution of the
human cerebrum follows the same course. For in the first phase of its
development, which presents itself during the second and third months,
there is no indication of any but the anterior lobes ; in the second, which
lasts from the latter part of the third month to the beginning of the fifth,
the middle lobes make their appearance, and it is not until the latter part
of the fifth month that the third period commences, characterised by the
development of the posterior lobes, which sprout as it were from the buck
of the middle lobes, and remain for some time distinctly marked off from
them by a furrow."
These facts of embryonic development give great significance to the
facts previously mentioned of comparative anatomy. And the latter
have such correspondence with the sketch just given here of the
development of the powers of intelligence as at once to suggest that
the functions of the anterior lobe belong to the act of thinking single
objects of sense, those of the middle lobe to the act of thinking such
objects with a sense of a succession of them and as part of that suc-
ce.s.sion, and those of the posterior lobe to the act of thinking a
DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND BRAIN. 389
co-existence or succession of them as a case of a general principle.
But as the development of intelligence in vertebrate animals, even if
the view just taken of it be correct, may be thought to be connected
rather with other features of the development of the brain, and as the
view taken of the course of development of intelligence may itself be
questioned, it may be well to study the question from another point
of view. I shall therefore consider briefly the functional meaning of
those other features of brain development as it may be suggested by
the analogies of the nervous system itself, and that of the successive
addition of the three lobes as it may be inferred from the analogies
of development in general.
There are two other striking features in the development of the
brain in the vertebrate series of animals, namely, the progressive
increase of the superficial or cortical layer of the brain, and the
increased development of the fibres which connect together the diffe-
rent parts of the brain.
Now the superficial layer of the brain is the part where the nerve
force of the brain is developed, and its increase, supposing the func-
tional activity of any given extent of it to remain undiminished,
must be accompanied by an increased development of cerebral force,
and therefore of mental action. Moreover, such an increase of the
superficial layer, without any change of the relations of its parts,
would magnify each part so that an amount of cerebral force corre-
sponding to a thought might be developed in a smaller fraction of the
whole. Thus the actions of the brain in connection with the mind
would be subdivided and thought analysed ; and the effect of the in-
creased size of the cortical layer of the brain, in consequence of the
increased number and depth of its convolutions, would be not only an
increased amount of mental action, but also an increased subdivision
of thought ; that which was a single idea of an object being broken up
at pleasure into a number of different ideas.
An increase of mental action corresponding to an increase of the
convolutions may perhaps be seen in the indications observable in
dogs that they dream in their sleep. It is more distinctly manifested
in the curiosity displayed by monkeys, and in that general interest
taken by them in objects irrespective of utility, which has caused
some authors to impute to them an inferiority to other animals in
common sense. But the increase of mental action is chiefly to be
seen in whatever shows a habit of reflection. And though the higher
animals may be observed contemplating objects, the power of reflection
is scarcely open to our observation except in ourselves. In us it is
developed in a degree corresponding to the enormous increase of the
cortical layer of the brain and of its functional activity as shown by
the increased supply of blood.
The analysis of thought which is probably also connected with
this particular brain-development breaks up the idea of a single object
of sense into ideas of parts which are seen to constitute it. It is no
doubt concerned in that observation of the way in which things act
on other things which leads monkeys and apes to use instrument?,
though this is of course facilitated by their having hands. With
390 APPENDIX.
this analysis of thought is connected the development of the powers
of abstraction, and comparison, and perception of relation. For
though these powers are possessed in their essence \bj all animals
which can at will observe either separately or together objects which
are together before their senses, yet in order that they may act with
any degree of fineness a fine analysis of thought is needed. In human
language, the analysis of thought reaches its acme.
The second principal feature in the development of the brain is
that of the system of nerve-fibres which connect the parts of the brain
with each other. These must minister to the action on each other of
different parts of the brain, and serve to make the action of the diffe-
rent parts of the brain consentaneous, so as to give correspondence to
the muscular action of the two sides of the body, and strength and
steadiness to thought. Attention and volition require this unfaltering
unity of action ; for if any part concerned did not concur decisively,
its indecision would affect the other parts. And in proportion as
powers of thought are developed which are less closely connected with
sense, there is still more need of these connections to preserve that
unity of action which the impressions of special sense, by reason of
their decisive unity, give to cerebral action immediately connected
with them. Accordingly, the great transverse commissure which
connects the two lateral halves of the cerebrum appears first with any
degree of development worthy of notice in the rodent order of the
mammalia along with the middle lobe. Thus neither the convolutions
nor the fibres of the brain seem to have any tendency to give that
extension to thought which has been assigned to the three lobes.
They improve the action of the brain rather than enlarge the range of
its objects. But the development of each additional organ of intelli-
gence extends the range of the objects of thought. And it is as
superadded developments that the three lobes appear both in the
vertebrate series of animals, and in the development of the human
embryo.
And now what suggestions as to the functions of the three
lobes may be derived from the general analogies of development as
giving successively the advantages which are needed in the struggle
for life 1 l
The general function of the cerebrum is to direct the actions of the
body by thoughts of the mind to the attainment of desirable ends, and
each distinct addition which it receives may be expected to correspond
to a distinct enlargement of that power.2
1 The development spoken of is only that which is to he observed us n matter of
fact in comparing the higher animals with the lower. "Whatever theory be adopted
as to the mode in which that development has been produced, it is a fact that in
general each nt- w development gives an advantage in the struggle for life, and that
the general course of development corresponds with the satisfaction of these succes-
sive needs.
a It in an essential property of the nervous system to form associations, and any
higher development of that system must exalt the power of association. When an
action has been performed by a part of the nervous system, the restoration by nutri-
tion of the force expended in the action seems to adjust itself to the then condition
of the or^an, so that whtn the action is performed again, the organ in recovering its
equilibrium after the action tends to be thrown into that same condition. And if
DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND BRAIN. 391
The intelligence requisite for the attainment of desirable ends con-
sists of knowledge of the ends and knowledge of the means ; but this
degree of intelligence is only gradually attained. We find that in
some animals which have no cerebrum certain sensations have become
associated with the origination of certain muscular movements, so as
to direct the actions of the body in accordance with the notices of
external things which sensation gives. We must suppose that in
these animals, when a new sensation of a pleasurable kind has been
imparted by an object, the presence of a similar object again will tend
to recall that sensation. A mental state thus elicited by association
follows that which calls it forth ; and the obscure sensation thus-
recalled by the recurrence of the object will follow the impression
which the object makes directly on the senses. Now the pleasure of
the recalled sensation must be combined with the direct impressions
made by the object, instead of only following them, in order that the
present object, and not the mere past sensation, may be the object of
desire. A pleasurable sensation thus awakened by association tends
gradually to coalesce with that which often calls it forth. But this
process is too slow for the prompt recognition of desirable objects ;
and the demand for development therefore will be the want of an
organ to combine the successive impressions made by objects on sense,
so as more rapidly to select by experience those objects which are
desirable as ends for action. Accordingly the first function of the
cerebrum should be to enable the mind to combine the impressions of
sense into perceptions of sensible things, adding each new impression
to the idea of the thing, as a quality inhering in it. Connected with
this perception of desirable objects a power of thinking those objects
in their absence is needed in order that they may effectively guide
action by continuing to be the ends towards which it is directed.
This need would be supplied by an action of the cerebrum on the
sensorium, whereby the cerebral states which are produced by the
impressions of sense may afterwards renew those impressions in the
centres of sense, so as to supply ideas of absent objects ; and accord-
on the first occasion the action was followed immediately hy another action which
quickened the life of the organ, as when an action gives pleasure, then the renewal
of the first action will tend to throw the organ into a condition which is at the same
time oue of exalted life, and one which it is natural for the organ to assume after
the performance of the two actions in succession. The organ will then not only be
quickened hy the first action, but in the effort to attain equilibrium will tend to
perform the second. And thus the sequence of two nets, of which the second gives
pleasure, produces a twofold effect. It combines a degree of pleasure with the first
act in its next performance, and it associates the second with it in a similar degree.
Moreover, when the immediate effect of any action is to promote the life of the
nervous system, as when an action gives pleasure, it seems by a general law of life
to attract the force of the system while it is being performed, and to stimulate
its nutrition afterwards. The disturbance caused by it in the first instance will be
the greater, and when afterwards induced by an antecedent associated action will
have the more force in eliciting it again to attain equilibrium : and the subsequent
nutrition being accomplished more quickly while the one condition of the organ
lasts, will correspond more closely to that condition, and cause it to be reproduced
afterwards more faithfully. Thus an attractive action will have a special tendency
to be associated with another action which preceded it, and will also tend to infuse
into that other action a portion of its own attractiveness. A painful action arouses
the life of the nervou* system to resist it, so that it too has a special tendency to
form an association ; but here the association is negative of the action.
392 APPENDIX.
ingly the function of the first lobe of the^cerebrum in connection with
thought should be to act with the sensorium in the perception of
sensible things, and afterwards in the renewal of the idea of them.
If we analyse our own consciousness we find that there is in every
perception or idea of external things an element of thought which is
the centre or nucleus of our idea of the thing. This element of
thought, though it has no mental image, can be distinguished by the
human mind as substance ; and the thought of substance therefore in
a more or less indistinct and rudimentary form is probably what
corresponds to the first contribution which the cerebrum gives to the
powers of thought. In this element the sensations are combined into
unities ; for to substance they are all referred as qualities inhering in
it, and constituting with it sensible things. And the first rudiments
of position and dimension are probably added to the ideas of things
from the series of muscular sensations associated with the sight of
them during the motion to them or about them. As the cerebrum
grows in the vertebrate series of animals and thought gets subdivided,
the comparative attributes of things and the relations of things are
thought ; new emotions, desires, and aversions grow out of the associa-
tions of ideas of things with the pleasures and pains which are
essentially involved in various modes of nervous action ; and possibly
that reaction of the cerebrum, whereby after one thought has been
conceived another is elicited in the mind, may become localised in
different parts, and specialised as different powers for ordering the
successions of thought, so as to compare, combine, observe relations,
and awaken emotions ; the cerebrum and sensorium being both pro-
bably in action whenever an idea or mental image is before the mind.
The cerebrum is also connected with the centres of motion, combining
into unities groups of muscular actions as it combines into unities
groups of impressions of sense, and extending and facilitating the
associations between thought and action. Simultaneously with the
cerebrum the cerebellum also makes its appearance in vertebrate
animals. It is believed to co-ordinate the actions of the muscles with
one another ; and as its connections are principally with the spinal
cord, it probably serves as a store of force, which having been set in
action by the contracted muscles through the posterior nerves, con-
tinues to maintain through the anterior nerves the stimulus to muscular
action. Thus the cerebellum probably keeps up the activity of the
groups of muscles which have been set in motion, that the momentary
impulses which come from the brain may carry on with steadiness the
progress of the action. For volition acts at each moment in producing
slight changes in the existing action of the muscles, or directing that
that action shall be unchanged or suspended.
Now after the power of thinking the ends of action the next
development which is needed in the furthering of attainment is the
power of thinking the means. For though the various steps in the
process of attaining an end may be joined one to the other by associa-
tion, action will not be moved to take those steps till the desire
inspired by the end has been transferred to them, and this trans-
ference by association is, as has been said before, a gradual process.
DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND BRAIN. 393
The same necessity therefore for a new power of combination which
demanded the first development of the cerebrum in order to combine
sensations into a perception of a sensible thing, will demand a fresh
development of that power in order that the mind may think means
in combination with their end, as leading to it. The desire inspired
by the end will then combine with the means so as to prompt their
adoption ; and the idea of the means as such, that is, as leading to the
end, will be formed, and may be renewed in their absence so as to
maintain the guidance of action.
Thus the middle lobe would be developed to act along with the
anterior lobe so as to give a sense of the series leading to the end ;
though there can be no idea or mental image except of that part of
the series with which the cerebrum is impressing the sensorium. To
the middle lobe thus acting with the anterior would belong on this
supposition the power of thinking acts with a view to their end, the
power of thinking a series of occurrences, the distinct sense of time,
a fuller development of that idea of space which springs from the
sense of a series of muscular movements, the thought of action or fact
as part of a series, and therefore involving time ; and as substance is
the special thought corresponding to the action of the anterior lobe,
so fact or occurrence in time would be the special thought correspond-
ing to that of the middle lobe, combining into a unity the series
comprehended within the time of occurrence, and inhering in a subject
which is thought by means of the anterior lobe and sensorium. As
the cerebrum grew in the development of the vertebrate series and
thought was subdivided, the relations and the comparative attributes
of facts and actions would be thought, and new emotions, desires, and
aversions would be formed in connection with them. Particular
powers of combining them and comparing them, and thinking them
with an emotional sense of them, might possibly be located in different
parts of that region of the cerebrum which consists of the anterior
and the middle lobe, and it would be the seat of all moral sentiments
inspired by action which are formed by association with facts. To
that region would belong whatever is expressed in language by the
verb ; and it is some confirmation of this view, that, among the strange
effects of cerebral disease producing aphasia or loss of correct speech,
it is found that sometimes the nouns are lost while the use of verbs
is unimpaired, and sometimes the contrary ; as if the verb belonged
to a different part of the brain from the noun. "With muscular action
the middle lobe would have indirect connection through the anterior,
and in consequence of its immediate union with the anterior it might
conceivably acquire direct connections of its own.
Xow, if such be indeed the course of development, each lobe carries
forward by one step the power of directing action to the attainment of
its object. Through the anterior lobe the mind combines with the
ideas of things the sense of desirable impressions as qualities inhering
in them, so as to think things as desirable ends of action ; and through
the middle lobe it combines with the end of action steps in the process
of attainment so as to think these as means leading to it. But another
power is needed for the secure guidance of action towards attainment.
VOL. II. 2 C
394 APPENDIX.
A desirable quality may be erroneously attributed to an object which
does not possess it. Means may be thought as leading to an end
which they have no real tendency to secure. In order that action may
be directed rightly a further development of intelligence is needed.
2fot only must there be the thought of ends and of means, but the
knouiedge of ends and of means — the power of judging by past
experience whether the object really has the quality, and whether the
means are really conducive to the end. There may arise from associa-
tion with the past experience of similar cases a suggestion of the
quality as belonging to the present object, or of the means as con-
ducive to the present end ; and this suggestion will be more or less
strong according to the frequency and uniformity and interest of the
past experience. But the strength or weakness of the suggestion is
not sufficient guide to the reality or unreality of that which is suggested.
The idea of it may be weak because the experience of it was scanty
though quite uniform. And the idea of it may be strong because the
experience of it was accompanied by special interest, though there
were many cases in which it was not realised. What is needed is a
sense of the degree of uniformity of occurrence in cases similar to the
present, and the extension of that degree of uniformity to the present
case ; in other words, a power of thinking the degree of uniformity of
past experience in combination with the present case, so as to impart
to the present case a belief in the presence of the element proportioned
to that uniformity. This should be the next development ; and
accordingly the posterior lobe should act along with the middle and
anterior lobes in such a way, that when by the associations which
they form the thought of a fact or thing awakens the thoughts of
other like facts or things, then the posterior lobe shall receive the im-
pressions of those other ideas, so as to strengthen the sense of an
additional element in whicli they agree, and strengthening that element
in proportion to the uniformity of the agreement, to combine it in a
corresponding strength of apprehended fact with the object which is
before the mind. This would be, in a more or less rudimentary form,
according to the degree of development, the power of thinking a fact
as a case of a principle. It is the physiological expression of the first
obscure beginning of syllogistic reasoning. To the posterior lobe thus
acting with the middle and anterior lobes would belong, according to
this view, reasoning and principle and all the tendency to generalise
in the sphere of fact and in the sphere of morality. As the cerebrum
grew in the course of vertebrate development and thought was sub-
divided, the relations and comparative attributes of general principles
would be thought, and possibly special powers of dealing with general
principles and seeing emotional aspects of them might be localised in
the cerebrum. The associations of action with reward and punish-
ment, approval and disapproval, already formed by the instrumentality
of the middle and anterior lobes, would be generalised by that of the
developed cerebrum into universal principles of morality inherent in
the nature of things, and the constraining influence which such
associations exert on conduct would be elevated into natural obligation.
Thus the hypothesis with regard to the functions of the three lobes
DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND BRAIN. 395
of the cerebrum which is suggested by the natural order of develop-
ment as determined by the great requirements of life, is that which
an analysis of the degrees of intelligence in vertebrate animals seems
also to indicate. So that though each class of facts is so intricate and
obscure as scarcely to afford a solid footing for investigation, yet their
agreement may perhaps be considered to give a degree of positive pro-
bability to the general views here given of the mechanism of thought
in the brain. And if it be objected that considerable portions of the
cerebrum may be removed without any apparent mutilation of the
powers of thought, showing that no part of the cerebrum is specially
connected with any act of the mind, it is to be observed that the acts
of the mind become by association so connected with each other that
in each thought there are many associated elements, and the cor-
responding seat of cerebral activity would be not in one but in many
localities throughout the brain. Even if some of these were removed,
the action of the others would still, by association, elicit and be elicited
by the accustomed impressions of the sensorium and stimulation of the
centres of muscular action. Moreover, in other parts of our constitu-
tion, the impaired action of one organ is often replaced by a new action
of other organs, owing to the demand which the general habit of the
body sets up for that which is missing. Much more may such substi-
tution take place in the brain, the action of a lost part being supplied
by new action of another part, when the parts are all so associated in
action and so closely akin as parts of the same organ.
If there be such a distribution of function through the brain, each
part may receive impressions from other parts, and give to the impres-
sions which it receives the form which is proper to its own action.
Thus the anterior lobe may receive from seats of simultaneous action
in the middle lobe, in itself, and in the sensory ganglia, impressions
of fact occurring in time, and to its action on those impressions would
correspond in the mind a conception of fact, in which it would be
summed up as a substantive object. Or the anterior lobe may receive
from seats of simultaneous action in the three lobes and in the sensory
ganglia impressions of general principles, and to its action on those
impressions would correspond the thought of general principles as
substantive objects. And in each case the relations and attributes of
such objects Avould come within the scope of the mind.
Now what is there in language which is beyond the powers of the
lower animals ] There is no reason to suppose that they cannot think
of absent objects and give their attention to parts of these, so as to
abstract those parts from the remainder. And if the foregoing specula-
tion be not erroneous, there is no form of thought expressed in lan-
guage which is quite out of the reach of the higher orders of the
mammalia. Moreover, a fact or other object which awakens a strong
feeling of any kind in an animal will prompt expression of an inter-
jectional nature, and such expression may be connected by association
with such object of thought in the general experience of the species,
so as to suggest the thought of it to another individual And such
396 APPENDIX.
communication of thought might be carried out to a great extent if
found advantageous to the species.
Expression of this kind arises from the need for an outlet through
which the nervous disturbance caused by the impression of the object
may be discharged. The action is propagated from the nervous
centres which have been disturbed by the impression, and spends
itself partly in working the organs of utterance, and partly on the
sensations which their action produces. The disturbance is thus
diffused, and the original seats of it recover their equilibrium more
easily. And no doubt the expression of thought in human speech
has a similar origin. The thoughts which were expressed originally,
involved a cerebral disturbance which needed an outlet for its dis-
charge, and the readiest outlet was audible utterance. Afterwards the
pleasures and advantages of communicating thought would stimulate
expression and prompt an effort to imitate the thought in the sensa-
tions of the utterance, and promote the development of language.
But there is no reason to think that its original source was different
from that of audible expression amongst the lower animals.
Now if this be so, the peculiarity of human speech is, that it gives
expression to such fine elements of thought without being moved by
the force of any other associated emotion except the pleasure or
utility of expressing them. The conceptions of facts are broken into
their constituent parts, and these elements, though so fine, are yet
thought with such development of cerebral force that its discharge
produces audible utterance to relieve the interest of the thought by
imparting it. The nerve force which is expended in such utterance,
with its accompanying sensations, is an approximate measure of the
cerebral energy engaged in the thought which is expressed. And
what language reveals as man's peculiarity is the amount of his
cerebral energy.
This peculiarity in man is plainly indicated by the development of
his brain and by the proportion of his blood which goes to sustain its
action and nutrition. And such vastly superior cerebral energy in
man compared with the lower animals implies that their intelligence
consists of little more than mere rudiments of his thoughts. A
difference in kind separates human thought from the intelligence of
those animals which cannot think fact or general principle. And
even the highest of the mammalia below man seem to have only the
beginnings of the latter. So that even from their intelligence human
thought is broadly distinguished by the full apprehension of general
principles which is involved in the power of reasoning and in the
very ideas of causation, of the constitution and properties of things,
and of the moral law.
THE END.
I-I.IN JUU IW I1AI.I.ANTVNK, HANSON AND CO.
EU1NULKOH AND LONDON.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
Los Angeles
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.
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