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CiEORGE SHA^r, M^D.F.li .S Xre .
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li'oni the first Authorities ;iii(l most select specimens
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London i^iinted lot- G.Keailley Fleet Stieet
GENERAL ZOOLOGY
VOLUME VI. PART U.
INSECTS,
LONDON.
PRINTED FOR GEORGE KEARSLEY, FLEET-STREET J
_ BY THOMAS DAVISON, WHITE-FRIARS.
I8O6.
CONTENTS
OP
VOL. VI.— PART II.
A
CARUS GENUS
Siro
Ant, cdmmon
Page
461
461
exulcerans 4f)2
autnmnalis464
Ricinus 465
Reduvius 465
coleoptratoram
. . 466
vecretans 466
. 350
Apis genus . . . 289
■ mellifica . . . 289
centunculaiis . 344
■ lapidaria . . . 347
• terrestris . . 348
■ • ■ ■• hortorum . . 343
Aranea genus . 477
— — — — diadema . 4/7
•V. VI. p. II.
Aranea, Tarantula
nobilis
scenica
— extensa
■ laevipes
palustris
aquatica
avicularia .
ASILUS GENUS
• crabroniforrais
-• gibbosus .
flavus
forcipatus .
tipuloides .
Bee, common .
Bombylius
medius- i
major
Page
475
479
479
479
479
480
480
480
397
397
397
398
39s
398
289
399
399
399
VI
Centipede^ great
Chrysts genus
ignita
fulgida
CULEX GENUS
pipiens
• pulicaris
reptans
CONOPS GENUS
calcitrans
irritans
————— rostrata
Cancer genus
— — — Pagurus
■ grapsus
• Norvegicus
— — — Homarus
■ Astacus .
Crangon .
Bernardus
— — - stagnalis ,
— — — pulex
CONTENTS.
. 503
. 282
. 282
. 283
. 388
. 388
. 392
. 392
. 395
, 395
. 395
. 396
. 488
• 491
. /J 92
. 492
. AQA
• 493
. 493
. 493
. 494
. 494
Dragon-Fly, variegated 242
DiOPSIS GENUS . , 377
• ichneumonea , 377
Ephemera genus , 2'J9
• — Svvammerdam-
iana .... 252
halterata 253
Ephemera^ diptera .
EmPIS GENUS
livida .
borealis
Flea, common
Formica genus .
herculeana
nigra
omnivora
Gnat, common
. 253
• 393
• 393
. 394
. 45Q
. 350
. 350
. 350
. 354
. 388
HeMEROBIUS GENUS 257
Perla . 257
■■ chrysops 259
HiPPOBOSCA GENUS 401
equina . 401
avicularia 402
hirundinis 40:J
ovina . 403
HyDRACHNA GENUS 468
flaccida 468
■ geographica
. . , . ' . .469
Roeseliana 469
extendens 47O
araneoides 470
■ buccinator 47O
Ichneumon genus . 277
ii glomeratus 278
CONtENTS.
\U
Ichneumon, puparum . 2/8
ovulorum . 2/8
. ramidulus . 279
.- luteus . . 279
JULUS GENUS . . 507
. sabulosus . . 507
Indus . . .508
— — lagurus . . 509
LiBELLULA GENUS . 241
■ varia . 242
depressa . 2 15
Virgo , 24(5
■ puella . 246
• = Lucretia . 247
Lepisma genus . . 404
■ saccharinum 406
—— polypus . 408
LousCj common . . 450
Myrmeleon genus 46o
Formicaleo 4G0
Mite, common . . 46i
MUTILLA genus . 355
' Europsa . o55
« Occidentalis 355
Americana , 356
MuscA genus . . 378
-> chamaeleon . 3/9
Vermileo . .380
■ tenax . . . 382
■ pendula . . 383
Musca, vivipara
grossa
flava .
384
385
385
Monoculus genus . 495
Polyphemus 495
apus . 497
Pulex ' . 498
.. quadricornis 499
Oestrus genus , . 357
bovis . . 358
Equi . . 359
ovis . .364
Africanus , 367
Oniscus genus . , 500
Asellus . , 500
Armadillo . 500
aqualicus . 501
Entomon . 502
Phryganea genus . 254
grandis . 255
rhombica 255
Panorpa genus . 264
communis . 264
Coa . . 264
Podura genus . . 408
aquatica . . 409
fimetari^ . .410
atra . . . 410
plumbea . .410
arborea . . 410
Pediculus genus . 4^0
VIU
Contents.
Pediculus, humanus . 450
PULEX GENUS . . 455
— irritans . .456
•' penetians . . 459
PilALANGIUM GENUS 4^2
— reniforme 4/2
candatum 4/3
' Opilio . 473
cancroides 4/4
■ ■> • Amencanum
. 4/5
' araiieoides 4/5
RaPHIDIA GENUS . 265
-— ophiopsis . 265
— cornata . 205
• Mantispa . 266
SCOLOPENDRA GENUS 503
■ — — morsitans 503
, — Plumieri 504
• forficata 505
electrica 505
subterranea ,505
Scorpiop, European . 485
Scorpio genus . . 435
— — — Europaeus . 485
Americanus . 486
• Afer . . 486
Sphex genus . , 281
-^ Figulus . .281
» viatica . . 282
f- ' ■ '— sabulqsa . . 282
SiREX GENUS
-. Gigas .
Columba
pygmaeus .
Spider, diadem
Tabanus genus
^ bovinus
tropicus
' csecutiens
' pluvialis
TeNTHREDO GENUS
lutea
Amerina
Term Es GENUS .
■ pulsatorius
— — bellicosus
— arborum
TiPULA GENUS ,
— ■ rivosa
hortorum
■ — cornicina
crocata
plumosa ,.
phalsenoides .
hirta .
VesPA GENUS
vulgaris
Crabro
: Holsatica
Wasp, conjmon
. 2jr4
274
276
277
478
385
386
387
387
387
272
273
273
411
411
414
437
373
373
374
375
375
375
376
370
285
285
286
288
285
Directions for placing the Plates in vol. VI. part II.
The Vignette represents the Libellula Virgo of Linnaeus, or
Golden-Green Dragon- Fly. It varies occasionally in colour,
but is generally seen with the wings marked in the middle
by a very large, oval, black or violet-blue patch, and is one
of the most common of the British Libellulae.
Plate SO to face page 242
SI
82
82*
83
84
85
S6
87
88 '
89
90
91
92
93
93*
94
95
9<5
97
98
99
100
249
250
255
257
260
263
264
265
268
269
27 I
2/5
278
281
282
283
285
286
287
289
347
351
Plate 101 to face page 355
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
lis
119
120
121
122
123
357
373
377
379
360
383
386
388
393
395
397
399
401
403
406
409
414
450
454
455
456
461
10
Plate 124 to face page 464
125 468
126 4';-2
127 474
128 4/6
129 460
130 — 485
Plate 131 to face page 48g
132 495
133 497.
134 498
135 — ^ 500
136 503
13; ■— S07
INSECTS.
ORDER
NEUROPTERA.
LIBELLULA. DRAGON-FLY.
Generic Character.
Os maxillosum, maxillis
pluribus.
Atitenna brevissimse.
Ala exstensae,
Cauda maris hamoso-forci-
pata.
Mouth furnished with seve-
ral jaws.
Antenna very short.
Wings four, extended.
Tail (in the male) hook-
forcipated.
±N this genus the mouth is furnished with several
lateral mandibles, denticulated at the tip : the
antennae are very short, being merely a pair of
small hairs: the wings large and spreading, and
the body lengthened.
The Libellulae or Dragon-Flies, sometimes called
by the very improper title of Horse-Stingers, ex-
hibit an instance scarcely less striking than the
V. VI. p. II. 16
242 DRAGON-FLY.
Butterfly of that strange dissimilitude in point of
form under which one and the same animal is
destined to appear in the different periods of its
existence. Perhaps few persons not particularly
conversant in the history of insects would imagine
that these highly brilliant and lively animals,
which may be seen flying with such strength and
rapidity round the meadows, and pursuing the
smaller insects with the velocity of a hawk, had
once been inhabitants of the water, and that they
had resided for a very long space of time in that
element before they assumed their flying form.
Of the Libellulae there are many different species,
both native and exotic. The most remarkable of
the English species is the Lihellula *varia *, or
great variegated Lihellula, This insect makes
its appearance principally towards the decline of
summer, and is an animal of singular beauty: its
general length is about three inches from head
to tail, and the wings, when expanded, measure
near four inches from tip to tip: the head is very
large, and affixed to the thorax by an extremely
slender neck: the eyes occupy by far the greatest
part of the head, and are of a pearly blue-grey
cast, with a varying lustre : the front is greenish
yellow; the thorax of the same colour, but marked
by longitudinal black streaks: the body, which is
* It is here called by a new title, the more securely to di-
stinguish it from the L. grandis of Linnaeus, with which it is
generally confounded j partly from the misapplication of Syno-
nyms by Linnaeus himself.
]LIBEIXUI^A.
/?/?
. //. i]rHr?t^ jvvz^.
i3oJ. Oce^zZon^n PuNiyhrJj bv GJuiiAS^^" J'le^^ Stret^.
^
MIAGON-FLY. 243
very long, slender, and subcylindrical, is black,
with rich variegations of bright bUie, and deep
grass-green: the wings are perfectly transparent,
strengthened by very numerous blac^ reticular
fibres, and exhibit a strongly iridescent appear- -
aoce, according to the various inflexions of light:
each is marked near the tip by a small oblong-
square black spot on the outer edge: the legs are
black, and the tail is terminated by a pair of black
forcipated processes, with an intermediate shorter
one of similar colour. Sometimes this insect
varies^ the spots or marks on the abdomen and
thorax being red or red-brown instead of green.
In its motions it is extremely rapid, flying about
in pursuit of its prey during the middle of the
day, and is at this time taken with extreme dif-
ficulty, darting off, on the slightest alarm from
the spot on which it had settled, and in the space
of a second or two flying to a vast distance. Dur-
ing the early morning hours, and those of evening,
it is easily taken : at such times it is observed to
sit with its wings expanded, but in a perfectly inert
state, and Avill suffer itself to be readily seized by
one of its wings, without attempting to stir from
its place.
The female Libellula deposits or drops her eggs
into the water, which sinking to the bottom, are
hatched, after a certain period, into hexapode flattish
larvae or caterpillars, of a very singular and dis-
agreeable aspect: they cast their skins several times
before they arrive at their full size, and are of a
dusky brown colour : the rudiments of the future
244 DRAGON-FLY.
wings appear on the back of such as are advanced
to what may be called the pupa or chrysalis state,
in the form of a pair of oblong scales or processes,
and the head is armed with a most singular organ
for seizing its prey; viz. a kind of proboscis, of a
flattened form, and furnished with a joint in the
middle, the end being much dilated, and armed
with a pair of strong hooks or prongs. This pro-
boscis, when the animal is at rest, is folded or
turned up, in such a manner as to lap over the
face like a mask; but when the creature sees any
insect which it means to attack, it springs sud-
denly forwards, and by stretching forth the jointed
proboscis, readily obtains its prey. These larvoe
are excessively voracious, and like those of the
Dytisci, commit great havoc among the smaller
water insects in general. Linnaeus calls them
" Crocodili crudeles insectorum aquatilium" They
continue in this their larva and pupa state for two
years, when, having attained their full size, they
prepare for their ultimate change; and creeping
up the stem of some water-plant, and grasping it
with their /feet, they make an effort, by which the
skin of the back and head is forced open, and the
inclosed Libellula gradually emerges; it first puts
forth its head and wings, and afterwards draws
out the body, in the manner represented on the
annexed plate. The wings, at this early period
of exclusion, - like those of butterflies, are very
short, tender, and contracted, all the ramifications
or fibres having been compressed within the small
compass of the oblong scales on the back of the
.BRAGON-FLY. 245
larva, or rather pupa; but in the space of about
half an hour they are fully expanded, and have
acquired the solidity and strength necessary for
flight. This curious process of the evolution or
birth of the Libelhila generally takes place in the
morning, and during a clear sunshine. The re-
maining part of the animal's life is but short in
comparison with that which it passed in its aquatic
state ; the frosts of the close of autumn destroying
the whole race. They are also the prey of several
sorts of birds. It is impossible not to be struck
with admiration on contemplating the changes of
the Lii>ellula, which, while an inhabitant of the
water, would perish by any long exposure to the
air, while the complete animal, once escaped from
the pupa, would as effectually be destroyed by
submersion under the water, of which not an
hour before, it was the legitimate or natural in-
habitant.
The Libellula depressa is a smaller or shorter
species than the preceding, though with a consider-
ably broader body in proportion. The male is of a
bright sky-blue, with the sides of the body yellow ;
the female of a fine brown or bay, with yellow
sides also: the wings in both sexes are trans-
parent, except at the shoulders, where they are
each marked by a broad bed or patch of brown
with a stripe of yellow: the tips of each wing
have also a small oblong-square black spot on the
outer margin. The larva of this species is of a
shorter form than that of the preceding, and is of
a greenish brown colour.
?46 RR AGON-FLY.
The Libellula Virgo is one of the most elegant
of the European insects: it is much smaller than
the Libellula varia, and is distinguished by its
very slender, long, cylindric body, which, as well
as the head and thorax, is usually either of a
bright but deep golden-green, or else of a deep
gilded-blue: the wings are transparent at the base
and tips, but are each marked in the middle by a
very large oval patch or bed of deep blackish or
violet blue, accompanied with iridescent hues ac-
cording to the direction of the light : sometimes
the Avings are entirely violet-black, without the
least appearance of transparency either at the
base or tips, and sometimes they are altogether
transparent, without any appearance of the violet-
black patch which distinguishes the majority of
specimens; and lastly the insect sometimes ap-
peajrs with transparent wings, but shaded with a
strong cast of gilded greenish brown, each being
marked by a small white speck at the exterior
jedge, near the tip. All these varieties may often
be observed in the same field, or flying within a
small distance of each other on the borders of
their natal stream. The larva of this species is of
9, very slender form, and has the tail terminated
by three large oblong-oval leaf-shaped append-
ages.. Like those of the two preceding species,
it is very common in stagnant waters and in
rivulets.
A much smaller species than the preceding, and
equally common, is the Libellula Puella of Lin-
naeus. This varies much in colour, but is gene-
DRAGON-FLY. 247
rally of a bright and beautiful sky-blue, varie-
gated with black bars on the joints, and with the
thorax marked by black longitudinal stripes: the
wings are transparent, and each marked near the
tip with a small oblong-square black marginal
spot: the head in this species, as well as in the
L: Virgo, is broader and narrower in proportion
than that of the L: varia, and the eyes are round,
protuberant, and placed on each side at a distance
from each other, instead of coalescing at the .upper
part as in the L: varia: this species often varies;
being red or brown instead of blue. Its larva re-
sembles that of the L: Virgo in shape, but is pro-
portionally smaller, and, like that, is also furnished
with three large, lengthened-oval, leaf-shaped ap-
pendages.
The exotic Libellulae are very numerous : among
the most remarkable mav be numbered the Z:
Lucretia, figured in the elegant entomological
work of Mr. Drury. It is a native of the Cape of
Good Hope, and is distinguished by the excessive
length of its slender body, which measures not
less than five inches and a half in length, though
scarcely exceeding the tenth of an inch in di-
ameter: the wings are transparent, of a slender or
narrow shape, as in the L: Puella, to which this
species is allied in form, and measures five inches
and a half in extent from tip to tip : the colour of
the head and thorax is brown, with a yellowish
stripe on each side, and the body is of a deep
mazarine blue.
I should not dismiss the genus Libellula with-
248 DRAGON-FLY.
out observing that in some species, and parti-
cularly in the L: varia, grandis, &c. the wonderful
structure of the cornea or external coat of the eye,
which prevails in by far the major part of the
insect tribe, is exhibited with peculiar distinct-
ness. Even a common magnifier, of about an
inch focus, demonstrates that the cornea is marked
by a prodigious number of minute decussating
lines, giving a kind of chagrin or granular appear-
ance to the whole convexity: but when micro-
scopically examined, it exhibits a continued sur-
face of convex hexagons, and if cut from the head,
and cleared from its internal pigment, it appears
perfectly transparent, and seems to consist of an
infinity of hexagonal lenses of equal convexity on
both surfaces. This is a subject on which much
might be said; but the compass of the present
publication forbids too circumstantial a descrip-
tion of minute and disputable particulars. It may
be sufficient to observe that on each eye of this
animal, according to computation of Leewenhoek,
there are about twelve thousand five hundred and
forty-four of these lenses.
-Fupa
Z/t/ra'
fem^
Jtfar^inata^
ido5 Octu Zond.on.Tut>l{/h>cf b\- &JCe(o-flcv f/n-t St/yrr .
EPHEMERA. EPHEMERA.
Generic Character
Os edentulum, absque pal-
pis.
Stemrnata duo, maxima,
supra oculos.
Alee quatuor, erectae; pos-
ticis minoribus.
Cauda setosa.
Mouth without teeth or
feelers.
Stemmata two, very large,
above the eyes.
JVings upright; the lower
pair smaller.
Tail bristled.
A HIS genus, like that of Libellula, exhibits a
wonderful difference between the same animal in
its larva state and that of its ultimate or perfect
state; the larva being altogether aquatic, the
complete insect aerial. It also affords an example
of what may be termed a flying pupa ; since,
in some species at least, the insect is no sooner
evolved from the larva than it flutters to the near-
est convenient spot, and again shifts its pellicle*,
the wings themselves having cast their exterior
membrane. The Ephemerae are extremely short-
lived insects. The most familiar species is the
Ephemera vulgata or common May-Fly, so plenti-
fid in the early part of summer about the brinks
* This operation is so quick that it may be rather called
springing from, the chrysalis than gradually emerging.
'250 EPHEMERA.
of rivulets and stagnant waters. It is of a greenish
brown colour, witii transparent wings, elegantly
mottled with brown, and is furnished at the ex-
tremity of the body with three very long black
bristles. It flutters during the evening about the
surface of the water, but during the day is gene-
rally seen in a quiescent posture, with the wings
closed, and applied to each other in an upright
position. The larva is of a lengthened shape,
about an inch in length, furnished along each side
of the body with several finny plumes, and at the
tail with three long, feathered processes: it has
also a pair of moderately long antennie, though
those of the complete insect are extremely short.
When arrived at its full size, as above-described,
it exhibits the rudiments of wings on the back, in
the form of a pair of oblong sheaths or scales : its
colour is a pale yellowish or whitish brown. It is
supposed to continue two years in this state of
Larva before it changes into the complete insect.
This change takes place in the evening, when the
larva rises to the surface of the water, and soon di-
vesting itself of its skin, flies to some neighbouring
object, and after having remained some time longer,
again casts its pellicle^ and appears in its ultimate
or perfect form, in which, as well as in its larva
state, it is a favourite food of several kinds of fishes,
and particularly of the Trout. In some seasons
it is extremely plentiful, the air in the immediate
neighbourhood of its natal waters being frequently
blackened by its numbers during the evening-
hours. We are assured by Scopoli, that such
m^.^-..-
4 frr?f/j/r Ep7?/-/f7^/y7
/f.-^J, „vu»-
j6r:tOer-j:LfiiJir,7y,/isfu;/ In C /I'foiv?^ F/rff Sv-rrt
EPHEMERA. 251
swarms are produced every season in the neigh-
bourliood of some particular spots in the Dutchy
of Carniola, that the countrymen think they obtain
but a small portion, unless every farmer can carry
off about twenty cart-loads of them into his fields,
for the purpose of a manure*.
But, of all the European Ephemerae, that which
has been most celebrated, and of which almost
every reader must recollect the general and super-
ficial account so often detailed in works of Natural
History, is the species described by Swammer-
dam f . It is of a white colour, with the anterior
rib of the upper wings black or deep-brown, and
the tail is furnished with two long bristles. This
insect, which is common in many parts of Europe,
is commemorated as a most remarkable instance
of the brevity of animal life; since after its change
into the perfect animal it survives but a very few
hours, perishing in the course of the same even-
ing that gave it birth. It is to be recollected
however that its larva lives in its aquatic state
two, and even sometimes nearly three years; and
is in this state so tenacious of life that Swammer-
dam assures us that one which he pierced with a
pin to a board, in order to preserve it, lived all
* It is necessary to give the words of the authoi: himself.
What particular kind of vehicles he intended by the word currus
I know not. " Junio mense tanta copia circa Laz Carniolae
conspicua, ut rustici exiguam messem se collegisse putent, nisi
singuli ultra zo currus ea onustos in agrum exoneraverint, cujus
stercorationi optime inservit."
f Ephemera horaria?? Liiu
252 EHIEMERA.
the next clay" notwithstanding. According to the
figure given by Swammerdam it is extremely
allied to the larva of the Ephemera vulgata, resid-
ing chiefly in tubular cavities which it forms in
the mud or clay of the waters it inhabits, occa-
sionally coming out in quest of food. In this re-
spect it agrees with the larvae of several others of
this genus, which have a similar habit of forming
tubular hollows in the banks of their native waters.
When arrived at full growth the larva or, more
properly, pupa-, rises, like that of the common
Ephemera, to the surface of the water, generally
between the hours of six and seven in the evening,
and the skin of the back cracking, and springing
off with an elastic motion, the Fly is almost in-
stantaneously evolved, as in the common species;
after which it flies to the nearest convenient spot,
and again divesting itself of its pellicle, appears
in its perfect or ultimate state. It now flies
again to the water, and fluttering over its surface,
as if sporting with its innumerable companions,
enjoys all the pleasures of its short remainder of
existence: the female breeds, deposits her eggs,
and, like the male, perishes before, or with the
dawn of the approaching day.
This species, according to Swammerdam, is ex-
tremely frequent in the mouths or entrances of
the Rhine, the Maes, the Wael, the Leek, and the
Isel. It appears in the fly or perfect state about
midsummer, and the season of its appearance
lasts only three days, none being seen again till
the following year.
EPHEMERA. 253
According to Swammerdam's figure the size of
the animal is at least equal to that of the Ephe-
mera vulgata, from which it principally differs in
being of a white colour, and in having but two
caudal bristles, though in its larva state it M^as
furnished with three.
Among the smaller Ephemerae the species are
by no means easily distinguishable, and a degree
of confusion seems to prevail in their synonyms
as given by Linnaeus and others.
Among these smaller species the Ephemera
halterata of Linnaeus may be considered as one
of the most elegant: it is of a white colour, with
the lower part of the body black: the lower wings
are so very small as rather to resemble a mere
pair of small membranaceous processes than real
wings. It is not uncommon during the summer
months. The stemmata or false eyes are in this
species remarkably conspicuous, and are of a flat-
tened surface: the tail is terminated by three long
bristles.
Epheinera diptera of Linnaeus is a somewhat
larger species than that just mentioned, and has,
as the name imports, only two wings, no traces of
lower wings being discoverable. The body is
brownish, and the wings white, with a strong
anterior rib or border of yellow-brown, varied by
cinereous spots.
PHRYGANEA. PHRYGANEA.
Generic Cliaracter.
O^edentulum: Palpis qua-
tuor.
Stemmata tria.
Antenrue thorace lonsriorcs.
Al^ incumbentes : inferi-
oribus plicatis.
Mouth without teeth; with
four Feelers.
Stemmata three.
Antenna longer than tho-
rax.
Wings incumbent ; the
lower pair pleated.
X H E genus Phryganea consists of insects which
in point of habit or general appearance bear a
considerable resemblance to some of the Phalaenae,
and particularly to those belonging to the division
entitled Tineae. They may however be readily
distinguished from Moths by their palpi or feelers,
as well as by the stemmata situated on the top of
the head. The Phryganeae proceed from aquatic
larvae of a lengthened shape, residing in tubular
cases, which they form by agglutinating various
fragments of vegetable substances, particles of
gravel, &c. &c. These tubular cases are lined
within by a tissue of silken fibres, and are open
at each extremity. The included larvae, when
feeding, protrude the head and fore-parts of the
82*
PMUI'GAIK'EA,
«»i^r
rh/?7nbiica
<^ra?uiij
iSo.^, Oct'z ZondcTL -Published bv G.Harsltv.J'Teet^Street.
PJIRYGANEA. ^59
body, creeping along the bottom of the waters
thev inhabit by means of six short and slender
legs: on the upper part of the back, in most
species, is situated an upright papilla or process,
serving as a kind of prop or stay, preventing the
case or tube from slipping too forwards during
the time the animal is feeding.
Of the European Phryganene one of the largest
is the PJirijganea grandis of Linnaeus, usually
measuring somewhat more than an inch in length,
and having xevy much the general aspect of a
phalaena: the upper wings are grey, marked by
various darker and lighter streaks and specks, and
the under wings yellowish brown and semitrans-
parent. The larva, which measures near an
inch and three quarters in length, is of a flesh'
coloured grey, with brown head and legs, and
inhabits a tube composed of pieces of bark, small
fragments of grass-stalks, or other substances.
Like other larvae of this genus, it is known by
the name of Cadew-Worm, and is frequently
used by anglers as a bait. When arrived at
full growth it fastens the case or tube by seve-
ral silken filaments to the stem of some water
plant or other convenient substance in such a
manner as to project a little above the surface
of the water, and casting its skin, changes to a
chrysalis of a lengthened shape, and displaying
the immature limbs of the future Phryganea, which
in the space of about fourteen days emerges from
its confinement.
Phryganea rhombica is a smaller species than
256
PHRYGANEA.
the former, and is of a yellowish brown colour,
with two obliquely transverse rhomboid semi-
transparent white spots on each upper wing; the
lower wings being whitish with a tinge of yellow-
brown towards the upper edge. The larva forms
its case of small pieces of the slender stems of
water grasses or other plants curiously disposed
in an obliquely transverse direction. It is of a
greenish brown colour, and like the former, is
found in rivulets and stagnant waters. The Larvse
of the Phryganege in general feed not only on the
smaller water insects but on the spawn of fishes,
and even on the young fry itself
83
HEMEROBII^J:^
J^erl/i/
chrjsops vcLf^i
pecluiuxT,
J^
chiyo'cps
Jf6r-i0UJi^ ^<:ulf,.
lutariud- c lar\ '. pitp. &c
iSo^'i.CctLLcndcn. Thii/iehed if G. SatrJ-lef , Fleec Stree-lj.
HEMEROBIUS. HEMEROBIUS.
Generic Character.
Os dentibus duobus; Palpis
quatuor.
Stemmata nulla.
Ala deflexse (nee plicatoe.)
Antennte thorace convex o
longiores, setaceae, por-
rectae.
Mouth with two teeth, and
four Feelers.
Stemmata none.
Wings deflected, not pleat-
ed.
Antenna longer than the
convex thorax, setace-
ous, stretched forwards.
X HE genus Hemerobius is distinguished by a
peculiar delicacy of appearance. The most com-
mon species, the Hemerobius Perla, is an insect
of extreme beauty. It is principally seen in the
middle and towards the decline of summer, and is
a slender-bodied fly of a grass-green colour, with
bright gold-coloured eyes, and four large, trans-
parent, oval wings finely reticulated with pale-
green veins. The general length of the animal,
from the head to the tips of the wings, is about
three quarters of an inch. It is not uncommon
in the neighbourhood of gardens, occasionally
flying into houses. If pressed or bruised it dif-
fuses an odour of the most disagreeable kind, and
V, VI. p. II.
17
258 HEMEROBIUS.
which remains a considerable time on the fingers.
The eggs laid by this insect are of a highly curi-
ous appearance, and at first view resemble rather
some production of the vegetable than the animal
kingdom, being each supported on a delicate stem
of more than half an inch in length, which is at-
tached to the surface of some leaf or twig. Groupes
of these eggs are frequently observed on the lime-
tree in particular, and have occasionally been mis-
taken by those who were ignorant of their real
nature for some small species of parasite fungus.
They have long ago been well figured in the
works of Reaumur, &c. From these eggs are
hatched small larvae of an oblong-oval shape with
a pointed extremity. They grow to the length
of about three quarters of an inch, and are of a
flattish or slightly convex surface, and a reddish
colour; the abdominal divisions project in a ser-
rated manner on each side the body, and the head
is armed in front with a pair of short, curved,
tubular forceps, by which the animal seizes and
sucks the juices of its prey. These larvae live
almost entirely on Aphides, which they devour
with great avidity: their growth is pretty quick,
and in the space of about a fortnight they are
ready to undergo their change into the chrysalis
state. In order to this, the animal draws a fine
silk from the extremity of its body, and in a short
space envelops itself in a round ball, of the size of
a small pea, affixed to a leaf or twig of the tree it
frequents, and, divesting itself of its skin, com-
HEMEROUIUS. 25^
mences a chrysalis, which in the space of about
twenty* days affords the complete insect. It is
wonderful, as Reaumur very justly observes, that
an insect with such an expanse of wing should be
contained within the small compass of the silken
ball of the chrysalis.
The Hemerobius Perla, like its larva, is of a
predacious nature, living on the smaller kind of
flying insects.
Hemejvbius chrysops greatly resembles the pre-
ceding, but differs in having the body and thorax
marked by black spots, and the wings by dusky
reticular variegations.
* According to Albin the larva incloses itself in the ball in
August, and the fly emerges in the following May. Reaumur
observes that those which change to chrysalis early in summer
emerge from it in about three weeks, while those which change
in September continue in chrysalis till the following spring.
MYRMELEON. MYRMELEON.
Generic Character.
Os maxillosum, dentibus
duobus. Palpi quatuor
elongati.
Stemmata nulla.
Antenna clavatae, longi-
tudine thoracis.
Ala deflexae.
Cauda maris forcipe a fila-
mentis duobus rectius-
culis.
Mouth furnished with jaws:
teeth two: Feelers four,
elongated.
Stemmata none.
Antemice clavated, of the
length of thorax.
Wings deflected.
Tail of the male furnished
with a forceps consisting
of two straitish filaments.
o
'F this genus the species whose history is best
understood is the Myrmeleon Formicaleo of Lin-
naeus, whose larva* has long been celebrated by
naturalists for its wonderful ingenuity in prepar-
ing a kind of pitfal or deceptive cavity for the de-
struction of such insects as happen unwarily to
enter it. The Myrmeleon Formicaleo in its com-
plete or fly state bears no inconsiderable resem-
blance to a small Dragon-Fly, from which however
it may readily be distinguished by its antennae.
* Popularly known by the name of Lion-Pismire.
MTKMEI-IEOI^'.
S4
^.^n^th ^euU\
Mvr77i .Tonmai/eo m its various states.
iSoJ. CclTi Zor^n.ruili>/>e.ih 0.jrcwr.^y.riea Street.
MYRMELEON. Q.6I
It is of a predacious nature, flying chiefly by
night, and pursuing the smaller insects in the
manner of a Libellula. It deposits its eggs in
dry sandy situations, and the young larvae, when
hatched, begin separately to exercise their talent
of preparing, by turning themselves rapidly round,
a very small conical cavity in the sand. Under
the centre of the cavity the little animal conceals
itself, suddenly rushing forth at intervals in order
to seize any small insect which by approaching
the edge of the cavity has been so unfortunate as
to fall in, and after sucking out its juices through
its tubular forceps, throws it by a sudden exertion
to some distance from the cavity. As the creature
increases in size it enlarges the cavity, which at
length becomes about two inches or more in di-
ameter. The larva when full-grown is more than
half an inch long, and is of a flattened figure, broad
towards the upper part, and gradually tapering to
an obtuse point at the extremity. It is of a brown
colour, and beset with numerous tufts of dusky
hair, which are particularly conspicuous on each
side the annuli of the abdomen : the legs are
slender: the head and thorax rather small: the
tubular jaws long, curved, serrated internally, and
very sharp-pointed. The whole animal is of an
unpleasing aspect, and on a cursory view bears
a general resemblance to a flat-bodied spider.
When magnified its appearance is highly uncouth.
The ingenious Reaumur and Roesel have given
accurate descriptions of this larva and its extra-
Q,6l MYRMELEON.
ordinary history. It is one of those whose term
of life, like that of the Libellulaa and EphemeraB,
is protracted to a very considerable space, since it
survives the first winter in its larva state, taking
no nourishment during that time, and in the
spring resumes its usual manner of preying. In
preparing its pit it begins by tracing an exterior
circle of the intended diameter of the cavity, con-
tinuing its motion, in a spiral line, till it gets to
the centre, thus marking several volutes in the
sand, resembling the impression of a large helix or
snail-shell ; and after having sufficiently deepened
the cavity by a repetition of this motion, it srnooths
the sides into a regular shape by throwing out the
superfluous sand lying on the ridges : this it does
by closing its forcipes in such a manner that to-
gether with the head, they form a convenient
shovel, with which it throws the sand with so
strong a motion out of the cavity, that the grains
often fall to the distance of near a foot beyond
the brink. The depth of the pit is generally equal
to the diameter. When full-grown and ready to
change into a chrysalis the animal envelops itself
in a round ball of sand, agglutinated and con-
nected by very fine silk, which it draws from a
tubular process at the extremity of the body :
with this silk it also lines the* internal surface of
the ball, which, if opened, appears coated by a
fine pearl-coloured silken tissue. It continues in
the state of chrysalis about four weeks, and then
gives birth to the complete insect. The Myr-
SJ
MYRMELEON. 203
meleon Formicaleo is not found in England, but
occurs in many parts of the Continent, as France,
Spain, Germany, &c.
Some of the extra-European species of this
genus are of very considerable size, and of a
highly elegant appearance.
PANORPA. PANORPA.
Generic Character,
Jlostrum coYneum, cylindri-
cum; palpis duobus.
Stemmata tria.
Antenna thorace longiores.
Cauda maris chelata.
Smut horny, cylindric, with
two feelers.
Stemmata three.
Antenna longer than thorax.
Tail of the male chelated
or clawed.
X HE most familiar species of this genus is the
Panorpa communis of Linnaeus, an insect very fre-
quently seen in meadows during the early part of
summer. It is a longish-bodied fly, of moderate
size, with four transparent wings, elegantly varie-
gated with deep-brown spots: the tail of the male
insect, which is generally carried in an upright
position, is furnished with a forceps, somewhat in
the manner of a lobster's claw.
The Panorpa Coa is a native of Greece and the
islands of the Archipelago, and is an insect of a
very peculiar appearance. It is considerably
larger than the preceding, and is distinguished by
having the lower wings so extremely narrow or
slender as to resemble a pair of linear processes
with an oval dilatation at the tip, while the upper
wings are very large, oval, transparent, and beauti-
fully variegated with yellowish-brown bars and
spots.
T-A:^o]R,rA,
S6
rr/fw7j//nus'
a?mf/uau^i' renU
Upida^i/z/
f'eattt/ jTJiUft .
2So^.€c't:Llc?tdcn.y'ul>li''h^d hv O.E^tir.rUv FU^fStre^.
Sy
JRapi-iibx.^,
Pphwp.ns
771/1 /]ni/i/>d
»,^ij, f^^.
i8e',.Oi-irj Lond.n.Iiihh.i-hfd bv G Ketu-.rlM' ,l<'l/f Sireft
RAPHIDIA. RAPHIDIA.
Generic Character.
O^dentibus duobus incapite
depresso corneo.
Palpi quatuor. Stemmata
tria.
Alie deflexae.
Antennte longitudine tho-
racis antice elongati cy-
lindrici.
Cauda feminae seta recurva
laxa.
Mouth with two teeth : head
depressed, horny-
Feelers four. Stemmata
three.
Wings deflex.
Antenna the length of tho-
rax, which is cylindric,
and elongated in front.
Tail of the female furnished
with a recurved lax bristle.
JL HIS genus contains but few species, the most
remarkable of which is the Raphidia Ophiopsis of
Linnaeus J a smallish fly, with rather large trans-
parent wings, and a narrow thorax, stretching for-
wards in a remarkable manner. It is found on
trees, &c. in summer, but is rather a rare insect:
the pupa, according to Linnasus, resembles the
complete insect, but is destitute of wings.
Raphidia cornuta is a large species, equal in size
to one of the larger Dragon-Flies, and is distin-
guished by its very long, horn-like jaws, which
extend far beyond the thorax, and are terminated
l6d RAPHIDIA.
by a bifid tip: the wings are large, reticulated,
and semitransparent. It is a native of North-
America.
Raphidia Mantispa is a small species, but little
superior in size to the R. Ophiopsis, and is a na-
tive of some of the warmer parts of Europe. It
has the habit of the genus Mantis, and it is even
doubtful whether it should not more properly be
referred to that genus than to the present.
INS E CTS.
ORDER
HYMENOPTERA.
CYNIPS. CYNIPS.
Generic Character.
Os maxillis absque probo-
scide.
Aculeus spiralis, ssepius re-
conditus.
Mouth with jaws, but with-
out proboscis.
Piercer or sting spiral, gene-
rally concealed.
X HE insects of this genus pass their larva and
chrysalis state in those enlargements or tubercles
so common on various vegetables, and generally
known by the name of Galls. These galls or
swellings arise in consequence of the part on
which they appear having been first punctured by
Q.6i
CYNIPS.
the female Cynips, which at the same time that
she deposits her egg, discharges a peculiar fluid,
which, by preventing the natural course of the
sap, causes a gradual enlargement to take place.
Among the most remarkable of these vegetable
excrescences may be ranked those produced on the
leaves and footstalks of the Oak: these are well
known in commerce under the name of Galls of
Aleppo, the best or most efficacious being import-
ed from the Turkish dominions. Those on the
leaves of the oak are produced by the Ci/nips
Quercusfolii of Linnasus, a small short-bodied fly,
of a blackish colour, with four transparent wings,
carried in a flat direction over the back. In the
month of July this animal punctures the leaves,
depositing an ovum in each puncture, frequently
to the number of six, seven, or eight on the same
leaf In the space of a iew days so many small
round swellings are produced : these towards the
end of the month arrive at the size of common
peas, but afterwards increase rapidly, till in the
month of September they are arrived at the size
of the largest of those represented on the annexed
plate: at this period of their growth they are
generally tinged with red, and marked by minute
superficial tubercles. On slitting open a gall, the
larva is found imbedded in the centre, in the form
of a small white maggot, not ill resembling that
of the common nut. In September it undergoes
its change into chrysalis, in which state it con-
tinues about three weeks, when the complete insect
S8
larxa 7it2t. oyie
jT'ur'a ma^ruAed
C. qmrru. r rrhi. vot. -si re
ma(jn?n'^'1
3^<€uk jm^
LCts.Cct^iCondim.ruI'ilshtd b\ C /Qar.^le*'J'lut Jtreei^
^^
i'Yl^IPS
^^M0'
C.Jio.y(P m.%:' f. mih lan-a Ic pupa a71 ma^nmed
i3cj. Oit'j lcmit-a.riU>lu1ud by oJCerofUv.rUir Swf^t
CYNIPS. 269
proceeds from it, gnawing its way through the
gall. It however often remains during the whole
winter in the gall, from which it issues in the suc-
ceeding spring. As a species this Cynips is par-
ticularly distinguished by having the upper surface
of the thorax marked by several longitudinal black
streaks, and a small dusky spot on the middle of
e^ch upper wing.
The Cytiips qiierciis petioli of Linnasus is a
species much allied to the preceding, but rather
larger, and of a tawny-ferruginous cast, with the
thorax marked also by black streaks. The gall
produced by the puncture of this species is situat-
ed on the footstalks of oak leaves, and greatly re-
sembles in size and appearance that of the former.
The Cynips Rosce produces on the sweet-briar,
dog-rose, &c. a gall of a highly singular appear-
ance, resembling a beautiful heap of finely rami-
fied moss, of a green colour tinged with red: this
in the autumnal season is frequently observed,
and when opened discovers in the solid fleshy or
central part the included larva, in the form of a
small white maggot, and sometimes several are
found in different parts of the same mass. The
Cynips itself is black, with ferruginous legs and
abdomen, the latter tipped with black. The
mossy gall above-mentioned, in which it is bred,
is distinguished by the older writers on natural
history by the title of Bedeguar.
The leaves of Willows are very frequently loaded
by large, irregular, red swellings during the Sum-
270 CYNIPS.
mer. These are caused by the Cynips *oiminalis of
Linnaeus, a small species, of a yellow colour, with
a black thorax. It is one of the most common of
the genus, and affords one of the most familiar
examples. It changes to chrysalis in the autumn,
and lies in that state all winter in the fallen leaf,
the perfect insect making its appearance in the
succeeding spring.
With respect to the common Oak-Galls, a
popular superstition has sometimes been enter-
tained, that the great events of the ensuing year
might be predicted by observing the prevailing
animals found in their cavity, and the learned Sir
Thomas Brown, in his Pseudodoxia Epidemica,
has thought it worth his while, with much gravity,
to explode this conceit; and it is curious to ob-
serve that this truly great man, while he success-
fully combats one popular error, falls himself into
another, for want of that philosophical knowledge
of Insects which later times have succeeded in
obtaining.
" The presage of the year succeeding, which is
commonly made from insects or little animals in
Oak- Apples, according to the kinds thereof, either
maggot, fly, or spider; that is of famine, war,
or pestilence; whether we mean that woody ex-
crescence which shooteth from the branch about
May, or that round and apple-like accretion which
groweth under the leaf about the latter end of
summer, is, I doubt, too indistinct, nor verifiable
from event. For flies and maggots are found
CYNIPS. 271
every year, very seldom spiders : and Helmont
affirmeth he could never find the spider and the
fly upon the same trees, that is the signs of war
and pestilence, which often go together: beside
that the flies found were at first maggots, experi-
ence hath informed us; for keeping these ex-
crescencies, we have observed their conversions ;
beholding in magnifying-glasses the daily pro-
gression thereof; as may be also observed in other
vegetable excretions, whose maggots do terminate
in flies of constant shapes; as in the nutgalls of
the outlandish oak, and the mossie tuft of the
wild-briar; which having gathered in November,
we have found the little maggots which lodged in
wooden cells all winter, to turn into flies in June.
We confess the opinion may hold some verity in
analogy, or emblematical phancy; for pestilence
is properly signified by the spider, whereof some
kinds are of a very venomous nature : famine by
maggots, which destroy the fruits of the earth ;
and war not improperly by the fly, if we rest in
the phancy of Homer, who compares the valiant
Grecian unto a fly. Some verity it may also have
in itself; as truly declaring the corruptive con-
stitution in the present sap and nutrimental juice
of the tree; and may consequently discover the
disposition of the year according to the plenty or
kinds of those productions; for if the putrefying
juices of bodies bring forth plenty of flies and
maggots, they give forth testimony of common
corruption, and declare that the elements are full
272 CYNIPS.
of the seeds of putrefaction, as the great number of
caterpillars, gnats, and ordinary insects do also
declare. If they run into spiders, they give signs
of higher putrefaction, as plenty of vipers and
scorpions are confessed to do; the putrefying ma-
terials producing animals of higher mischiefs ac-
cording to the advance and higher strain of cor-
ruption."
TENTHREDO. TENTIIREDO.
Gejieric Character.
Os maxillis absque probo-
scide.
Ai^ plaiiEC, tumidae,
Aculeus lamints duabua ser-
ratis, vix prominentibus,
Scutellum granis duobus im-
pdsitis distantibus.
Mouth with jaws, without
proboscis.
Wings flat, swelled or slight-
ly inflated.
Piercer consisting of two
serrated and scarcely pro-
jecting laminx.
Scutellum with two distant
granules.
X HE Larvae of the genus Tenthredo are re-
markable for their great resemblance to those of
the order Lepidoptera or real caterpillars, from
which however they may in general be readily
distinguished by their more numerous feet, whicli
are never fewer than sixteen, exclusive of the
three first or thoracic pairs. When disturbed or
handled they usually roll themselves into a flat
spiral. They feed, like the caterpillars of the
Lepidoptera, on the leaves of plants, and undergo
their chrysalis state in a strong gummy case or
envelopement, prepared in autumn, out of which
in the ensuing spring emerges the complete insect.
The Tenthredines form a numerous genus, and
may be divided into tribes or sections according
V. VI. p. II. 18
274 TENTHIIEDO.
to the form of the antennae, which are in some
clavated, in others filiform, &c. Among the prin-
cipal species may be numbered the Tenthredo
lutea of Linmeus, which proceeds from a large
green larva, of a finely granulated surface, with a
double row of black specks along each side, and a
dusky dorsal line bounded on each by yellow: it
feeds on various species of willow, &c. the parch-
ment-like case in which it envelops itself in autumn
is of a pale yellowish brown colour, and the chry-
salis, which is of a pale dusky or brownish cast,
exhibits the limbs of the future fly, which is equal
in size to a common wasp, and is of a yellow
colour, barred with black: the antennae rather
short, and strongly clavated.
The Tenthredo Amer'mce of Linnaeus is some-
what smaller than the preceding, and of a cinere-
ous brown colour, with the under part of the abdo-
men rufous or dull orange: like the former, its
caterpillar is of a green colour, and of a finely
roughened surface powdered with numerous whitish
specks.
The larvae of the smaller Tenthredines are often
very injurious to different kinds of esculent veget-
ables, as turnips, &c. &c.
TEKTHE-IEBO
no
,l/7i/'rTr}(r
lut^a
jfirg.Cff''.iLrn/irrt /'u?>/)'.''fift/ hv (^.](eiir.<-?fv.J''//'f/ Sfrrff
02
S\'&.Y.'^
y^
as tern
mas.
pupa
larva
^ eijcjs 7iat.si::i'
SIREX. SIREX.
Generic Character.
Os maxillis duabus validis.
Palpi duo, truncati.
Antenme^Wioxvacs; articulis
ultra viginti quatuor.
Aculeiis exsertus, rigens,
serratus.
Abdome?! sessile, mucrona-
tum.
Ala lanceolatae, planae om-
nibus.
Mouth with two strong jaws.
Feelers two, truncated.
Antenna filiform, with more
than twenty-four joints.
Fiercer exserted, stiff, ser-
rated.
Abdomen sessile, pointed.
Wings lanceolate, flat in
all.
A HE larvag of these insects are of a lengthened,
cylindric appearance, living in the decayed parts
of trees, on the substance of which they feed: the
chrysalis, as in the genus Tenthredo, exhibits the
limbs of the perfect insect in a contracted state.
The largest species is the Sire.v Gigas of Lin-
ncEus, which surpasses a hornet in size, and is
principally observed in the neighbourhood of pines
and other coniferous trees: it is of a black colour,
with the eyes, the base, and lower half of the
abdomen bright orange-yellow: the thorax villose,
and the wings of a transparent yellowish brown :
the sting or terminal tube is very conspicuous.
276 SIRfiX.
The larva, which measures about an inch and
quarter in length, is of a yellowish white colour,
and inhabits decayed firs and pines: at first view
it bears some resemblance to the larvae of the
beetle tribe, but is thinner in proportion, and
furnished at the tip of the abdomen with a short
black spine or process. It changes to a chrysalis
in July; first enveloping itself in a slight silken
web of a whitish colour : the chrysalis is of a
lengthened shape, with the antennae, legs, and
terminal tube or process very distinctly charac-
terized. If the change to chrysalis takes place in
summer, the fly proceeds from it in the space of
about three weeks; but if at the close of autumn,
the animal continues in chrysalis the whole winter,
emerging in the following spring. The male insect
is considerably smaller than the female, and may
be farther distinguished by the want of the caudal
tube or process, so conspicuous in the female in-
sect: the tip of the abdomen is also of a black
colour. The eggs, which are deposited by the
female in the decayed parts of the trees above-
mentioned, are very small, and of a lengthened
oval shape vAth pointed extremities.
Sirej' Columha is an American species, and is
distinguished by its black body, marked by test-
aceous bands.
Sirex pygmceus is one of the smallest of the
European species, being, according to Linnaeus,
about the size of a gnat, with a black abdomen,
marked by three yellow bands, the middle of
which is interrupted. It is found in Sweden.
ICHNEUMON. ICHNEUMON.
Generic Character.
Os maxillis absque lingua.
Antennae articulis ultra tri-
ginta.
Abdomen petiolatum pleris-
que.
Aulcus exsertus, vagina cy-
lindrica, bivalvi.
Mouth Avith jaws, without
tongue.
Antenncc with more than
thirty joints.
Abdomen in most species
footstalked.
Piercer exserted, with a cy-
lindric, bivalve sheath.
X HE animals of this genus provide for the sup-
port of their offspring in a manner highly extra-
ordinary; depositing their eggs in the bodies of
other living insects, and generally in those of
caterpillars. For this purpose the female Ichneu-
mon, selecting her victim, and fastening upon it,
pierces its skin with her abdominal tube, and in-
troduces her eggs beneath the surface. In vain
the tormented animal endeavours to evade this
cruel operation : the Ichneumon maintains her
hold, nor ceases till she has discharged her whole
stock. These eggs in a few daj^s hatch, and the
young larvce, which resemble minute white mag-
gots, nourish themselves with the juices of the
unfortunate animal, which however continues to
piove about and feed till near the time of its change
2-78 ICHNEUMON,
to chrysalis, when the young brood of Ichneumon-
larvae creep out by perforating the skin in various
places, and each spinning itself up in a small oval
silken case, changes into chrysalis, the vi^hole num-
ber forming a groupe on the shrivelled body of .
the caterpillar which had afforded them nourish-
ment; and, after a certain period, emerge in the
state of complete Ichneumons. One of the most
familiar examples of this process is afforded by
the well-known caterpillar of the common white
or cabbage butterfly, which, in the autumnal sea-
son may be frequently observed to creep up some
wall or other convenient surface, in order to
undergo its own change into chrysalis ; but in the
space of a day or two a numerous tribe of small
maggots will be seen to emerge from it, and im-
mediately proceed to envelop themselves in dis-
tinct yellow silken cases ; the whole forming a
groupe around the caterpillar. The Ichneumons
proceeding from these are the species called by
LinucEus Ichneumon glomciYitus: their colour is
black, with yellow legs: they usually make their
appearance in about three weeks from the time of
their spinning themselves up. Other small species
of Ichneumon pierce the skins of newly changed
chrysalises of butterflies and moths, in which their
larva? remain during their own incomplete state,
as the Ichneumon puparum of Linnaeus, a very
small species, of a gilded green colour. Others
again are so very small that the female pierces
even the eggs of moths and butterflies, and de-
posits her own in each, as the Ichneumon ovulorum
iriraErMox
/ttieu
^^
^
'/f/Trtr///n
^^^<itoi,>
r'k
/Te.1^ ..ri^/f
o\idvriini niarinmed
iSo^.Ct^iIandajtJ'ui/i.fheji bv &JKe/^rJ■^y.Flf^tS^rf^/ .
ICHNEUMON. 279
of Linnaeus, one of the smallest of the whole tribe:
it is of a black colour, with rufous legs, and long
filiform antennae.
Other Ichneumons are of very considerable size,
and the females of these select some large cater-
pillar for their victim, as those of the larger
Sphinges, such as the S. Ligustri, Convolvuli, &c.
or one of the large and middle-sized Moths, as
the Phalaena Vinula, Quercus, &c. &c. These
large Ichneumons are generally bred in small
numbers, and sometimes the female deposits but
a single egg in the selected caterpillar. This
may be instanced in the Ichneumon ramiduluSi
the larva of which is thus bred in the caterpillar
of the Sphinx Ligustri: it is a very large Ichneu-
mon, of a dull yellowish colour, with a cast of
brown on the thorax, and with the antennce and
abdomen tipped with black: the abdomen is also
of a falciform shape, curving downwards, and
compressed on the sides, Ithn : luteus is a large
species, nearly allied to the former, and of similar
manners.
The seeming severity of the process ordained
by Nature for giving birth to the genus Ichneu-
mon, may be much diminished by supposing,
(what all the ensuing phnenomena seem to imply),
that, after the first operation of piercing the skin
and depositing the eggs is performed by the female
Ichneumon, the caterpillar feels no acute pain;
the included enemies feeding only on its juices,
and evidently sparing the more important organs ^
so that it loses its life by a very gradual decay.
280 ICHNEUMON.
It was the want of an exact knowledge of the
genus Ichneumon that proved so considerable an
embarrassment to the older entomologists, whq
having seen a brood of Ichneumons proceed from
the chrysalis of a Butterfly, could not but con-
clude that the production of insects was rather a
variable and uncertain operation of Nature than a
regular continuation of the same species. The
observations however of Swammerdam, Malpighi,
Roesel, and others have long since removed the
difficulties which formerly obscured the history of
the Insect tribe.
^3
%F-WKK,
yiaXuxv
j'^idulcj'o.
j^fivj.OccrLZi^ntii^n. PnljU^-?u:d h\- (} K^tir^UifUff^ Sert^/^.
SPHEX. SPHEX.
Generic Charactei\
Os maxillis absque lingua.
AntenncE articulis decern.
Ala plano-incumbentcs ( nee
plicatoe) in omni sexu.
Aculeus piinctorius recon-
ditus.
Mouth with jaws, without
tongue.
Antennae of ten joints.
Wings flat-incumbent, (not
pleated,) in each sex.
Stin^ concealed.
A<
-S the Insects of the genus Ichneumon deposit
their eggs in the bodies of other living insects, so
those of the genus Sphex deposit theirs in dead
ones, in order that the young larvae, when hatched,
may find their proper food. Thus the Sphex
Jigulus of Linnaeus, having found some convenient
cavity for the purpose, seizes on a spider, and
having killed it, deposits it at the bottom: then
laying her e^^g in it, she closes up the orifice of
the cavity with clay: the larva, which resembles
the maggot of a bee, having devoured the spider,
spins itself up in a dusky silken web, and changes
into a chrysalis, out of which, within a certain
number of days, proceeds the complete insect,
which is of a black colour, with a slightly foot-
stalked abdomen, the edges of the several seg-
282 SPHEX.
ments being of a brighter appearance than the
rest of the body. It should be added, that the
female of this species prepares several separate
holes or nets as above-mentioned, in each of which
she places a dead insect and an egg: each cell
costing her the labour of about two days.
The Sphex viatica of Linnaeus, which is of a
black colour and slightly hairy, with brown wings,
and the fore-part of the abdomen ferruginous with
black bands, seizes caterpillars in a similar man-
ner, burying one in every cell in which she de-
posits an egg, and then closes up the cell.
Sphex sabulosa Lin. is a black and hairy species,
with the second and third joints of the abdomen
ferruginous. It inhabits sandy and gravelly placcis,
in which the female digs holes with her fore-feet,
working in the manner of a dog, in order to form
the cavit}', in which she places either a spider or
a caterpillar, after which she closes up the cavity,
having first laid her egg in the dead insect. Lin-
naeus in his description of this insect contradicts
the generic character, since he observes that it
has a retractile snout containing the tongue.
Alan}^ of the extra-European Spheges are in-
sects of a very considerable size. The whole
genus is very much allied to those of ^'espa and
Apis.
Sphex
S3
/iarifrc?hr
maxuIaM,
iSod Oct: I Xcruim J'uili^/ud br O £-ar.<-lf_t n-aStntf
CHK-XSIS.
^4
i//nifa ma/^/mn^d
?^
viridu/n Lui.
ra/^ns Fah
l/[.Criiht/t ^ajfj .
jFr^.PetZj Zpn/f^n./'uM.f/uJ hy ^Jfear^/ff.Jfif^t Se^ffr
CHRYSIS. CHRYSIS.
Generic Character
Os maxillis absque pro-
boscide.
Ajitennce filiformes, articulo
primo longiore reliquis
undecim brevibus.
^Af/owu'n subtusfornicatum,
utrinque squama iaterali.
Anus dentatus acaleo sub-
exserto.
Ala- plance.
Corpus auratum.
Mouth with jaws, without
proboscis.
Antennae fiUform, with the
first joint lengthened, the
remaining eleven short.
Abdomen arched beneath,
with a lateral scale on
each side.
Vent dentated : piercer sub-
exserted.
Wings flat.
Body gilded.
X HE beautiful genus Chrysis is, in general,
distinguished by a peculiar brilliancy of colour.
The most common British species is the Chrysis
ignita^ which may justly be considered as one of
the most beautiful of the European insects. It is
about the size of the common window fly, and is
of a rich, deep, gilded blue-green colour on the
head and thorax, with the abdomen of the most
brilliant reddish gold-colour: the wings are brown-
ish, and the legs blackish-green: the body is ter-
minated by four denticulations. This insect is
often seen in the middle of summer, and generally
284 CHRYSIS.
in the hottest part of the day, flying about old
walls, and breeding in the cavities which it prepares
in them: its larva is said to resemble that of a
Wasp.
Chrysis fulgida Lin. is very nearly allied to the
preceding, but has the thorax and first segment of
the abdomen blue, the remainder being of a gold-
colour, and marked in a similar manner by four
denticuli. These two species of Chrysis, as well
as the rest of the genus, exhibit a highly beautiful
appearance when magnified.
0^5
ffead- ^ zrunA^ of TT vulgaris majani/ied .
swnatCL
rostrata
riaa
parietuny/
^^^
irahra
vulgaris
-iSc^^.CctrtZcvicn.J'uflL-fud bv tiJKenr^'Uy Ilfet Street.
VESPA. WASP.
Generic Character
Os maxillis, absque pio-
boscklc.
JlLc superiores plicata?.
Acideus punctoriiis recon-
(litus.
Oculi lunarcs.
Corpus glabrum.
Mouth with jaws, without
proboscis.
Upper Wings pleated.
Sti}ig' concealed.
Kijes lunated.
Bod^ smooth.
T,
HE genus Vespa, is of great extent, and is
remarkable, like that of Apis or Bee for the sin-
gular dexterity with which it constructs its habit-
ation, which in many species is of considerable
size. The commoji JFasp or Vespa vulgaris"^ is
known to every one. The nest of this species is
a highly curious structure, and is prepared be-
neath the surface of some dry bank or other con-
venient situation: its shape is that of an upright
oval, often measuring ten or twelve inches at
least in diameter: it consists of several horizontal
stages or stories of hexagonal cells, the interstices
of each story being connected at intervals by up-
* Perhaps not the Vespa vulgaris of Linnseus, which he repre-
sents as building its nest under projecting roofs, &c. whereas the
common English wasp builds its nest uoder ground.
286 WASP.
right pillars, and the exterior surface of the nest
consists of a great many layers or pieces, disposed
over each other in such a manner as best to secure
the interior cavity from the effects of cold and
moisture: the whole nest, comprizing both walls
and cells, is composed of a substance very much
resembling the coarser kinds of whitish-brown
paper, and consists of the $bres of various dry
vegetable substances, agglutinated by a tenacious
fluid discharged from the mouths of the insects
during their operations. The female Wasps de-
posit their eggs in the cells, one in each cell ap-
propriated for that purpose: from these are hatch-
ed the larvae; or maggots, which bear a near re-
semblance to those of Bees: they are fed by the
labouring wasps with a coarse kind of honey, and,
when arrived at their full size, close up their re-
spective cells with a fine tissue of silken filaments,
and, after a certain period, emerge in their com-
plete or perfect form. The male insect, like the
male Bee, is destitute of a sting. The societ}'- or
swarm of the common Wasp consists of a vast
number of neutral or labouring insects, a much
smaller number of males, still fewer females. They
do not, like Bees, prepare and lay up a store of
honey for winter use, but the few which survive
the season of their birth remain torpid during the
colder months. Wasps in general are both car-
nivorous and frugivorous.
The Hornet, Vespa Crahro of Linnasus is a
species of a far more formidable nature than the
common Wasp, and is of considerably larger size :
/7^
*VKHrji,
Wasp sliest nhoiit n .I'l'ofthf nnfi/ro/ ,viy^.
ifio.-;. Ccl't Lcniicn.fiihfi.^hf^ hy f- 7<ffi,:Wfv.FU,-t Strfft
VE .^ FA .
J"^. /f/^/j-ati/-/? ir//h riri/'.s offbi' w.^-/
a"'.- (,/>/., /i,/,/; /'ij///.,-/,f,f /■: t..AL(;r.r/,-v J'Im S,,,,
WASP. 287
its colour is a tawny yellow with ferruginous and
black bars and variegations. The nest of this
species is generally built in the cavity of some
decaved tree, or immediately beneath its roots;
and not un frequently in timber-yards and other
similar situations. It is of smaller size than
that of the Wasp, and of a somewhat globular
form, with an opening beneath; the exterior shell
consisting of more or fewer layers of the same
strong paper-like substance with that prepared by
the Wasp: the cells are also of a similar nature,
but much fewer in number, and less elegantly
composed. The hornet, like the Wasp, is ex-
tremely voracious, and preys on almost any kind
of fresh animal substances which it can obtain, as
well as on honey, fruit, &c. &c. Its sting is greatly
to be dreaded, and is often productive of very seri-
ous consequences.
A highly elegant Wasp's-Nest is sometimes
seen during the summer season, attached or hang-
ing as it were by its base to some straw or other
projecting substance, from the upper part of un-
frequented buildings or outhouses. It does not
much exceed the size of an egg, but is of a more
globular form, and consists gf several concentric
bells, with considerable intervals between each,
the interior alone being entire, and furnished with
a small round orifice ; the rest reaching only
about two thirds from the base of the nest. In
the centre of the complete or entire bell is situat-
ed the congeries of cells, built round a small
central pillar attached to the base : the cells are not
288 WASf>'.
very numerous, and their orifices look downwards.
This nest is attributed by Mons^ Latreille, in the
work entitled " Annales du Museum National
d'Histoire Naturelle," No. 4. to the Vespa Hol-
satica of Fabricius, and appears to be found both
in England and France, as well as in many other
parts of Europe.
I may here observe that much remains to be
done with respect to the investigation of species
in this extensive genus, and there is great reason
to suspect that much confusion at present takes
place in their history.
(^8
lapidariOy
ho 7' to rum
jSos. 0.^2 London Fuh/MheJ /-r G.X^<iis1(y.Tleff Snrft
APIS. BEE.
Generic Character.
Os maxillis atque probo-
scide inflexa vaginis dua-
bus bivalvibus.
Jlla planae.
Aculeiis feminis et neutris
punctorius, reconditus.
Mouth furnished with jaws
and an inflected pro-
boscis with two bivalve
sheaths.
Wings flat, or without plaits.
Sting in the female and neu-
tral insects, concealed.
X HIS genus, which, like the preceding, is of
very considerable extent, is distributed by Lin-
naeus into two assortments, viz. those in which
the body of the animal is but slightly covered with
fine hair or down, and those in which it is remark-
ably villose or hairy: the insects of the latter di-
vision are commonly distinguished by the title of
Humble-Bees.
In the first division the chief or most important
species is the Apis mellijica or common honey-bee,
so long and justly celebrated for its wonderful
polity, the neatness and precision with which it
constructs its cells, and the diligence with which
it provides during the warmth of summer a sup-
ply of food for the support of the hive during the
rigours of the succeeding winter. The general
V. VI. p. II. 19
290 BEE.
history of this interesting insect has been amply
detailed by various authors, as S\yammerdam,
Reaumur, &c. &c. Among the most elaborate
accounts of later times may be numbered that of
Mr. John Hunter, which makes its appearance in
the Philosophical Transactions for the year 179*2.
This paper I shall beg leave to introduce, with a
few occasional variations and abridgements, into
the present work.
" There are three periods at which the history
of the bee may commence: first, in the spring,
when the qaeen begins to lay her eggs; in the
summer, at the commencement of a new colony j
or in the autumn, when they are going into winter-
quarters. I shall begin the particular history of
the bee with the new colony, when nothing is
formed; for it begins then every thing that can,
possibly happen afterwards.
" When a hive sends off a colony, it is com-
monly in the month of June, but that will vary
according to the season, for in a mild spring bees
sometimes swarm in the middle of May, and very
often at the latter end of it. Before they come off,
they commonly hang about the mouth of the hole,
or door of the hive, for some days, as if they had
not . sufficient room within for such hot weather,
w hich I believe is very much the case ; for if cold
or wet weather come on, they stow themselves
very well, and wait for fine weather. But swarm-
ing appears to be rather an operation arising
from necessity, for they w^ould seem not naturally
to swarm, because if they have an empty space to
fill, they do not swarm j therefore by increasing
the size of -the hive, the swarming is prevented.
This period is much longer in some than in
others. For some evenings before they come off,
is often heard a singular noise, a kind of ring, or
sound of a small trumpet ^ by comparing it with
the notes of the piano-forte, it seemed to be the
same sound with the lower A of the treble.
" The swarm commonly consists of three classes;
a female, or females*, males, and those commonly
called mules, which are supposed to be of no sex,
and are the labourers j the whole about two quarts
in bulk, making about six or seven thousand. It
is a question that cannot easily be determined,
whether this old stock sends off entirely young of
the same season, and whether the v\^hole of their
young ones, or only part. As the males are en-
tirely bred in the same season, part go off; but
part must stay, and most probably it is so with
the others. They commonly come off in the heat
of the day, often immediately after a shower; who
takes the lead I do not know, but should suppose
it was the queen. Allien one goes off, they all
immediately follow, and fly about seemingly in
great confusion, although there is one principle
actuating the whole. They soon appear to be
directed to some fixed place; such as the brancli
of a tree or bush, the cavities of old trees, holes of
liouses leading into some hollow place; and when-
* '' I have reason to believe that never more than one female
comes off with a swarm."
^^ mm*
eyer the stand is nlade, they all immediately repair
to it, till they are all collected. But it would
seem, in some cases, that they had not fixed upon
any resting place before they came off, or if they
had, that they were either disturbed, if it was near,
or that it was at a great distance; for, after hover-
ing some time, as if undetermined, they fly away,
mount up into the air, and go off with great velo-
city. When they have fixed upon their future
habitation, they immediately begin to make their
combs, for they have the materials within them-
selves. I have reason to believe that they fill their
crops with honey when they come away; pro-
bably from the stock in the hive, I killed several
of those that came away, and found their crops
full, while those that remained in the hive had
their crops not near so full : some of them came
aw^ay with farina on their legs, which I conceive
to be rather accidental. I may just observe here,
that a hive commonly sends off two, sometimes
three swarms in a summer; but that the second is
commonly less than the first, and the third less
than the second; and this last has seldom time to
provide for the winter: they shall often threaten
to sw' arm," but do not; whether the threatening is
owing to too many bees, and their not swarming
is owing to there being no queen, I do not know*
It sometimes happens that the swarm shall go
l)ack again; but in such instances I have reason
to think that they have lost their queen, for the
hives to which their swarm have come back do
not swarm the next warm day, but shall hang out
fbr a fortnight, or more, and then swarm; and
when they do, the swarm is commonly much
larger than before, M^hich makes me suspect that
they waited for the queen that was to have gone
off with the next swarm.
" So far we have set the colony in motion. The
materials of their dwelling, or comb, which is the
wax, is the next consideration, with the mode of
forming, preparing, or disposing of it. In giving
a totally new account of the wax, I shall first
show it can hardly be what it has been supposed
to be. First, I shall observe that the materials,
as they are found composing the comb, are not to
be found in the same state (as a composition) in
any vegetable, where they have been supposed to
be got. The substance brought in on their legs,
which is the farina of the flowers of plants, is, in,
common, I believe, imagined to be the materials
of which the wax is made, for it is called by most
the wax: but it is the farina, for it is always of
the same colour as the farina of the flower where
they are gathering; and indeed we see them
gathering it, and we also see them covered almost
all over with it, like a dust; nevertheless, it has
been supposed to be the wax, or that the
wax was extracted from it. Reaumur is of this
opinion. I made several experiments to sefe -if
there was such a quantity of oil in it, as would
account for the quantity of wax to be formed, and
to learn if it was composed of oil. I held it near
the candle; it burnt, but did not smell like wax,
Smd had the same sm.ell, when burning, as farina
^94 BEE.
when it was burnt. I observed that this subst9,nee
was of different colours on different bees, but
always of the same colour on both legs of the
same beej whereas new made comb was all of
one colour. I observed, that it was gathered with
more avidity for old hives, where the comb is
complete, than for those hives where it is only
begun, which we could hardly conceive if it was
the materials of wax: also we may observe, that
at the very beginning of a hive, the bees seldom
bring in any substance on their legs for two or
three days, and after that the farina gatherers
begin to increase i for now some cells are formed
to hold it as a store, and some eggs are laid,
which when hatched will require this substance as
food, and which will be ready when the weather
is wet. I have also observed, that when the
weather has either been so cold, or so wet, in
June, as to hinder a young swarm from going
abroad, they have yet in that time formed as much
new comb, as they did in the same time when the
weather was such as allowed them to go abroad.
I have seen them bring it in about the latter end
pf March, and have observed, in glass hives, the
bees with the farina on their legs, and have seen
them disposing of it, as will be described here-
after,
" The wax is formed by the bees themselves; it
may be called an external secretion of oil, and I
have found that it is formed between each scale
of the under side of the belly. When 1 first ob-
serypd this substance, in my examination of the
SEE. 293
working bee, I was at a loss to say what it was: I
asked myself if it was new scales forming, and
whether they cast the old, as the lobster, &c.
does ? but it was to be found only between the
scales, on the lower side of the belly. On ex-
amining the bees through glass hives, while they
were climbing up the glass, I could see that most
of them had this substance, for it looked as if the
lower, or posterior edge of the scale, was double,
or that there were double scales: but I perceived
it was loose, not attached. Finding that the sub-
stance brought in on their legs was farina, in-
tended, as appeared from every circumstance, to
be the food of the maggot, and not to make wax;
and not having yet perceived any thing that could
give me the least idea of wax; I conceived these
scales might be it, at least I thought it necessary
to investigate them. I therefore took several on
the point of a needle, and held them to a candle,
where they melted, and immediately formed
themselves into a round globe ; upon which I
no longer doubted but this was the wax, which
opinion was confirmed to me by not finding those
scales but in the building season. In the bottom
of the hive we see a good many of the scales
lying loose, some pretty perfect, others in pieces.
I have endeavoured to catch them, either taking
this matter out of themselves, from between the
scales of tlie abdomen, or from one another, but
never could satisfy myself in this respect: how-
ever, I once caught a bee examining between the
scales of the belly of another, but I could not find
that it took any thing from between, -We very
often see some of the bees wagging their belly, as
if tickled, running round, and to and fro, for only a
little way, followed by one or two other beesj as
if examining them. I conceived they were pro-
bably shaking out the scales of wax, and that the
others were ready upon tlie watch to catch them,
but I could not absolutely determine what they
did. It is with these scales that they form the
cells called the comb, but perhaps not entirely,
for, I believe, they mix farina with it; however,
this only occasionally, when probably the secre-
tion is not in great plenty. I have some reason
to think, that where no other substance is intro-
duced, the thickness of the scale is the same with
that of the sides of the comb; if so, then a comb
may be no more than a number of these united;
but a great deal of the comb seems to be too
thick for this, and, indeed, would appear to be a
mixture, similar to the covering of the chrysalis.
The wax naturally is white, but when melted
from the comb at large, it is yellow. I appre-
hended this might arise from its being stained
with honey, the excrement of the maggots, and
with the bee-bread. I steeped some white comb
in honey, boiled some with farina, as also with
old comb, but I could not say that it was made
yellower. Wax, by bleaching, is brought back to
its natural colour, which is also a proof that its
colour is derived from some mixture. I have rea-
son to believe that they take the old comb, when
either broken down, or by any accident rendered
BEE. 297
ijgeless, and employ it again; but this can only
be with combs that have had no bees hatched iii
them, for the wax cannot be separated from the
silk afterwards. Reaumur supposed that they new
worked up the old materials, because he found the
covering of the chrysalis of a yellower colour
than the other parts of the new comb; but this is
always so, whether they have old yellow comb to
work up, or not, as will be shewn.
" The bees who gather the farina also form the
wax, for I found it between their scales.
" The cells, or rather the congeries of cells,
which compose the comb, may be said to form
perpendicular plates, or partitions, which extend
from top to bottom of the cavity in which they
build them, and from side to side. They always
begin at the top, or roof of the vault, in which
they build, and work downwards; but if the upper
part of this vault, to which their combs are fixed,
is removed, and a dome is put over, they begin at
the upper edge of the old comb, and work up into
the new cavity at the top. They generally may
be guided as to the direction of their new plates
of comb, by forming ridges at top, to which they
begin to attach their comb. In a long hive, if
these ridges are longitudinal, their plates of comb
will be longitudinal ; if placed transverse, so will
be the plates; and if oblique, the plates of comb
will be obhque. Each plate consists of a double
set of cells, whose bottoms form the partition
between each set. The plates themselves are not
very regularly arranged, not forming a regular
298 BEE.
plane where they might have done so; but are
often adapted to the situation, or shape of the
cavity in vrhich they are built. The bees do not
endeavour, to shape their cavity to their work, as
the wasps do, nor are the cells of equal depths,
also fitting them to their situation; but as the
breeding cells must all be of a given depth, they
reserve a sufficient number for breeding in, and
they put the honey into the others, as also into
the shallow ones. The attachment of the comb
round the cavity is not continuedy but interrupt-
ed, so as to form passages; there are also passages
in the middle of the plates, especially if there be a
cross stick to support the comb; these allow of
bees to go across from plate to plate. The sub-
stance which they use for attaching their combs
to surrounding parts is not the same as the com-
mon wax; it is softer and tougher, a good deal
like the substance with which they cover in their
chrysalis, or the humble bee surrounds her eggs.
It is probably a mixture of wax with farina. The
cells are placed nearly horizontally, but not ex-
actly SO; the mouth raised a little, which probably
may be to retain the honey the better; however
this rule is not strictly observed, for often they
are horizontal, and towards the lower edge of a
plane of comb they are often declining. The first
combs that a hive forms are the smallest, and
much neater than the last, or lowermost. Their
sides, or partitions between cell and cell, are
much thinner, and the hexagon is much more
perfect. The wax is purer, being probably little
BEE. • 2i)g
else but wax, and it is more brittle. The lower
combs are consirlerably larger, and contain much
more wax, or perhaps, more properly, more ma-
terials; and the cells are at such distances as to
allow them to be of a round figure: the wax is
softer, and there is something mixed with it. I
have observed that the cells are not all of equal
size, some being a degree larger than the others;
and that the small are the first farmed, and of
course at the upper part, wJiere the bees begin,
and the larger are nearer the lower part of the
comb, or last made: however, in hives of par-
ticular construction, where the bees may begin to
work at one end, and can work both down, and
towards the other end, we often find the larger
cells both on the lower part of the combs, and
also at the opposite end. These are formed for
tlie males to be bred in; and in the hornets and
wasps combs, there are larger cells for the queens
to be bred in: these are also formed in the lower
tier, and the last formed.
" The first comb made in a hive is all of one
colour, viz. almost white; but is not so white to-
wards the end of the season, having then more of
^ yellow cast.
'' Of the Royal Cell.
" There is a cell, which is called the Royal Cell,
pften three or four of them, sometimes more^ I
300 BEE.
have seen eleven, and even thirteen in the same
hive ; commonly they are placed on the edge of one
or more of the combs, but often on the side of a
comb; however, not in the centre, along with the
other cells, like a large one placed among the others,
but often against the mouths of the cells, and pro-
jecting out beyond the common surface of the comb;
but most of them are formed from the edge of the
comb, which terminates in one of these cells. The
royal cell is much wider than the others, but seldom
so deep: its mouth is round, and appears to be
the largest half of an oval in depth, and is declin-
ing downwards, instead of being horizontal or
lateral. The materials of which it is composed
are softer than common wax, rather like the last
mentioned, or those of which the lower edge of
the plate of comb is made, or with which the bees
cover the chrysalis: they have very little wax in
their composition, not one third, the rest I con-
ceive to be farina.
" This is supposed to be the cell in which the
queen is bred, but I have reason to believe that
this is only imagination: for, first, it is too large,
and, moreover, seldom so deep as the large cells
in which the males are bred; whereas, if proper*
tioned to the length of the queen, it ought to be
deeper, for length of body is her greatest differ-
ence. In the second place, its mouth is placed
downward; and in the third place, it is never
lined with the silken covering of the chrysalis,
similar to the cells of the males and labourers 5
BEE. 301
•!K)r do we find excrement at the bottom of it.
The number of these cells is very different, in dif-
ferent hives. I think I have seen hives without
any, and I have seen them with eleven or twelve,
sometimes more. I have examined them at all
times through the summer, but never found any
alteration in them.
" The comb seems at first to be formed for pro-
pagation, and the reception of honey to be only
a secondary use; for if the bees lose their queen,
they make no combs; and the wasp, hornet, &c.
make combs, although they collect no honey; and
the humble bee collects honey, and deposits it in
cells she never made.
" I shall not consider the bee as an excellent
mathematician, capable of making exact forms,
and having reasoned upon the best shape of the
cell for capacity, so that the greatest number
might be put into the smallest space (for the
hornet and the wasp are much more correct,
although not seemingly under the same necessity,
as they collect nothing to occupy their cells) ;
because, although the bee is pretty perfect in
these respects, yet it is very incorrect in others, in
the formation of the comb: nor shall I consider
these animals as forming comb of certain shape
and size, from mere mechanical necessity, as from
working round themselves ; for such a mould would
not form cells of different sizes, much less could
wasps be guided by the same principle, as their
cells are of very different sizes, and the first by
much soo small for the queen wasp to have worked
302 BEE.
round herself: but I shall consider the whole ai
an instinctive principle, in which the animal has
no power of variation, or choice, but such as arises
from what may be called external necessity. The
cell has in common six sides, but this is most
correct in those first formed; and their bottom is
commonly composed of those sides, or planes^
two of the sides making one; and they generally
fall in between the bottoms of three cells of the
opposite side; but this is not regular, it is only to
be found where there is no external interruption.
" I have already observed, that the last formed
cells in the season are not so well made: that
their partitions are thicker, and more of a yellow
colour: this arises, I imagine, from the wax being
less pure, having more alloy in it; and therefore,
not being so strong, more of it is required. The
bees would appear to reserve many of their cells
for honey, and those are mostly at the upper part.
In old hives, of several years standing, I have
found the upper part of the comb free from the
consequences of having bred, such as the silk
lining, and the excrement of the maggots at the
bottom; while the lower part, for probably more
than one half of the plane of cells, shewed strong
marks of having contained many broods of young
bees. In such the lining of silk is thick at the
sides, composed of many laminre; and in many,
the bottom is half filled up with excrement; and
I observed at such parts, the comb was thickest at
its mouth; which inclines me to think, that when a
cell becomes shallow, by the bottom being in
BEB. 303
some degree filled up, the bees then add to its
mouth. Such also they seem to reserve princi-
pally for the bee-bread; so that to lay up a greater
store of honey is an object to them.
« Of the Laying of Eggs.
" As soon as a few combs are formed, the
female bee begins laying of eggs. As far as I
have been able to observe, the queen is the only
bee that propagates, although it is asserted that
the labourers do. Her first eggs in the season
are those which produce labourers; then the
males, and probably the queen; this is the pro-
gress in the wasp, hornet, humble bee, &c. How-
ever, it is asserted by Riem, that when a hive is
deprived of a queen, labourers lay eggs; also, that
at this time, some honey and farina are brought
in, as store for a wet day. The eggs are laid at
the bottom of the cell, and we find them there
before the cells are half completed, so that propa-
gation begins early and goes on along with the
formation of the other cells. The esrs: is attached
at one end to the bottom of the ceil, sometimes
standing perpendicularly, ofi;en obliquely; it has
a glutinous, or slimy covering, which makes it
stick to any thing it touches. It would appear
that there was a period or periods for laying "
eggs; for I have observed in a new swarm, that
the great business of laying eggs did not last
above a fortnight; although the hive was not half
304 BEE,
filled with comb, it began to slacken. Probably
that end of the egg which is first protruded, is that
which sticks to the bottom of the cell: and pro-
bably the tail of the maggot is formed at that
end : when they move the egg, how they make it
stick again, I do not know. I have just observed,
that they often move the egg out of a cell, to some
other, we may iftippose; why they do this, I can-
not say 5 whether it is because we have been ex-
posing this part, is not easily determined. In
those new formed combs, as also in many not half
finished, we find the substance called bee-bread,
and some of it is covered over with wax; which
will be considered further. By the time they have
worked above half way down the hive, with the
comb, they are beginning to form the larger cells,
and by this time the first broods are hatched,
which were small, or labourers; and now they
begin to breed males, and probably a queen,- for
a new swarm; because the males are now bred to
impregnate the young queen for the present sum-
mer, as also for the next year. This progress in
breeding is the same with that of the wasp, hornet,
and humble bee*. Although this account is com-
monly allowed, yet writers on this subject have
supposed another mode of producing a queen,
* " Reaumur on Bees, says, that the drone eggs, when laid in
small cells, produce drones: and Wilhelmi says, that it is the
labourers only that lay drones eggs. Mr. Riem says, th^t queens
are never reared in any but royal cells, although males sometimes
in common cells; and workers in old queen cells, but never in
those recently made."
BEE. 305
when the hive is in possession of maggots, and
deprived of their queen.
" What may be called the complete process of
the eggy namely, from the time of laying to the
birth of the bee, (that is, the time of hatching,)
the life of the maggot, and the life of the chrysalis,
is, I believe, shorter than in most insects. It is
not easy to fix the time when the^ eggs hatch : I
have been led to imagine it was in five days.
When they hatch, w^e find the young maggot lying
coiled up in the bottom of the cell, in some de-
gree surrounded with a transparent fluid. In
many of the cells, where the eggs have just hatch-
ed, we find the skin standing in its place, either
not yet removed, or not pressed down by the
maggot. There is now an additional employment
for the labourers, namely, the feeding and nursing
the young maggots. We may supjjose the queen
has nothing to do with this, as there are at all
times labourers enough in the hive for such pur-
poses, especially too, as she never does bring the
materials, as every other of the tribe is obliged to
do at first; therefore she seems to be a queen by
hereditary, or rather, by natural right, while the
humble bee, wasp, hornet, &c. seem rather to
work themselves into royalty, or mistresses of the
community. The bees are readily detected feed-
ing the young maggot; and indeed a young mag-
got might easily be brought up, by any person
who would be attentive to feed it. They open
their two lateral pincers to receive the food, and
swallow it. As they grow, they cast their coats,
V. VI. p. II. 0,0
306 BEE,
or cuticles; but how often they throw their coats,
while in the maggot state, I do not know. I ob-
served that they often removed their eggs ; I
also find they very often shift the maggot into
another cell, even when very large. The maggots
grow larger and larger till they nearly fill the cell ;
and by this time they require no more food, and
are ready to be inclosed for the chrysalis state:
how this period is discovered I do not know, for
in every other insect, as far as I am acquainted,
it is an operation of the maggot, or caterpillar
itself; but in the common bee, it is an operation
of the perfect animal; probably it arises from the
maggot refusing food. The time between their
being hatched and their being inclosed is, I be-
lieve, four days; at least, from repeated observa-
tions, it comes nearly to that time: when ready
for the chrysalis state, the bees cover over the
mouth of the cell, with a substance of a light
brown colour, much in the same manner that they
cover the honey, excepting that, in the present
instance, the covering is convex externally, and
appears not to be entirely wax, but a mixture of
wax and farina. The maggot is now perfectly
•inclosed, and it begins to line the cell and cover-
ing of the mouth above mentioned, with a silk it
spins out similar to the silk-worm, and which
makes a kind of pod for the chrysalis. Bonnet
observed, that, in one instance, the cell was too
short for the chrysalis, and it broke its covering,
and formed its pod higher, or more convex than
common : this I can conceive possible : we often
BEK. 307
see it in the wasp. Having completed this lining,
they cast off, or rather shove off, from the head
backwards, the last maggot coat, which is deposit-
ed at the bottom of the cell, and then they become
chrysalises.
" Of the Food of the Maggot, or what is cominonly
called Bee-Bread.
" One would naturally suppose, that the food of
the maggot bee should be honey, both because it
is the food of tJie old ones, and it is what they ap-
pear principally to collect for themselves; how-
ever, the circumstance of honey being food for
the old ones is no argument, because very few
young animals live on the same food with the old,
and therefore it is probable the maggot bee does
not live upon honey; and if we reason from
analogy, we shall be led to suppose the bee-bread
to be the food of the maggot. It is the food of the
maggot of the humble bee, who feeds upon honey,
and even lays up a store of honey for a wet day,
j'^et does not feed the young with it. It is the
food of the maggot of a black bee, and also of
several others of the solitary kind, who also feed
upon honey; and wasps, &c. who do not bring in
such materials, do not feed themselves upon honey.
We cannot suppose, that the bee-bread is for the
food of the old bees, when we see them collecting
it in the months of June, July, &c. at which time
they have honey in great plenty. This substance
308 BEE.
is as common to a hive as any part belonging to
the oeconomy of bees. Before they have formed
five or six square inclies of comb in a young hive,
we shall find eggs, honey, and bee-bread j and at
whatever time of the year we kill a hive, we shall
find this substance; and if a hive is short of honey,
and dies in the winter, we find no honey, but all
the bee-bread, which was laid up in store for the
maggots in the spring,' They take great care of
it, for it is often covered over with wax, as the
honey, and I believe more especially in the winter;
probably with a view to preserve it till wanted.
In April I have found some of {he c^Us full, others
only half full. If we slit down a cell filled with
this substance, we shall commonly find it com-
posed of layers of different colours; some a deep
orange, others a pale brown. In glass hives, we
often find that the glass makes one side of the
cell, and frequently in such we shall see at once
the different strata above mentioned. This is the
substance which they bring in on their legs, and
consists of the farina of plants. It is not the
farina of every plant that the bee collects, at least
they are found gathering it from some with great
industry, while we never find them on others: St.
John's wort is a favourite plant, but that comes
late. The flower of the gourd, cucumber, &c.
they seem to be fond of. What they do collect
must be the very loose stuff, just ready to be
blown off to impregnate the female part of the
flower; and to show that this is the case, we find
bees impregnate flowers that have not the male
BEE. , 309
part. It is in common of a yellow colour, but
that of very different shades, often of an orange ;
and when we see bees collecting it on bushes
that have a great many flowers, so as to furnish a
complete load, it is then of the colour of the farina
of that bush. It is curious to see them deposite
this substance in the cell. On viewing the hives,
we often see bees with this substance on their legs,
moving along on the combs, as if looking out for
the cell to deposite it in. They will often walk
over a cell that has some deposited in it, but shall
leave that, and try another, and so on till they
fix; which made me conceive that each bee had
its own cell. When they come to the intended
cell, they put their two hind legs into it, with the
two fore legs and the trunk out on the mouth of
the neighbouring cell, and then the tail, or belly,
is thrust down into the intended cell; they then
bring the leg under the belly, and turning the
point of the tail to the outside of the leg, where
the farina is, they shove it off by the point of the
tail. When it is thus shoved off both legs, the
bee leaves it, and the two pieces of farina may be
seen lying at the bottom of the cell : another bee
comes almost immediately, and creeping into the
cell, continues about five minutes, kneading and
working it down into the bottom, or spreads it
over what was deposited tiiere before, leaving it a
smooth surface.
** It is of a consistency like paste; burns slightly,
and gives a kind of unusual smell, probably from
having been mixed with animal juice in the act of
310 BEE.
kneading it down; for when brought in, it is
rather a powder than a paste. That it is the food
of the maggot is proved by examining tlie animal's
stomach; for when we kill a maggot full grown,
we find its stomach full of a similar substance,
only softer, as if mixed with a fluid, but we never
find honey in the stomach; therefore we are to
suppose it is collected as food for the maggot, as
much as honey is for the old bee. The food of
the male and the queen maggot has been supposed
to be different from that of the labourers. Reau-
mur says, the food of the queen maggot is differ-
ent in taste from that of the common ones. How
he knew this, who was unacquainted with the
food of the others, I cannot conceive.
" Of the Excrement of the Maggot.
" They have very little excrement, but what
they do discharge is deposited at the bottom of
the cell; and what at first will appear rather ex-
traordinary, it is never cleared away by the bees,
but allowed to dry along with the maggot coats;
and both fresh eggs and honey are deposited in
these cells, so circumstanced, every future year;
so that in time the cells become nearly half full.
" Of the Chrysalis State.
" In this state they are forming themselves for
a new life : they are either entirely new built, or
BEE. 311
wonderfully changed, for there is not the smallest
vestige of the old form remaining; yet it must be
the same materials, for now nothing is taken in.
How far this change is only the old parts new
modelled, or gradually altering their form, is not
easily determined. To bring about the change,
many parts must be removed, out of which the
new ones are probably formed. As bees are not
different in this state from the common flying
insects in general, I shall not pursue the subject
of their changes further; although it makes a very
material part in the natural history of insects.
" When the chrysalis is formed into the com-
plete bee, it then destroys the covering of its cell,
and comes forth. The time it continues in this
state is easier ascertained than either in that of
the egg, or the maggot; for the bees cannot move
the chrysalis, as they do the two others. In one
instance it was thirteen days and twelve hours
exactly; so that an egg in hatching being five
days, the age of the maggot being four days, and
the chrysalis continuing thirteen and a half, the
whole makes twenty-two days and a half: but
how far this is accurate, I will not pretend to say.
I found that the chrysalis of a male was fourteen
days, but this was probably accidental. When
they first come out, they are of a greyish colour,
but soon turn brown.
*' When the swarm of which I have hitherto
been giving the history has come off early, and is
a large one, more especially if it was put into too
small a hive, it often breeds too many for the hive
312 BEE.
to keep through the winter; and in such case a
new swarm is thrown off, which, however, is com-
monly not a large one, and generally has too little
time to complete its comb, and store it with honey
sufficient to preserve them through the winter.
This is similar to the second or third swarm of
the old hives.
" Of the Seasons, when the different Operations of
Bees take place.
" I have already observed, that the new colony
immediately sets about the increase of their num-
bers, and every thing relating to it. They had
their apartments to build, both for the purpose of
breeding, and as a storehouse for provisions for
the winter. When the season for laying eggs is
over, then is the season for collecting honey j
therefore, when the last chrysalis for the season
comes forth, its cell is immediately filled with
honey, and as soon as a cell is full, it is covered
over with pure wax, and is to be considered as
store for the winter. This covering answers two
very essential purposes: one is to keep it from
spilling, or daubing the bees; the other to pre-
vent its evaporation, by which means it is kept
fluid in such a warmth. They are also employed
in laying up a store of bee-bread for the young
maggots in the spring, for they begin to bring
forth much earlier than probably any other insect,
because they retain a summer heat, and store up
food for the young.
BEE. 313
. " 111 the month of August \vc may suppose the
queen, or queens, are impregnated by the males;
and as the males do not provide for themselves,
they become burdensome to the workers, and are
therefore teased to death much sooner than they
otherwise would diej and when the bees set about
this business, of providing their winter store,
every operation is over, except the collecting of
honey and bee-bread. At this time it would seem
as if the males were conscious of their danger, for
they do not rest on the mouth of the hive in either
going out or coming in, but hurry either in or
out : however they are commonly attacked by
one, two, or three at a time: they seem to make
no resistance, only getting away as fast as possible.
The labourers do not sting them, only pinch them,
and pull them about as if to wear them out; but
I suspect it may be called as much a natural, as a
violent death.
" The w^hole of the males are now destroyed,
and indeed it would have been useless to have
saved any to impregnate the queen in the spring.
That there may be man\^ more than may be
wanted, I can easily believe, for this we see
throughout nature; but she always times her oper-
ations well, although there may be supernume-
raries.
" When the young are wholly come forth, and
either the cells entirely filled, or no more honey to
be collected, then is the time, or season, for re-
maining in their hives for the winter.
" Although I have now completed a hive, and
314 BEE.
no operations are going on in the winter months,
yet the history of tiiis hive is imperfect till it sends
forth a new swarm.
" As the common bee is very susceptible of cold,
we find as soon as the cold weather sets in, they
become very quiet, or still, and remain so through-
out the winter, living on the produce of the sum-
mer and autumn; and indeed a cold day in the
summer is sufficient to keep them at home, more
so than a shower in a warm day: and if the hive
is thin, and much exposed, they will hardly move
in it, but get as close together as the comb will let
them, into a cluster. In this manner they appear
to live through the winter: however, in a fine day,
they become very lively and active, going abroad,
and appearing to enjoy it, at which time they get
rid of their excrement; for I fancy they seldom
throw out their excrement when in the hive. To
prove this, I confined some bees in a small hive,
and fed them with honey for some days ; and the
moment I let them out, they flew, and threw out
their excrement in large quantities; and therefore,
in the winter, I presume, they retain the contents
of their bowels for a considerable time: indeed,
when we consider their confinement in the winter,
and that they have no place to deposite their ex-
crement, we can hardly account for the whole of
this operation in them. Their excrement is of a
yellow colour, and according to their confinement
h is found higher and higher up in the intestine,
aln?iOst as high as the crop.
** Their life at this season of the year is more
BEE. 315
uniform, and may be termed simple existence, till
the warm weather arrives again. As they now
subsist on their summer's industry, they would
seem to feed in proportion to the coldness of the
season; for from experiment, I found the hive
grow lighter in a cold week, than it did in a
warmer, which led to further experiments. I first
made an experiment upon a bee hive, to ascer-
tain the quantity of honey lost through the winter.
The hive was put into the scale November the 3d,
1776.
oz. drams.
November lOth it had lost 2 7
17th 4 2|
24th 3 71
December 1st 8 2
8th 2 1
15th 5 2
22d 4 3
29th 5 4
1777. January 1st 2 5
12th 5 2
19th 3 4
26th 3 14
February 2d 5 O
gth 7 o
The whole 72 14-
*^ Although an indolent state is very much the
condition of bees through the winter, yet progress
is making in the queen towards a summer's in-
crease. The eggs in the oviducts are beginning
3l6 BEE.
to swell, and, I believe, in the month of March
she is ready to lay them, for the young bees are
to swarm in June; which constitutes the queen
bee to be the earliest breeder of any insect we
know. In consequence of this, the labourers be-
come sooner employed than any other of this
tribe of insects. This both queen and labourers
are enabled to accomplish, from living in society
through the winter; and it becomes necessary in
them, as they have their colony to form early in
the summer, which is to provide for itself for the
winter following. All this requires the process t0
be carried forward earlier than by any other in-
sect, for these are only to have young which are
to take care of themselves through the summer,
not being under the necessity of providing for the
winter.
" In the month of April, I found in the cells,
young bees, in all stages, from the egg to the chry-
salis state; some of which were changed in their
colour, therefore, were nearly arrived at the fly
state, and probably some might have flown.
" As this season is too early for collecting the
provision of the maggot abroad, the store of farina
comes now into use; but as soon as flowers begin
to blow, the bees gather the fresh, although they
have farina in store, giving the fresh the pre-
ference.
" Of the Queen,
" The queen bee, as she is termed, has excited
U£E. 317
more curiosity than all the others, although much
more belongs to the labourers. From the number
of these, and from their exposing themselves, they
have their history much better made out: but as
there is only one queen, and she scarcely ever
seen, it being only the effects of her labour we
can come at, an opportunity has been given to
the ingenuity of conjecture, and more has been
said than can well be proved. She is allowed to
be bred in the common way, only that there is
a peculiar cell for her in her first stage; and
Reaumur says, ' her food is different when in the
* maggot state ;' but as there is probably but
one queen, that the whole might not depend oh
one life, it is asserted that the labourers have a
power of forming a common maggot into a queen.
If authors had given us this as an opinion only,
we might have passed it over as improbable, but
they have endeavoured to prove it by experi-
ments, which require to be examined: and for
that purpose, I shall give what they say on that
head, with my remarks upon it.
'' Aba tracts from Air. Schirach.
" The following experiments were made to
ascertain the origin of the queen bee: — *^ In
' twelve wooden boxes were placed twelve pieces
* of comb, four inches square, each contain-
* ing both eggs and maggots, so suspended
* that the bees could come round every part of
318 BEE.
* the comb : in each box was shut up a handful
' of working bees. Knowing that when bees are
* forming a queen, they should be confined*, the
* boxes were kept shut for two days. When ex-
* amined at the end of that period (six boxes only
' were opened), in all of them royal cells were
* begun, one, two, or three, in eachj all of these
* containing a maggot four days old. In four
* days, the other six boxes Avere opened, and
* Toyal cells found in each, containing maggots
' five days old, surrounded b}^ a large provision
' of jelly; and one of these maggots, examined in
* the microscope, in every respect resembled a
' working bee.
" * This experiment was repeated, and the mag-
* gots selected to be made queens were three
* days old ; and in seventeen days there were
' found in the twelve boxes fifteen lively, hand-
' some queens f. These experiments were made
* in May, and the bees were allow^ed to work
' great part of the summer: the bees w^ere ex-
' amined one bv one, but no drone could be dis-
* " How he came to know this, I cannot conceive, for no-
tliing a priori could give such information."
f " Now this account is not only improbable, but it does not
tally with itself. First, it is not probable that a handful of bees
should, or would, set about making two, three, or four queens,
when we do not find that number in a large hive : and secondly,
it seems inconsistent that only fifteen should be formed out of
twelve parcels, when some of the former parcels had four young
queens."
BEE. 319
*; covered, and yet the queens were impregnated,
* and laid their eggs* .
, " * The above experiment was repeated with
' pieces of comb, containing eggs only, in six
* boxes, but no preparations were made towards
* producing a queen f.
" * The experiment of producing a queen bee
' from a maggot was repeated every month of the
* year, even in November J.
" * A maggot three days old was procured from
*' a friend, inclosed in an ordinary cell, and shut
* up with a piece of comb, containing eggs and
' maggots. That three days old was formed into
' a queen, and all the other maggots and eggs
* were destroyed §.
" * In above a hundred experiments a queen
' has been formed from maggots three days old||."
* " Here is a wonder of another kind: queens laying eggs,
which (we must suppose Mr. Schirach meant we should believe)
they hatched, without the influence of tlie male."
■j- "Why eggs, which we must conceive hatched, and produced
maggots, did not form queens, one cannot imagine."
X " In which month, as bees never swarm, there could be no
occasion for mothers, or supernumerary queens, and still each
experiment produced a handsome queen. This is as singular an
observation as any. In this country, and in all similar ones, bees
hardly breed after July, and by the beginning of September there
is hardly a chrysalis to be seenj yet these bred till November,
and even laid eggs."
§ " Why did the bees destroy them in this experiment, and
not in others ?"
II " The working bees, from the above experiments, are con-
sidered as all females, although the ovaria are too small for ex-
amination.
"It
3lO BEE.
" Wilhelmi observes, that a queen cell, which
is made while the bees are shut up, is formed by
breaking down three common cells into one,
when the maggot is placed in the centre, after
which the sides are repaired.
" A young queen lately hatched was put into a
hive, which had been previously ascertained to
contain no drones, and whose queen was removed;
and yet the young queen laid eggs*. In repeating
Mr. Schirach's experiment, he shut up four pieces
of comb, with one maggot in each; after two days
the maggots were all dead, and the bees had de-
sisted from labour f.
" A piece of comb, from which all the eggs and
maggots had been removed, was shut up with
some honey, and a certain number of workers;
in a short time they became very busy, and upon
the evening of the second day 300 eggs were
found in the cells J. He repeated this experi-
ment with the same result, and the bees were left
to themselves: they placed queen maggots in the
queen cells, newly constructed, and others in male
cells: the rest were left undisturbed. He again
"■ It would appear that a maggot three days old was of the
best age for this experiment, yet one should have conceived that
a maggot two days old would soon be fit."
* " There is no mystery in this ; but did they hatch ?"
f " This is the most probable event in the whole experi-
ments."
% " This would show that labourers can be changed into
queens at will^ and that neither they nor their eggs require to be
impregnated} if this was the case, there would be no occasion
for all the push in making a queen or a male."
DEB. 321
took two pieces of comb, which contained neither
eggs nor maggots, and shut them up with a cer-
tain number of workers, and carried the box into
a stove: nfext evening, one of the pieces of comb
contained several eggs, and the beginning of a
royal cell, that was empty.
" Besides the short observations contained in
the notes, I beg leave to observe, that I have my
doubts respecting the whole of these experiments,
from several circumstances which occurred in mine.
The three following facts appear much against
their probability: first, a summer's evening in this
country is commonly too cold for so small a parcel
of bees to be lively, so as to set about new opera-
tions; they get so benumbed, that they hardly re-
cover in the day; and I should suspect that where
these experiments were made (and indeed some are
said to have been tried in this country), it is also too
cold: secondly, if the weather should happen to
be so warm as to prevent this effect, then they
are so restless, that they commonly destroy them-
selves, or wear themselves out; at least, after a
few days confinement we find them mostly dead:
and thirdly, the account given of the formation of
a royal cell, without mentioning the above in-
convenience, which is natural to the experiment,
makes me suspect the whole to be fabricated. To
obviate the first objection, which I found from
experiment to prevent any success that otherwise
might arise, I put my parcel of bees, with their
comb, in which were eggs, as also maggots, and
V. VI. p. ir. 21
32% BEE.
in some of the trials there were chrysalises*, inta
a warmer place, such as a glass frame, over tan,
the surface of which was covered with mould, to
prevent the rising of unwholesome air: but from
knowing that the maggot was fed with bee-bread,
or farina, I took care to introduce a cell or two.
with this substance, as also the flowers of plants
that produce a great deal of it, likewise some
honey for the old ones. In this state my bees
were preserved from the cold, as also provided
with necessaries i but after being confined several
days, upon opening the door of the hive, what
were alive came to the door, walked and flew
about, but gradually left it, and on examining the
combs, &c. I found the maggots dead, and no-
thing like any operation going on.
" The queen, the mother of all, in whatever
way produced, is a true female, and different from
both the labourers and the male. She is not so
large in the trunk as the male, and appears to be
rather larger in every part than the labourers.
The scales on the under surface of the belly of
the labourers are not uniformly of the same colour.
* " I chdse to have some chiysalises, for I supposed that if
my bees died, or flew away, the chrj-^salises when they came out,
which would happen in a few days, not knowing where to go,
might stay and take care of the maggots that might be hatched
from the eggsj but, to my surprise, I found that neither the eggs
hatched, nor did the chrysalises come forth 5 all died: fiom
which I began to suspect that the presence of the bees wa';
necessary for both."
BEE. 323
over the whole scale j that part being lighter
which is overlapped by the terminating scale
above, and the uncovered part being darker: this
light part does not terminate in a straight line,
but in two curves, making a peak; all which gives
the belly a lighter colour in the labouring bees:
more especially when it is pulled out or elongated.
" The tongue of the female is considerably
shorter than that of the labouring bee, more like
that of the male: however, the tongues of the
labourers are not in all of an equal length, but
none have it so short as the queen.
" The size of the belly of the female of such
animals varies a little, according to the condition
they are in: but the belly of the male and the
labourer has but little occasion to change its size,
as they are at all times nearly in the same condi-
tion with regard to fat, having always plenty of
provision: but the true female varies very con-
siderably; she is of a different size and shape in
the summer to what she is in the winter; and in
the winter she has what may be called her natural
size and shape: she is, upon the whole, rather
thicker than the labourer; and this thickness is
also in the belly, which probably arises from the
circumstance of the oviduct being in the winter
pretty large, and the reservoir for semen full. The
termination of the belly is rather more peaked
than in the labourers, the last scale being rather
narrower from side to side, and coming more to a
point at the anus. The scales at this season are
more overlapped, which can only be known by
324 J$KK.
drawing them out. In the spring and summer
she is more easily distinguished : the belly is not
only thicker, but considerably longer than former-
ly, which arises from the increase of the eggs. We
distinguish a queen from a working bee, simply
by size, and in some degree by colour; but this
last is not so easily ascertained, because the differ-
ence in the colour is not so remarkable in the
back, and the only view we can commonly get of
her is on this part; but when a hive is killed, the
best way is to collect all the bees, and spread
them on white paper, or put them into water, in
a broad, flat-bottomed, shallow, white dish, in
which they swim; and by looking at them singly,
she may be discovered. As the queen breeds the
first year she is produced, and the oviducts never
entirely subside, an old queen is probably thicker
than a new bred one, unless indeed the oviducts,
and the eggs, form in the chrysalis state, as in the
silk-worm, which I should suppose they did. The
queen is perhaps at the smallest size just as she
has done breeding, for as she is to lay eggs by
the month of March, she must begin early to
fill again; but I believe her oviducts are never
emptied, having at all times eggs in them, al-
though but small. She has fat in her belly, similar
to the other bees.
" It is most probable that the queen which goes
off with the swarm is a young one, for the males
go off with the swarm to impregnate her, as she
must be impregnated the same year, because she
breeds the same year.
B£E. 325
" The queen has a sting similar to the work-
p: bee.
ing bee.
" Of the Number of Queens in a Hive.
" I believe a hive, or swarm, has but one queen,
at least I have never found more than one in a
swarm, or in an old hive in the winter j and pro-
bably this is what constitutes a hive; for when
there are two queens, it is hkeiy that a division
may begin to take place. Supernumerary queens
are mentioned by Riem, who asserts he has seen
them killed by the labourers, as well as the males.
" November 18th, 1788, I killed a hive that had
not swarmed the sunmier before, and which was
to appearance ready to swarm every day; but
when I supposed the season for swarming was
over, and it had not swarmed, I began to suspect
that the reason why it did not was owing to there
being no young queen or queens; and I found
only one. This is a kind of presumptive proof
that I was right in my conjecture; unless it be
supposed, that when they were determined not to
swarm, they destroyed every queen except one.
In a hive that died, I found no males, and only
one queen. This circumstance, that so few queens
are bred, must arise from the natural security
the queen is in from the mode of their society;
for, although there is but one queen in a wasp's,
hornet's, and humble bee's nest or hive, yet these
breed a great number of queens; the wasp and
^^6 BEE.
hornet some hundreds; but not living in society
during the winter, they are subject to great de-
struction, so that probably not one in a hundred
lives to breed in the summer.
" Of the Male Bee.
- " The male bee is considerably larger than the
labourers: he is even larger than the queen, al-
though not so long when she is in her full state
with eggs: he is considerably thicker than either,
but not longer in the same proportion: he does
not terminate at the anus in so sharp a point ; and
the opening between the two last scales of the
back and belly is larger, and more under the
belly, than in the female. His proboscis is much
shorter than that of the labouring bee, which makes
me suspect he does not collect his own honey, but
takes that which is brought home by the others;
especially as we never , find the males abroad on
flowers, &c. only flying about the hives in hot
weather, as if taking an airing; and when we find
that the male of the humble bee, which collects
its own food, has as long a proboscis, or tongue,
as the female, I think it is from all these facts rea-
sonable to suppose, the male of the common bee
feeds at home. He has no sting.
" Tlie males, I believe, are later in being bred
than the labouring bee. As they are oilly pro-
duced to go off. with a hive, they are not so early
brought forth: for in the month of April I killed
BEE. 327
a hive, in which I found maggots and chrysalises,
but did not find any males among the latter: the
maggots are too young for such investigation ;
but about the 20th of May we observed males:
they are all very much of the same size. In
the month of August, probablj^ about the latter
end, we may suppose they impregnate the queen
for the next year, and about the latter end of the
same month, and beginning of September, they
are dying, but seem to be hastened to their end
by the labourers. In J791,as early as the igth
of June, I saw the labourers killing the males of
a hive, or rather of a swarm, that had not yet
swarmed, but was hanging out; this, however,
was out of the common course. They appear to
be sensible of their fate, for they hurry in and out
of the hive as quick as possible, seemingly with a
view to avoid the labourers ; and we find them
attacked by the labourers, who pinch them with
their forceps, and when they are so hurt, and
fatigued with attempts to make their escape, as
not to be able to fly, they are thrown over on the
ground, and left to die. That this is the fate of
every male bee is easily ascertained, by examin-
ing every bee in the hive when killed for the
honey, which is after this season; no male being
then found in it. Bonnet supposes them starved
to death, as he never saw wounds on them. In
the course of a winter I have killed several hives^
some as late as April, and in such a way as to
preserve every bee, and after examining every
one entirely, I never perceived one male of any
328 BEE.
kind; although it has been asserted there are two
sizes of males, and that the small are preserved
through the winter to impregnate the queen.
" Of the Labouring Bee.
" This class, for we cannot call it either sex, or
species, is the largest in number of the whole
community: there are thousands of them to one
queen, and probably some hundreds to each male,
as we shall see by and by. It is to be supposed
they are the only bees which construct the whole
hive, and that the queen has no other business
but to lay the eggs: they are the only bees that
bring in materials; the only ones we observe busy
abroad; and, indeed, the idea of any other is ri*-
diculous, when we consider the disproportion in
numbers, as well as the employment of the others,
while the working bee has nothing to take off its
attention to the business of the family. They are
smaller than either the queen or the males: not
all of equal size, although the difference is not
very great. >
" The queen and the working bees are so much
alike, that the latter would seem to be females on
a different scale: however, this difference is not
so observable in the beginning of winter as in the
spring, when the queen is full of eggs. They are
all females in construction ; indeed, one might
suppose that they were only young queens, and
that they became queens after a certain age; but
lii-E. 329
this is not the case. They all have stings, which
is another thing that makes them similar to the
queen. From their being furnished with an in-
strument of defence and offence, they are endowed
with such powers of mind as to use it, their minds
being extremely irritable j so much so, that they
make an attack when not meddled with, simply
upon suspicion, and when they do attack, they
always sting; and yet, from the circumstance of
their not being able to disengage the sting, one
should suppose they would be more cautious in
striking with it. When they attack one another,
they seldom use it, only their pincers: yet I saw
two bees engaged, and one stung the other in the
mouth, or thereabouts, and the sting was drawn
from the body to which it belonged, and the one
who was stung ran very quickly about with it;
but I could not catch that bee, to observe hov/
the sting was situated.
" As they are the collectors of honey, much
more than what is for their own use, either im-
mediately, or in future, their tongue is propor-
tionably fitted for that purpose : it is considerably
longer than that of cither the queen or the male,
which fits them to take up the honey from the
hollow parts of flowers, of considerable depth.
The mechanism is very curious, as will be ex-
plained further on.
" The number of labourers in a hive varies very,
considerably.
" In one hive that I killed, there were - 3338
" In another - . - . _ 4472-
330 BEE.
" In one that died, there were - - 2432
" That I might guess at the number of
bees from a given bulk, I counted what
number an alehouse pint held, when wet,
and found it contained - - - - 2l6o
" Therefore, as some swarms will fill two
quarts, such must consist of near - - gOOO
" Of the Parts concerned in the Nourishment of
the Bee.
" Animals who only swallow food for them-
selves, or whose alimentary organs are fitted
wholely for their own nourishment, have them
adapted to that use only; but in many, these
organs are common for more purposes, as in the
pigeon, and likewise in the bee. In this last,
some of the parts are used as a temporary reser-
voir, holding both that which is for the immediate
nourishment of the animal, and also that which
is to be preserved for a future day, in the cells
formerly described; this last portion is therefore
thrown up again, or regurgitated. As it is the
labourers alone in the common bee that are so
employed, we might conceive this reservoir would
belong only to them; bat both the queen and
males, both in the common and humble bee, have
it, as also, I believe, every one of the bee tribe.
" As the bee is a remarkable instance of regur-
gitation, it is necessary the structure of the parts
concerned in this operation, and which are also
BEE. 331
connected with digestion, should be well consi-
dered. Ruminating animals may be reckoned
regurgitating animals, but in them it is for the
purpose of digestion entirely in themselves. But
many birds may be called regurgitating animals,
and in them it is for the purpose of feeding their
young. Crows fdl their fauces, making a kind of
craw, out of which they throw back the food when
they feed their young: but the most remarkable
is the dove tribe, who first fill their craw, and then
throw it up into the beak of their young. The
bee has this power to a remarkable degree, not,
however, for the purpose of feeding the young,
but it is the mode of depositing their store, when
brought home.
" In none of the above-mentioned regurgitating
animals are the reservoirs containing the food,
the immediate organ of digestion; nor does the
reservoir for the honey in the bee appear to be
its stomach.
" The tonsrue of the bee is the first of the ali-
mentary organs to be considered: it is of a pecu-
liar structure, and is probably the largest tongue
of any animal we know, for its size. It may be
>said to consist of three parts respecting its length,
having three articulations. One, its articulation
with the head, which is in some measure similar
to our larynx. Then comes the body of the
tongue, which is composed of two parts; one, a
kind of base, on which the other, or true tongue,
is articulated. This first part is principally a
iiorny substance, in which there is a groove, and
332 BEE.
it is art^iculated with the iirst, or larynx; on the
end of this is fixed the true tongue, Avith its diirer-
ent parts. These two parts of the tongue are as it
were inclosed laterally, by two horny scales, one
on each side, which are concave on that side next
to the tongue; one edge is thicker than the other,
and they do not extend so far as the other parts.
Each of these scales is composed of two parts, or
scales, respecting its length, one articulated with
the other: the first of those scales is articulated
with the common base, or larynx, at the articula-
tion of the first part of the tongue, and incloses
laterally the second part of the tongue, coming as
far forwards as the third articulation : on the end
of this is articulated the second scale, which con-
tinues the hollow groove that incloses the tongue
laterally; this terminates in a point. These scales
have some hairs on their edge.
" On the termination of the second part, is
placed the true tongue, having two lateral por-
tions or processes, on each side, one within the
other: the external is the largest, and is somewhat
similar to the before-mentioned scales. This is
composed of four parts, or rather of one large
part, on which three smaller are articulated, hav*
ing motion on themselves. The first, on which
the others stand, is articulated at the edges of the
tongue, on the basis, or termination of the last
described part of the tongue: this has hairs on
its edge.
" A little further forwards on the edges of the
tongue are two small thin processes, so small as
JJEK. 333
hardly to be seen with the naked eye. The
middle part of all, of which these lateral parts are
only appendages, is the true tongue. It is some-
thing longer than any of the before-mentioned late-
ral portions J and is not horny, as the other parts
are, but what may be called fleshy, being soft and
pliable. It is composed of short sections, which
probably are so many short muscles, as in fishj
for they are capable of moving it in all directions.
The tongue itself is extremely villous, having some
very long villi at the point, which act, I conceive,
somewhat like capillary tubes.
" This whole apparatus can be folded up, into
a very small compass, under the head and neck.
The larynx falls back into the neck, which brings
the extreme end of the first portion of the tongue
within the upper lip, or behind the two teeth; then
the whole of the second part, which consists of five
parts, is bent down upon and under this first part,
and the two last scales are also bent down over
the whole ; so that the true tongue is inclosed late-
rally by the two second horny scales, and over the
whole lie the two first.
" The oesophagus, in all of this tribe of insects,
begins just at the root of the tongue, as in other
animals, covered anteriorly by a horny scale, which
terminates the head, and which may be called the
upper lip, or the roof of the mouth. It passes
down through the neck and thorax, and when got
into the abdomen, it immediately dilates into a
fine transparent bag, which is the immediate re-
ceiv^er of whatever is swallowed. From this the
334 IJEE.
food (whatever it be) is either carried further
on into the stomach, to be digested, or is regurgi-
tated for other purposes. To ascertain this in
some degree, in living bees, I caught them going
out early in the morning, and found this bag quite
empty: some time after I caught others returning
home, and found the bag quite full of honey, and
some of it had got into the stomach. Novv^ I sup-
pose that which was in the craw, was for the pur-
pose of regurgitation j and as probably they had
fasted during the night, part had gone on further
for digestion. Whatever time the contents of this
reservoir may be retained, we never find them
altered, so as to give the idea of digestion having
taken place: it is pure honey. From this bag
the contents can be moved either way; either
downwards to the stomach, for the immediate use
of the animal itself; or back again, to be thrown
out as store for future aliment.
" The stomach arises from the lower end, and a
little on the right side, of this bag. It does not
gradually contract into a stomach, nor is the outlet
a passage directly out, but in the centre of a pro-
jection which enters some way into the reservoir,
being rather an inverted pylorus, thickest at its
most projecting part, with a very small opening
in the centre, of a peculiar construction. This
inward projecting part is easily seen through
the coats of the reservoir, especially if full of
honey.
" The stomach begins immediately on the out-
side of the reservoir, and the same part which
uee: 335
projects into the reservoir is continued some way
into the stomach, but appears to have no particu-
lar construction at this end; and therefore it is
only fitted to prevent regurgitation into the reser-
voir, as such would spoil the honey. This con-
struction of parts is well adapted for the purpose j
for the end projecting into the reservoir, prevents
any honey from getting into the stomach, because
its acts there as a valve; therefore whatever is
taken in, must be by an action of this vascular
part. The stomach has a good deal the appear-
ance of a gut, especially as it seems to come out
from a bag. It passes almost directly down-
wards in the middle of the abdomen. Its in-
ner surface is very much increased, by having
either circular valves, somewhat like the vahulce
conniventes in the human jejunum, or spiral folds,
as in the intestine of the shark, &c.; these may
be seen through the external coats. In this part
the food undergoes the change. Where the
stomach terminates, is not exactly to be ascer-
tained; but it soon begins to throw itself into
convolutions, and becomes smaller,
" The intestine makes two or three twists upon
itself, in which part it is enveloped in the ducts,
constituting the liver, and probably the pancreas,
and at last passes on straight to the termination
of the abdomen. Here it is capable of becoming
very large, to serve upon occasion as a reservoir,
containing a large quantity of excrement: it then
contracts a little, and opens under the posterior
edge of the last scale of the back, above the sting
336 BEE.
in the female and labourers, and the penis in
the male.
" Of the Senses of Bees.
" Bees certainly have the five senses. Sight
none can doubt. Feeling they also have ; and
there is every reason for supposing they have
likewise taste, smell, and hearing. Taste we can-
not doubt: but of smell we may not have such
proofs: yet, from observation, I think they give
strong signs of smell. When bees are hungry, as
a young swarm in wet weather, and are in a glass
hive, so that they can be examined, if we put
some honey into the bottom, it will immediately
breed a commotion; they all seem to be upon
the scent : even if they are weak, and hardly able
to crawl, they will throw out their probosces as
far as possible to get to it, although the light is
rery faint. This last appears to arise more from
smell than seeing. If some bees are let loose in
a bee hive, and do not know from which house
they came, they will take their stand upon the
outside of some hive, or hives; especially when
the evening is coming on: whether this arises
from the smell of the hives, or sound, I can hardly
judge.
" Cff the Voice of Bees,
" Bees may be said to have a voice. They are
certainly capable of forming several sounds. They
Utt. $37
^^ive a sound when flying, wliich they can vary
according to circumstances. One accustomed to
bees, can immediately tell when a bee makes an
attack, b}^ the sound. This is probably made
by the wings. They may be seen standing at the
door of their hive, with the belly rather raised,
and moving their wings, making a noise. But
they produce a noise independent of their Avings;
for if a bee is smeared all over with honey, so as
to make the wings stick together, it w ill be found
to make a noise, wiiich is shrill and peevish. To
ascertain this further, I held a bee by the legs,
with a pair of pincers; and observed it then made
the peevish noise, although the wings were per-
fectly still: I then cut the wings oif, and found it
made the same noise. I examined it in water,
but it then did not produce the noise, till it was
very much teased, an 1 then it made the same
kind of noise; and I could observ^e the water, or
rather the surface of contact of the water with the
air at the mouth of an air-hole at the root of the
wing, vibrating. I have observed that they, or
some of them, make a noise the evenings before
they swarm, which is a kind of ring, or sound of a
small trumpet: by comparing it with the notes of
the piano forte, it seemed to be the same with the
lower A of the treble.
" Of the Sting of the Bee,
" I have observed that it is only the queen and
'the labourers that have stings ^ and this provision
V. VI. p. II. 22
33-$ BEE.
of a sting is perhaps as curious a circumstance as
any attending the bee, and probably is one of the
characters of the bee tribe.
" The apparatus itself is of a very curious c6n-
struction, fitted for inflicting a wound, and at the
same time conveying a poison into that wound.
The apparatus consists of two piercers, conducted
in a groove, or director, which appears to be itself
the sting. This groove is somewhat thick at its
base, but terminates in a point; it is articulated
to the last scale of the upper side of the ab-
domen by thirteen thin scales, six on each side,
and one behind the rectum. These scales in-
close, as it were, the rectum or anus all round;
they can hardly be said to be articulated to each
other, only attached by thin membranes, which
allow of a variety of motions; three of them, how-
ever, are attached more closely to a round and
curved process, which comes from the basis of the
groove in which the sting lies, as also to the
curved arms of the sting, which spread out ex-
ternally. The two stings may be said to begin,
by those two curved processes at their union with
the scales, and converging towards the groove at
its base, which they enter, then pass along it to
its point. They are serrated on their outer edges,
near to the point. These two stings can be thrust
out beyond the groove, although not far, and they
can be drawn within it; and, I believe, can be
moved singly. All these parts are moved by
-muscles, which we may suppose are very strong
in them, much stronger than in other animals;
UF.E. 33g.
and these muscles give motion in almost all di-
rections, but more particularly outwards. It is
wonderful how deep they will pierce solid bodies
with the sting. I have examined the length,
they have pierced the palm of the hand, which is
covered with a thick cuticle : it has often been about
the T-V of an inch. To perform this by mere force,
two things are necessary, power of muscles, and
strength of the sting; neither of which they seem
to possess in sufficient degree. I own I do not
imderstand this operation. I am apt to conceive
there is something in it distinct from simple force
applied to one end of a bod}^; for if this was simply
the case, the sting of the bee could not be made
to pierce by any power applied to its base, as the
least pressure bends it in any direction: it is pos-
sible the serrated edges may assist, by cutting
their way in, like a saw.
" The apparatus for the poison consists of two
small ducts, which are the glands that secrete the
poison: these two lie in the abdomen, among the
air-cells, &c.: they both unite into one, which
soon enters into, or forms, an oblong bag, like a
bladder of urine; at the opposite end of which
passes out a duct, which runs towards the angle
where the two stings meet; and entering between
the two stings, is continued between them in a
groove, which forms a canal by the union of the
two stings to this point. There is another duct
on the right of that described above, which is not
so circumscribed, and contains a thicker matter,
which, as far as I have been able to judge, enters
340 BEE.
along with the other : but it is the first that contains
the poison, which is a thin, clear fluid. To ascer-
tain which was the poison, I dipped points of
needles into both, and pricked the back of the
hand J and those punctures that had the fluid from
the first-described bags in them grew sore and in-
flamed, while the others did not. From the stings
having serrated edges, it is seldom- the bees can
disengage them ; and they immediately upon sting-
ing endeavour to make their escape, but are gene-
rally prevented, as it were caught in their own
trap; and the force they use commonly drags out
the whole of the apparatus for stinging, and also
part of the bowels; so that the bee most frequently
falls a sacrifice immediately upon having effected
its purpose. Upon a superficial view, one con-
ceives, that the first intention of the bee having
a sting is evident; one sees it has property to de-
fend, and that therefore it is fitted for defence; but
why it should naturally fall a sacrifice in its own
defence, does not so readily appear: besides, all
bees have stings, although all bees have not pro-
perty to defend, and therefore are not under the
same necessity of being so provided. Probably
its having a sting to use, was sufficient for nature
to defend the bee, without using it liberally; and
the loss of a bee or two, when they did sting,
was of no consequence; for it is seldom that
more die.
" 1 have now carried the operations of a hive,
or the oeconomy of the bee, completely round the
year^ in which time they revolve to the first point
BEE. 34 1
we set out at, and the continuance is only a re-
petition of the same revolutions as I have now
described: but those revolutions occasion a series
ot" ertects in the comb, which etftcts in time pro-
duce variations in the life of the hive. Besides,
there are observations that have little to do with
the oeconomy of a year, but include the whole of
the life of this insect, or at least its hive.
'' Of the Life of the Bee.
" I have observed that the life of the male is
only one summer, or rather a month or two ; and
this we know from there being none in the winter,
otherwise their age could not be ascertained, as it
is impossible to learn the age of either the queen
or labourers. Some suppose that it is the young
bees which swarm; and most probably it is so:
but I think it is probable also, that a certain num-
ber of young ones may be retained to keep up
the stock, as we must suppose that many of the
old ones are, from accidents of various kinds, lost
to the hive; and we could conceive, that a hive
three or four years old might not have an original
bee in it, ahhough a bee might live twice that
time. But there must be a period for a bee to
live; and if I were to judge from analogy, I should
say, that a bee's natural life is limited to a certain
number of seasons; viz. one bee does not live one
year, another two, another three, &c. I even
conceive that no individual insect of any species
•.
342 BEE.
lives one month longer than the others of the
same species. I believe this is the case with all
insects; but the age of either a labourer or a
queen may never be discovered. One might sup-
pose that the life of a bee, and the time a hive can
possibly last, would be nearly equal : although
this is not absolutely necessary, because they can
produce a succession, which they probably do ;
for I am very ready to imagine, that after the first
brood in the season, all the last winter bees die,
and the hive is occupied with this first brood; and
that they breed the first swarm, or that the old
breed the whole of this season's breeding, and
then die, and those that continue through the
winter are the young ; and if so, then they follow
the same course with their progenitors,
" The comb of a hive may be said to be the
furniture and storehouse of the bees, which by use
wear out ; and from the description I have given,
it will appear that the comb in time will be ren-
dered unfit for use. I observed, that they did not
clean out the excrement of the maggot, and that
the maggot, before it moved into the chrysalis
state, lined the cell with a silk, similar to many
other insects. It lines the whole cell, top, sides,
and bottom; the two last are permanent; and at
the bottom it covers with this lining its own excre-
ment*. Why the bee maggot is formed to do
this, is, probably, because honey afterwards is to
* " This neither the wasp nor hornet do, although they do
not' clean out the excrement of their maggots."
BEE. 343
be put into this cell ; so that the honey is laid into
this last silken bag. How often they may breed
in the same cell I do not know, but I have known
them three times in the same season; each time
the excrement has been accumulating, and the cell
has been lined three times with silk. From this
account we must see that a cell, in time, will be
so far iilled up as to render it unfit for breeding.
On separating the lining of silk, which is easiest
done at the bottom, on account of the dried excre-
ment between each linin.s^, I have counted above
twenty ditferent linings in one cell, and found the
cell about one quarter, or one third, filled up:
when such a cell, or a piece of comb with such
cells, is steeped in water, so as to soften the ex-
crement between the linings, they are separated
from each other at the bottom by the swelling of
the excrement, so that they can be easily counted.
A piece of comb so circumstanced, when boiled
for the wax, will keep its form, and the small
quantity of wax is squeezed out at diiferent parts,
as if squeezed out of a sponge, and runs together
into the crevices: while a piece of comb, that
never has been bred in, even of the same hive,
melts almost wholly down. It is this wax that
has the fme yellow, while the other of the same
hives, although brown, yet shall be white when
melted; so that I was led to imagine the wax
took its tinge from the farina, excrement, &c. but
upon boiling pure wax with such materials, it
was not tinged with this transparent yellow, only
became dirty. In some of those cells that had
344 BEE.
probably been bred in twenty times, or more,
when soaked so as to make the excrement swell, I
have seen the bottom of the last lining rise even
with the mouth, or top of the cell, so that the
cavity of the cell was now full: in others, I have
seen it rise higher than the mouth, so that the last
formed layers were almost inverted, and turned
inside out. A piece of such comb, consisting of
two rows of cells, is to be considered as a mould,
and the lining of silk and the excrement as the
cast; when this is boiled, so as either to extract
all the wax or mould, or to destroy its original
regular formation which constituted the comb,
and nothing is left but the cells of silk, &c, they
all easily separate from each other, being only so
many casts, with the mould destroyed; and the
bottoms, which were indented into each other, are
very perfect.
" From the above account we must see that the
combs of a hive can only last a certain number of
years; however, to make them last longer, the
bees often add a little to the mouth of the cell,
which is seldom done with wax alone, but with a
mixture; and they sometimes cover the silk lining
of the last chrysalis; but all this makes such cells
clumsy, in comparison to the original ones."
The Apis centuncularis or Carpvnter-Bee is re-
niaikable for its faculty of forming long, tubular,
and slightly flexuose cavities in wood, even of the
most solid kind, as oak, &c. Sometimes it per-
forms this operation in living trees, and some-
times iu dry wood, posts, &c. The tubular cavj-
BEE. 345
ties extend several inches in lencjth and are about
the third of an inch in diameter, and is marked
into separate spaces, each of the length of three
quarters of an inch. When the tube is properly
finished the animal proceeds to line each of the
above-mentioned spaces with rose-leaves rolled
over each other, the bottom of each being formed
by several circular pieces of these leaves placed im-
mediately over each other to a sufficient thickness.
The animal then deposits an egg at the bottom,
and having left in the cell a sufficient quantity of
a kind of honey for the nourishment of the young
larva when hatched, proceeds to close the top with
circular bits of rose-leaf; and thus proceeding,
finishes the whole series. This is usually done
towards the close of summer, and the young having
passed the period of their larva state, change into
that of chrysalis, and remain the whole winter,
not making their appearance till pretty late in th6
ensuing season. This bee is about the size of the
common or honey-bee, but shorter and broader-
bodied in proportion, and is of a dusky colour
above, the lower parts being covered with a bright-
ferruginous down or hair*. In seasons when this
species happens to be plentiful it does consider-
able injury to the trees which it attacks; large
trunks of apparently healthy oaks having been
found very materially injured by the numerous
trains of cells distributed through it in different
* Mr. Kirby, in his Moriographia, considers this species as
distinct from the real centuncularis, and names it Apis ligniacea.
346 T.EE.
parts, thirty, forty, or fifty tubes sometimes lying
within a very small distance of each other. In
defect of rose-leaves the cavities are sometimes
lined with the leaves of elm, &c. &c.
A species very nearly allied to the preceding
pursues a similar plan of forming a continued
series of cylindrical nests with rose or other leaves,
roUins: them in such a manner as to resemble so
many thimbles, the top of each being closed as
before. Instead however of being placed in the
timber of trees, they are laid in horizontal trains
at a certain distance beneath the surface of the
ground. Mons'. Reaumur, who describes this
species and its nest, relates a very diverting in-
stance of popular ignorance and superstition at
that period in France. In the beginning of July
1736^ the learned Abbe Nollet, then at Paris, was
surprised by a visit from an Auditor of the Cham-
ber of Accounts, whose estate lay at a distant
village on the borders of the Seine, a few leagues
from Rouen. This gentleman came accompanied,
among other domestics, by a gardener, whose
face had an air of much concern. He had come
to Paris in consequence of having found in his
master's grounds many rows of leaves, unaccount-
ably disposed in a mystical manner, and which he
could not but believe were there placed by witch-
craft, for the secret destruction of his lord and
family. He had, after recovering from his first
consternation, shewn them to the Cure of the
parish, who was inclined to be of a similar opinion,
and advised him without delay to take a journey to
'% *k ''%2lh di^ n&fCs cofufideradli' reduced m sizf
'^,Oct:iZcrui/>ri^rufMud ^»- ^Jfatr.eler. I'leec Sfreet:.
BEE. 347
Paris, and make his lord acquainted with the cir-
cumstance. This gentleman, though not quite so
much alarmed as the honest gardener, yet could
not feel himself at perfect ease ; and therefore
thought it advisable to consult his surgeon upon
the business, who, though a man of eminence in
his profession, declared himself utterly unacquaint-
ed with the nature of what was shewn him, but
took the liberty of advising that the Abbe Nollet,
as a philosopher, should be consulted, whose well-
known researches in natural knowledge might per-
haps enable him to elucidate the matter. It was
in consequence of this advice that the Abbe re-
ceived the visit above-mentioned, and had the
satisfaction of relieving all parties from their em-
barrassment, by shewing them several nests formed
on a somewhat similar plan by other insects, and
assuring them that those in their possession were
the work of Insects also. He opened some of the
rose-leaf nests, shewed them the inclosed larvae,
and requested permission to send the remainder
to Mons^ Reaumur, who pursued their investiga-
tion with much eagerness, and soon completed the
natural history of the animal.
Of the villose or hairy Bees, popularly called
Humble-Bees, one of the largest and most com-
mon is the Apis lapidaria of Linnreus, so named
from the circumstance of its nest being generally
situated in strong or gravelly places. This species
is entirely of a deep black colour, except the end
of the abdomen, which is red or orange-coloured,
more or less deep in different individuals. The
348 BEE.
female is of large size, measuring near an inch
in length; the male is considerably smaller, and
the neuter or labouring bee still smaller than the
male.
The Apis terrestris is of equal size with the
former, and is of a black colour, with the thorax
marked by a yellow bar, and the abdomen tipped
with white.
The Apis hortorum resembles the preceding,
but has the thorax and abdomen yellow in front,
and the body tipped with white like the former.
The Humble-Bees in general live in small
societies of forty or sixty together, in an oval or
roundish nest, excavated to a small depth beneath
the surface of the ground, and formed of branches
of moss, compacted together, and lined with a
kind of coarse wax. In this nest, which measures
from four to six inches in diameter, are construct-
ed several oval cells, which however are not the
work of the complete insects, but are the cases
spun by the larvre, and in which they remain dur^
ing their state of chrysalis: the eggs are deposited
among heaps of a kind of coarse honey or bee-
bread, placed here and there at uncertain inter-
vals; on this substance the larvae feed during their
growing state: lastly, in every nest are placed a
few nearly cylindric cells or goblets of coarse wax,
and filled with pure honey, on which feed the
complete insects.
Reaumur observes that Humble-Bees are some-
times infested with numerous small worms of the
tribe of Ascarides. These are found in the middle
BEE. 54g
of their bodies, and are enclosed in a kind of cyst
or capsule. It may be added that many insects
are infested with still more extraordinary inmates,
viz. Gordii or Filari^e of several inches in length.
It would be unpardonable to dismiss the genus
Apis without calling the attention of the reader
to the ingenious Mr. Kirby's elaborate publica-
tion entitled Mouographia Apum Anglice, a work
in which the British species of this extensive genus
are defined with an accuracy surpassing the usual
tenor of entomological description.
FORMICA. ANT.
Generic Character.
Caput magnum, antennis
diffractis, filiformibus.
Os maxillosum, pal pis qua-
tuor in3equalil)us.
Thorax postice angustatus,
squamula erecta.
j4bdomen subglobosum.
y^lre maribus et femiriis :
neutris nullae.
Aculeus feminis et neutris,
reconditus.
Head large, with diffracted
filiform antennae.
Mouth with large jaws, and
four unequal feelers.
Thorax narrowed behind,
and furnished with an up-
right scale.
Abdomen subglobose.
Males anfl Females winged :
Neutrals apterous.
Females and Neutrals fur-
nished with a concealed
sting.
JL HE insects of this genus live in large societies,
somewhat in the manner of Bees and Wasps, and
are like them divided into males, females, and
neutrals, which latter constitute the great or gene-
ral assortment, and appear to conduct the busi-
ness of the nest, which is usuallj^ placed at a small
distance from the surface in some slight elevation
either prepared by the insects themselves or pre-
viously formed by some other animals, as Moles,
&c. They feed both on animal and vegetable sub-
200
FOIiMICA
J'c/?iale. not SI ::^.
pupa
Ian a
J'cmalo
^.ritbra/ irh i^ di/pircfW st/7/cs
ANT, 351
stances, devouring the smaller kind of insects,
caterpillars, &c. as well as fruits of different kinds.
They are particularly attracted by sweets, and for
this reason thev ascend such trees as are infested
with Aphides, in order to obtain the saccharine
substance discharged by those animals j and hence
seems to have arisen the idea of their enmity
against the genus Aphis. Some species of Ants
are furnished with a sting, while others are destitute
of that part.
The largest of the European Ants is the Formica
Herculanea, or Great Wood-Ant, of a chesnut
colour, with the abdomen measuring two lines or
more in length. This species is chiefly found in
dry woods of pine or fir, where it inhabits a large
conical nest or hilloc, composed of dry vegetable
fragments, chiefly of fir-leaves: the nest is inter-
nally distributed into several paths or tubes, con-
verging towards the central part, and opening
externally: in the middle or centre reside the
young, or larvae, which are nursed by the neutral
ants, and are occasionally brought to the surface,
in order to be more within the influence of the air
and sunshine for a certain time, after which they
are again conveyed to the bottom or centre.
When full grown, they envelop themselves in oval,
white, silken cases, in which they undergo their
change into chrysalis, and at length emerge in
their complete form. The males and females are
winged, and the females are much larger than the
males. " '
The common or black Ant, Formica nigra. Lin.
is a well-known inhabitant of our fields and gar*
dens, residing in great numbers beneath mole-hills
and other elevated spots. It is of a brownish black
colour, and of a glossy or polished surface. The
eggs of this species are deposited early in the
spring, and are extremely small, and of a white
colour. From these are hatched the larvae, which
are of a thickish form, destitute of legs, and some-
what resemble in miniature the maggots of Wasps
and Bees. They are carefully nourished by the
neutral or labouring ants, till they are arrived at
their ftdl growth, when they enclose themselves in
smooth, oval, pale yellow, silken webs or cases, in
which state they are popularly known by the mis-
taken title of ant-eggs ; the real eggs, as before ob-
served, being white, and extremely small. It is
generally in the months of June and July that the
larvae thus enclose themselves. The chrj^salis, if
taken out of its silken case, is of a white colour,
and exhibits all the limbs of the future animal in
an imperfect or contracted state. During the time
of their remaining in chrysalis the neutral ants
attend them with the same care as when in their
larva state, frequently shifting their situation *, and
placing them at greater or smaller elevations ac-
cording to the different state of the atmosphere.
About the beginning of August the males and
females may be observed in the nests: these differ
* This care of the Ants in conveying their pupae from place
to place seems to have been often mistaken for a sedulous in-
dustry in collecting grains of wheat, which the pupae, on a
cursory view, much resemble.
ANT. 353
from the neutrals in being furnished with wings,
and the female is far larger than the male, the
body equalling in size that of the common window-
fly, and the upper wings being very long and
large. At this time of the year the males and
females emigrate in vast numbers, sometimes fly-
ing at a considerable height, and sometimes creep-
ing along the surface. It is not uncommon to see
them enter houses at this period, attracted by
sweets in particular, either moist or dry. After
the breeding season the males live but a very short
time, and the females return to their nests in order
to deposit their eggs. During the winter this
species, like the rest of the European ants, re-
mains in a state of torpor, without laying up pro-
visions for that season, as erroneously supposed;
and during the spring emerges from its conceal-
ment, and recommences its labours.
I have before observed that Ants feed both on
animal and vegetable substances of various kinds.
Their addiction to animal substances is often
turned to good account by anatomists, who, when
they wish to obtain the skeleton of any animal
too small or delicate to admit of being prepared
in the usual way, dispose the animal in a proper
position in a small box, with perforations in the
lid, and deposit it in a large ant-hill; in conse-
quence of which, after a certain space, the whole
of the softer parts are eaten away by these insects,
and the skeleton remains in its proper position.
It is thus that very elegant skeletons of Frogs^
Snakes, &c. may be obtained.
V. VI. p. II. 23
354 ANT.
This addiction to animal food in the insects of
the genus Formica can hardlj'^ be said to be pro-
ductive of any misciiief in the European regions;
but in various parts of America and the West-
Indian islands the ravages committed by ants are
incredible. One of the chief of these destroyers
is the Formica o?nnwora of Linnseus, a very small
species of a brown or chesnut colour: it is ex-
tremely voracious, attacking every animal sub-
stance to which it can gain access. It occurs in
yarioLis parts of Africa as well as in America and
the West Indies, and it is said to be so numerous
in some districts, that a deer, hog, &c. being killed
and left on the ground by night, will by the next
morning have the flesh entirely cleared from the
J^ones, and be reduced to a complete skeleton,
201
MUTIIiliA.
herul rnogni/jf//
\ J:
Ei/ro/j/f/i
hn
/"/ii-nna
]f>os,Ocf.j l.ondi-n.J'nhli.flu,/ /„ K Ktur.^ley.I'hel S/j-ee/
MUTILLA. MUTILLA.
Generic Character.
Jntennte filiformes.
Corpus pubescens : thorax
postice retusus,
Alte nulljB plerisque.
Aculeus punctorius, recon-
ditus.
Anteyina filiform.
^o^/y downy: ^Aor^jr retuse
behind.
Wings none in general.
Sting concealed.
I
N many pai'ticulars the insects of this genus
resemble those of the immediately preceding, but
are of larger size, and more lively colours. The
principal European species, the Mutilla Europcea
of Linnaeus, is a beautiful animal, of a deep black
colour, of a silky or velvety surface, with the tho-
rax rufous in front, and sometimes entirely so,
and the abdomen marked by two white bands, a
yellowish cast or gloss often appearing* on the
whole. It is found in woods and fields, beneath
moss, &c. measures about half an inch in length.
It appears to live in small societies in the manner
of ants, some individuals being winged, and others
apterous.
Mutilla occidentalis of Linnasus is of a bright
red colour, with a velvety surface, and is marked
by a black band across the abdomen. It is a na-
tive of many parts of North America.
356
MUTILLA,
Mutilla Americana is an elegant species, of a
black colour, with the abdomen marked on the
first segment by four red spots, and on each of
the rest by three large white ones, giving the
appearance of three longitudinal white stripes on
that part. It is a native of South America.
102.
OESTRUS-
liead Jiia^ruficd^.
■
mk WW I
m''
la/1 a
piipa
loj -1 a
Icava
pilfJU
I) VIS
i()oJ OctVLoiuivn Liilkj/id<l Ln. O/CimmI^} /^■a.^Soect.
IN S E CTS.
ORDER
DIPTERA.
OESTRUS. OESTRUS.
Generic Character.
Antennce triarticulatae, bre-
vissimae, demersse.
Facies lata, depressa, vesi-
culosa.
Os foramen simplex.
Palpi duo, biarticulati, de-
mersi.
Cauda inflexa.
Antenn/e triarticulate, very
short, sunk.
Face broad, depressed, vesi-
cular.
Mouth a simple orifice.
Feelers two, biarticulate,
sunk.
Tail inflected.
A HE genus Oestrus or Gad-Fly is remarkable,
like that of Ichneumon, for the singular residencie
of its larvae; viz. beneath the skin, or in different
parts of the bodies of quadrupeds.
358 OESTRUS.
The principal European species is the Oestrus
Bovis or Ox Gad-Fly. This is about the size of a
common Bee, and is of a pale yellowish brown
colour, with the thorax marked by four longitudi-
i>al dusky streaks, and the abdomen by a black
bar across the middle, the tip being covered with
tawny or orange-coloured hairs: the wings are
pale brown, and unspotted.
The female of this species, when ready to de-
posit her eggs, fastens on the back of a heifer or
cow, and piercing the skin with the tube situated
at the tip of the abdomen, deposits an egg in the
puncture: she then proceeds to another spot at
some distance from the former, repeating the
same operation at intervals on many parts of the
animal's back. This operation is not performed
■without severe pain to the animal on which it is
practised; and it is for this reason that cattle are
observed to be seized with such violent horror
when apprehensive of the approaches of the female
Oestrus; flying with uncontrollable rapidity, and
endeavouring to escape their tormentor by taking
refuge in the nearest pond; it being observed that
this insect rarely attacks cattle when standing in
water.
In the punctures of the skin thus formed by the
Gad-fly the several eggs hatch, and the larvae by
their motion and suction cause so many small
swellings or abscesses beneath the skin, which
.growing gradually larger, become externally visi-
ble, exhibiting so many tubercles an inch or more
OESTRUS. 359
in diameter, with an opening at the top of eacli,
throuffh which mav be observed the larva, im-
bedded in a purulent fluid: its appearance is that
of an oval maggot, of a yellowish white colour
while young, but growing gradually darker as it
advances in age, till at the time of its full growth
it is entirely brown. It is chiefly in the months
of August and September that the egi^s are laid,
and the larvae remain through the ensuing winter
and till the latter part of the next June before
they are ready to undergo their change into chry-
salis. At this period they force themselves out
from their respective cells, and falling to the
ground, each creeps beneath the first convenient
shelter, and lying in an inert state becomes con-
tracted into an oval form, but without castmg
the larva skin, which dries and hardens round- it.
When the included insect is ready for exclusion,
it forces open the top of the pupa or chrysalis
coat, and emerges in its perfect form, having re-
mained within the chrysalis somewhat more than,
a month.
Though the history of this insect in its larva
state has long ago been detailed with suflicient
accuracy by Vallisneri, Reaumur and others, yet
the Fly itself appears to have been very generally
confounded, and that even by Linnaeus himself,
with a very diflerent species, resembling it in size,
but which is bred in the stomach and intestines
of horses, the larvns being no other than the whitish,
rough maggots which Farriers call by the title
of Bots. This insect is the Oestrus Egici, ex-
S60 OESTRUS.
tremely well described by Mr. Bracy Clark in
the third volume of the Transactions of the Lin-
naean Society. It is a trifle smaller than the
Oestrus bovis, and is of a yellowish brown colour,
with a dusky band across the thorax, and the tip
of the abdomen of similar colour: the wings are
whitish, with a pale-dusky bar across the middle
of each, and two dusky spots at the tip.
The manner in which the young larvae or Bots
are introduced into the stomach and bowels of
the animal they infest is singularly curious, and
cannot be better delivered than in the words of
the ingenious observer.
" When the female has been impregnated, and
the eggs are sufficiently matured, she seeks among
the horses a subject for her purpose, and approach-
ing it on the wing, she holds her body nearly up-
right in the air, and her tail, which is lengthened
for the purpose, curved inwards and upwards : in
this way she approaches the part where she de-
signs to deposit her egg-^ and suspending herself
for a few seconds before it, suddenly darts upon it,
and leaves her eg^ adhering to the hair : she hardly
appears to settle, but merely touches the hair with
the eg^ held out on the projected point of the
abdomen. The egg is made to adhere by means
of a glutinous liquor secreted with it. She then
leaves the horse at a small distance, and prepares
a second egg^ and, poising herself before the part,
deposits it in the same way. The liquor dries,
and the e^o^ becomes firmly glued to the hair: this
is repeated by various flies till four or Ave hundred
OESTRUS, i^6l
eggs* are sometimes placed on one horse. The
horses, when they become used to this fly, and
find that it does them no injurv, as the Tahan't
and Conopes, by sucking tlieir blood, hardly regard
it, and do not appear at all aware of its insidious
object. The skin of the horse is always thrown
into a tremulous motion on the touch of this in-
sect, which merely arises from the very great irri-
tability of the skin and cutaneous muscles at this
season of the yearf, occasioned by the continual
teasing of the flies, till at length these muscles act
involuntarily on the slighest touch of any body
whatever. The inside of the knee is the part on
which these flies are most fond of depositing their
eggs, and next to .this on the side and back part
of the shoulder, and less frequently on the extreme
ends of the mane. But it is a fact worthy of atten-
tion, that the fly does not place them promiscu-
ously about the body, but constantly on those parts
which are most liable to be licked with the tongue;
and the ova therefore are always scrupulously
placed within its reach. The eggs thus deposited
I at first suj)posed were loosened from the hairs
by the moisture of the tongue, aided by its rough-
ness, and were conveyed to the stomach, where
they were hatched ; but on more minute search I
do not find this to be the case, or at least only by
accident; for when they have remained on the
hairs four or five days they become ripe, after
which time the slightest application of warmth and
* Horses sometimes appear to be nearly covered by them,
f August and September.
362
OESTRUS.
moisture is sufficient to bring forth in an instant
the latent larva. At this time, if the tongue of
the horse touches the egg, its operculum is thrown
open, and a small active worm is produced, which
readily adheres to the moist surface of the tongue,
and is from thence conveyed with the food to the
stomach. If the egg itself be taken up by acci-
dent, it may pass on to the intestinal canal before
it hatches; in which case its existence to the full
growth is more precarious, and certainly not so
agreeable, as it is exposed to the bitterness of the
bile. I have often with a pair of scissars clipped
off some hairs with eggs on them from the horse,
and on placing them in the hand, moistened with
saliva, they have hatched in a tew seconds. At
other times, when not perfectly ripe, the larva
would not appear, though held in the hand under
the same circumstances for several hours; a suf-
ficient proof that the- eggs themselves are not con-
veyed to the stomach. It is fortunate for the ani-
mals infested by these insects that their numbers
are limited by the hazards they are exposed to. I
should suspect near a hundred are lost for one that
arrives at the perfect state of a fly. The eggs, in
the first place, when ripe, often hatch of them-
selves, and the larva, without a nidus, crawls
about till it dies; others are washed oif by the
water, or are hatched by the sun and moisture,
thus applied together. When in the mouth of the
animal, they have the dreadful ordeal of the teeth
and mastication to pass through. On their arrival
at the stomach, they may pass, mixed with the
OESTRUS.' 363
mass of the food, into the intestines; and when
full grown, on dropping from the anus to the
ground, a dirty road or water may receive them.
If on the commons, they are in danger of being
crushed to death, or of being picked up by the
birds who so constantly for food attend the foot-
steps of the cattle. Such are the contingencies by
which Nature has wisely prevented the too great
increase of their numbers, and the total destruc-
tion of the animals they feed on, I have once
seen the larva of this Oestrus in the stomach of an
Ass; indeed there is little reason to doubt their ex-
istence in the stomachs of all this tribe of animals."
" These larvae attach themselves to every part of
the stomach, but are generally most numerous
about the pylorus, and are sometimes, though
much less frequently, found in the intestines. Their
numbers in the stomach are very various, often
not more than half a dozen, at other times more
than a hundred, and if some accounts might be
relied on, even a much greater number than this.
They hang most commonly in clusters, being fixed
by the small end to the inner membrane of the
stomach, which they adhere to by means of two
small hooks or tentacula. When they are re-
moved from the stomach they will attach them-
selves to any loose membrane, and even to the
skin of the hand."
" The body of the larva is composed of eleven
segments, all of which, except the two last, are
surrounded with a double row of horny bristles
directed towards the truncated end, and are of a
364
OESTRUS^
reddish colour, except the points, which are black.
These larvae evidently receive their food at the
small end, by a longitudinal aperture, which is si-
tuated betvveen two hooks or tentacula. Their
food is probably the chyle, which, being nearly
pure aliment, may go wholly to the composition
of their bodies without any excrementitious re-
sidue, though on dissection the intestine is found
to contain a yellow or greenish matter, which is
derived from the colour of the food, and shews
that the chyle, as they receive it, is not perfectly
pure."
" They attain their full growth about the latter
end of May, and are coming from the horse from
this time to the latter end of June, or sometimes
later. On dropping to the ground they fmd out
some convenient retreat, and change to the chry-
salis; and in about six or seven weeks the fly ap-
pears."
To the above account by Mr. Clark I have only
to add that the most successful method of obtain-
ing the flies from the chrysalis is by taking the
larvae, when fresh dropped from the horse, and
immediately enclosing them separately in balls of
fresh horse-dung, which must be kept in a warm
situation, and sprinkled every second or third day
with water: the animals will thus be preserved in
a proper degree of warmth and moisture, and the
flies will make their appearance in the usual time.
Oestrus Ovis, or the Sheep Gad-Fly, is so named
from its larva inhabiting the nostrils and frontal
sinuses of Sheep in particular, though it is ajsa
OESTRUS^ 365
found in similar situations in Deer and some other
quadrupeds. It is a smaller species than either of
the two preceding, and is of a whitish-grey co-
lour, with the thorax marked by four longitudinal
black streaks, and the abdomen speckled with
black. The larvne are nearl}^ as large as those of
the Oestrus Equiy and, according to the observa-
tions of Mr. Clark, are of a delicate white colour,
flat on the under side, and convex on the upper;
liaving no spines at the divisions of the segments,
though they are provided with tentacula at the
small end. The other is truncated, with a promi-
nent ring or margin. When young these larvae
are perfectly white and transparent, but as they
increase in size the upper side becomes marked
with two transverse brown lines on each segment,
and some spots are seen on the sides. They
move with considerable quickness; holding with
their tentacula as a fixed point, and drawing up
the body towards them, Mr. Clark in his descrip-
tion of this species observes that he has mostly
found the larvag in the horns and frontal sinuses of
Sheep, and remarks that the membranes lining
these cavities were hardly at all inflamed, while
those of the maxillary sinuses were highly so.
From this circumstance he is led to suspect that
they inhabit the maxillary sinuses, and crawl, on
the death of the animal, into these situations in
the horns and frontal sinuses. When full-grown
they fall through the nostrils, and change to the
pupa or chrysalis state, lying on the ground, or
adhering to some blade of grass. The fly pro-
S6G oESTRirs.
ceeds from the chrysalis in the space of about two
months.
- " The manner, (says Mr. Clark,) in which this
species deposits its ova has, I believe, not been
described; nor is it easy to see, though close to
the animal at the time, exactly in what way this
is accomplished, owing to the extreme agitation
of the Sheep ; but the motions of the Sheep after-
wards, and the mode of defence it takes to avoid
it, can leave but little doubt that the egg is de-
posited on the inner margin of the nostril. The
moment the fly touches this part of the Sheep,
they shake their heads, and strike the ground
violently with their fore-feet; at the same time,
holding their noses close to the earth, they run
away, looking about them on every side, to see if
the fly pursues: they a,lso smell to the grass as
they go, lest one should be lying in wait for them.
If they observe one, they gallop back, or take
some other direction. As. they cannot, like the
horses, take refuge in the water, they have re-
course to a rut, or dry dusty road, or gravel pits,
where they crowd together during the heat of the
day, with their noses held close to the ground,
which renders it difficult for the fly conveniently
to get at the nostril. Observations on these flies
are best made in warm weather, and during the
heat of the day, when, by driving the sheep from
their retreats to the grass, the attack of the fly
and the emotions of the sheep are easily observed."
The other British Oestri are the O. hccmoj^rhoi-
dalis of Linnseus, whose larva, like that of the
OESTRUS. 3G7
O. Eqiii, resides in the stomachs of horses, and
the O. veterimis of Mr. Clark, the larva of which
is also found in similar situations. The O. hce-
jnorrhoidalis is about the size of a common win-
dow-fly, with pale dusky wings, brown thorax,
abdomen white at the base, black in the middle,
and red at the tip. The O. veterinifs is nearly of
similar size with the O. Equi, and is entirely of a
ferruginous colour, with the abdomen more dusky
towards the tip.
The exotic Oestri are probably numerous, but
are at present very little known.
Whether the formidable African Fly, described
by Mr. Bruce under the name of Zimh* or Tsalt-
salya may be referred to this genus or not, I shall
not pietend to determine: there are however some
particulars in its history which would lead one to
suppose it an Oestrus.
" This insect (says Air. Bruce,) is a proof how
fallacious it is to judge by appearances. If we
consider its small size, its weakness, want of variety
or beauty, nothing in the creation is more con-
temptible and insignificant. Yet passing from
these to his history, and to the account of his
powers, we must confess the very great injustice
w'e do him from want of consideration. We are
obliged, with the greatest surprise, to acknow-
ledge, that those huge animals the Elephant, the
Rhinoceros, the Lion, and the Tiger, inhabiting
the same woods, are still vastly his inferiors, and
* Bruce's travels, vol. I. p. 388, and vol. V. p. 188.
368 OESTRUS.
that the appearance of this small insect, nay, his
very sound, though he is not seen, occasions more
trepidation, movement, and disorder, both in the
human and brute creation, than would whole herds
of these monstrous animals collected together,
though their number was in a tenfold proportion
greater than it really is."
" This insect is called Zimb; it has not been
described by any naturalist. It is in size very
little larger than a Bee, and his wings, which are
broader than those of a bee, placed separate, like
those of a Fly: they are of pure gauze, without
colour or spot upon them; the head is large, the
upper jaw or lip is sharp, and has at the end of it
a strong-pointed hair of about a quarter of an
inch long; the lower jaw has two of these pointed
hairs, and this pencil of hairs, when joined toge-
ther, makes a resistance to the fniger nearly equal
to that of a strong hog's bristle. Its legs are ser-
rated in the inside, and the whole covered with
brown hair or down. As soon as this plague ap-
pears, and their buzzing is heard, all the cattle
forsake their food, and run wildly about the plain,
till they die, worn out with fatigue, fright, and
hunger. No remedy remains for the residents on
such spots but to leave the black earth, and hasten
down to the sands of Atbara, and there they re-
main while the rains last, this cruel enemy never
daring to pursue them farther."
" What enables the shepherd to perform the
long and toilsome journies across Africa is the
Camel, emphatically called the ship of the desert.
©ESTRUS. 369
Though his size is immense, as is his strength,
and his body covered with a thick skin, defended
with strong hair, yet still he is not capable to sus-
tain the violent punctures the fly makes with his
proboscis. He must lose no time in removing to
the sands of Atbara; for when once attacked by
this fly, his body, head, and legs, break out into
large bosses, which swell, break, and putrify, to
the certain destruction of the creature. Even the
Elephant and Rhinoceros, who, by reason of their
enormous bulk, and the vast quantity of food and
water they daily need, cannot shift to desert and
dry places as the season may require, are obliged
to roll themselves in mud and mire, which, when
dry, coats them over like armour, and enables
them to stand their ground against this winged
assassin ; yet I have found some of these tubercles
upon almost every Elephant and Rhinoceros that
I have seen, and attribute them to this cause."
" All the inhabitants of the sea-coast of Me-
linda, down to Cape Gardefan, to Saba, and the
south of the Red Sea, are obliged to put themselves
in motioTi and remove to the next sand in the be-
ginning of the rainy season, to prevent all their
stock of cattle from being destroyed. This is not
a partial emigration j the inhabitants of all the
countries from the mountains of Abyssinia north-
ward, to the confluence of the Nile and Astabo-
ras, are once a-year obliged to change their abode,
and seek protection in the sands of Beja; nor is
there any alternative, or means of avoiding this,
V. VI. p. II. 24
370 OESTRUS.
though a hostile band was in their way, capable
of spoihng them of half their substance."
" Of all that have written upon these countries,
the prophet Isaiah alone has given an account of
this animal, and the manner of its operation.
*' And it shall come to pass in that dai/, that the
Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost
part of the rivers of Egijpt.*' — " And they shall
come, and shall rest all of them in the desolate ral-
lies, and in the holes of the rocks, and upon all
thorns, and upon all bushes.'' Isai-. ch. 17. t'. 18. 19.
By the expression of resting in the desolate val-
lies &c. Mr. Bruce understands the Prophet to
mean " that they shall cut off from the cattle their
usual retreat to the desert, by taking possession
of those places, and meeting them where ordina-
rily they never come, and which therefore are the
refuge of the cattle."
" Providence, (says Mr. Bruce) from the begin-
ning it would seem, had fixed its habitation to one
species of soil, being a black fat earth, extraor-
dinary fruitful as it was, it seems from the first to
have given a law to the settlement of the country.
It prohibited absolutely those inhabitants of the
fat earth, called Mazaga, domiciled in caves and
mountains, from enjoying the help or labour of
any beasts of carriage. It deprived them of their
flesh and milk for food, and gave rise to another
nation, whose manners were just the reverse of the
first. These were the shepherds, leading a wan-
dering life, and preserving these immense herds
► OESTRUS. 371
of cattle by conducting them into the sands be-
yond the hmits of the black earth, and bringing
them back again when the danger from the insect
was over."
" We cannot read the history of the plagues
which God brought upon Pharaoh by the hands
of Moses, without stopping a moment to consider
a singularity, a very principal one, which attended
this plague of the Fly. It was not till this time,
and by means of this insect, that God said, he
would separate his people from the Egyptians.
And it would seem that then a law was given to
them that fixed the limits of their habitation. It
is well known, as I have repeatedly said, that the
land of Goshen or Geshen, the possession of the
Israelites, was a land of pasture, which was not
tilled or sown, because it was not overflowed by
the Nile. But the land overflo\ved by the Nile
was the black earth of the valley of Egypt, and it
was here that God confined the flies; for he says
it shall be a sign of this separation of the people,
which he had then made, that not one fly should
be seen in the sand or pasture ground, the land of
Goshen, and this kind of soil has ever since been
the refuge of all cattle emigrating from the black
earth to the lower part of Atbara. Isaiah indeed
says that the Fly shall be in all the desert places,
and consequently the sands; yet this was a parti-
cular dispensation of providence, to answer a spe-
cial end, the desolation of Egypt, and was not a
repeal of the general law, but a confirmation of
371 OESTRUS.
it; it was an. exception, for a particular purpose^
and a limited time."
Mr. Bruce adds that this insect has no sting,
but that its motion is more rapid than that of the
bee, and resembles that of the Gad-Fly in Eng-
land; and that there is something particular in its
sound or buzzing. It is a jarring noise, together
with a humming, which induces Mr. Bruce to
suppose that it proceeds, at least in part, from a
vibration made with the three hairs at the snout.
He observes farther, that the Chaldee version is
content with calling this animal simply Zebuby
which signifies the Fly in general, as we express
it in English. The Arabs call it Zimb in their
translation. The Ethiopic translation calls it
Tsaltsalya, which is the true name of this parti-
cular fly in Geez, and was the same in Hebrew.
103
Ti]prx,A
-phanosa
with lofva^
Gjniicoia
larwwrincuv
laiv. cornif
iBoi/ Ccfi :^LijiuJhiiTuli lisfuJ h j ixE^iUs \y fleet So-(Xt'.
TIPULA. TIPULA.
Generic Character.
Os capitis elongati maxilla
superiore fornicata.
Palpi duo recurvi, capite
longiores.
Proboscis recurvata, brevis-
sinia.
Mouth arched over by the
upper jaw extended from
the head.
Palpi two recurved, longer
than the head.
Proboscis recurved, very
short.
-L HE larger kinds of Tipulae are, in general,
distinguished by their lengthened bodies, hori-
zontally expanded wings, and the unusual length
and slenderness of their legs, which are also re-
markably fragile; it being difficult to handle the
insect without breaking some of its limbs. The
smaller kinds have incumbent wings, and in habit
or general appearance are much allied to Gnats,
and some are so very small as scarcely to exceed
the tenth of an inch in length. The larvae of this
genus differ in habit, according to their different
modes of life, some being terrestrial, and others
aquatic : they feed on the softer kind of vegetable
substances, as the fine fibres of roots, &c. &c.
The largest of the European Tipulae is the
Tipula rivosa of Linnaeus, often measuring more
than an inch and half in body, and is distin-
374 TIPULA.
guished by the colour of its wings, which are
transparent, with large dusky undulations inter-
mixed with white towards the rib or upper edge.
This insect jDroceeds from a dusky or greyish
larva of a lengthened form, and destitute of legs:
it is found beneath the roots of grass in meadows,
gardens, &c. and in the months of July and Au-
gust changes into a lengthened and pointed chry-
salis of a dusky colour, out of which in September
proceeds the complete animal. This is popularly
known by the title of Long- Legs, and is frequently
seen in houses during the autumnal evenings,
when it is remarkable for the propensity, in com-
mon with many other insects, of flying towards
the flame of candles, and in consequence, often
perishing in the blaze.
TipLila hortorum, or the Garden Tipula, is of
somewhat smaller size than the preceding, and is
produced from a larva and chrysalis of similar ap-
pearance with those of the former kind, but of a
darker or blacker colour: the larva is found under
grass-roots, &c. The wings of this species are
transparent, with obscurely-marked whitish varie-
gations.
Tipula oleracea is a very common species, of
nearly similar size wdth the preceding, and with
transparent wings with a dusky rib or upper edge.
Its larva inhabits garden-grounds, where it com-
mits ravages among various plants : in its appear-
ance it resembles those of the former kinds. It
may be added, that the chrysalis, in most of th6
terrestrial insects of this tribe is furnished at the
TIPULA. 375
upper part, with a pair of short, horn-like pro-
cesses, perhaps operating as a kind of spiraciila:
this particularity is however still more striking in
those which belong to the aquatic kinds.
The Tipula cornicina is of middle size, and has
transparent wings with a marginal dusky spot,
and the body yellow, with three longitudinal
dusky streaks. Its larva, which is found in mea-
dows, &c. is brown, with a flattened or truncated
tail, beset with a certain number of radiating
soft spines or processes, and the chrysalis is slen-
der, and furnished, as in most others, with minute
spines about its segments, by the assistance of
which it is enabled to elevate itself to the surface
when the time of its ultimate change takes place.
Tipula crocata is one of the few insects of this
genus adorned with lively colours: it is of a po-
lished black, with yellow rings round the abdomen.
Of those in which the wings are generally in-
cumbent, the Tipula plu?7iosa, so named from its
plumed antenna?, may serve as an example. This
insect is of the size of a Gnat, which it so much
resembles in its general appearance as to be fre-
quently mistaken for one: its colour is a greenish
brown. The larva is aquatic, bears a considerable
resemblance to those of the genus Culex, as does
likewise the chrysalis or pupa, which, instead of
lying dormant during this state, is locomotive,
playing about in the water, like the larva, and, at
the time of its change, springs to the surface in
order to give birth to the complete insect.
Among the very small Tipulae none is more fa-
376 TIPULA.
miliar than the elegant species called by Linnaeus
Tipula phakenoides. This minute fly is very fre-
quently observed in great numbers on windows
during the decline of summer, appearing princi^
pally in the evening. It has so little the appear-
ance of a genuine Tipula, that it would hardly be
considered as belonging to this genus by a com^
mon spectator. Its general length is about the
tenth of an inch, and the wings, which are very
large in proportion to the insect, are of an oval
shape, and of a grey colour, elegantly mottled
or variegated with dusky specks: the edges are
deeply fringed with hair, and the nerves beset
with oblong scales or feathers, and the whole in-
sect, microscopically examined, exhibits a highly
elegant appearance,
Tipula hirta so much resembles the last, that it
might perhaps be rather considered as a variety
or sexual difference than truly distinct: it is how-
ever a trifle larger and of a darker colour. There
can be little doubt that the Larvoe of these minute
species are aquatic, but they seem to be hitherto
undescribed.
DlOPSia ,
104
DivJzfwunwnea in /Ar nat.size Ss rruicf tuned
ifir^.Pi-r.i Lcniirn .hif^li'.fliet/ />>■ r,.Kfa/:t/fi:F/M . ftrtfl
DIOPSIS. DIOPSIS.
Generic Character.
Antennce minimse, setaceae.
Oculi pedunculati ; pedun-
culis longissimis.
AnfcniKe very small, seta-
ceous.
Eyes situated on very long
footstalks.
JL H E genus Diopsis, which has no place in the
twelfth edition of the Systema Naturae, was insti-
tuted by Andrew Dahl, a pupil of Linnaeus, in
an entomological dissertation published at Upsal
in the year 1775. The only species hitherto dis-
covered is the Diopsis ichneumo72ea, a small insect
of about the size of an Ant, and highly remark-
able for the singular appearance of the eyes,
which appear seated at the tips of a pair of long
styles or processes, at first sight resembling an-
tennae. The general colour of the animal is ru-
fous brown, with the thorax and extremity of the
body darker or blacker than the other parts: on
the hind part of the thorax are placed two spines
in the middle, and one on each side: the wings
are transparent, each marked towards the upper
part of the tip by a black spot. The insect is said
to be a native of Guinea.
MUSCA. FLY.
Generic Character.
Os proboscide carnosa, la-
biis duobus lateralibus.
Palpi iiulli.
Mouth formed into a fleshy
proboscis, with two late-
ral lips.
Palpi none.
X H E vast extent of the genus Musca makes it
necessary to divide the whole into diflerent assort-
ments, in order to the more ready investigation
of the species. These divisions are instituted
from the form of the antennas, which are either
simple, (w^ithout any lateral hair or plume;) or
armed, (that is, furnished with a lateral hair or
plume.) These divisions are farther separated
into others, according to more or less downy or
hairy appearance of the insects.
The first section of this genus comprehends
such Flies as have simple antenna?.
The Larvae, in the different tribes of Flies,
differ far more in habit than the complete insects;
some being terrestrial, and others aquatic. Those
of the more common kinds are emphatically dis-
tinguished by the title of Maggots, and spring
from eggs deposited on various putrid substances.
Several of the aquatic kinds are of singularly cu-
/r
Mr.^rA,
f/i/imo'J/'rn . with
piipr/ ^ /arm
h/'rff/ m/tptiift/'ff m its
contf^artfi// state
J/ead Ttiarfmfied in its
f.Tt£nded .s•t^d^
jrf'UK..rru^
p/'Tidida. with /a/^va S.' pi/pa
2de^,0ct^j.Zcnd^^n.Fuhh.fhttf ?i- fi Kfnrjiey, Fief t Street.
FLY. . 379
rioiis formation, and exhibit wonderful examples
of the provision ordained hy Nature for the ])re-
servation of even the meanest and most seemingly
contemptible of animals. Several are inhabitants
of plants, feeding during this state on other living
insects.
The general form of the Chrysalis or Pupa is
that of an oval, differently modified, according to
the species, and formed by the external skin of
the larva, which hardens round the chrysalis.
Some species however cast their skin before their
change into the pupa state.
In this division one of the most remarkable
species is the Musca Chamoileoii, vvliich is a large
black Fly, with a broad, flattish abdomen, having
the sides of each segment yellow, forming so
many abrupt semi-bands across that part. It pro-
ceeds from an aquatic larva, of very considerable
size, measuring two inches and half in length;
of a somewhat flattened shape, and of a brown
colour, with a narrow or slender front, the body
widening by degrees towards the middle, and
from thence gradually tapering to the extremity
or tail, which is terminated by a circle of radiating
or diverging hairs. This larva is common in
stagnant waters during the summer months, and
passes into its chrysalis state without casting its
skin, which dries over it, so as to preserve the
former appearance of the animal in a more con-
tracted state.
In this division also stands the Musca Vermileo^
a middle-sized Fly, of a somewhat lengthened
380 FLY. f
form, with a distant resemblance to a Tipula: it is
of a dull yellow colour, with transparent wings;
the thorax marked above by two black lines, and
the abdomen by a triple series of black spots.
The larva of this species nieasures about three
quarters of an inch in length, and is of a pale
yellowish grey colour; slender or sharpened in >
front, and growing gradually broader towards the
tail. It is found in the Southern parts of Europe,
and is not uncommon in some districts of France,
and is remarkable for practising a method exactly
similar to that of the Hemerobius Formicaleo in
order to obtain its prey; excavating a circular pit
or cavity in the dry sand; concealing itself be-
neath the centre, and thus waiting the arrival of
any small insect which may happen to fall into it,
and after absorbing its juices, throwing out the
exhausted remains to a considerable distance from
the verge of the cavity. This larva seems to have
been first observed and described by Reaumur, in
the Memoirs of the French Academy for the year
1752. It assumes the state of a chrysalis by
casting its skin, which rolls to the hinder part of
the body: the chrysalis is of a dull reddish colour,
and is rounded or clubbed at the upper part, sud-
denly tapering from thence to the extremity, and
after lying nine or ten days, gives birth to the in-
cluded insect.
Of the Downy, or slightly hairy Flies with
bristled antennae one of the most remarkable is
the Musca tenax, which is about the size of a
Drone, and of a brown colour, with transparent
Muse. A
lOfi
larya
tv^vVlrV
jr TeyjOcV
pupa
f-|,^a^'' root 7??ay/7vird
-^,.
hii/ maaiiijit'd
toc.^-C'et:iIcn/it'n /i//-i'/.>-/if,f /•!■ CrKfane/i'w FUer Streer.
FLY. 381
wings, and the first segment of the abdomen yel-
lowish on each side. It proceeds from a larva of
a very singular appearance, being a long-tailed
brown maggot, of rather slow motion, measuring
about three quarters of an inch in length, exclusive
of the tail, which is extensile, and consists of a
double tube, the exterior annulated into numerous
segments, and the interior slender, and terminated
by a circle of hairs, surrounding a spiraculum or
air-hole. This maggot is seen in muddy stagnant
waters, drains, and other places of the dirtiest
description; and not>vithstanding its unpleasing
appearance, exhibits, when accurately examined,
many particulars well worthy of admiration: the
feet in particular, which are seven in number on
each side, are wonderfully calculated for enabling
the animal to ascend walls or other perpendicular
places, in order to seek some proper situation in
which it may undergo its change into chrysalis,
being very broad, and beset on their under sur-
face with numerous, small, hooked claws; giving
it the power of clinging with security during its
ascent.
Of this larva a particularity is stated, on the
authority of Linnaeus, which, if true, may indeed
well be numbered among the Miracula InsectO'
rum; (the title of the paper in the Amoenitates
Academicce, in which it is announced,) viz. that
being a frequent inhabitant of the turbid pulp
used in the operation of paper-making, it is often
exposed to the action of the wooden mallets used
in the process, as well as squeezed in the strongest
382 FLY.
presses; and yet survives uninjured these seem-
ingly destructive operations!!! Tiiat I may not
seem to do injustice to the author by carelessly
quoting his observation, I shall here give it in his
own words. " Miisca tenax mira pollet proprie-
tate, quae possibilitati physicns repugnare videtur.
Larva enim quie inter ramenta papyracea aquae
immersa, dum pappus conficitur a bibliopegis,
malleis ligneis tunditur & fortissimo pf"elo compri-
mitur, incolumis tamen vivit." Am. Acad. 3. p. 331.
This is confirmed in the Systema Naturae, where
we find the observation " Larva tenacmima, viv
prelo destruenda ^'' which is also repeated by Fa-
bricius in his Species InscctGrinn.
The above larva commonly changes to a chry-
salis about the end of August; the skin contract-
ing, and drying round the body, and the tail con-
tinuing, in a shrivelled state. After thus remain-
ing about the space of a fortnight, it gives birth
to the complete insect, which has so much the ge-
neral appearance of a Drone that it is very fre-
quently mistaken for such. It is extremely com-
mon during the month of September.
Musca penduia, which belongs also to this divi-
sion in the genus, is a moderately large, and very
beautiful insect. Its colour is black, with four
bright yellow stripes down the thorax, and three
broad, interrupted bars across the abdomen; or,
in other words, this Fly might be described as of
a bright yellow colour, with the thorax marked by
four longitudinal black lines, and the abdomen by
three transverse ones, connected by a black stripe
ru, -''~'/i'%{^
M. rarnaria wv//? larr li: pup
W
'%
prrasfri ^/ 7.
pdtiicenj
penduld
vp/nistorm
iSo:^ Pet '.} '.'r.i>ndon r„M.'/>^/f In C. 7u-ot\r7(i F/f^f Sn-rrf .
FLY. 383
down the middle. Its larva, which is an inhabit-
ant of stagnant waters, is of a still more remark-
able appearance than that of the immediately pre-
ceding species, which it resembles in size, but is
of a paler colour, and furnished with a tail of
greater length, composed of a double tube, the
interior of which is very slender, extensile at the
pleasure of the animal, to a vast length, and ter-
minated by a very small spiracle. The length of
this tube is therefore varied according to the
greater or smaller depth at which the insect chuses
to continue; the tip reaching to the surface, in
order to supply the requisite quantity of air.
Sometimes great numbers of these maggots are
found coiled or twisted together by their tails, in
such a manner that it is by no means easy to se-
parate any one from the rest. The Chrj-salis re-
sembles that of the Alusca tenax, the remains of
the tail being visible in a dried and contracted
state. The complete insect is frequently seen on
flowers during the autumnal season.
Among the hairy or bristly Flies with plumed
antennae stands the well known species called
Musca carnaria*., or the common large Blow-Fly.
This, as every one knows, deposits its eggs on
animal flesh, either fresh or putrid. The larvas
or maggots hatch in about the space of a few
hours, and when full grown, which happens in
eight or ten days, are of a white or yellowish
* Musca vomitoria. Lin.
384 ' FLY.
white colour with a sHght tinge of pale red, and
of a lengthened shape, with a sharpened front, in
which the mouth is situated, and from whence the
body gradually enlarges in size to the last or ter-
minal segment, which is of a very broad and flat-
tened form, surrounded by several slightly promi-
nent tips, and furnished with a pair of dusky
specks resembling eyes; so that an inaccurate
spectator might easily mistake this part for the
head and the proper head for the tail. When the
animal changes to a chrysalis, the skin dries round
it, and the whole assumes a completely oval form,
and a reddish colour, soon changing into a red-
dish brown. In ten days more the Fly itself
emerges, which is too well knov/n to require par-
ticular description.
Musca mv'ipara greatly resembles the preced-
ing, and is found in similar situations, but is
viviparous, disclosing small ready-formed larvae
instead of eggs, which in this species are hatched
internally. This particularity is not confined to
the present species, but has been observed in
some others of this genus.
To this as well as the preceding has been ap-
plied the observation Tres muscce consumunt cada-
ver equi ceque c'lto ac leo ; the number of larvas
proceeding from tlie flies, and the quick evolution
of the successive broods destroying the same quan-
tity of flesh in a given time as the predacious
quadruped, who devours a great quantity at cer-
tain intervals only; while the process of destruc-
FLY. 385
tion continues with unremitted perseverance on
the part of one or other of the respective races of
the Flies.
Of the hairy Flies with bristled antennae, the
Miisca grossa, the largest of all the European
Flies, affords a good example. It is considerably
larger than the largest blow-fly, and is of a black
colour, with the wings dull orange-coloured at
their base. In its general appearance it greatly
resembles the Musca meridiana, which is similar
in colours, but stands in a different division in the
genus, viz. among the hairy tlies with plumed
antennae.
Musca flax)a is one of the smallest but most ele-
gant of the European flies, and is not very un-
common during the autumnal season, being ob-
served in gardens and in windows. It is about
the eighth part of an inch in length, and of a
yellow colour with bright gold-green ^j^s.
V. VI. p. II. 25
TABANUS. TABANUS.
Generic Character.
Os proboscide carnosa, ter-
minata labiis duobus.
jRostro palpis duobus subu-
latis, proboscidi laterali-
bus, parallelis.
Mouth formed into a fleshy
proboscis, terminated by
two lips.
Rostrum furnished with two
pointed palpi, placed on
each side of, and parallel
to the proboscis.
I
N general appearance or habit these insects
bear an extreme resemblance to those of the pre-
ceding genus. The largest of the British species
is the Tabanus bovinus of Linnaeus, having the
appearance of a very large* grey or pale-brown
Fly, marked down the back by a series of large,
whitish, triangular spots, pointing downwards : on
each side also is an approach to a similar appear-
ance, though less distinct than that of the dorsal
row. This insect, like the rest of its genus, is seen
during the middle and the decline of summer;
generally in the hottest part of the day. It is
extremely troublesome to cattle, piercing their
* Often measuring near an inch in length.
TA't^ A2? rs
wd.
Tlrod of T. bo 1 7?l fnaoni/ieJ
Btail < v' ZVvv mi/s T7iaoiuni'if
ApparaO/s /////////
//v s/fvuf.maonrfied
plui'ialif
tfvpicus
ara/tieJis
/ V
/wmu^f
j'' (f /( ii I
;^n€!»£*
//7/-I //
pupa
iBod Cct^.iLcnA'n.TiiiJb'shtii hi- t^.S»irslii J'Uet Strett .
TABANUS. 387
skin with the lancets of its trunk, and sucking the
blood in such a manner as to cause considerable
pain. It proceeds from a large, dusky-yellowish
larva, nearly resembling that of a Tipula, and
marked by transverse blackish streaks or rings:
it resides under ground in moist meadows &c. and
changes to a cylindric, brownish chrysalis, with a
roundish or very slightly pointed extremity; out
of which, in the space of a month, proceeds the
perfect insect.
Tahanus tropicus is of smaller size than the
preceding, and of a brown colour, with the sides
of the abdomen bright ferruginous. It is a less
common species than the former.
Tahanus pluvialis is of the size of a window fly,
but of a somewhat longer shape in proportion: it
is of a dull brown colour, with the wings of a si-
milar cast, but marbled or variegated with very
numerous whitish specks: this is a very trouble-
some insect during the latter part of summer,
fastening on the legs, hands, &c. and causing
considerable pain by the puncture of its proboscis:
it is observed to be peculiarly teasing on the ap-
proach of rain.
Tabanus ccecutiens is an insect of singular
beauty. It is of the size of a common window
fly, and of a yellowish brown colour varied with
black J the wings are transparent,, and marked by
large black bands or patches, and the eyes are of
the most vivid or lucid green, marbled with black
spots and streaks. It is by no means uncommon
during the autumnal season.
CULEX. GNAT.
Generic Character.
Os aculeis setaceis intra va- It Mouth consisting of seta-
ginam flexilem. ceous piercers within a
ll flexible sheath.
X HAT well-known insect the common Gnat i»
l^roduced from an aquatic larva of a very singular
appearance, and which, when first hatched from
the egg*, measures scarcely more than the tenth
of an inch in length. In the space however of
fourteen days it arrives at the length of something
more than half an inch. In this state the head is
very large, mid furnished on each side with a pair
of jointed processes resembling antennae; the
thorax large and angular; the body suddenly less-
ening from this part, and continuing of nearly
equal diameter to the tail, which is of an abruptly
truncated figure, and tipped with four foliaceous
processes: before the setting on of the tail is a
long, tubular, projecting process, nearly at a right
* The eggs of the Guat are deposited in close-set groupes of
three or four hundred together, and are very small, of a brown
colour, and of a cylindric shape with pointed tips: the whole
groupe is placed on the surface of the water, close to the leaf or
stalk of some water-plant.
2og
maanjied
larva
TTuionined
fffO ntter hafchina
Cnmmon Gnal mak . 7naaiii/hd
/doj Oct^ I J.onttonJ^ib/i.elini t>y GJj-imf/ry^'/retStree/.
GNAT. 389
ani^Ie from the abdomen, and terminating in ^
tubular opening, verged by four ovate scales, two
of which exceed the rest in size: the whole animal
is of a brownish colour, semitransparent, and be-
set on each side the head, body, and tail, with
large tufts of hair: its motions are very lively,
and are conducted with a kind of convulsive ra-
pidity, in different directions, and to a small di-
stance at a time. It feeds on the minute vegetable
and animal particles which it finds in plenty in
the stagnant waters in which it resides, and, when
arrived at its full growth, casts its skin, and com-
mences chrj^salis, the aspect of which is hardly
less singular than that of the larva, the head and
thorax appearing connate, and exhibiting a large
oval mass at the upper part of the animal, while
the body bends downwards beneath: the thorax
is furnished on each side with an upright short
tube or spiracle, and it is from these parts that the
animal frequently hangs suspended from the sur-
face of the water: the tail is tipped with a pair of
leaf-shaped processes. This chrysalis, like the larva
from which it proceeded, is loco-motive, spring-
ing about in the water nearly in a similar manner.
When ready to give birth to the included Gnat,
which usually happens in the space of three or
four days, it rises to the surface, and the animal
quickly emerges from its confinement.
The Gnat is supposed to feed both on animal
and vegetable juices, but perhaps chiefly on the
latter, since, as Reaumur observes, of the mil-
lions on millions which swarm in the marshy re-
ago GNAT.
gions where they are evolved, it can rarely fall to
the lot of one in an hundred to taste blood once
in its life.
The inconveniences, and even torments, expe-
rienced from these insects in some parts of the
world are hardly to be conceived by those who in-
habit the more favoured regions of the European
continent. Instances have often been known to
occur of persons whose faces or limbs have been
thrown into such a severe inflammation as even to
threaten the most serious consequences.
v> A warm, rainy season, is most favourable to the
evolution of Gnats, and, in such summers, parti-
cular districts in most countries are occasionally
pestered by their legions. In the Philosophical
Transactions for the year 17 67 we have an in-
stance of this kind in the neighbourhood of Ox-
ford, communicated by the late learned Mr.
Swinton of that University.
Oxford, Nov. 15, 1 766.
. " The Gnats have been more numerous, as well
as more noxious here, during the months of July,
August, and September, 17 66, than perhaps they
were ever known before in the memory of man.
So many myriads of them have sometimes occu-
pied the same part of the atmosphere, in conti-
guous bodies, that they have resembled a very
black cloud, greatly darkened the air, and almost
wOtally intercepted the solar rays. The repeated
bites likewise of these malignant insects have
. been so severe, that the legs, arms, heads, and
GNAT. 391".
other parts affected by them, in many persons,
have been swelled to an enormous size. The co-
lour also of these parts, at the same time, was
red and fiery, perfectly similar to that of some of
the most alarming inflammations."
Mr. Swinton adds that the swarms of these ani-
mals were observed to ascend in columns of at
least fifty or sixty feet in height.
But of all the European nations that of Lap-
land seems to be the greatest sufferer from these
vexatious animals, which, during the heats of the
short summer, fill the air with such swarming
myriads, that the poor inhabitants can hardly
venture to walk out oF their cabins, without
having first smeared their hands and faces with a
composition of tar and cream, which is found by
experience to prevent their attacks. Yet even
this seemingly unfavourable circumstance may be
considered, in another point of view, as constitut-
ing one of the advantages of the country, being,
in the expressive words of Linnaeus " Lapponum
calamitas felicissima ;'' since the legions of larvao
which fill the lakes of Lapland form a delicious
and tempting repast to innumerable multitudes of
aquatic birds; and thus contribute to the support
of the very nation which they so strangely infest.
It may be added that the formidable insect
called the Musquito, so much dreaded by the in-
habitants of the West-Indies, and America, where
its bite seems to operate with peculiar malignity,
is supposed to be no other than a variety of the
common European Gnat, which derives additional
vigour from the warmer and moister atmosphere
of the regions of the Western Hemisphere.
The true structure of the proboscis or piercer of
the Gnat, which, in its immediate operation, pro-
duces no very acute pain, but which is so often
sacceeded by such troublesome consequences, is
not very easily determined. It seems however to
consist of an external scaly sheath or tube, longi-
tudmally divided by a continued slit, and so flex-
ible as to be conveniently doubled or bent in a
greater or less degree while the secondary or in-
ejuded tube is in the act of absorption. This se^
condary or included tube appears to consist of five
parallel, hnear parts, forming by their junction
or juxtaposition a firm, yet exquisitely fine sucker,
which is forced into the skin of the animal at-
tacked by the Insect. The swelling which takes
place after the bite must be supposed to be owing
to some acrimonious fluid injected into the punc-
tured part, and which may cause the blood to
Jftow with greater facility into the proboscis during
tfee time that organ is employed.
Culejp pulicariSi or Midge, is a much smaller
species, and is distinguished by having the wings
marked by three dusky spots.
Cuhx reptam is also a very small insect, and is
of 9. black colour, with transparent wings, and
tlie legs marked by a white bar. It is particu-
larly troublesome in marshy districts during the
evening, by its creeping motion on the skin of the
fejce, &c.
no
]E3IPIS
liz-fuf i/iaqniAfd
Jiiida
liovf-alis
Ji^ad ma/jni/led
iBoA Oct\if*Xin)d{>n£iijiLsfuii. T{}'OJiearj'l(y£Tii!tSti-eet.
EMPIS. EMPIS.
Generic Character.
Os rostro corneo, inflexo,
bivalvi, thorace longiore ;
valvulis horizontalibus.
Mouth \Yith a horny, in-
flected, bivalve snout,
longer than the thorax,
with horizontal valves.
I
N point of habit the insects of the genus Empis
bear some resemblance to those of Tipula and
Culex. One of the most familiar species is the
Empis livida of Linnaeus, which is a brownish fly,
with the thorax marked by three longitudinal
black lines : the legs are rufous or ochre-coloured,
and the feet blackish: the wings are transparent,
with dark veins. These insects are observed in
fields and gardens. Degeer informs us that in
the year 1773 vast numbers of this species were
observed on the ears of rye in some parts of
Sweden, and were believed by the people to have
considerably injured the crops 5 but this he con-
siders as an unfounded notion. They principally
feed on the smaller kind of flies, kc.
3Q4 EMPis.
Empis horealis is of a more slender form than
the common window fly, and of a blackish colour,
with very large, broad, oval wings, of a brown
colour, and rufous legs, varied with black. It
is observed in similar situations with the pre-
ceding.
m
CoB'ors
rotund miinni/ied
J ^1) ?
%
raln/rans head tnagtvAeJy
aculeatii witJvJvuid niacj)une^L'
rcsti'tita . ivith luuui viaqiiituni
i^Oj.CotriLc7iALn . Puilirhed l\' &. Kear^^i^ . Fleet Stjut.
CONOPS. CONOPS.
Generic Character.
Os rostro porrecto, genicu-
lato.
Mouth with a porrected,
jointed snout.
\j¥ this genus the most common species is the
Conops calcitrans of Linnaeus, remarkable for its
extreme similitude to the common window-fly,
for which it is very frequently mistaken, but, if
closely examined, will be found to be clearly dis-
tinguished by its strong and pointed proboscis,
stretching forwards from an elbow or joint at its
lower part. This insect, during the autumnal
season, is very troublesome both to men and
cattle, causing a sharp or pungent pain by the
insertion of its proboscis, while in the act of suck-
ing blood. It is, according to Linnaeus, the prin-
cipal cause of the wincing and kicking motion so
frequent in horses during the heat of the day.
Like the Tabani and some other flies it is most
troublesome on the approach of rain.
Conops irritans Lin. much resembles the preced-
ing, but is not much more than half its size: its
habits are the same; causing uneasiness to cattle
3g6 coNOPs.
while feeding, and, according to Linnaeus, proving
beneficial to them by inducing a continual mo-
tion, and thus preventing them from perishing by
indolence and repletion ! ! !
Conops rostrata is of the size of a window-fly,
and is black, with a yellow abdomen, and a strong,
conic snout, the base being thicker than in other
insects of the genus.
112
A^IILX^S
crabronit'ormis 77i.^ f.
pupa
/brcipatus
hirr
Head nidtim/iiii
f'/ai n-i
y3ocCct-i'l,'iuU'nJ\iblio'ludbU.FcwsUyrh;cti-a<xt.
ASILUS. ASILUS.
Generic Character.
Os rostro corneo, porrecto, il Mouth with a strait, horny,
recto, bivah'i. j| bivalve snout.
JL HE most common European species of Asilus
is the Asilus crabroniformis, a moderately large
insect, nearly equalling a Hornet in length, but
of a much more slender and sharpened form : the
head and thorax are of a ferruginous colour : the
eyes black : the upper half of the abdomen velvet-
black, the lower half bright orange-colour, the
whole having a bright silky or downy surface : the
wings are dull yellow-brown, semi-transparent,
and marked on their inner edge by several dusky
triangular dashes or spots, with the bases towards
the edge of the wing.
Though of a somewhat formidable aspect, this
insect is incapable of piercing with any degree of
severity. It preys on the smaller kind of insects,
and proceeds from a smooth, yellowish-white,
subterraneous larva, of a lengthened shape, and
destitute of legs: the pupa resembles that of a
Tipula.
The Asilus gihbosus is a larger species, nearly
3QS ASILUS.
equalling a hornet in thickness as well as in
length, and is entirely of a deep-black colour,
with the three terminal segments of the abdomen
white: the whole is accompanied by a silken
lustre as in the preceding species; the front of the
head is of a greyish cast. This species is a native
of the northern parts of Europe and occurs in
Lapland.
Asilus Jlavus is of the size of a Wasp, and of
a black colour, but covered with shining down,
which on the thorax is grey, and on the abdomen
orange-yellow.
Asilus forcipatus is considerably smaller than
the preceding, and is of a blackish brown colour,
with the sides of the abdomen yellowish: the tail
of the male is forcipated; that of the female
simple.
Asilus tipuloides is one of the smaller species,
and is of a grey colour, with three black lines
down the thorax.
BOMBXIilTTS,
^3
lifiod. mo/jn/^ed
J3.mqjrr
-B. meduiJ^
Sr^^.rctVi/.rn^t^n.Fiif'/iWhed M' O /u,ir.<-7fv. F/z^r Smet
BOMBYLIUS. BOMBYLIUS.
Generic Character.
Os rostro porrecto, setaceo,
longissimo, bivalvi: val-
vulis horizontalibus intra
quas aculei setacei.
Mouth furnished with a
very long porrected, se-
taceous, bivalve trunk,
Avith horizontal valves in-
cluding setaceous pierc-
ers.
Ti
HE insects of the genus Bombylius have an ap-
pearance somewhat resembling that of the smaller
kinds of Humble-Bees, being thickly covered with
erect downy hair: their flight is rapid, and they
may be frequently observed to hang as if sus-
pended, over a flower, in the manner of some of
the Sphinges or Hawk-Moths, rapidly vibrating
their wings, and darting off, on the least disturb-
ance, to a considerable distance. The most
common species, the Bomhylius medius, is often
seen, in the early part of Spring, in gardens and
fields, and is readily distinguished by its downy
bee-like body, and its strait, sharp-pointed pro-
boscis. Its colour is pale chesnut-brown, with
whitish-yellow hair; and the wungs are blackish
along the whole length of the upper half, the re-
400 BOMBYUUS.
mainder being transparent and marked by pretty
numerous black spots.
Bombylius major Lin. greatly resembles the
above, but is described as having the wings de-
stitute of spots, being only marked by the black
upper division: the Linnaean characters however
of these two species of Bombylius hardly seem
sufficiently distinct.
The genus Bombylius is not very extensive.
114
Hipp oBosr.^
Sictuh-.^culff-
Hfijuina tn i/.i' u/j/7//it/ .)■/./', ^' unufiii7u'ii
j/f.'^.Pi-r.i '.oii.i.'n Fnh/i.hed />.- r. Ji.nr.dey .J'leef S/tvet
HIITOBOSCA. HIPPOBOSCA.
Generic Character\
Os rostro bivalvi, cylin-
drico, obtuso, nutante.
Corpus depressum.
Pedes unguibus pluribus.
Mouth furnished with a bi-
valve, cvhndric, obtuse,
nutant snout.
Bodi/ depressed.
Feet furnished with several
claws.
JL HE genus Hippobosca is remarkable for many
singularities. It is not an extensive genus; the
European Hippoboscae, so far as our present en-
tomological information reaches, scarcely affording
more than five or six distinct species. Of these
the most familiar is the Hippobosca equina^ or
Horse-Fly, so troublesome to those animals, as
well as to cattle, during the decline of summer,
by its irritating motion, (which is performed in
various directions with equal facility) and by the
pungent pain which its proboscis excites while in
the act of suction. In size it varies in different
districts, and seems to be largest in the southern
climates. It usually however measures something
more than a quarter of an inch in length, and is
V. VI. p. II. 26
402 HIPPOBOSCA.
of a flattened form, with a rounded abdomen, and
moderately broad obtuse wings: its colour is a
blackish chesnut, with the thorax speckled with
white, and the abdomen marked with obscure
variegations of a deeper cast: the skin is of a re-
markably strong or coriaceous nature, since the
insect may be pressed strongly between the
fingers without being apparently injured. The
female of this insect deposits a single egg at di-
stant intervals, and so very large is the egg as at
least to equal, if not in some degree to surpass
the size of the abdomen itself of the parent iiv
sect*. In reality however, this seeming egg may
be rather considered as a pupa, since it undergoes
no farther alteration of form: the figure of this
precocious pupa is that of an oval, with an exca-
vated depression at the lower end: its colour, at
its first exclusion, is milk-white, except a large
black spot on the part just mentioned. It conti-
nues perfectly inert, and gradually becomes of a
brown, and at length, of a polished black colour,
and thus commences a genuine or confirmed
pupa, which, if opened after a certain period, ex-
hibits the Fly in its unadvanced state and of a
white colour. It often lies during the whole
winter in this state, the Fly emerging in the suc-
ceeding summer.
Hippobosca avicularia much resembles the pre-
ceding species, but is considerably smaller, and
* Hippoboscae ovum matre facile majus, potius Pupa exclu-
denda in volatile. Lin. Syst, Nat.
FilFFOBO.S'CA,
ns
J/^Z/iru/i/^im.f
M fin/fi/A saJr
HIPPOBOSCA. 403
of a dull green colour: it is often observed on the
bodies of various l)irds, which it infests in a very
troublesome degree.
Hippohosca Hirundims is equal in size to the
H. avicularia, and is of a livid greenish colour,
with the abdomen deeply emarginated behind, so
as to represent the usual figure of an inverted
heart: the wings are of a sharpened or lanceolate
form; and the feet, instead of being terminated
by two claws only, as in the generality of insects,
have six sharp, curved divisions; and though four
of these may rather be considered as a kind of
spurious claws, yet they still operate as so many
real unguiculi, and enable it to adhere with great
tenacity. This species is very often observed on
the bodies of Swallows, Swifts, and Martins; and
may almost always be found in their nests. Its
motion, like that of the two preceding kinds, is
brisk, but irregular, moving in all directions with
equal facility. The e^g or pupa of this species is
at least as large in proportion to the parent as
that of the Horse-Fly : it gradually changes to a
jet-black colour, and the complete Fly is usually
produced from it in the space of a month.
Hippobosca ovina is commonly known by the
name of the Sheep-Tick, and is very frequently
found imbedded in the wool of those animals. It
is of a reddish-brown colour, and differs from the
rest of the genus in being entirely destitute of
wings. Its pupa is also of a reddish-brown co-
lour, exactly oval, and of a shining surface.
404 HIPPOBOSCA.
All the Hippoboscas are remarkably tenacious
of life, and the H. ovina in particular, which
may often be observed in wool that has long been
packed into fleeces.
INSECTS.
ORDER
APTERA.
LEPISMA. LEPISMA.
Generic Character.
Pedes sex, cursorii.
Os palpis duobus setaceis
et duobus capitatis.
Cauda setosaj setis exten-
sis.
Corpus squamis imbricatis.
Legs six, formed for run-
ning.
Mouth with two setaceous
and two headed feelers.
Body imbricated with mi-
nute scales.
Tail furnished with ex-
tended bristles.
A HE Limiasan genus Lepisma is far from ex-
tensive, those enumerated by Linnagus himself in
the twelfth edition of the Sy sterna Naturae amount-
ing to no more than three species.
406 LEPISMA.
Of these the chief is the Lepisma saccharinum *,
frequently called in our own country, from its pe-
culiar colour and tapering form, by the name of
the Wood-Fish. This is an insect of great ele-
gance. Its general length, exclusive of the caudal
bristles, is about half an inch, and its colour a
bright silvery grey, resembling that of pearls:
this colour is owing to a covering of extremely
minute oval scales, which are semitransparent,
very easily detached from the animal by a slight
touch: the head and thorax together form a
rounded outline, the remainder of the body gra-
dually lessening to the tail, which terminates in
three long bristles, of similar appearance with the
antennae. The motions of this animal are re-
markably quick, and it is often observed among
various domestic articles, particularly sugar. It
also occurs not unfrequently among old books and
papers, which it is supposed often to injure j-. It
is said to be originally an American animal, and
to have been imported into Europe among sugars,
&c. Dr. Browne, in his History of Jamaica, re-
presents it as " extremely destructive to books
and all manner of woollen cloaths."
* Linnaeus feminizes tlie word, calling it saccharina, but this
is irregular.
-j- Though the present insect may occasionally injure books
and paperSj yet it is certain that the principal ravages committed
on those articles are owing to insects of the genera of Dermestes
and Ptinus, and particularly to the Ptinus pectinicornis, which,
in the course of a few days^ during very hot weather, and in
places where it happens to abound, will nearly destroy a book by
innumerable perforations.
I J 30 r I. i MA
u6
sacc/iarifia jtiatjni/ifd
Uj^ri'im ^cui/}
po(vpci/(i.
lScS.<^<^iy'Ctvdcn.j^uiA../:fJ /,v i;Mcar.<-^^f./''iett O'lTtf/-.
I.EPISMA. 407
The nature of this insect appears to have been
singularly mistaken by that ingenious observer
Mr. Henry Baker, who, in his work entitled
" The Microscope made easy," calls it " the
Nymph of the Clothes or Book-Moth." This
error perhaps originated from the description of
the animiil in Hook's Micrographia, where it is
entitled " the small silver-coloured Book- Worm,"
and, according to the loose mode of description
common at the period of that work, is called " a
small, white, silver-shining Worm or Moth." It
is supposed by Dr. Hook to be the animal " which
corrodes and eats holes through the leaves and
covers." Dr. Hook thus continues. " This animal
probably feeds upon the paper and covers of
books, and perforates in them several small round
holes, finding, perhaps, a convenient nourishment
in those husks of hemp and flax which have passed
through so many scourings, washings, dressings,
and dryings, as the parts of old paper must ne-
cessarily have suffered; the digestive faculty, it
seems, of these little creatures being able yet fur-
ther to work upon those stubborn parts, and re-
duce them into another form; and indeed, when
I consider what a heap of saw-dust or chips this
little creature (which is one of the teeth of Time)
conveys into its entrails, I cannot chuse but re-
member and admire the excellent contrivance of
Nature, in placing in animals such a fire as is con-
tinually nourished and supplyed by the materials
conveyed into the stomach, and fomented by the
bellows of the lungs; and in so contriving the
408 LEPISMA.
most admirable fabrick of animals, as to make
the vei} spending and wasting of that fire to be
instrumental to the procuring and collecting more
materials to augment and cherish itself, which in-
deed seems to be the principal end of all the con-
trivances observable in bruit Animals."
Lepisma pohjpus Lin. is of a dusky or brownish
cast, and has a springing or leaping motion when
disturbed. It is found about the sea coast of
many northern regions, under stones, &c.
i'7
jPoDTRAo
eff().f y."
voi/na d'.
imdfr viev
ofta/ld':
7«IIF \^
arborca
ntra
/7^/m//ca m/t/7n//7/'d
ji/z/mlTca m/2/7/?//f>//
ldo50ctri^LLniJo,uP^J,/tslu;i h, liR-uislo Flc^So-e^.
PODURA. PODURA.
Generic Character.
Pedes sex, cursorii.
OcuJi duo, compositi ex
octonis.
Cauda bifurca, saltatrix, in-
flexa.
Antenna setaceae, elonga-
tae.
Legs six, formed for run-
nings.
Eyes two, composed of
eight.
Tail forked, formed for
leaping, inflected.
Antenna setaceous, elong-
ated.
X HE Podiiras are small insects which, in gene-
ral, are found in damp places, under stones, on
the bark of trees, &c. When disturbed, they
suddenly spring to a small distance by the help of
a long, forked process, which is doubled under
the abdomen, and which is suddenly thrown out
during the act of leaping.
One of the most common of this genus is the
Podura aquatica of Linnasus, measuring scarcely
the twelfth part of an inch in length, and entirely
of a l)lack colour. This is a gregarious species,
and is occasionally seen assembled in vast num-
bers, particularly near the brinks of ponds, co-
vering the ground to the distance of several feet,
and sometimes even the surface of the water itself.
410 PODURA.
On the ground its legions, on a cursory view, have
the appearance of scattered grains of gunpowder;
and, if closely examined, will be found in an al-
most continual skipping motion.
Podura Jimetaria so perfectly resembles the pre-
ceding in all respects except colour, being per-
fectly white, that no other specific difference can
be observed. It is almost equally common in
damp situations with the former.
Podura atra is of a short, subglobular shape,
with lengthened antennae: its colour is a glossy
black: it is found on the bark of trees, &c. &c.
Podura pluinbea is of a blueish black or deep
lead-colour, and is found in similar situations.
Podura arborea is of a lengthened form, and
of a black colour, with the feet and caudal fork
rwhite. It is chiefly found on the bark of trees,
among mosses, &c, &c.
TERMES. TERMES.
Generic Character
Pedes sex, cursorii,
Ocidi duo.
Antenna setacese.
Os maxillis duabus.
Legs six, formed for run-
ning.
Eyes two.
Antenna setaceous.
Mouth furnished with two
jaws.
E
ROM the observations of Degeer, and the
more recent ones of Mr. Snieathman, recorded in
the Philosophical Transactions, it appears that
the males and females of the genus Termes are,
in their complete state, furnished with wings,
though the labourers or neuters are destitute of
those organs. The genus might therefore, in
strict propriety, rather claim a place in the order
Neuroptera than in that of Aptera, in which it is
stationed by Linnaeus.
The European species of Termes are very
small, compared with those of the warmer regions
of Africa and America, and, instead of assembling
in multitudes, as in those climates, are usually
observed single. The most common of these is
the Termes puhatorius of Linnaeus, a diminutive
insect, of a whitish colour, and which, from its
412 TERMES.
general resemblance to the insects of that genus,
has by Derham and some other naturalists been
distinguished by the title of Pediculus pulsatorius.
It is very frequent, during the summer months, in
houses, particularly where the wainscot is in any
degree decaj^ed, and is remarkable for causing
a long-continued sound, exactly resembling the
ticking of a watch. It is a very common insect
in collections of dried plants, &c. which it often
injures greatly. It is of so tender a frame as to
be easily destroyed by the slightest pressure, and
is an animal of very quick motion.' When mag-
nified, the head appears large; the eyes remark-
ably conspicuous, of a most beautiful gold-co-
lour, and divided, like those of most other insects,
into innumerable hexagonal convexities; the an-
tennae long and setaceous; the palpi or feelers
two in number, of moderate length, and termi-
nating in a large club-shaped tip; the thorax ra-
ther narrow, and the abdomen obtusely oval; the
thighs or first joints of the legs thick, the remain-
ing ones slender, and the feet furnished with very
small claws: the whole animal is beset with small,
scattered hairs. According to the observations of
the celebrated Derham, this insect, at its first
hatching from the e^g, which is white, oval, and
extremely small, bears a complete resemblance to
a common mite, being furnished with eight legs,
and beset with long hairs. After a certain time
it casts its skin, and appears in the very different
form above-described. Degeer observes that in
some specimens he has remarked appearances si-
THRMES. 413
milar to tlie rudiments of wings on each side the
thorax, and resembling a pair of oblong scales.
From my own observations I can affirm with cer-
tainty that some individuals of this species be-
come winged when arrived at their full growth:
the Avings, which are four in number, being very
large, of a slightly iridescent appearance, and
variesfated with blackish and brown clouds or
spots. It is in the beginning of July that this
change takes place, and at this time several may
be seen with the wings half grown: in a few days
they seem to obtain their full size.
Mr. Derham imagines the ticking sound which
these animals produce, to be analogous to the
call of birds to their mates during the breeding-
season; and there seems to be no reason for calling
in question the truth of this observation. I may
add, that this sound, as well as that produced by
the Ptimis fatidicuSy or Death- Watch, seems to
afford a convincing proof of the faculty of hearing
in insects, which some naturalists have been in-
clined to deny.
On the bark of trees, during the decline of
summer, may be sometimes observed a species of
winged Termes, extremely resembling the preced-
ing, but larger, and of a greenish brown colour,
with darker variegations; and I am inclined to
believe that several small species of this genus
exist, which, from their general resemblance to
each other, have been hitherto confounded*. ,
* The Hemerohins pulsatorius of Linnaeus is probably one of
414 tl'lRMES.
Of the exotic Termites the most remarkable
seems tD be the Termes bellicosus, whose history is
so amply described by Mr. Smeathman in the
Philosophical Transactions.
" Of a great many curious parts of the creation
I met with on my travels in that almost unknown
district of Africa called Guinea, the Termites,
which by most travellers have been called A¥hite
Ants, seemed to me on many accounts most
worthy of that exact and minute attention which
I have bestowed upon them.
" The amazingly great and sudden mischief
they frequently do to the property of people in
tropical climates, makes them well known and
greatly feared by the inhabitants.
" The size and figure of their buildings have
attracted the notice of many travellers, and yet
the world has not hitherto been furnished with a
tolerable description of them, though their con-
trivance and execution scarce fall short of human
ingenuity and prudence; but when we come to
consider the wonderful ceconomy of these insects,
with the good order of their subterraneous cities,
they will appear foremost on the list of the won-
ders of the creation, as most closely imitating
mankind in provident industry and regular go-
vernment.
" The Termites are represented by Linnagus as
the greatest plagues of both Indies, and are in-
these ; being, according to his own observation, " ita Termiti
pulsatorio similis, lU demptis alis vix differat facie; an sexu solo ?
TERME.i
lis.
7??a/e.
T. cl77?07'?/7/? .
Jhnalc.
^=%r
Zaiowet: Soldier
Sohticr: nat.sii:r.
T. bi-nic^osiis.
J[,abow-n- jiuMfiincd .
Xabourcr. nat'sixe.
head 7}U2imdied
3£ei7t' 7iat. sis'^
iSnff. 7uit.sv::^.
M.f.^.,i^i,
Trc'/}72/Z72t 07H'e7i 07' Jlyfui/e. 77at.S7::e.
iScJ' OcCi IimOc^i fui>lil?uxl fy- tl^ctirJUy ^ectStrcft.
termEs. 413
deed every way between the Tropics so deemed,
from the vast damyges they cause, and the losses
which are experienced in consequence of their
eating and perforating wooden buildings, utensils,
and furniture, with all kinds of household-stuff
and merchandize, which are totally destroyed by
them, if not timely prevented; for nothing less
hard than metal or stone can escixpe their most
destructive jaws.
" They have been taken notice of by various
travellers in different parts of the torrid zone; and
indeed where numerous, as is the case in all equi-
noctial countries and islands that are not fully
cultivated, if a person has not been incited by
curiosit}'^ to observe them, he must have been very
fortunate who, after a short residence, has not
been compelled to it for the safety of his property.
" These insects have generally obtained the
name of Ants, it may be presumed, from the si-
milarit}' in their manner of living, which is, in
large communities that erect very extraordinary
nests, for the most part on the furface of the
ground, from whence their excursions are made
through subterraneous passages or covered galle-
ries, which they build whenever necessity obliges,
or plunder induces, them to march above ground,
and at a great distance from their habitations carry
on a business of depredation and destruction,
scarce credible but to those who have seen it.
But notwithstanding they live in communities,
and are like the ants omnivorous; though like
4l6 TERMES*
them at a certain period they are furnished witii
four wings, and emigrate or colonize at the same
season i they are by no means the same kind of
insects, nor does their form correspond with that
of Ants in any one state of their existence, which,
like most other insects, is changed several times.
" The Termites resemble the Ants also in their
provident and diligent labour, but surpass them
as well as the Bees, Wasps, Beavers, and all other
animals which I have ever heard of, in the arts of
building, as much as the Europeans excel the
least cultivated savages. It is more than probable
they excel them as much in sagacity and the arts
of government; it is certain they shew more sub-
stantial instances of their ingenuity and industry
than any other animals; and do in fact lay up
vast magazines of provisions and other stores; a
degree of prudence which has of late years been
denied, perhaps witiiout reason, to the Ants.
" Their communities consist of one male and
one female (who are generally the common pa-
rents of the whole, or greater part, of the rest),
and of three orders of insects, apparently of very
ditferent species, but really the same, which to-
gether compose great commonwealths, or rather
monarchies, if I may be allowed the term.
" The great Linna?us, having seen or heard of
but two of these orders, has classed the genus er-
roneously; for he has placed it among the ApterOy
or insects without wings ; whereas the chief order,
that is to say, the insect in its perfect state, having
TERMBS. 417
four wings without any sting, it belongs to the
Neuroptcra; in which class it will constitute a
new genus of many species.
" The different species of this genus resemble
each other in form, in their manner of living, and
in their good and bad qualities; but differ as much
as birds in the manner of building their habita-
tions or nests, and in tiie choice of the materials
of which they compose them.
" There are some species which build upon the
surface of the ground, or part above and part be-
neath, and one or two species, perhaps more, that
build on the stems or branches of trees, sometimes
aloft at a vast height.
" Of every species there are three orders; first,
the working insects, which, for brevity, I shall
generally call labourers; next the fighting ones, or
soldiers, which do no kind of labour; and, last of
all, the winged ones, ot perfect insects, which are
•male and female, and capable of propagation.
These might very appositely be called the nobility
or gentnj, for they neither labour, or toil, or fight,
being quite incapable of either, and almost of
self-defence. These only are capable of being
elected kings or queens; and nature has so ordered
it, that they emigrate within a few weeks after
they are elevated to this state, and cither establish
new kingdoms, or perish within a day or two.
" The Termes bellicosus being the largest spe-
cies is most remarkable and best known on the
coast of Africa. It erects immense buildings of
well-tempered clay or earth, which are contrived
V. VI. p, ir. 27
418 TERMES.
and finished with such art and ingenuity, that we
are at a loss to say, whether they are most to be
admired on that account, or for their enormous
magnitude and sohdity. It is from the two lower
orders of this, or a similar species, that Linnseus
seems to have taken his description of the Termes
Fatalis; and most of the accounts brought home
from Africa or Asia of the white Ants are also
taken from a species that are so much alike in ex-
ternal habit and size, and build so much in their
manner, that one may almost venture to pro-
nounce them mere variations of the same species.
" My general account of the Termites is taken
from observations made on the Termes bellicosus,
to which I was induced by the greater facility and
certainty with which they could be made.
" The nests of this species are so numerous all
over the island of Bananas, and the adjacent con-
tinent of Africa, that it is scarce possible to stand
upon any open place, such as a rice plantation, or
other clear spot, where one of these buildings is
not to be seen within fifty paces, and frequently
two or three are to be seen almost close to each
other. In some parts near Senegal, as mentioned
by Mons. Adanson, their number, magnitude,
and closeness of situation, make them appear like
the villages of the natives.
'' These buildings are usually termed hills, by
natives as well as strangers, from their outward
appearance, which is that of little hills more or
less conical, generally pretty much in the form of
sugar loaves, and about ten or twelve feet in per-
TF.RMES* 419
pendicular height above the common surface of
the ground.
" These hills continue quite bare until they are
six or eight feet high; but in time the dead barren
clay, of which they are composed^ becomes ferti-
lized by the genial power of the elements in these
prolific climates^ and the addition of vegetable
salts and other matters brought by the wind; and
in the second or third year, the hillock, if not
over-shaded by trees, becomes, like the rest of
the earth, almost covered with grass and other
plants; and in the dry season, when the herbage
is burnt up by the rays of the sun, it is not much
unlike a very large hay-cock.
" Every one of these buildings consists of two
distinct parts, the exterior and the interior.
" The exterior is one large shell in the manner
of a dome, large and strong enough to inclose
and shelter the interior from the vicissitudes of the
weather, and the inhabitants from the attacks of
natural or accidental enemies. It is always, there-
fore, much stronger than the interior building,
which is the habitable part divided with a won-
derful kind of regularity and contrivance into an
amazing number of apartments for the residence
of the king and queen, and the nursing of their
numerous progeny; or for magazines, which are
always found well filled with stores and provisions.
" These hills make their first appearance above
ground by a little turret or two in the shape of
sugar loaves, which are run a foot high or more.
Soon after, at some little distance, while the former
420 TERMES.
are increasing in height and size, they raise others,-
and so go on increasing the number and widening
them at the base, till their works below are co-
vered with these turrets, which they always raise
the highest and largest iti the middle, and by
filling up the intervals, between each turret, col-
lect them as it were into one dome.
" They are not very curious or exact about
these turrets, except in making them very solid
and strong, and when by the junction of them the
dome is completed, for which purpose the turrets
answer as scaffolds, they take away the middle
ones entirely, except the tops (which joined toge-
ther make the crown of the cupola) and apply the
clay to the building of the works within, or to
erecting fresh turrets for the purpose of raising
the hillock still higher; so that no doubt some
part of the clay is used several times, like the
boards and posts of a mason's scaffold.
" The outward shell or dome is not only of us6
to protect and support the interior buildings from
external violence and the heavy rains; but to col-
lect and preserve a regular degree of genial
warmth and moisture which seems very necessary
for hatching the eggs and cherishing the young
ones.
" The royal chamber, which I call so on ac-
count of its being adapted for, and occupied by,
the king and queen, appears to be in the opinion
of this little people of the most consequence,
being always situated as near the center of the
interior building as possible, and generally about
TliRMES. 42 i
the height of the common surface of the ground,
at a pace or two from the hillock. It is always
jiearly in the shape of half an egg or an obtuse
oval within, and may be supposed to represent a
long oven.
" In the infant state of the colony, it is not
above an inch or thereabout in length; but in
time will be increased to six or eight inches or
more in the clear, being always in pro{)ortion to
the size of the queen, who, increasing in bulk as
in age, at length requires a chamber of such di-
mensions.
" Its floor is perfectly horizontal ; and in large
hillocks, sometimes an inch thick and upward of
solid cl^'Y. The roof also, which is one solid an4
well-turned oval arch, is generally of about the
same solidity, but in some places it is not a
quarter of an inch thick, this is on the sides where
it joins the floor, and where the doors or entrances
are made level therewith at pretty equal distances
from each other.
" These entrances will not admit any animal
larger than the soldiers or labourers, so that the
king, and the queen (who is, at full size, a thou-
sand times the weight of a king) can never pos-
sibly go out.
" The royal chamber, if in a large hillock, is
surrounded by an innumerable quantity of others
of different sizes, shapes, and dimensions; but all
of them arched in one way or another, sometimes
circular, and sometimes elliptical or oval.
" These either open into each other or commu-
422 TERMES.
nicate by passages as wide, and being always
empty are evidently made for the soldiers and
attendants, of whom it will soon appear great
numbers are necessary, and of course always
in waiting.
" These apartments are joined by the maga-
zines and nurseries. The former are chambers of
clay, and are always well filled with provisions,
which to the naked eye seem to consist of the
raspings of wood and plants which the Termites
destroy, but are found in the microscope to be
principally the gums or inspissated juices of plants.
These are thrown together in little masses, some
of which are finer than others, and resemble the
sugar about preserved fruits, others are like tears
of gum, one quite transparent, another like amber,
a third brown, and a fourth quite opaque, as we
see often in parcels of ordinary gums.
" These magazines are intermixed with the
nurseries, which are buildings totally different
from the rest of the apartments: for these are
composed entirely of wooden materials, seemingly
joined together with gums. I call them the nur-
series because they are invariably occupied by the
eggs, and young ones, which appear at first in
the shape of labourers, but white as snow. These
buildings are exceeding compact, and divided
into many very small irregular-shaped chambers,
•hot one of which is to be found of half an inch in
width. They are placed all round the royal apart-
ments, and as near as possible to them.
" When the nest is in the infant state, the
TERMES. 423
nurseries are close to the royal chamber; but as in
process of time the queen enlarges, it is necessary
to enlarge the chamber for her accommodation;
and as she then lays a greater number of eggs,
and requires a greater number of attendants, so it
is necessary to enlarge and encrease the number
of the adjacent apartments; for which purpose the
small nurseries which are first built are taken to
pieces, rebuilt a little farther off a size bigger,
and the number of them encreased at the same
time.
" Thus they continually enlarge their apart-
ments, pull down, repair, or rebuild, according
to their wants, with a degree of sagacity, regu-
larity, and foresight, not even imitated by any
other kind of animals or insects that I have yet
heard of.
" There is one remarkable circumstance attend-
ing the nurseries, which I must not at this time
omit. They are always found slightly overgrown
with and plentifully sprinkled with small white
globules about the size of a small pin's head.
These at first I took to be the eggs; but, on
bringing them to the microscope, they evidently
appeared to be a species of mushroom, in shape
like our eatable mushroom in the young state in
which it is pickled. They appear, when whole,
white like snow a little thawed and then frozen
again, and when bruised seem composed of an
infinite number of pellucid particles, approaching
to oval forms and difficult to separate; the mouldi-
424 TERMES.
ness seems likewise to be the same kind of sub-
stance.
*' The nurseries are inclosed in chambers of
clay, like those which contain the provisions, but
much larger. In the early state of the nest they
are not bigger than an hazel-nut, but in great
hills are often as large as a child's head of a year
old.
" The disposition of the interior parts of these
hills is pretty much alike, except when some in-
surmountable obstacle prevents j for instance, when
the king and queen have been first lodged near
the foot of a rock or of a tree, they are certainly
built out of the usual form, otherwise pretty
nearly according to the following plan.
" The royal chamber is situated at about a level
with the surface of the ground, at an equal di-
stance from all the sides of the building, and di-
rectly under the apex of the hill.
" It is on all sides, both above and below, sur-
rounded by what I should call the royal apart-
ments, which have only labourers and soldiers in
them, and can be intended for no other purpose
than for these to wait in, either to guard or serve
their common father and mother, on whose safety
•depends the happiness, and, according to the ne-
groes, even the existence of the whole community.
" These apartments compose an intricate laby-
rinth, which extends a foot or more in diameter
from the royal chamber on every side. Here the
nurseries and magazines of provisions begin, and.
TERMES, 425
being separated by small empty chambers and
galleries, which go round them or communicate
from one to the other, arc continued on all sides
to the outward shell, and reach up within it two-
thirds or three-fourths of its height, leaving an
open area in the middle under the dome, which
very much resembles the nave of an old cathe-
dral: this is surrounded by three or four very
large Gothic-shaped arches, which are sometimes
two or three feet high next the front of the area,
but diminish very rapidly as they recede from
thence like the arches of aisles in perspectives,
and are soon lost among the innumerable cham-
bers and nurseries behind them.
" All these chambers, and the passages leading
to and from them, being arched, they help to
■yupport one another; and while the interior large
arches prevent them falling into 'the center, and
keep the area open, the exterior building supports
them on the outside.
" There are, comparatively speaking, few open-
ings into the great area, and they for the most
part seem intended onlj^ to admit that genial
warmth into the nurseries which the dome collects.
" The interior building or assemblage of nurse-
ries, chambers, &c. has a flattish top or roof
without any perforation, which would keep the
apartments below dry, in case through accident
the dome should receive any injury and let in
water; and it is never exactly flat and uniform,
because they are always adding to it by building
more chambers and nurseries: so that the divi-
426 TERMES.
sions or columns between the future arched apart-
ments resemble the pinnacles upon the fronts of
some old buildings, and demand particular notice
as affording one proof that for the most part the
insects project their arches, and do not make
them, as I imagined for a long time, by excava-
tion.
" The area has also a flattish floor, which lies
over the royal chamber, but sometimes a good
height above it, having nurseries and magazines
between. It is likewise water-proof, and contrived,
as far as I could guess, to let the water off, if it
should get in, and run over by some short way
into the subterraneous passages which run under
the lowest apartments in the hill in various direc-
tions, and are of an astonishing size, being wider
than the bore of a great cannon. I have a me-
morandum of one I measured, perfectly cylindri-
cal, and thirteen inches in diameter.
" These subterraneous passages or galleries are
lined very thick with the same kind of clay of
which the hill is composed, and ascend the inside
of the outward shell in a spiral manner, and wind-
ing round the whole building up to the top inter-
sect each other at different heights, opening either
immediately into the dome in various places, and
into the interior building, the new turrets, &c. or
communicating thereto by other galleries of dif-
ferent bores or diameters, either circular or oval.
*' From every part of these large galleries are
various small pipes or galleries leading to different
parts of the building. Under ground there are a
"tERMES. 427
great many which lead downward by sloping de-
scents three and four feet perpendicular among
the gravel, from whence the labouring Termites
cull the finer parts, which, being worked up in
their mouths to the consistence of moi tar, becomes
that solid clay or stone of which their hills and all
their buildings, except their nurseries, are com-
posed.
" Other galleries again ascend and lead out
horizontally on every side, and are carried under
ground near to the surface a vast distance: for if
you destroy all the nests within one hundred yards
of your house, the inhabitants of those which are
left unmolested farther oiT will nevertheless carry
on their subterraneous galleries, and invade the
goods and merchandizes contained in it by sap
and mine, and do great mischief, if you are not
very circumspect.
" But to return to the cities from whence these
extraordinary expeditions and operations origin-
ate, it seems there is a degree of necessity for
the galleries under the hills being thus large, be-
ing the great thoroughfares for all the labourers
and soldiers going forth or returning upon any
business whatever, whether fetching clay, wood,
water, or provisions; and they are certainly well
calculated for the purposes to which they are ap-
plied, by the spiral slope which is given them;
for if they were perpendicular the labourers would
not be able to carry on their building with so
much facility, as they ascend a perpendicular with
428 TKRMES.
great difficulty, and the soldiers can scarce do it
at all. It is on this account that sometimes a road
like a ledge is made on the perpendicular side (rf
any part of the building within their hill, which
is flat on the upper surface, and half an inch wide,
and ascends gradually like a stair-case, or like
those roads which are cut on the sides of hills and
mountains, that would otherwise be inaccessible:
by which, and similar contrivances, they travel
with great facility to every interior part.
" This too is probably the cause of their build-
ing a kind of bridge of one vast arch, which an-
swers the purpose of a flight of stairs from the
floor of the area to some opening on the side of
one of the columns which support the great arches,
which must shorten the distance exceedinsrlv to
those labourers who have the eggs to carry from
the royal chamber to some of the upper nurseries,
which in some hills would be four or five feet in
the straightest line, and much more if carried
through all the winding passages which lead
through the inner chambers and apartments.
" I have a memorandum of one of these bridges,
half an inch broad, a quarter of an inch thick,
and ten inches long, making the side of an elliptic
arch of proportionable sizcj so that it is wonder-
ful it did not fall over or break by its own weight
before they got it joined to the side of the column
above. It was strengthened by a small arch at
the bottom, and had a hollow or groove all the
length of the upper surface, either made pur-
TERMES. 42g
|)osely for the inhabitants to travel over with more
safet}', or else, which is not improbable, worn so
by frequent treadini^.
" I have observed before, that there are of
every species of Termites three orders j of these
orders the working insects or labourers are always
the most numerous; in the Termes bdlicosiis there
seems to be at the least one hundred labourers to
one of the fighting insects or soldiers. They are
in this state about one -fourth of an inch long, and
twent^'-five of tiicm weigh about a grain ; so that
they are not so large as some of our ants. From
their external habit and fondness for wood, they
have been very expressively called Wood Lice by
some people, and the whole genus has been known
by that name, particularly among the French.
They resemble them, it is true, very much at a
distance, but they run as fast or faster than any
other insects of their size, and are incessantly
bustling about their affairs.
" Tlie second order, or soldiers, have a very
different form from the labourers, and have been
by some authors supposed to be the males, and
the former neuters ; but they are, in fact, the same
insects as the foregoing, only they have under-
gone a change of form, and approached one de-
gree nearer to the perfect state. They are now
much larger, being half an inch long, and equal
in bulk to fifteen of the labourers.
" There is now likewise a most remarkable cir-
cumstance in the form of the head and mouth;
for in the former state the mouth is evidently cal-
430 TERMES.
culated for gnawing and holding bodies; but in
this state, the jaws being shaped just like two
very sharp awls a little jagged, they are incapable
of any thing but piercing or wounding, for which
purposes they are very effectual, being as hard as
a crab's claw, and placed in a strong horny head,
which is of a nut-brown colour, and larger than
all the rest of the body together, which seems to
labour under great difficulty in carrying it: on
which account perhaps the animal is incapable of
climbing up perpendicular surfaces.
" The third order, or the insect in its perfect
state, varies its form still more than ever. The
head, thorax, and abdomen, differ almost entirely
from the same parts in the labourers and soldiers;
and, besides this, the animal is now furnished
with four fine large brownish, transparent, wings,
with which it is at the time of emigration to wing
its way in search ot' a new settlement. In short,
it differs so much Irom its form and appearance in
the other two states, that it has never been sup-
posed to be the same animal, but by those who
have seen it in the same nest; and some of these
have distrusted the evidence of their senses. It
was so long before I met with them in the nests
myself, that I doubted the information which was
given me by the natives, that they belonged to the
same family. Indeed we may open twenty nests
without finding one winged one, for those are to
be found only just before the commencement of
the rainy season, when they undergo the last
change, which is preparative to their colonization.
TERMES. 431
Add to this, they sometimes abandon an outward
part of their building, the community being di-
minished by some accident to me unknown.
Sometimes too different species of the real Ant
(Formica) possess themselves by force of a lodge-
ment, and so are frequently dislodged from the
same nest, and taken for the same kind of insects.
This I know is often the case with the nests of
the smaller species, which are frequently totally
abandoned by the Termites, and completely inha-
bited by different species of Ants, Cockroaches,
Scolopendrie, Scorpions, and other vermin, fond
of obscure retreats, that occupy different parts of
their roomy buildings.
" In the winged state they have also much al-
tered their size as well as form. Their bodies
now measure between six and seven tenths of an
inch in length, and their wings above two inches
and a half from tip to tip, and they are equal in
bulk to about thirty labourers, or two soldiers.
They are now also furnished with two large eyes
placed on each side of the head, and very conspi-
cuous; if they have any before, they are not
easily to be distinguished. Probably in the two
first states, their eyes, if they have any, may be
small like those of moles; for as they live like
these animals always under ground, they have as
little occasion for these organs, and it is not to be
wondered at that we do not discover them; but
the case is much altered when they arrive at the
winged state in which they are to roam, though
but for a few hours, through the wide air, and ex-
432 TEPvMES.
plore new and distant regions. In this form the
animal comes abroad during or soon after the first
tornado, which at the latter end of the dry season
proclaims the approach of the ensuing rains, and
seldom waits for a second or third shower, if the
first, as is generally the case, happens in the
night, and brings much wet after it.
" The quantities that are to be found the next
morning all over the surface of the earth, but par-
ticularly on the waters, is astonishing; for their
wings are only calculated to carry them a few
hours, and after the rising of the sun not one in a
thousand is to be found with four wings, unless
the morning continues rainy, when here and there
a solitary being is seen winging its way from one
place to another, as if solicitous only to avoid its
numerous enemies, particularly various species of
Ants which are hunting on every spray, on every
leaf, and in every possible place, for this unhappy
race, of which probably not a pair in many mil-
lions get into a place of safety, fulfil the first law
of nature, and lay the foundation of a new com-
munity.
" Not only all kinds of ants, birds, and carni-
vorous reptiles, as v/ell as insects, are upon the
hunt for them, but the inhabitants of many counr
tries, and ^particularly of that part of Africa where
I was, eat them.
" On the following morning, however, as I
have observed, they are to be seen running upon
the ground in chace of each otherj sometimes
with one or two wings still hanging to their bo-
TERRIES. 433
dies, which are not only useless, but seem rather
cumbersome.
" The greater part have no wings, but they run
exceeding fast, the males after the females; I have
sometimes remarked two males after one female,
contending with great eagerness who should win
the prize, regardless of the innumerable dangers
that surrounded them.
" They are now become from one of the most
active, industrious, and rapacious, one of the most
fierce and implacable little animals in the world,
the most innocent, helpless, and cowardly; never
making the least resistance to the smallest Ant.
The Ants are to be seen on every side in infinite
numbers, of various species and sizes, dragging
these annual victims of the laws of nature to
their different nests. It is wonderful that a pair
should ever escape so many dangers, and get into
a place of security. Some, however, are so for-
tunate; and being found by some of the labouring
insects that are continually running about the sur-
face of the ground under their covered galleries,
which I shall shortly describe, are elected kings
and queens of new states; all those who are not
so elected and preserved certainly perish, and
most probably in the course of the following day.
The manner in which these labourers protect the
happy pair from their innumerable enemies, not
only on the day of the massacre of almost all
their race, but for a long time after, will I hope
justify me in the use of the term Election. The
little industrious creatures immediately enclose
V. VI. p. II. 28
434 TERMES.
them in a small chamber of clay suitable to tbefr
size, into which at ftrst they leave but one small
entrance, large enough for themselves and the
soldiers to go in and out, but much too little for
either of the royal pair to make use of; and when
necessity obliges them to make more entrances,
they are never larger; so that, of course, the vo-
luntary subjects charge themselves with the task
of providing for the offspring of their sovereigns,
as well as to work and to fight for them until they
shall have raised a progeny capable at least of di-
viding the task with them.
" About this time a most extraordinary change
begins to take place in the queen, to which I
know nothing similar, except in the Puleje pene-
tra}is of Linnaeiis, tl>e Jigger of the West Indies,
and in the different species of Coccus, Cochineal,
The abdomen of this female begins gradually ta
extend and enlarge to such an enormous size, that
an old queen will have it increased so as to be fif-
teen hundred or two thousand times the bulk of
the rest of her body^ and twenty or thirty thou-
sand times the bulk of a labourer, as I have found
by carefully weighing and computing the different
states. The skin between the segments of the
abdomen extends in every direction; and at last
the segments are removed to half an inch distance
from each other, though at first the length of the
whole abdomen is not half an inch. They pre-
serve their dark brown colour, and the upper part
of the abdomen is marked with a regular series of
brown bars from the thorax to the posterior part
TERMES. 435
of the abdomen, while the intervals "between them
are covered with a thin, delicate, transparent skin,
and appear of a fine cream colour, a little shaded
by the dark colour of the intestines and watery
fluid seen here and there beneath. I conjecture
the animal is upwards of two years old when the
abdomen is increased to three inches in length : I
have sometimes found them of near twice that size.
The abdomen is now of an irregular oblong shape,
being contracted by the muscles of every segment,
and is become one vast matrix full of eggs, wliich
make long circumvolutions through an innumer-
able quantity of very minute vessels that circulate
round the inside in a serpentine manner, which
would exercise the ingenuity of a skilful anatomist
to dissect and develope. This singular matrix is
not more remarkable for its amazing extension
and size than for its peristaltic motion, which re-
sembles the undulating of waves, and continues
incessantly without any apparent effort of the ani-
mal ; so that one part or other alternately is rising
and sinking in perpetual succession, and the ma-
trix seems never at rest, but is always protruding
eggs to the amount (as I have frequently counted
in old queens) of sixty in a minute, or eighty
thousand and upward in one day of twenty-four
hours.
" These eggs are instantly taken from her body
by her attendants (of whom there always are, in
the royal chamber and the galleries adjacent, a
sufficient number in waiting) and carried to the
nurseries, which in a great nest ma^^ some of them
43-5 TERMESf.
be four or five feet distant in a straight line, and
consequently much farther by their winding gal-
leries. Here, after they are hatched, the yonng
are attended and provided with every thing ne-
cessary until tliey are able to shift for themselves^
and take their share of the labours of the com-
munity. The foregoing, I flatter myself, is au
accurate description and account of the Tei^ies
bcUicosus or species that builds the large nests in
its different states.
"The Termites, except their heads, are exceeding
soft, and covered with a very thin and delicate
skin ; being blind, they are no match on open
ground for the ants, who can see, and are all of
them covered with a strong horny shell not easily
pierced, and are of dispositions bold, active, and
rapacious, Whenever the Termites are dislodged
from their covered v/ays, the various species of
the former, who probably are as numerous above
ground as the latter are in their subterraneous^^
passages, instantly seize and drag them away to
their nests, to feed the young btood. The Ter-
mites are therefore exceeding solicitous about the
preserving their covered ways in good repair ; and
if you demolish one of them, for a few inches m
length, it is wonderful how soon they rebuild it»
At first in their hurry they get into the open part
an inch or two, but stop so suddenly that it is-
very apparent they are surprized : for though
some run straight on, and get under the arch as
speedily as possible in the former part, most of
them run as fast back, and very few will venture
TERMES* 437
tliroPigh tliat part of the track which is left un-
covered. In a few minutes you will perceive
them rebuilding the arch, and by the next morn-
ing they will have restored their gallery for three
or four yards in length, if so much has been
ruined ; and upon opening it again will be found
as numerous as ever, under it, passing both ways.
If you continue to destroy it sev^eral times, they
will at length seem to give up the point, and build
another in a different direction 3 but, if the old
one led to some favourite plunder, in a few days
will rebuild it again j and, unless you destroy
their nest, never totally abandon their gallery.
" The Termites arborum, those which build in
trees, frequently establish their nests xvithin the
roofs and other parts of houses, to which they do
considerable damage, if not timely extirpated.
" The large species are, however, not only much
more destructive, but more difficult to be guarded
against, since they make their approaches chiefly
under ground, descending belov*'^ the foundations
of houses and stores at several feet from the sur-
face, and rising again either in the floors, or en-
tering at the bottoms of the posts, of which the
sides of the buildings are composed, bore quite
through them, following the course of the fibres
to the top, or making lateral perforations and ca-
vities here and there as they proceed.
" While some are employed in gutting the
posts, others ascend from them, entering a rafter
or some other part of the roof. If they once fmd
the thatch, which seems to be a favourite food.
438 TERMES.
they soon bring up wet clay, and build their pipes,
or galleries through the roof in various directions,,
as long as it will support them ; sometimes eating
the palm-tree leaves and branches of which it is
composed, and, perhaps (for variety seems very
pleasing to them) the rattan or other running
plant which is used as a cord to tye the various
parts of the roof together, and that to the posts
which support it : thus, with the assistance of the
rats, who during the rainy season are apt to shel-
ter themselves there, and to burrow through it,
they very soon ruin the house by weakening the
fastenings and exposing it to the wet. In the
mean time the posts will be perforated in every
direction as full of holes as that timber in the bot-
toms of ships which has been bored by the worms;
the fibres and knotty parts, which are the hardest,
being left to the last.
" They sometimes, in carrying on this business,
fmd^ I will not pretend to say how, that the post
lias some weight to support, and then if it is a con-
venient track to the roof, or is itself a kind of
wood agreeable to them, they bring their mortar,,
and fill all or most of the cavities, leaving the ne-
cessary roads through it, and as fast as they take
away the wood replace the vacancy with that ma-
terial 3 which being worked together by them
closer and more compactly than human strength
or art could ram it, when the house is pulled to
pieces, in order to examine if any of the posts
are fit to be used again, those of the softer kinds
are often found reduced almost to a shell, and all
TERME5. 43()
or a greater part transformed from wood to clay-
as solid and as hard as many kinds of free-stone
used for building in England. It is much the
same when the Termites heUkosi get into a chest
or trunk containing cloaths and other things ; if
the weight above is great, or they are afraid of
Ants or other enemies, and have time, they carry
their pipes through, and replace a great part with
clay, running their galleries in various directions.
The tree Termites, indeed, when they get within
a box, often make a nest there, and being once in
possession destroy it at their leisure. They did so
to the pyramidal box which contained my com-
pound microscope. It was of mahogany, and I
had left it in the store of Governor Campbell of
Tobago, for a few months, while I made the tour
of the Leeward Islands. On my return I found
these insects had done much mischief in the store,
and, among other things, had taken possession of
the microscope, and eaten every thing about it
except the glass or metal, and the board on which
tlie pedestal is fixed, with the drawers under it,
and the things inclosed. The cells were built all
round the pedestal and the tube, and attached
to it on every side. All the glasses which were
covered with the wooden substance of their nests
retained a cloud of a gummy nature upon them
that was not easily got off, and the lacquer or
burnish with which the brass v/ork was covered
"\vas totally spoiled. Another party had taken a
liking to the staves of a Madeira cask, and had
let out aimost a pipe of fine old wine. If the
440 TERMES.
large species of Africa (the Termites bellicosi) had
been so long in the uninterrupted possession of
such a store, they would not have left twenty:
pounds weight of wood remaining of the whole,
building, and all that it contained.
" These insects are not less expeditious in de-
stroying the shelves, wainscotting, and other fix-
tures of an house, than the house itself They are
for ever piercing and boring in all directions, and:
sometimes go out of the broadside of one post
into that of another joining to it; but they prefer,
and always destroy the softer substances the first,,
and are particularly fond of pine and fir-boardsy
which they excavate and carry away with wonder-
ful dispatch and astonishing cunning: for, except
a shelf has something standing upon it, as a book,
or any thing else which may tempt them, they
will not perforate the surface, but artfully preserve:
it quite whole, and eat away all the inside, except
a few fibres which barely keep the two sides con-
nected together, so that a piece of an inch-board-
which appears solid to the eye will not weigh
much more than two sheets of paste-board of. equal
dimensions, after these animals have been a little:
while in possession of it. In short, the Termites^
are so insidious in their attacks, that we cannot be
too much on our guard against them: they wilL
sometimes begin and raise their works, especially
in new houses, through the floor. If you destroy
the work so begun, and make a fire upon the spot,
the next night they will attempt to rise through
another part; and, if they happen to emerge-
TfeRMES. 44 1
under a chest or trunk early in the night, will
pierce the bottom, and destroy or spoil every
thing in it before the morning. On these ac-
counts we arc careful to set all our chests and
boxes upon stones or bricks, so as to leave the
bottoms of such furniture some inches above the
ground ; which not only prevents these insects
finding them out so readily, but preserves the
bottoms from a corrosive damp which would strike
from the earth through, and rot every thing
therein : a vast deal of vermin also would harbour
Huder, such as Cock-roaches, Centipedes, Mille-
pedes, Scorpions, Ants, and various other noisome
insects.
" When the Termites attack trees and branchesr
in the open air, they sometimes vary their manner
of doing it. If a stake in a hedge has not taken
root and vegetated, it becomes their business to
destroy it. M it has a good sound bark round it,
they will enter at the bottom, and eat all but the
bark, which will remain, and exhibit the appear-
ance of a solid stick (which some vagrant colony
of Ants or other insects often shelter in till the
winds disperse it); but if they cannot trust the
bark, they cover the whole stick with their mortar,
imd it then looks as if it had been dipped into
thick mud that had been dried on. Under this
covering they work, leaving no more of the stick
and bark than is barely sufficient to support it,
and frequently not the smallest particle, so that
Bpon a very small tap with your walking-stick,
the whole stake, though apparently as thick as
44% TERMES.
your arm, and five or six feet long, loses its form/
and disappearing like a siiadow falls in small frag-
ments at your feet. They generally enter the
"body of a large tree which has fallen through age or
"been thrown down by violence, on the side next the
ground, and eat away at their leisure within the
bark, without giving themselves the trouble either
to cover it on the outside, or to replace the wood
which they have removed from within, being
somehow sensible that there is no necessity for it.
These excavated trees have deceived me two or
three times in running: for, attempting to step
two or three feet high, I might as well have at-
tempted to step upon a cloud, and have come
down with such unexpected violence, that, besides
shaking my teeth and bones almost to dislocation,
I have been precipitated, head foremost, among
the neighbouring trees and bushes. Sometimes,
though seldom, the animals are known to attack liv-
ing trees; but not, I apprehend, before symptoms
of mortification have appeared at the roots, since
it is evident, as is before observed, that these in-
sects are intended in the order of nature to hasten
the dissolution of such trees and vegetables as have
arrived at their greatest maturity and perfection,
and which would, by a tedious decay, serve only
to encumber the face of the earth. This purpose
they answer so effectually, that nothing perishable
escapes them, and it is almost impossible to leave
any thing penetrable upon the ground a long time
jn safety; for the odds are, that, put it where you
will abroad, thev will find it out before the follow*
TERMES.> 443
ing morning, and its destruction follows very soon
of course. Inconsequence of this disposition, the
woods never remain long encumbered with tlie
fallen trunks of trees or their branches; and thus
it is, as I have before observed, the total destruc-
tion of deserted towns is so effectually completed,
that in two or three years a thick wood fills the
space; and, unless iron- wood posts have been made
use of, not the least vestige of an house is to be
discovered.
" The first object of admiration which strikes
one upon opening their hills is the behaviour of
the soldiers. If you make a breach in a slight
part of the building, and do it quickly with a strong
hoe or pick-axe, in the space of a few seconds a
soldier will run out, and walk about the breach,
as if to see whether the enemy is gone, or to ex-
amine wliat is the cause of the attack. He will
sometimes go again, as if to give the alarm: but
most frequently, in a short time, is followed by
two or tliree others, who run as fast as they can,
straggling after one another, and are soon followed
by a large body who rush out as fast as the breach
vi^ill permit them, and so thej'^ proceed, the num-
ber increasing, as long as any one continues batter-
ing their building. It is not easy to describe the
rage and fury they shew. In their hurry they
frequently miss their hold, and tumble down the
sides of the hill, but recover themselves as quickly
as possible ; and, being blind, bite every thing
they run against, and thus make a crackling noise,
while some of them beat repeatedly with their
444 TEJtMES.
forceps upon the building, and make a small
vibrating noise, something shriller and quicker
than the ticking of a watch: I could distinguish
this noise at three or four feet distance, and it
continued for a minute at a time, with short inter-
vals. While the attack proceeds they are in the
most violent bustle and agitation. If they get
hold of an}'' one, they will in an instant let out
blood enough to weigh against their whole body;
and if it is the leg they wound, you will see the
stain upon the stocking extend an inch in width.
They make their hooked jaws meet at the first
stroke, and never quit their hold, but suffer them-
selves to be pulled away leg by leg, and piece
jtfter piece, without the least attempt to escape.
On the other hand, keep out of their way, and
give them no interruption, and they will in less
than half an hour retire into tlie nest, as if they
supposed the wonderful monster that damaged
their castle to be gone beyond their reach. Be-
fore they are all got in you will see the laljourers
in motion, and hastening in various directions to-
ward the breach: every one with a burthen of
mortar in his mouth ready tempered, This they
gtick upon the breach as fast as they come up,
and do it with so much dispatch and facility, that
although there are thousands, and I may say
millions, of them, they never stop or embarrass
one another; and you are most agreeably de-
ceived when, after an apparent scene of hurry and
confusion, a regular wall arises, gradually filling
lip the chasm. While they are thus employed.
TERMES*.; 445
almost all the soldiers are retired quite out of
sight, except here and there one, who saunters
about among six hundred or a thousand of the
labourers, but never touches the mortar either to
lift or carry it; one, in particular, places himself
close to the wall they are building. This soldier
will turn himself leisurely on all sides, and every
now and then, at intervals of a minute or two, lift
up his head, and with his forceps beat upon the
buildifio-, and make the vibrating noise before
mentioned; on Avhich immediately a loud hiss,
which appears to come from ail the labourers,
issues from within side the dome and all the sub-
terraneous caverns and passages: that it does
come from the labourers is very evident, for you
will see them all hasten at every such signal, re-
double their pace, q,nd work as fast again.
" As the most interesting experiments become
dull by repetition or continuance, so the uni-
formity Vv'ith which this business is carried on,
though so very wonderful, at last satiates tlie
mind. A renewal of the attack, however, instantly
changes the scene, and gratifies our curiosity still
more. At every stroke we hear a loud hiss; and
on the first the labourers run into the many pipes
and galleries with which the building is perforated,
which they do so quickly that they seem to vanish,
for in a few seconds all are gone, and the soldiers
rush out as numerous and as vindictive as before.
On finding no enemy they return again leisurely
into the hill, and very soon after the labourers ap-
pear loaded as at first, as active and as sedulous.
440 tiKRMES.
With soldiers here and there among them, who
act just in the same manner, one or other of them
giving the signal to hasten the business. Thus
the pleasure of seeing them come out to fight or
to work alternately may be obtained as often as
curiosity excites or time permits: and it will cer-
tainly be found, that the one order never attempts
to fight, or the other to work, let the emergency
be ever so great.
" We meet vast obstacles in examining the in-
terior parts of these tumuli. In the first place,
the works, for instance, the apartments which sur-
round the royal chamber and the nurseries, and
indeed the whole internal fabric, are moist, and
consequently the clay is very brittle : they have
also so close a connexion, that they can only be
seen as it were by piece-meal j for having a kind
of geometrical dependance or abutment against
each other, the breaking of one arch pulls down
two or three. To these obstacles must be added
the obstinacy of the soldiers, who fight to the very
last, disputing every inch of ground so well as
often to drive away the negroes who are without
shoes, and make white people bleed plentifully
through their stockings. Neither can we let a
building stand so as to get a view of the interior
parts without interruption, for while the soldiers
are defending the out-works, the labourers keep
barricadoing all the way against us, stopping up
the different galleries and passages which lead to
the various apartments, particularly the royal cham-
ber, all the entrances to which they fill up so art-
tERMES. 447
iftilly as not to let it be distinguishable while it
remains moist; and externally it has no other a|>
pearance than that of a shapeless lump of chiy. It
is, however, easily found from its situation with re-
spect to the other parts of the building, and by the
crouds of labourers and soldiers which surround it,
who shew their loyalty and fidelity by dying under
its walls. The royal chamber in a large nest is ca-
pacious enough to hold many hundreds of the at-
tendantSjbesides the royal pair, and you always fmd
it as full of them as it can hold. These faithful snb-
jects never abandon their charge even in the last di-
stress; for whenever I took out the royal chamber,
and, as I often did, preserved it for some time in
a large glass bowl, all the attendants continued
running in one direction round the king and queen
with the utmost solicitude, some of them stopping
on every circuit at the head of the latter, as if to
give her something. When they came to the extre-
mity of the abdomen, they took the eggs from her,
and carried them away, and piled them carefully
together in some part of the chamber, or in the
bowl under, or behind any pieces of broken clay
which lay most convenient for the purpose.
" Some of these little unhappy creatures would
ramble from the chamber, as if to explore the
cause of such a horrid ruin and catastrophe
to their immense building, as it must appear to
them; and, after fruitless endeavours to get over
the side of the bowl, return and mix with the
croud that continue running round their common
parents to tiic last. Olhers, placing themselves
448 TERMES.
along her side, get hold of the queen^s vast matrix
with their jaws, and pull with all their strength so
as visibly to lift up the part which they fix at;
but, as I never saw any effect from these attempts,;
I never could determine whether this pulling wag
with an intention to remove her body, or to stimu^
late her to move herself, or for any other purpose;
but, after many ineffectual tugs, they would desist
and join in the croud running round, or assist
some of those who are cutting off clay from the
external parts of the chamber or some of the frag-
ments and moistening it with the juices of their
bodies, to begin to work a thin arched shell over
the body of the queen, as if to exclude the air, or
to hide her from the observation of some enemy.
These, if not interrupted, before the next morn-
ing, completely cover her, leaving room enough
within for great numbers to run about her.
" I do not mention the king in this case, be-
cause he is very small in proportion to the queen,
not being bigger than thirty of the labourers, so
that he generally conceals himself under one side
of the abdomen, except when he goes up to the
queen's head, which he does now and then, but
not so frequently as the rest.
*' If in your attack on the hill you stop short of
the royal chamber, and cut down about half of
the building, and leave open some thousands of
galleries and chambers, they will all be shut up
with thin sheets of clay before the next morning.
If even the whole is pulled down, and the different
buildings are thrown in a confused heap of ruins^
TERMES. 4*19
provided the king and queen are not destroyed or
taken away, every interstice between the ruins, at
which either cold or wet can possibly enter, will
be so covered as to exclude both, and, if the ani-
mals are left undisturbed, in about a year they
will raise the building to near its pristine size and
grandeur."
V. VI. p. II. 29
l>Et)ICULUS. LOUSE.
Getter ic Character.
Pedes sex, aaibulatorii.
Oculi duo.
Os aculeo exserendo.
Antennae longitudine tho-
racis.
Abdomen depressum, sublo-
baium.
Legs si X, f or med for walkings
Mouth furnished with an
exsertile piercer.
Antennce the length of the
thorax.
Abdojnen depressed, subW
bated.
Wi
E now arrive at a very numerous genus of
insects, far more remarkable for variety than ele-
gance of appearance. Of these strange and un-
pleasing animals some infest the bodies of qua-
drupeds, others of birds, and some even those of
insects themselves. It must however be here ob-
served, that many small insects, infesting other
animals, have been often referred to the genus
Pediculus, which in reality belong to those of
Acarus, Monoculus, &c. &e.
The Pediculus humajius or common Louse is so
well known as to render any very particular de-
scription unnecessary. As a species, it is distin-
guished by its pale livid colour, and lobated, oval
abdomen. It is produced from a small oval egg,
popularly called by the name of a nit, which is
Peidic^ctlus
/ roir
219
ff i fir/fg^ .fit>/^i
/\'/i/yyc/i>
LOUSE. 45 1
festened or agglutinated by its smaller end to the
hair on which it is deposited. From this egg
proceeds the insect, complete in all its parts, and
differing only from the parent animal in its smaller
size. Such diminutive specimens are far prefer-*
able, for microscopic obscrv^ation, to the full-grown
insects, shewing in a more distinct manner tho
disposition of the viscera, muscles, &c. &c. When
thus examined by the microscope, the principal
appearances are as follow: viz. the trunk or pro-
boscis, which is generally concealed in its sheath
or tube, is of a very sharp form, and is furnished,
towards its upper part, with a few reversed aculei
or prickles: the eyes are large, smooth, and black:
the stomach and intestines, which possess the
greater part of the abdominal cavity, afford an
extremely distinct and curious view of the peri-
staltic motion ; whilethe ramifications of the tracheae
or respiratory tubes appear dispersed in an ele-
gant manner throughout various parts of the ani-
tnal, and are particularly observable towards their
orifices on the sides of the abdomen : the legs are
each terminated by a double claw, not greatly
unlike that of a lobster, but of a much sharper
form ; and the whole animal is every where covered
ty a strong, granulated skin*. It is affirmed by
* The magnificent figure of this animal by the Ingenious Dr.
Hook, engraved in his Micrographia, is well kiiown to all who have
attended to the minuter branches of Natural History. It is ob-
served howe\er by Leewenhoek that it is faulty in one particular;
the antennae being represented as consisting of four joints only,
iijstead of tive.
451 LOifs^.
Leewenhoek that the male is furnished at the e^-*
tremity of the abdomen with a sting; and that it
is this instrument which causes the chief irritation
suffered from these animals; the suction of the
proboscis hardly seeming to have caused any per-'
ceptible pain on the skin of his hand. The
male is readily distinguished from the female* by
having the tail or tip of the abdomen rounded: in
the female it is forked or bifid. The same accurate
observer (Leewenhoek) being desirous of learning
the proportion and time of the increase of these
insects, placed two females in a black silk stock-
ing, which he wore day and night for that purpose^
He found that in six days one of them had laid
fifty eggs, and upon dissecting it, he found as many
more in the ovary: he therefore concluded that in
twelve days it would have laid an hundred eggs:
these eggs, hatching in six days, which he found
to be their natural time, would probably produce?
fifty males, and as many females f; and thes^
females, comiiig to their full growth in eighteen
days, might each of them be supposed, after twelve
days more, to lay also ah hundred eggs; which in
six days farther, (the time required to hatch them)
* It is remarkable that Swammerdam appears to have been?
unacqliainted with the ditference between the males and females ;
he even entertained a suspicion that they were hermaphrodites}
since^ on dissecting forty individuals, he found an ovary in thenx
all.
f This is, perhaps, not a very probable supposition; since it
appears from the before-mentioned observation of Sv\ miimerdam^
that the females are far more numerous than the mak8.
LOUSB. 453
might produce a younger brood of five thousand;
so that in eight weeks a Louse might see five
thousand of its own descendants!
The Louse*, in all ages enumerated among the
pests of mankind, has been sometimes represented
as the mere punishment of personal negligence,
and sometimes commemorated as one of the
most humiliating concomitants of degraded pride;
since, exclusive of the memorable and impressive
descriptions on this subject in the sacred vvritingy,
we meet with various examples of characters of
no small degree of eminence who have suffered
from the attacks of this odious insect. The dis-
order, however, commonly termed phthiriasisy is
probably more owing to want of attention during
the first stages of its appearance, than to any real
constitutional cause in the patient; it being entirely
contrary to the nature of this insect to get under
the cuticle, as commonly supposed; and utterly
inconceivable that a complaint merely external
should be able to resist mercurial or other pre-
parations outwardly used j and there can be little
doubt but that such cases, whenever they occur,
would be effectually removed by a proper appli-
cation of a dilute solution of mercury sublimate.
I must even venture to express my doubts whether
a real and genuine phtliiriasis, considered as a
primary disease, has ever appeared. Notwith-
standing this, we are told by Pliny that Pherecydes
* I here repeat what I have formerly said on this subject in
tlie Naturalist's Miscellany.
454 LOUSE.
Sirius, Sylla the dictator, and others, have died of
this disorder. Qiiintiis Serenus speaks thus of the
latter.
" Sylla quoque infelix tali languore peresus
Corruit, et foedo se vidit ab agmine vinci."
Great Sylla too the fatal scourge hath known)
Slain by a host far mightier than his own !
To Avhat I have said respecting this animal I
shall beg leave to add the lines of Serenus, as an
attempt towards discovering an apparent intention
of providence in permitting the frequency of such
unpleasing animals.
*' Noxia corporibus qusedam de corpore nostro
Produxit Natura, volens abrumpere somnos
Sensibus, et monitis vigiles inducere curas."
See Nature, Jcindly provident, ordain
Her gentle stimulants to harmless painj
Lest Man, the slave of rest, should waste away
In torpid slumber life's important day !
Nor can I omit the observation of Linnaeus on
this subject, who, seemingly anxious to become
an apologist for the Louse, has gravely observed
that it probably preserves children viho are trou-
bled with it, from a variety of complaints to which
they would otherwise be liable! ! !
The insects of this genus found on Quadrupeds
and Birds may be considered as almost equalling
the number of the animals themselves ; since
few of either division exist without one or more
P.'EXPirrLrs.
lii/t/nrrse
u^rrt /•/////
JJC
Sha^i
tlV/z/fiOf'tyf'
KfoJ. Oct^j /.(?nai'n,J'uMj-Aa/ i>i- /T.Kyir:.-/,jiJ7e,-y Sort-/ .
JZl
LOUSE. 455
particular species : some are also observed on
fishes and insects. It is hardly to be expected
that their exact history will ever be distinctly
known; and it may be considered as sufticient to
point out a few of the most remarkable kinds.
Many of these have been long ago observed by
the industry of Redi, from whose work on Insects
several of the figures here introduced are copied,
their respective names being inscribed under each
particular species.
PULEX. FLEA,
Generic Character.
pedes sex, saltatorii.
OcuU duo.
Antennae filiformes.
Os rostio inflexo, setaceo,
aculeum recondente.
Ahdomen compressum.
Legs six , formed for leaping,
Eyes two,
Antemice filiform.
Mouth furnished with an in-
flected, setaceous snout,
concealing a piercer.
Abdomen compressed.
J. HE present genus is one of the most singular
in the order Aptera. The Pide.v irritans or com-
mon Flea, so well known in its complete state in
every region of the globe, is remarkable for under-
going the several changes experienced by the
major part of the Insect race of other tribes, being
produced from an eg^y in the form of a minute
worm or larva, which changes to a chrysalis, in
order to give birth to the perfect animal. The
female Flea deposits, or rather, drops her eggs, at
distant intervals, in any favourable situation : they
are very small, of an oval shape, of a white co-
lour, and a polished surface. From these, in the.
space of six days, are hatched the larvae, which are
destitute of feet, of a lengthened, worm-like shape.
Pl'LiEX
iSc.^.CclT.
LLrri./i" .ri,N'>/'i'i /> •■ /'■- h'.:>rs/i,: FIrrf Sn»r.
FLEA. 457
beset with distant hairs, and furnished at the head
with a pair of short antennae or tentacula, and at
the tail with a pair of slightly cnrved forks or
holders: their colour is white, with a reddish cast,
and their motions quick and tortuous. These larvae
are very fi*equently found in the nests of various
birds, and, in particular, of pigeons, where they
fasten occasionally to the young brood, and sa-
turate themselves with blood. In the space often
or twelve days they arrive at their full growtli,
when they usually measure near a quarter of an
inch in length: at this period they cease to feed,
and, casting their skin, change into the state of a
chrysalis, which is of a white colour, and of an
oval shape, with a slightly pointed extremity, and
exhibits the immature limbs of the included insect.
The larvae are said to spin themselves up in an
oval cotton-like covering before they undergo
their change: this however is not always the case.
After lying for the space of twelve days in chry-
salis, the com.plete insect emerges in its perfect
form. It now begins to exert its lively motions,
r.nd employs the sharp proboscis with which Na-
ture has furnished it in order to obtain nourish-
ment from the first bird or quadruped to which it
can gain access. The time required for the evolu-
tion of this animal varies considerably according
to the season of the year, and in the winter months
is of much longer duration than the period above-
mentioned; the egg scarcely hatching under twelve
days, and the larvae lying nearly twice the usual
time in chrysalis.
458 FLEA.
The history of this famihar insect does not appeaf
to have been fully understood till towards the de-
cline of the sixteenth century, when the observa-
tions of Leewenhoek and others were directed to
it. It is believed however that the first person
who investigated all the changes of the animal^
from the egg to the perfect Flea, was Signior
Diacinto Cestone, an Italian, who communicated
the account to the Royal Society of London. This
was published in the 149th Number of the Philo-
sophical Transactions, accompanied by figures,
which though not conducted with the extreme
accuracy which distinguishes the engravings of
Roesel and some others, are yet sufficient to give
a pretty clear idea of the egg, larva, &c.
Among the chief singularities observable in the
structure of the Flea may be noticed the extra-
ordinary situation of the first pair of legs, which
instead of being placed beneath the thorax, as in
most other insects, are situated immediately be-
neath the head: the antennae are short, hairy, and
consist of five joints; and at a small distance be-
neath these is placed the proboscis, which is strong,
sharp-pointed, tubular, and placed between a pair,
of jointed guards or sheaths, which are still farther
strengthened at the base by a pair of pointed
scales: the eyes are large, round, and black. The
general appearance of the animal is too well knov/n
to require particular description: it may only be
necessary to observe that the male is considerably
smaller than the female, with the back rather sink-
ing than convex, as it always is in the female iii-
ILEA. 459
sect. Nothing can exceed the curious disposition
and polished elegance of the shelly armour with
which the animal is covered; nor can the structure
of the legs be contemplated without admiration.
All these particulars however are so well repre-
sented in the accompanying figures as to supersede
the necessity of any long verbal description : they,
are taken from the exquisite engravings of Iloesel,
and will be found greatly to surpass in point of
minute accuracy even the celebrated figure of
Dr. Hook, so much admired in its day, and so
often copied into the works of succeeding natur-
alists.
Though it would perhaps be difficult to prove
that there exists in Europe more than one genuine
species of Flea^ yet it is certain that some per-
manent varieties or races may be traced, wiiich
a practised eye can readily distinguish from the
common domestic kind. Of these the most re-
markable seems to be that infesting some of the
smaller quadrupeds, and particularly Mice and
Bats. This variety is of a more slender form than
the common Flea and of a paler colour, differing
from that insect nearly in the same proportion
that a greyhound does from the more common
race of dogs.
Fulex penetrans or Chigger is a native of South-
America and the West Indian islands. Accord-
ing to Catesby's microscopic figure of this insect,
it miay properly be arranged under the present
genus; but it is probable, from the different de-
scriptions of authors, that some insects of the
Ado FLEA.
genus Acarus, which excite similar swellings under
the skin, have been confounded with it under the
general name of Chigger or Chigoe. Catesby's
account runs as follows.
*' It is a very small Flea, that is found only in
warm climates: it is a very troublesome insect^
especially to Negroes, and others that go barefoot
and are slovenly. They penetrate the skin, under
which they lay a bunch or bag of eggs, which s\'. ell
to the bigness of a small pea or tare, and give
great pain till taken out; to perform which great
care is required, for fear of breaking the bag,
which endangers a mortification, and the loss of
a lee:, and sometimes life itself This insect in
its natural size is not above a fourth part so big
as the common Flea. From the mouth issues a
hollow tube like that of the common Flea, between
a pair of antenna. It has six jointed legs, and
something resembling a tail. The egg is so small
as to be scarcely discerned by the naked eye.
These Chegoes are a nuisance to most parts of
America between the tropics."
Catesby's microscopic figure of the insect re-
presents it with very much the habit of a Flea, with
moniliform antennae of numerous joints, and a
caudal tube of the same length with the proboscis^
slightly forked at the end.
^^3
j/^o,:;, Ci-e-:! /.cnJrn .FuH-rifJ hv O Kfar.s7r:Flf^r S/ref/
ACARUS. MITE,
Generic Character.
Pedes octo.
Oculi duo, ad latera capitis.
dciitacula duo, articulata,
pediforniiai
Legs eight.
£^es two, situated on each
side the head.
Feelers two^ jointed j leg*
shaped.
X HE genils Acarils is extremely extensive, and
the species differ much in size and habit: in gene-
ral however the Acari are among the most minute
of Insects, and are popularly knovi^n by the name
of Mites.
The most familiar species is the Acariis Siro
or common Cheese-Mite, so frequently observed
among various articles of domestic consumption.
This little animal is one of those Minutiae of Na-
ture which amply repay the careful investigation
required in order to obtain a complete idea of all
its organs; and it forms a favorite subject of
microscopic speculation. Our celebrated country-
man Dr. Hook has long ago published a most
elegant microscopic figure of the Mite, with a
good general description ; but the more exact
elucidation of its form and natural history seems
to have been reserved for the penetrating eye of
aG'I mite.
Leevvenhoeck, who, exclusive of other particulars,
discovered that even the hairs or bristles with
which the body is beset, are far from simple fila-
ments, as commonly imagined, but resemble in
their structure the awns of barley, being barbed
on each side with numerous sharp-pointed pro-
cesses. Leewenhoeck also observed that the Mite
is oviparous^ l^'J^ng very small, white, oval eggs,
from which proceed the young animals,' resembling
the parents in all respects, except in the number
of their legs, which, at first, amount to six ohl}?^;
the third pair from the head not making their ap-
pearance till after the first casting of the skin.
The eggs hatch in warm weather in about six or
eight days, but in winter not under some weeks ;
and it is observed to be not uncommon to see the
young animal struggling to get clear of the egg-
shell, which sometimes they are a whole day in
bringing about.
The Mite, considering its size, is a very voraci
ous animal, devouring both animal and vegetable
substances with equal avidity. It is also extremely
tenacious of life, since we are assured by Leewen-
hoek that a Mite which he glued to a pin before
his microscope, lived in tliat situation for the space
of eleven weeks.
Acarus exulceimns or the Itch Mite, is a species
of singular curiosity, not only from the unusual
structure of its limbs, but on account of the many
controversies relative to its real existence in the
particular disease which it has been supposed to
produce. In order to take a general view of this
MITE. 463
e'ubject, more curious, it must be confessed, than
delicate, we must revert to the decline of the seven-
teenth century, when Dr. Bononio, an Italian phy-
sician, communicated to Redi a description, ac-
companied by microscopic figures, of the present
species of Mite, which he believed, from his fre-
quently repeated observations on persons affected
with the complaint above-mentioned, to be the
sole cause of the disease. The account of Bononio
was introduced by Dr. Mead into the Philosophi-
cal Transactions, and may be found in No. 283 of
that work. The observation seems to have been
received, both in England and elsewhere, as a new
and curious discovery. That what may be not
improperly called the Acarine Itch was however
known in very ancient times is sufficiently clear
from the observations of Mouffet, who, in his
History of Insects, has given a short abstract of
what the older writers have said on the subject, as
well as a convincing proof that the complaint was
well known in his own days. He relates the case
■of a Lady Penruddock, aged sixty, who contracted
this disorder, as was supposed, by too long a con-
tinuance of goat's milk, which she took from ap-
prehension of an approaching consumption. She
was, says Mouffet, miserably afflicted with these
mites, which the more thej'^ were picked out with
needles by the care of her nurses, the more their
numbers seemed to increase; and at length she
fell a victim to the disease.
The above-mentioned Mite is of a slightly round-
ed^ sublobated, and somewhat flattened shape.
464 MITE.
with the thighs of the two upper pair of legs ex-
tremely thick and short, but the tarsi or continua-
tions very slender, apparently tubular, transparent,
and terminating in a rounded tip: the two lower
pair of legs have thick, oval-obiong thighs, pro-
ceeding from a very slender base, and are extend-
ed into an extremely long, stout, curved, and
sharp-pointed bristle. The figure of this insect by
Bononio, engraved in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, cannot be commended either for elegance
or accuracy: that of Degeer is sufficiently correct.
This I am enabled to state with confidence, having
been favoured with several specimens of this ex-
traordinary animal by Dr. Baker, whose ingenious
observations on its nature and qualities were com-
municated to the Royal Society in the course of
the last winter; Dr. Baker, during his residence
at the Madeiras, had ample opportunities of in-
vestigating the disorder occasioned by it, and is
inclined to think that it constitutes a species of
PsOra distinct from some others which are usually
confounded with it^ but which arise from some dif-
ferent cause.
Acariis autiminaUs, popularly known by the
name of the Harvest- Bug, is also one of the most
minute of the genus, and is of a bright red colour,
with the abdomen beset on its hiiid part with
liumerous white bristles. This troublesome insect
will make itself sufficiently known to most people
during the months of July, August, and Septemr
ber: it is easily distinguishable on the skin by its
bright red colour and adheres so tenaciously when
ArA:Kr:s
j:^4
^1£. Ort/Hlh ^\'uip .
yi. ant7irt2f2t(/7s .
i8o3, Oct. ''iJ^imJm,T'ni'iifhi'd i>\' G Kcujviey .fTcr Smct^.
it has once fixed itself, as to be scarcely separated
"svithout violence; its motion, when disengaged, is
pretty quick, though by no means equal to that of
some other Acari. On the part where it fixes it
causes a tumors generally about the size of a peaj
sometimes much larger, accompanied by a severe
itching. These insects abound on vegetables, and
are generally contracted by walking in gardens,
amongst long grass, or in corn fields.
According to Mr. White, in his History of Sel-
bomc, they abound to an uncommon degree in
the chalky districts of that part of Hampshire.
He relates that he has been assured that the war-
reners, in the chalky downs, are so much infested
by them, and that they swarm to so infinite a
degree as to discolour their nets, and give them a
reddish cast, while the men are so bitten as to be
thrown into fevers*
Among the larger species of this genus may be
numbered the Acarus Ricinus, or Tick, so fre-
quently seen on dogs, and sometimes on cattle: it
often arrives nearly to the size of a small bean,
and is of a livid brown colour, with paler and
darker variegations: this animal is furnished be-
tween the antennce with a strong, broad, and flat-
tened snout or proboscis, edged on both sides by
a row of strong, sharp, reversed prickles, which
serve, when once introduced into the skin, to ad-
here with such a degree of tenacity as not to be
easily removed.
Acarus Rtduvius is of a similar nature to the
V. VI. p. II. 30
466 MITE.-
preceding, ^nd sometimes of nearly similar si^e?
it is found occasionally on cattle, dogs, and some
of the larger kind of birds.
. Among the animals of this genus which infest
Insects themselves the most common species is
the Acarus Cokoptratorum of Linnaeus, which is
very frequently seen on the bodies of some of the
larger kind of Coleopterous insects, but more parr
ticularly on the Scarabaeus stercorarius or com-
mon black beetle, which may be sometimes seen
so covered with its numbers as to be scarcely able
to move its limbs. This insect is about thrice
the size of the common Mite, of a pale yellowish
brown colour, and of an oval shape, with a slightly
convex body: its motions are moderately quick,
and the feet are terminated by a large vesicular
concavity, by the help of which it is enabled to
apply itself with security to the glossy surface of
the insect which it thus infests.
On the Black Beetle also, as well as on some
of the Silphae, and other coleopterous insects is
not unfrequently found that higlily curious species
of Mite called Acarus vegetans, or the vegetating
Mite, from the very singular manner in which it
is affixed to the limbs or wing-shells of the insect
it infests; viz. by a stem or footstalk of consider-
able length, proceeding from the end of the body,
and resembling a tail. This species is much smaller
than the preceding, but of similar colour: its
shape is nearly hemispherical, the upper or con-
vex part being of a lucid surface. I have some-
MITE; 467
times been inclined to suppose that this insect is
in reality nothing more than the young of the
Acarus Coleoptratorum, and that the eggs of
that species are deposited on a footstalk, in the
same manner ?is those of the Hemerobius Perla,
HYDRACHNA. HYDRACHNA.
Generic Character.
Caputs thorax, et abdomen
unita.
Palpi duo, articulati.
OculiAwo^ quatuor, sex.
Pedes octo, natatorii.
Head, thorax, and abdomenr
united or connate.
Feelers two, jointed.
Eyes two, four, or six.
Legs eight, formed for
swimming.
A HE genus Hydrachna, allied in the closest
manner to that of Acarus, under which the only
species known to Linnaeus were arranged, was-
first instituted by the ingenious Miiller, by whose
industrious researches many new and curious kinds
have been discovered.
Among the larger insects of this genus is t|ie
Hydrachna Jlaccida*, well described by Degeer
and others. Its size is that of a small pea, and its
colour a very bright red: its shape is nearly glo-
bular, but the skin is of such a nature as to yield
to every inclination of the body, so that the whole,
when taken out of the water, has an irregularly
* I give it this name in order the more clearly to distinguish
it from one or two others with which it may sometimes be con-
founded.
HYDRAfHl^A.
lfi7rtf/at/7 JJrfjrrr
m
TioescliafiCL
ffi/rr//irf
0<^i7^rap/iica
C^eo^'' lar
Mj:r;/y:/A .<■,■„/,■.
jee.i.Oet.i.£oiult/ii . fuiili/fia/ bi G.i.'rnrs/n-.F/ar S/yiwr.
kydrachna: 46y
flaccid appearance: this is most remarkable in tlie
full grown animal, which is also of a much more
torpid nature than the rest of the genus, which
are animals of great celerity of motion; and in-
deed the 3'oung or unadvanced individuals of the
present species are of a more compact appearance,
and swim with a greater degree of swiftness than
the larger ones. The H: flaccida is not very un-
common HI stagnant waters.
Of all the Hydrachnae yet discovered by far the
most elegant is the Hydrachna geographica, so
named from the fancied map-like distribution of
its variegations. It is one of the largest of the
genus, equalling the size of the former: it is oc-
casionally seen in clear ponds and other stagnant
waters, but is one of the rarer kinds: its shape is
globular, and its colour a polished black, decorated
with carmine-coloured spots and patches, which,
in a certain light, are accompanied by a kind of
gilded lustre: four round spots of this colour are
situated on the middle of the upper part of the bodyj
and are bounded by four large, angular patches;
besides which, on the sides and lower part of the
body, are some others: the legs are varied with
black and red, and, as in the rest of the genus,
beautifully ciliated with long hairs. This insect
swims with great celerity, and ap*pears in almost
constant motion. When seen in its state of per-
fection, it may be numbered among the most
beautiful of the British insects.
Hydrachna Roeseliana I name after the incom-
4f6 HYDRACHNA.
parable Roesel, by whom it is figured in his well
known work on insects. It is of equal, or even
superior size to the immediately preceding, which,
in niany points, it seems greatly to resemble; the
ground-colour however in this is red, with black
variegations, disposed in a different manner from
those of the former. It is found, though not very
frequently, in stagnant waters.
Among the smaller, or middle-sized Hydrachnae,
one of the most common is the H: ejc'tendeiis, which
is of the size of a very small hemp-seed, and of a
'bright red colour, without any variegations: it is
extremely nimble in its motions, and always carries
the hinder pair of legs, which exceed the rest in
length, in an extended posture.
Hydrachna araneoides (Acariis aquaticus macu-
latus. Degeer.) is a small species, of a brown co-
lour, clouded with red, and marked on the back
by a very large oval patch of the same colour. It
is found, like the rest, in stagnant waters, and has
the habit of a young spider.
Some of the genus are distinguished by a kind
of cylindric process at the end of the abdomen: of
this kind is the Hydrachna Buccinator. Lin. Gmel.
(Acarus caudatus. Degeer.) It is a very small
species, of a dark brown colour, with a large
rufous patch at the upper part of the body, the
cylindric process being of a dull yellow. It is a
native of stagnant waters.
The eggs of the Hydrachnae, which are small
?ind round, are deposited in flat clusters, some-
HYDRACIINA* ^7 1
times on the bodies of Nepae and other water-in-
«ects. The young, when first excluded, are fur-
nished with six legs only; but after the first or
second change of their skin, become eight-legged
insects.
PHALANGIUM. PHALANGIUM.
Generic Character.
Pedes octo.
Oculi verticis duo contio-ui
duo Jaterales.
Frons antennis cheliformi-
bus.
Abdomen rotundatum.
Legs eight.
Eyes tv^o vertical, and two
lateral.
/'ro?2^ furnished with cheli,
form antennae.
Abdomen, generally, rounds
ed.
Oi
'F all the Insects in the order Aptera iew per-
haps will be found of a form more repulsive than
that of the present genus, which, exclusive of its
spider-like shape, is, in some species, armed with
weapons resembling those of the genus Aranea,
but operating with greater malignity. The Pha-
langia differ very much in size, some being very
minute insects, while others are equal in magni-
tude to the larger kind of Spiders.
The Phalangium reniforme is one of the largest
of the genus. This animal is a native of the hotter
regions of the globe, being found in Africa and
South-America. It has the general appearance
of a very large spider, with the thorax heart, or
rather kidney-shaped, and the abdomen rounded:
PHAlL.^O^'Gir^Io
1-26
Ph . rentfonne
,?/. tiruJM -rn'/f
oJ. ou,r, r.o,uivn.J',Ur/i.^c.ify aAnv:'/^:^.f/r.vSfr.vt.
PHALANGIUM. 473
the legs are very long, and the palpi or claspers
are strongly toothed on the inner side by several
sharp-pointed curved processes: the first pair of
legs have all the a])pearance of a pair of antennae;
far exceeding the rest in length, and being of a slen-
der or filiform shape. The whole insect is of a deep
chesnut brown colour, with a yellowish cast on
the abdomen. Its particular history seems to be
little known, but there can be no doubt of its
being of a predacious nature, living, probably, on.
the smaller insects.
Plialangiinyi caudatum is, in general, of rather
smaller size than the former, and of a lengthened
shape, with shorter limbs in proportion: it is
principally distinguished by the long setaceous
process in which the abdomen terminates: the
chelae or claspers are large, and toothed on the
inside towards the tips. The general colour of
the animal is chesnut brown: it is a native of the
East Indies.
To this genus belong those well known insects
called long-legged, shepherd, or harvest Spiders,
being popularly considered as such, though difier-
ing very considerably from Spiders properly so
named. The most common insect of this kind is
the Phalangium Opilio of Linnaeus, which, during
the autumn, may be observed in gardens, about
walls, &:c. it is remarkable for its plump, but flattish,
orbicular body, and its extremely long and slender
legs, which are generally so carried that the body
appears suspended or elevated to a considerable
474 VHALANGIUM.
height above the surface on which the animal rests:
the eyes are situated on the top of the head, and
resemble two very minute glassy globules: the
colour of the whole animal is a pale greyish brown.
This species preys on the smaller kii,id of insects
in general.
Among the minute species of Phalangium the
fiiost remarkable is the P. cancroides of Linnaeus,
ft very small insect, of a reddish brown colour, and
of slow motion, occasionally found among papers,
dried plants, &c. &c. Its shape is obtusely oval,
with a sharpened front, furnished with a pair of
very long and large jointed claspers, which give
the insect a very remarkable appearance: the
body is very much depressed. This little insect
has been occasionally referred to very different
genera. The celebrated Swammerdam considered
it as a species of Scorpion j and of the same opinion
•was the ingenious Roesel, in whose work on in-
sects it is well figured. In the Fauna Suecica of
Linnioeus it is made an Acarus, and Degeer insti-
tutes for it a particular genus under the name of
Chelifer. It is a species which seems to vary con-
siderably iij size; those which are found in our
own country rarely exceeding the length of the
tenth of an inch, while in some parts of Europe it
appears to arrive at twice that length. It is said
by Linnaeus, but, probably, on no just foundation,
to introduce itself occasionally under the skin, and
to excite a painful tumor; a circumstance, which,
considering the size of the animal, seems scarcely
h/ifr/rf/n/tm trtaonJnffl j..^
vnt. .ivze
yflrK. rr,ri /.rn./^n. /n/'/>W/"-r{ hy . A" A'f.irslfi'. Fl^f' ■ IV/V^
PHALANGIUM. 475
possible. It preys on the sm<iller and weaker kind
of insects, as the Termes pulsatorium, the larvje
of Ptini and Dermestides, &c.
Phalangium Americamim is extremely allied to
the immediately preceding, but diflers in being of
a somewhat larger size, and of a paler colour: the
body is also of a much more lengthened form. It
is found in many parts of America. In our own
country we have a species very much resembling
it, but smaller and of a dark brown colour: it
is sometimes distinguished by the name of the
Lobster-Insect.
I shall add the description of one more species
to this genus; an animal which, if we may rely
on the most respectable authorities, must un-
doubtedly be numbered among the most formid-
able of the whole Insect tribe. This is the Pha-
langium a?rmeu/des, of Pallas, nearly similar in size
to the Ph: caudatum, of a lengthened form, a
brown colour, and covered with downy hair: the
claspers are short, but ver}'^ large in proportion to
the animal, and the tips are toothed internally, in
such amanner as to bear a resemblance to a lobster's
claw. This insect is a native of the warmer parts
of the South of Europe, and of Africa, inhabiting
^fields, and by its bite producing most painful swell-
ings on the skin, and even, as it is said, sometimes
proving fatal. Mr. Herbst, in his excellent work
on the Aptera, has ranked this species, with some
others of a similar appearance, under a distinct
genus of the name of Solpuga.
ARANEA. SPIDER.
Generic Character,
Pedes octo,
Oculi octo ; rarius sex.
Os unguibus, seu retinaculis
duobus.
Palpi duo articulati; mas-
culis genitalibus capitati.
Anus papillis textoriis.
Legs eight.
Ej/es eight ; sometimes six.
Month furnished with two
hooks or holders.
Feelers two, jointed, the tips
of which, in the male,
distinguish the sex.
Abdomen terminated by pa^
pillae or teats, through
which the insect draws iti?
thread.
X H E very extensive genus Aranea may be disr
tributed into several sections according to the
shape or habit of body, or according to the posi-
tion of the eyes, which are differently placed in
the different families. I shall at present however
mention only a few of the most remarkable species,
without any particular division of the genus.
One of the largest of the European spiders is
the Aranea Diadema of Linnaeus, which is ex-
tremely common in our own country, and is
chiefly seen during the autumnal season in gar-
dens, &c. The body of this species, when full
Akawiea
228
Dithii^ym
. I . /d3 . . ///v/?
7; \
I. //./I/bin
ida
fv'^^e^
IPP^. YA
a^ji/anra
v-.v
finh///. f
e.xtt'r7sa
iSc'i.Ca'.'i Lcndon J'ii/>/i.,/ii;i bv O.J\,ai\'/ev. J-'Ui-f ■ ^'fi-fflr.
^ SPIDER. 477
grown, is not much inferior in size to a small
hazel nut: the general colour of the animal is
deep chesnut-brovvn, approaching to reddish in
$ome specimens, and the abdomen is beautifully
marked by a longitudinal series of round or drop-
shaped milk-white spots, crossed by others of simi-
lar appearance, so as to represent in some degree
the pattern of a small diadem. This spider, in
the months of September and October, forms, in
some convenient spot or shelter, a large round,
close, or thick web of yellow silk, in which it de-
posits its eggs, guarding the round web with a
secondary one "of a looser texture. The young
are hatched in the ensuing May, the parent in-
sects dying towards the close of Autumn. The
male of this species is distinguished by having the
back crossed by four or five black-brown bars.
The Aranea Diadema being one of the largest of
the common spiders serves to exemplify some of
the principal characters of the genus in a clearer
manner than most others. At the tip of the abdo-
men are placed five* papillae or teats, through
which the insect draws its thread; and as each of
these papillae is furnished with a vast number of
foramina or outlets, disposed over its whole sur-
face, it follovvs that what we commonly term a
spider's thread is in reality formed of a collection
of a great many distinct ones; the animal possess-
ing the power of drawing out more or fewer at
* In some species four ; and in some are two smaller papillae,
the nature of which is doubtful.
478 SPIDER.
pleasure; and if it should draw from all the fora-
mina at once the thread might consist of many
hundred distinct filaments. The eyes, which are
situated on the upper part or front of the thorax,
are eight in number, placed at a small distance
from each other, and having the appearance of
the stemmata in the generality of insects. The
fangs or piercers, with which the animal wounds
its prey, are strong, curved, sharp-pointed, and
each furnished on the inside, near the tip, with a
small oblong hole or slit, through which is evacu-
ated a poisonous fluid into the wound made by
the point itself, these organs operating in minia-
ture on the same principle with the fangs in
poisonous serpents. The feet are of a highly
curious structure; the two claws with which each
is terminated being furnished on its under side
with several parallel processes resembling the teethi
of a comb, and enabling the animal to dispose
and manage with the utmost facility the disposi-
tion of the threads in its web, &c.
Aranea Tarantula^ or Tarantula Spider, of which
so many idle recitals have been detailed in the
works of the learned, and which even to this day
continues, in some countries, to exercise the faith
and ignorance of the vulgar, is a native of the
warmer parts of Italy and other warm European
regions, and is generally found in dry and sunny
plains. It is the largest of all the European spiders,
and is of a brown colour, with the back of the
abdomen marked by a row of trigonal black spots
with whitish edges, and the legs marked beneath by
SPIDER. 47 C}
black and white bars. In the present iUuminated
period it may be siifTicient to observe that the ex-
traordinary symptoms supposed to ensue from the
bite of this insect, as well as their supposed cure
by the power of musick alone, are entirely fabul-
ous, and are now sufticiently exploded among all
rational philosophers.
Aratiea 7iobUis is a very beautiful species, of
middling size, with an orange-coloured thorax,
marked by six black spots, and an oval, yellow
abdomen with seven oval black spots, the first of
which is situated immediately behind the thorax,
\vhile the remainder are disposed into two longi-
tudinal rows: the legs are yellow, with the last
joints black. This elegant spider is a native of
Sumatra.
Aranea scenica is a small species by no means
uncommon during the summer months, and gene-
rally seen on walls in gardens, &c. it is of a black
colour, with the abdomen marked on each side
the upper part by three white bars. This spider
is one of those which spring suddenly, to some
distance, on their prey.
Aranea extcnsa is a smallish species, of a fine
green colour, accompanied by a slight silvery
gloss: it is common in gardens, and is almost
alw^iys seen with the legs extended, in a parallel
line with the body.
Aranea Uevipes is of a grey colour, varied with
minute black specks, and with the legs beautifully
crossed by numerous alternate black and white
Wrsy
480 SPIDER.
Aranea palustris is of a lengthened form and oi*
a brown colour, and is principally seen in damp
or watery places.
Aranea aquatica is a middle-sized species of a
deep chesnut-colour, residing entirely under water,
generally in very clear ponds or fountains, and
forming for itself a small tissue or web confining
a proper quantity of air: sometimes this species is
observed to take possession of a vacant shell, in
which case it closes the mouth with a slight web.
The exact distinction of species in this genus,
especially among the smaller kinds, is often ex-
tremely difficult and uncertain; since the animals
are sometimes differently marked during the differ-
ent periods of their life: some however are in this
respect perfectly constant, bearing the same distri-
bution of colours from their first hatching to their
latest period.
The gigantic Aranea avicularia or Bird-Catch-
ing Spider is too remarkable an insect to be passed
over in silence. This enormous spider is not uncom-
mon in many parts of the East Indies and South-
America, where it resides among trees; frequently
seizing on small birds, which it destroys by
wounding with its fangs, and afterwards sucking
their blood: the slit or orifice near the tip of the
fangs in spiders, through which the poisonous fluid
is evacuated, and the existence of which has some-
times afforded so much matter of doubt among
naturalists, is in this species so visible that it may
be distinctly perceived without the assistance of
a glass.
J2(^
SPIDER. 481
This animal appears to admit of some varieties,
differing both in size and colour; or rather, it is
probable that several species, really distinct, have
been often confounded in the works of naturalists
under one common title. Tlie individual repre-
sented on the annexed plate is copied from one of
the largest specimens in the Leverian Museum:
its colour is an uniform dusky brown.
During the early part of the last century a
project was entertained by a French gentleman,
Mons^ Bon of Montpelier, of instituting a manu-
facture of spider's silk, and the Royal Academy,
to which the scheme was proposed, appointed the
ingenious Reaumur to repeat the experiments of
Mons^ Bon, in order to ascertain how far the pro-
posed plan might be carried; but, after making
the proper trials, Mr. Reaumur found it to be im-
practicable, on account of the natural disposition
of these animals, which is such as will by no means
admit of their living peaceably together in large
numbers. Mr. Reaumur also computed that
G63521 spiders would scarcely furnish a single
pound of silk. Mon'. Bon however, the first pro-
jector, carried his experiments so far as to obtain
two or three pair of stockings and gloves of this
silk, which were of an elegant grey colour, and
were presented, as samples, to the Royal Academy.
It must be observed that in this manufacture it is
the silk of the egg-bags alone that can be used,
being far stronger than that of the webs. Mons^
Bon collected tweh'e or thirteen ounces of these,
V. VI. p. II, 31
48'2 SPIDEK.
and having caused them to be well cleared of dusty
by properly beating with sticks, he washed them
perfectly clean in warm water. After this they
were laid to steep, in a large vessel, with soap,
salt-petre, and gum arabic. The whole was left
to boil over a gentle fire for three hours, and were
afterwards again washed to get out the soap; then
laid to dry for some days, after which they were
carded, but with much smaller cards than ordinary.
The silk is easily spun into a fme and strong
thread: the difficulty being only to collect the
silk-bags in sufficient quantity.
Mons^. Reaumur, among his objections, states,
that the thread, notwithstanding Mr. Bon's de-
scription, is far inferior to that of the silkworm
both in lustre and strength: the thread of the
spider's web, according to this author, bears a
weight of only twelve grains without breaking;
whereas that of the silkworm bears the weight of
thirty-six.
- . The egg-bags used for the purpose were, pro-
bably, those of the Aranea Diadema, and others*
nearly allied to it.
We have before observed that these insects are
but ill calculated for living in society-. Whenever
thus stationed, they never fail to wage war with
each other. The females in particular are of a
disposition peculiarly capricious and malignant,
and it is observed that if the male happens to pay
his courtship at an unfavourable moment, the
, female suddenly springs upon him and destroys
SPIDER. 483
him. On this occasion, says Linnasus, if ever,
may be justly applied the Ovidian hne
Res est sollicill plena timoris amor !
There remains one more particularity in the
histDry of Spiders with which I shall conclude the
description of the genus, viz. the power of flight.
This is chiefly exercised by those of less advanced
j^ge, and seems possessed but in an inferior degree
by those which are full grown. It is principally
in the autumnal season that these diminutive ad-
venturers ascend the air, and contribute to fill it
with that infinity of floating cobwebs which are
so peculiarly conspicuous at that period of the year.
AV^hen inclined to make these aerial excursions,
the spider ascends some slight eminence, as the
top of a wall, or the branch of a tree, and, turning
itself with its head towards the wind ejaculates*
(according to Dr. Lister) several threads, and,
rising from its station, commits itself to the gale,
and is thus carried far beyond the height of the
loftiest towers, and enjoys the pleasure of a clearer
atmosphere. During their flight it is probable
that spiders employ themselves in catching such
minute winged insects as may happen to occur
in their progress; and when satisfied with their
journey and their prey, they suffer themselves to
fall, by contracting their limbs, and gradually
* The ejaculation or darting of the threads is doubted by
Swammerdam and some others, who rather suppose that tlie
threads are driven by the wind from the papillae of the animal.
484 SPIIXER.
disengaging themselves from the thread which
supports them. This curious particular in the
history of Spiders was first observed by Dr.
Hulse, about the year .1668, and was soon con-
firmed by Dr. Lister and Mr. Ray. Dr. Lister
made several very accurate observations on this
subject, and even ascended some of tlie highest
edifices on purpose to observe it, and saw spiders
sailing as far as the eye could reach above these,
till at length they vanished from his view» (See
Phil. Trans. No. 50. p. 1014.)
Ji
1810. . Cct'.i £rnJcn .Ad-ILi-/ud by C- JZtarj-Itj'J^le^/' SaveC.
SCORPIO. SCORPION.
Generic Character.
Corpus ovato-elongatum.
Pedes octo; insuper Chelae
duse frontales.
Ocult octo; tres at latus
utrumque thoracis; duo
in tergo.
Cauda elongata, articulata,
terminata mucrone arcu-
ato.
Pectines duo subtus, inter
pectus et abdomen.
Body ovate-elongated.
Legs eight, besides two
frontal claspers.
Eyes eight: three on each
side the thorax, and two
on the back.
7a«7 elongated, jointed, and
terminated by a curved
piercer.
Combs or toothed processes
two, situated beneath, be-
tween the thorax and ab-
domen.
X HE malignant genus Scorpio, so proverbially
remarkable for the effect of its poisonous sting,
seems chiefly confined to the warmer parts of the
globe, and may be considered as a stranger to
the northern regions. The common Italian Scor-
pion usually measures something more than an
inch in length from the head to the setting on of
the tail; but, if measured from the tips of the
claspers to the tip of the tail, about three inches:
its colour is brown, with considerable variation in
486 SCORPION.
different individuals, some inclining to a reddish,
and some to a yellowish cast. This animal is
found in neglected places, beneath boards, stones,
&c. and frequently makes its appearance in houses:
its sting is painful, but seldom productive of any
very serious consequences, and the usual remedy is
sweet oil, well rubbed on the punctured part.
Like .the rest of the genus, this insect preys on
other insects, and particularly on spiders.
Scorpio Americamis or the American Scorpion
is of somewhat smaller size than the preceding,
and of a more slender or lengthened form : its co-
lour is a yellowish brown. It is a native of many
parts of America.
The largest and by far the most formidable of
the genus is the Scorpio Afer of Linnaeus, or great
African Scorpion. This species is of so large a
size as often to measure four, inches from the head
to the beginning of the tail, and ten inches, if
measured from th^ tips of the claspers to that of
the tail. Its colour is a dark brown, inclining to
yellow beneath, and in the interstices of the joints;
and the claspers have often a reddish cast. This
species is found in many parts of Africa, where it
is held in great dread; the effect of its sting pro-
ducing YeTj severe symptoms, and sometimes
even proving fatal.
The poison of the Scorpion is evacuated through
two very small oblong foramina situated on each
side the tip of the sting. It is well known that a
; diversity of opinion has subsisted among authors
relative to this particular. The celebrated Redi,
SCORPION. 487
assisted by the best' microscopes be could procure,
was not able detect any orifice, though he was
well convinced of the existence of such, from ob-
serving a minute drop of poison exsude from near
the tip. Others have denied the existence of any
foramen; but Vallisneri and Leewenhoek have
properly described two foramina, viz. one on each
side ; "SO that the sting of the scorpion can with
greater facility discharge its poisonous fluid than
that of any other Insect. A third foramen is said
to have been sometimes observed*.
The part in Scorpions which is situated beneath
the breast, bearing the appearance of two minute
combs, has been fixed upon by Linnasus as a
criterion of the species ; the number of teeth how-
ever, varying occasionally in the same species,
renders this character uncertain. The use of these
organs remains as yet uninvestigated.
Scorpions are viviparous insects, producing a
very considerable number of young at once: these
are at first entirely white, but acquire their dusky
colour in the space of a few days, they are observed
to cast their skin from time to time, in the manner
of Spiders.
Several fabulous anecdotes of these animals
have been recorded by the older writers on na-
tural history which are totally unworthy of being
related in the present enlightened age. One of
the most remarkable of these legends is, that a
Scorpion surrounded by live coals, finding no
* Scorpionum arma foraminibus tribus scatent. Lin. Syst.
Nat.
488 SCORPION.
method of escaping, grows desperate from its situ-
ation, and stings itself to deatli. It is not uncom-
mon to hear this quoted with serious credulity as
the only instance of suicjide amongst the inferior
animals.
rANCER.
I3l
'^'^0^^r*^M^
zSoJ. Oct.i.So>idv»,U'udlf/?iai bj- a.IuMrsl(ii. i'Ud Street
CANCER. CRAB.
Generic Character.
Pedes octo (rarius sex aut
decern) insuper manus
duae chelatae.
Oculi duo, distantes, pleris-
que pedunculati, elon-
gati, mobiles.
Cauda articulata, inermis.
Legs eight, (sometimes six
or ten) besides two chel-
ated arms.
Eyes two, distant, generally
footstalked, elongated,
moveable.
T(i?7 jointed, unarmed.
-L HE* genus Cancer is distinguished not more
by the singularly curious shape and appearance of
the animals it contains, than by the vast variety
of species into which it is divided ^ the number of
which is so great that it is found necessary to sub-
divide them into sections, according to their dif-
ferent shape or general habit, in order that they
may be the more readily investigated. Some are
of a short, thick, and nearly orbicular form, and
sometimes the transverse diameter of the body
considerably exceeds the longitudinal: others are
of a thin and long form : some are strongly muri-
* This introduction to the genus Cancer is, in great measure,
repeated from what I have before written on the same subject in
the Naturalist's Miscellany.
490 CRAB.
cated; others perfectly smooth: some are furnish-
ed with very strong and large chelns or claws;
others have only w^ak, unarmed feet: lastly, some
are remarkable for their great size, while others
are so diminutive as to require the assistance of
glasses in order to determine the structure of their
several parts.
The animals of this genus cast their shells from
time to time. When this period approaches, the
limbs gradually shrink or waste in size, so as to
enable them to be drawn with greater ease from
the claws and other parts of the shell. The animal
then lies, in a quiet state for some days, till the
new shell is formed, or rather till it is hardened;
for at first it is rather membranaceous than crusta-
ceous. Some species have the body naturally desti-
tute of a shelly covering; in consequence of which
they never fail to take possession of such vacant
univalve shells as happen to suit their conveni-
ence; the body being immersed in the shell, while
the claws remain exserted.
The loss of a limb, an accident so dreadful and
-irremediable to the major part of the animal world,
,is to these creatures of but little importance; since
the space of a few weeks supplies the defect, and
-restores them to their former state. What is still
.more wonderful, these animals, when injured,
.maimed, or bruised on any particular limb, do
not wait for the process of a gradual recovery of
that individual part, but, as if conscious of the
power of reproduction, voluntary cast off with
fiudden violence the offending member, and be-
CRAD. 491
taking themselves to a state of retirem(5nt, await
the formation of tlieir new limb. Most of the
genus are very prolific; the female of the common
Lobster is said to produce upwards of twelve thou-
sand eggs each time of laying. In this genus also
we find examples of deviation from that general
symmetry of parts, so conspicuous in most other
animals, in which the shape of the body and limbs
on one side exactly corresponds to that of the
other; many of the Cancri being furnished with
a pair of chelae or claspers which on one side are
of an immoderate size, while those on the oppo-
site side are thin and small ; and in some particular
species, as the Cancer vocans, &c. the size of the
large arm is so great as to oblige the animal to
support it on its back, in which position it is
generally placed while the creature is walking.
It may likewise be added that this is a particu-
larity which is sometimes reversed ; a circum-
stance which occasionally takes place, as is well
known, in the univalve shells.
The principal division of the genus is into
Brachyuri and Macrouri, or the short-tailed and
long-tailed. Of the former division the Cayicer
Pagurus or large edible Crab affords a familiar
example. This animal has a smooth body, with
a notched or creuated thorax, five-toothed front,
and smooth claws with black tips: it grows to a
very large size, and inhabits the rocky coasts of
our own island as well as of many other parts of
Europe,
Cancer Greipms or streaked Crab is a native of
4g2 CRAB.
the Indian and American seas: the body is of a
pale yellowish colour, beautifully variegated with '
red streaks and specks: the sides of the thorax are^
marked by several transverse pleats, and the front "
notched into four obtuse denticulated divisions.
Among the Cancri macrouri or long-bodied C
Cancri the common Lobster may serve as a fami-
liar example. This species, as every one knows,
is found in great plenty about many of the Eu-
ropean shores: its colour, when living, is a fine
blueish black, beautifully variegated on different
parts with paler spots and clouds. Its general
habitation is in the clearest water, about the foot
of such rocks as impend over the sea. Lobsters
begin to breed in the spring, and continue breed-
ing during part of the summer: they deposit their
eggs in the sand, where they are said to be soon
hatched : it is observed however, that those which
are cast before the warm season seldom arrive at
perfection. In the months of July and August
the young may be observed in great numbers in
the little pools left by the tide among the rocks:
when recently hatched, they have an appearance
distantly resembling that of tadpoles, but gradu-
ally obtain the form of the complete animal.
Cancer NorvegicuSy a native of the northerly
seas, is of a more lengthened or slender form than
the Lobster, and with thinner claspers in propor-
tion, of an angular shape, and roughened by
strong protuberances along the angular elevations.
Its natural colour is said to be pale red, with
yellow markings or variegations.
CRAH. 403
A more beautiful animal than the preceding is
the Cancer Hojiiarus or embroidered Cancer, in
which the colour, at least in the dried specimens,
is a. deep greenish blue, with a similar yellow
pattern, so disposed as to give the animal the ap-
pearance artificially painted in stripes, &c. I
suspect that real specific differences exist between
some animals of this division which are confounded
under the general name of Cancer Homarus.
Cancer Astacus or the Crawfish is a well-known
inhabitant of our rivers, lodging in holes which it
forms in the banks.
Among the smaller kind of the long-bodied
Cancri the Cancer Crangon or Shrimp is one of
the most remarkable. It is found in vast abund-
ance round many of the European coasts, and is,
when living, of a beautiful greyish green colour
sometimes inclining to blue, and sometimes tinged
with brown.
Some of this genus, as has been before observed,
are destitute of a shelly covering to the body, and,
in consequence, are obliged to obtain security
from danger by inhabiting some close retirement:
the most common species of this kind is the Cancer
Bernardus of Linnaeus, commonly known by the
name of the hermit-crab. It enters into any vacant
univalve shell which is capable of conveniently
receiving its body, and when in motion protrudes
only the head and fore-parts, coiling the hind part
of the body round the pillar of the shell. It is a
very frequent inhabitant of common shells of the
494 CRAB.
genera of Murex and Buccinum. Its general
colour is pale red.
Among the smaller, kind of fresh-water Cancri
the Cancer stagnalis is the chief: this is an insect
of great elegance, and is occasionally found in
small stagnant Maters, at first sight rather suggest-
ing the idea of the larva of some kind of Dytiscus
than of a species of Cancer. Its length is about
an inch and half, and its colour pale blueish green ;
the male is furnished with a pair of strong hooked
jaws or processes of which the female is destitute:
this latter is generally distinguished by its ovarium,
of a pointed shape and of a brownish colour.
In clear springs, ponds, &c. may be frequently
observed a species much smaller than the former,
viz. the Cancer Pulex of Linnieus. This measures
about half an inch in length, and is of a livid brown
colour; '}t generally swims with considerable ce-
lerity but with a vertiginous kind of motion, and
commonly on one side.
I must not dismiss the genus Cancer without
observing that, by one of those revolutions in
science which sometimes take place, this whole
genus is, at present, in danger of being expelled
from the class of Insects, and of ranking in a
separate department.
MoxocuXiTrs^
132,
If rune/r J tdp-
M. Poh'phemns
MONOCULUS. MONOCULUS.
Generic Character
Pedes natatorii.
Corpus crusta tectum.
Ociili, plerisquc, approxi-
niati, testsB innati.
Feet formed for swimming:.
Bodj/ covered by a crust-
aceous tegument.
Eyes, in most species, ap-
proximated, and imbed-
ded in the shell.
o
F the Monociili by far the major part are v^rr
small water-insects, requiring the assistance of a
microscope for the investigation of their particular
organs: some however are so large as to require
no very minute inspection; and one species in
particular, (if indeed it can be allowed to stand
with propriety in the genus) is of a size so gigantic
that it is generally considered as the largest of the
whole crustaceous tribe. This animal is the Mono-
culus Polyphemus of Linnaeus, commonly distin-
guished by the title of Molucca Crab or King-
Crab. Specimens are sometimes seen of two feet
in length, exclusive of the tail. It is a native of
the Indian ocean, and is said to be generally
found in pairs, or male and female swimming to-
getiier. The colour of the whole animal is a
yellowish brown: the shell is very convex, rounded
496 MONOCULUS.
in front, and lunated behind, where it joins the
lower part of the body : this, which is of the same
crustaceous nature, is marked on each side into
several spiny inscisions: the legs which are seven
on each side, are situated beneath the concavity
of the large or rounded part of the shell, and are
each terminated by a double claw, those of the
lowest pair having some additional processes: the
branchias or respiratory organs are disposed in
the form of several flat, rounded, imbricated la-
mellae on each side the lower part of the body:
the tail, which is strait, triangular, and of the
same crustaceous nature with the rest of the shell,
is equal in length to the whole body, and gradually
tapers to a sharp point. The eyes in this species,
instead of being approximated, as required in the
Linnaean generic character, are extremely distant
from each other, being situated towards the sides
of the shell: they are of a semilunar form, and the
surface is divided into a great number of minute
conical convexities: this part however should be
considered only as constituting the cornea or ex-
terior covering of each eye ; the organs them-
selves being, according to the observations of Mr.
Petiver, in the Philosophical Transactions, placed
on a pedicle beneath each of the above-mentioned
semilunar corneae. Petiver's words are these. "The
whole structure of this animal is very remarkable,
and particularly his eyes, viz. between the fourth,
and last pair of claws on each side, reckoning
from his mouth, and excluding the small pair there
placed, are inserted the rudiments of another pair;^
^orrx,i"S
U.^ipus
MONOCULUS. 4C)7
or a claw broken off on each side at the second
joint or elbow j on these extremities are the eyes,
like those of the horns of snails, but under the
covert of a thick and opake shell Nature in that
place has wonderfully contrived a transparent
lantern, through which the light is conveyed,
whose superficies very exactly resembles the great
eyes of our large libelUe or adderbolts, which to
the naked eye are plainly perceived to be com-
posed of innumerable globuli: these, like them,
are oblong, and guarded by a testaceous super-
cilium."
Of the European Monoculi by far the largest is
the Monocidas /I pus, which, when full-grov.ii, mea-
sures nearly an inch and three quarters from the
front to the end of the body, exclusive of the
forked divisions of the tail. It is found in muddy
stagnant waters, but is a rare Species in this
country, having been only observed in a few par-
ticular situations. In its general shape it is con-
siderably allied to the large exotic species before
described, but the body is of a more lengthened
form in proportion, with the hinder part naked,
and divided into numerous joints: the branchia?
or respiratory organs, are large, and are distri-
buted into numerous imbricated rows on the under
part of the body: beneath the front is a pair of
jointed, trifid arms, extending on each side to a
considerable distance: the eyes are placed near,
each other in front of the shell: the tail is termin-
ated by a pair of long forks or setaceous processes.
The colour of the whole insect is a pal^ greenish
V. VI. p. II. 32
49s MONOCULUS.
brown above, and reddish beneath. We are in-
formed in vol. 40 of the Philosophical Transac-
tions that this insect has been found in great
plenty in a pond on Bexley Common in Kent. It
is also added, that the same pond, having been
perfectly dried, and being suddenly fdled during
a heavy thunder-storm, swarms of the same ani-
mal were again observed in it within the space of
two days after.
Monoculus Pulei\ called, from its peculiar start-
ing or springing motion, the Water-Flea, is an
almost universal inhabitant of stagnant waters,
appearing sometimes in such vast swarms as to
cause an apparent discoloration of the water
itself. It is an insect of a highly singular and ele-
gant appearance, exhibiting, when magnified, a
beautiful distribution of internal organs. Its gene-
ral length is about the tenth of an inch, but it is,
sometimes seen considerably larger: its shape is
oval, somewhat truncated in front, and sharply
pointed behind: the body is inclosed in a bivalve,
transparent shell, which when examined by the
microscope appears finely reticulated: on each
side the head is a strong transparent jointed arm,
forking into two divisions, and terminating in
several setaceous branches: the tail which is ge-
nerally inclosed within the shell, is occasionally
protruded in the form of a strong curved and point-
ed process : the eyes of this animal are of a singu-
lar construction; they are large in proportion to
the insect, placed very near each other, and ap-
pear to consist of many separate globules, of a.
'Mo:s'ocT^iArs
^IT.ffr-uHth ^t-u^
U--^
X '
i»c^.C'>et'/.J,etuU'nrut>lisht:dbv CSiur^-lj-v .Fli^t So-cet .
MONOCULUS. 499
black colour, united under a common skin. In
the female insect the ovarium is generally very
conspicuous, filling the greater part of the space
between the shells, above the branchia? or side-
limbs: the ova are very large in proportion to the
animal, and the young hatch before their exclusion
from the parent. From late observations it ap-
pears that this animal possesses, in an inferior
degree, the siirprizing property of the genus Aphis,
viz. that of producing a series of already impreg-
nated descendants.
The minute Moiiocuhis quadricornis or four-
horned Monoculus, must have frequently met the
eyes of every oncj since it is not only extremely
common in every stagnant water, but sometimes
makes its appearance in that of pumps, wells, &c.
and is in consequence occasionally observed in
water brought to the table. Its size is not greatly
superior to that of a common mite, but its shape
is oblong or lengthened, and the female is remark-
able for the appearance of the ovaria, which are
attached, on each side the tail, in such a manner
as to resemble bunches of grapes in miniature: on
each side the head are two long, jointed arms, re-
sembling four very long antennae: the tail is long
and bifid: the general colour of the whole insect is
w^hite, but it is sometimes seen of a green, and
sometimes of a reddish cast.
ONISCUS. ONISCUS.
Generic Character.
Pedes quatuordecim.
Antenna setacese,
Cm^pus ovale.
Legs fourteen.
Antenn/e setaceous.
Body oval.
o
'F this genus, which is not very numerous, the
most common species is the Oniscus Aselius, popu-
larly known by the name of the woodlouse. It is
a very common insect in gardens, fields, &c. and
is observed in great quantities under the barks of
decayed trees, beneath stones in damp situations,
&c. Its general length is about half an inch or
rather more, and its colour livid brown; the larger
specimens often exhibiting a double series of pale
spots down the back: like the rest of the genus it
preys on the minuter insects.
Oniscus Armadillo or the Medical Woodlouse is
of somewhat larger size than the preceding, of a
much darker colour, and of a polished surface: it
is equally common with the preceding species,
and is found in similar situations: when suddenly
disturbed or handled, it rolls itself up into a com-
pletely globular form, in the manner of the curious
OlflSCTUS
Armadilfo
7.3/)
. lr/7frf/h7/o
MC^Mk sc«/p.
jg0S Octf /.oiuL-n^uilf/fud bf C /(:e^lr^le^■ Ftc^t StrcfA
ONISCUS. 301
Quadrupeds called Armadillos; frequently remain-
ing in this state for a very consideralde length of
time, or so long as it is any ways disturbed.
Sivammerdam relates a ludicrous mistake of a
servant maid, who, finding in the garden a great
many in this globular state, imagined she had dis-
covered some handsome materials for a necklace,
and betook herself to stringing them with great
care; but on suddenly perceiving them unfold,
was seized with a panic, and ran shrieking into
the house.
Though considered as of but slight importance
in the present practice of physic, these animals
once maintained a very respectable station in
the materia mcdica, under the title of Millepedes;
being regarded as aperient, resolvent, &c. &c.
They were ordered in cases of jaundice, asthma,
and many other disorders, and were either taken
living, being swallowed, like jjills, in their con-
tracted state, or variously enveloped in syrops
and marmalades; but were more generally re-
duced to a powder and thus mixed with other in-
gredients.
Oniscus aquatkus is a native of the clearer kind
of stagnant waters, and is of the general size and
colour of the Oniscus Asellus, but of a more
lengthened form, and with longer limbs in pro-
portion; the two last legs being bifid. In the
female the ovary is very distinguishable, in the
form of a large inflated valve beneath the body.
This species is viviparous, and of a considerably
prolific nature.
502 ONISCUS.
Among the marine insects of this genus the
largest is the Oniscus Entomony measuring two
inches in length: its general form and colour re-
sembles that of the O : Asellus, but the four lower
pair of legs are longer in proportion, the three
first pair being very small and short: the tail is
long and pointed. It is a native of the European
seas, and is found about rocks, &c. It is of a
strong fabric, the divisions of the upper part being
of an almost calcareous nature. Tiiis animal is
capable of living several days in fresh water.
jl36
SCOLOPENDRA. CENTIPEDE.
Generic Character.
Antenna setacesp.
Corpus depressum.
Pedes numerosi, totidem
utrinque quot corporis
segmcnta.
■Palpi duo articulati.
Antenna cetaceous.
Body depressed.
Legs numerous, equalling
the number of segrments
of the body on each side.
Feelers two, setaceous.
X HE larger species of the genus Scolopendra,
found only in the hotter regions of the globe, are
insects of a formidable appearance, and possess
the power of inflicting severe pain and inflamma-
tion by their bite. Of these one of the most con-
spicuous is the Scolopendra morsitans*, a native of
many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. Its
length is sometimes not far short of ten inches:
its colour is yellowish brown, the legs and under
parts of the body being much paler: the head is
armed on each side with a very large curved fang,
of the same strong or horny nature as those of the
Aranea Avicularia, but placed in a different direc-
* The Linnsean characters of the gigantea and morsitans seem
very uncertain: his gigantea has seventeen legs on each sidej
and morsitans twenty.
504 CENTIPEDE.
tion, the two fangs meeting horizontally when in
action: these fangs are furnished on the inside,
near the tip, with an oblong slit, through which,
during the act of wounding, an acrimonious or
poisonous fluid is discharged: the eyes are several
in number on each side the head, and are placed
in a small oval groupe: the legs are twenty on
each side the body, and the tail is terminated by
a pair of processes, which perfectly resemble the
rest of the legs, except that they are larger, and
have the first joints strongly spined or muricated
on the inside. These horrible insects are said to
be chiefly found in woods, but, like the small
European species, they are occasionally seen in
houses, and are said to be so common in some par-
ticular districts that the inhabitants are obliged .to
place the feet of their beds in vessels of water, in
order to prevent their attacks during the night.
Scolopendra Plumien or Plumicr's Scolopendra
is of much greater length than the former, some-
times measuring a foot and a half: it is figured in
the sixth plate of Lister's Journey to Paris, from
a drawing by the celebrated Father Plumier, who
had then lately arrived from America: it is also
elegantly represented in the first volume of Seba's
Thesaurus, under the title of Millepeda major e^v
Nova Hispania. According to the description and
figure of Seba, the body consists of thirty-two
joints, exclusive of the head and tail. Seba's
figure must also be supposed by far the most cor-
rect of the two, that of Plumier, in the work above
referred to, having rather the appearance of a
CENTIPEDE. S05
general representation of the animal than of a
highly accurate figure, the legs seeming to be too
numerous, and some of the fn'st pairs bifid at the
tips.
Scobpendra forficata is a very common insect,
and is met with in similar situations with the
Oniscus Asellus and Armadillo: it is an animal
of swift motion, and is furnished with fifteen legs
on each side : its colour is a polished chesnut
brown, somewhat paler beneath, and its usual
length an inch and half.
Scolopendra elect rica is, like the former, an in-
habitant of damp situations, and not unfrequently
makes its appearance in houses : its general length
is about an inch and half, and its diameter scarcely
more than the tenth of an inch; being of an ex-
tremely long and slender form : its colour is a dusky
brown, with the legs yellowish: these are about
seventy on each side. The motions of this insect
are tortuous and undulatory, seldom continuing
long in the same direction: it is possessed of a
high degree of phosphoric splendor, which how-
ever seems to be only exerted when the animal is
pressed or suddenly disturbed, when it diffuses a
beautiful smaragdine light, so powerful as not to
be obliterated by two candles on the same table.
It is also tenacious of life, remaining seemingly
uninjured for a great many days in the closest
confinement.
Scolopendra subterranea so much resembles the
former, that it might be easily confounded with
it : it is however of a still more slender form, and
506 CENTIPEDE.
of a much paler colour, viz. a light yellow brown:"
it is found in damp places, and often under ground;
as not possessed of any phosphoric splendor, nor
is it capable of surviving many hours in a state of
confinement, unless placed in a very moist situa-
tion.
The Scolopendras are oviparous animals, and
the young, at their first exclusion, are furnished
only with a few feet on each side; acquiring after
a certain period, the legitimate number peculiar
to their species.
^7
JULUS. JULUS.
Generic Character.
Antefm^e moniliformes.
Palpi duo articulati.
Corpus subcylindricum.
uPe^e5numerosi, duplo utrin-
que plures quam corporis
sefrmenta.
Antenna moniliform.
Feelers two, jointed.
Body subcylindric.
Legs numei'ous, twice as
many on each side as the
segments of the body.
X HE Juli are very nearly allied to the Sco-
lopendrce or Centipedes, but their body, instead
of being flattened, as in those insects, is nearly
cylindrical; and every joint or segment is furnish-
ed, with two pair of feet, the number on each side
doubling that of the segments, whereas in the
scolopendrae the number of joints and of feet is
equal on each side. The eyes of the Juli are com-
posed of numerous hexagonal convexities, as in
the major part of the insect tribe, and the mouth
is furnished with a pair of denticulated jaws.
These animals, when disturbed, roll themselves up
in a flat spiral : their general motion is rather slow
and undulatory. The most common species, the
Julus sabulosus is often seen in similar situations
with the Onisci and Scolopendrae, and usually
measures about an inch and quarter in length: its
508 jULUs.
colour is a polished brownish black, except the
legs which are pale or whitish: it is an oviparous
animal, and the young, when first hatched, are
very small, of a whitish colour, and are furnished
only with three pair of legs, which are situated on
each side the superior part, or near the head; the
remaining pairs not making their appearance till
some days after, when about seven on a side be-
come visible: the rest are gradually acquired till
the number is complete, which usually amounts,
according to Linnaeus, to an hundred and twenty
on each side: so long as this species continues in
its young or growing state it is of a pale colour
with a dark red spot on each side of every segment:
in this state it may sometimes be found in the soft
inold of hollow trees.
Julus Indus or Great Indian Julus bears an ex-
treme resemblance to the former, but is of such a
size as to measure six or seven inches in length:
its colour is similar to that of the preceding. It is
found in the warmer parts of Asia and America,
inhabiting woods and other retired places, the num-
ber of legs, according to Linnaeus, is an hundred
and fifteen on each side, but this seems to be a
variable character.
In Dr. Lister's ingenious publication entitled
" A Journey to Paris*" we find a representation of
an extremely large animal of this genus, from a
.drawing by Father Plumier: it is a native of South
America, and is the Julus maximus of Linnaeus:
* Published in 1694.
JULUS. 509
its colour is brown with a kind of brassy or me-
tallic tinge, and the number of legs on each side is
an hundred and thirty-four. This species occurs
in plate 81. vol. 1. of Seba's'Thesaurus, under the
name of Millcpeda Orieutaiis omnium viaxima.
JuLus lagurus or Hare-Tailed Julus is a -very
minute and singular species, not exceeding, when
at full growth, the eighth of an inch in length. Its
colour is pale brown, and its shape rather broad,
and flattish, the body consisting of eight segments
only, each beset on the sides with a fringe of flat-
tened hairs of a whitish colour: a row of similar
hairs, but much shorter, runs also across the upper
part of each segment : the head is large, and orna-
mented in front by a similar fringe, while the
tail is furnished with two lengthened milk-white
plumes or tufts of white down. This insect is by
no means uncommon, being seen during the sum-
mer months creeping about the barks of trees,
walls, &c. It is considered by Linnreus as a
species of Scolopendra, but as the legs are double
the number of the segments on each side, it is
more properly referred by Degeer, Scopoli, and
others to the present genus. In fact it may be
allowed, like the Julus complanatus, another slight-
ly flattened species, to form a kind of connecting
link between the two genera.
END OF VOLUME VI.
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