The geography of California

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THE PROVINCES OF CALIFORNIA

1 — The Sierra Nevada Mountains
2— The Great Valley

3 — The Coast Ranges
4 — Southern California
5 — Klamath Mountains

6 — The Volcanic Plateau
7 — The Great Basin

THE GEOGRAPHY OF
CALIFORNIA

BY

HAROLD VV. FAIRBANKS, Ph. D.

Author of

Stories of Our Mother Earth, Home Geography, Rocks

and Minerals, The Western United States,

Practical Physiography,

Etc.

SAN FRANCISCO

WHITAKER & RAY-WIGGIN CO.

1912.

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COPYRIGHT 1911

BY

WHITAKER & RAY-WIGGIN CO.

CONTENTS

Chapter

I.

Chapter

II.

Chapter

III.

Chapter

IV.

Chapter

V.

Chapter VI.
Chapter VII.

Chapter VIII.

Chapter IX.

Chapter X.
Chapter XI.

Chapter XII.

Chapter XIII.

PART I.

INTRODUCTION. page

GENERAL SURVEY OF CALIFORNIA . . 1

ORIGIN OF THE SURFACE FEATURES . . 6

THE COAST LINE OF CALIFORNIA . . 10

THE CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA ... 16

NATURAL RESOURCES 24

Water Supply 24

Soil 28

Vegetation ........ 30

Animal Life 38

Minerals 40

PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS .... 47
SUCCESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENT

OCCUPATIONS 50

IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION IN CALIFOR-
NIA 55

DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL AND COM-
MERCIAL LIFE . . . . . . 57

PART II.

THE DIFFERENT NATURAL REGIONS OR

PROVINCES 60

THE SIERRA NEVADA MOUNTAINS . . 62

Mountain Passes 65

Geographical Story of the Sierra Nevada Moun-
tains . . . 67

The Scenic Features of the Mountains . . 69

Economic Importance 73

THE GREAT VALLEY PROVINCE ... 78

Drainage 79

Climate 81

Industrial Development 83

THE COAST RANGES 88

Drainage 93

Climate of the Coastal Region 97

Mountain Passes: Lines of Communication . 99

Old Levels of the Mountains .... 103

Ancient Volcanoes 104

Great Earthquake Rift 105

Natural Resources 107

M584454

CONTENTS— Continued

PAGE

Chapter XIV. SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA Ill

Relief and Drainage Ill

Lakes 125

Coast and Islands 126

Earthquake Lines 129

Geographic History 132

Geographic Barriers 134

Climate 137

Natural Resources 138

Value of Different Slopes 140

Industrial Development 142

Chapter XV. KLAMATH MOUNTAIN REGION . .147

Location and Boundaries 147

Physical Features 148

Climatic Features 151

Resources 152

Chapter XVI. THE VOLCANIC PLATEAU REGION .154

Volcanoes and Recent Eruptions . v . . 156

Climate 158

Resources 158

Chapter XVII. THE GREAT BASIN PROVINCE . . .160
Extent and General Character . . . .160

Surface Features 161

Climate 169

Natural Resources 172

APPENDIX 175

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THE GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA.

INTRODUCTION.

The geography of California is a vast and many sided subject
which has never yet been adequately treated. It is not the inten-
tion of the author in presenting this little hand-book to take up
the subject in an exhaustive manner, for that would require a
large volume. Nor is his intention to present a mere description
of the various aspects of the geography of the State, for this has
already been done, although in an inadequate manner, in various
little school supplements and advertising pamphlets. Moreover,
mere description cannot impart real geographic knowledge, since
we must know something of causes and relations.

The object which the author has in mind is rather to give a
simple and yet detailed description of the conditions under which
we are living, and weave them into a connected and rational
whole, so that teachers and pupils may acquire the elements of a
rational knowledge of California. As our work in geography is
at present outlined it is ridiculously unphilosophical as well as
thoroughly inadequate.

The geography of California is extraordinarily varied and
interesting. Children should not leave school without some
elementary conceptions of the origin and meaning of the physical
features about them, of the strongly contrasted climatic condi-
tions, and of the influence which these exert upon our lives.

To meet the above need the author has woven together in as
simple manner as possible those facts and relations which should
be known and appreciated by every educated resident of Cali-
fornia.

CHAPTER I.
A GENERAL SURVEY OF CALIFORNIA.

The fabled "Isle of California" described in an old
Spanish romance as lying in the South Seas was peopled
with Amazons, Griffins, and contained stores of gold.
What was more natural then, than that the large body of
land discovered off the west coast of Mexico by a Spanish
commander under Cortez, and supposed to be an island,
should receive the name of California? To be sure, the
new land was not known to contain gold, or had any
monsters been seen, but this mattered little to the imagin-
ative Spaniards.

For more than two hundred years there was difference
of opinion as to whether this land which we now know
as Lower California was an island or a part of the main-
land. In a geography published in London in 1725 Cali-
fornia is described and mapped as a large island extend-
ing north to the Straits of Anian (Puget Sound). In
this book all that is known of California is given in one
paragraph, a part of which reads as follows : "This island
was formerly esteemed a peninsula, but now found to be
entirely surrounded with water. Its north part was dis-
covered by Sir Francis Drake, Anno 1577, and by him
called New Albion, where, erecting a pillar, he fastened
thereto the arms of England. The inland parts were
afterwards searched into, and being found to be only a
dry, barren, cold country, Europeans were discouraged
from sending colonies to the same, so that it still remains
in the hands of the natives."

2 The Geography of California

After the establishment, in 1769, of the first of the
missions within the boundaries of the present State, the
northern portion of that indefinite area to which the
name California had been given came to be known as
New, or Upper California, while the older known penin-
sula was called Old, or Lower California.

We find that by 1832 the opinion first formed as to the
value of California had given place to a radically differ-
ent one, as illustrated by Flint's geography of that date.
He says: "This picturesque country displays on every
side magnificent forests or verdant savannahs, where the
herds of deer and elk of enormous size graze undisturbed.
The soil is fertile. The vine, olive and wheat prosper.
* * * The aspect of the country is charming, and the
inhabitants enjoy perpetual spring."

It was not until after the war with Mexico that the
boundaries of Upper California became clearly defined,
although on the north the forty-second parallel had been
previously recognized by treaty with Spain as separating
it from the Oregon territory.

As one result of the Mexican war we came into posses-
sion of Lower as well as Upper California, but the treaty
of peace finally established the southern boundary of the
present State near the thirty-second parallel. The orig-
inal draft of the treaty included the mouth of the Colo-
rado in the United States, and should have been ratified
as it was, for it would have avoided disputes as to the
use of the river and saved an arbitrary boundary line
across its great and fertile delta.

The eastern boundary of California, during Mexican
rule was quite indefinite. It was held, on the one hand,

A General Survey of California 3

that the summit of the Sierra Nevada or Snowy Moun-
tains was the eastern limit, while on the other, the country
as far east as Colorado was included in the territory. The
line as finally established, however, followed a middle
course, including a strip of the desert country east of the
Sierras which geographically belongs with Nevada.

The only natural features, then, which sharply set off
California from the adjacent regions are the Pacific
ocean upon the west, and the Colorado river upon the
southeast. Notwithstanding this fact the coastal region
and the Great Valley with its tributary slopes are so
isolated by mountains and deserts that with the primitive
means of travel in the early days they were extremely
difficult to reach.

The water route by the Isthmus or Cape Horn was
long and dangerous. The Sierra Nevadas formed a wall
upon the east which it was almost impossible to pass
except at favorable seasons of the year, while on the
north canons and mountains almost as difficult of passage
separated California from Oregon.

The Colorado river formed no great obstacle, for its
mighty canon lies out of the direct line from the east, yet
both to the east and west of it were vast deserts which,
stretching far north across Nevada, almost encircled the
mountain barrier, adding very greatly to the danger and
difficulty of emigrant travel. When, however, the emi-
grants had reached San Francisco by water, or had finally
passed the Sierras and entered the Great Valley, the
topography of the country was found to be such, with
the streams and valleys converging to San Francisco

4 The Geography of California

Bay, that they could gain with little trouble almost any
point in the central and northern portions of the State.

The emigrant, who came the southern route across
Arizona and entered Southern California, was still far
from being past the difficulties of his journey if he wished
to gain the "gold diggings." The Mohave Desert, with
its bounding mountains, forms a wedge almost cutting
the State into two parts. The only way to reach North-
ern and Central California was either to cross the moun-
tain ranges and desert, or by keeping close to the coast,
take advantage of a passage between a spur of the moun-
tains and the sea. The trail led along a narrow beach
beneath the cliffs and was impassable at high tide. In
addition, several mountain ranges had to be crossed on
the latter route. California is thus seen to be a political
unit with a very complex geographical character. Phys-
ical and climatic barriers appear to have played an unusu-
ally insignificant part in the setting of its boundaries.

The influence of the waterways upon the discovery and
settlement of California was much less than is usually the
case with new countries. The Colorado river was prac-
tically useless because of the great canon in which it is
buried throughout the most of its course. In addition,
its lower portion is shallow and its mouth in such a remote
and inaccessible region that it was almost unused in the
early days. No other streams were available for those
attempting to cross the continent, although for some
years previous to Fremont's explorations, it was erron-
eously supposed, and this error crept into the maps of
that time, that a great river known as the Buenaventura
rose in a lake in the Rocky Mountains and flowed west-

A General Survey of California 5

erly into San Francisco Bay. Fremont attempted to find
this supposed river when caught in the deserts of north-
ern Nevada with winter coming on, and nearly perished
in the snows of the Sierra Nevada range which was
found to lie directly across the path of the imaginary
stream.

With California hemmed in by mountains and deserts
upon the land side, it would surely seem that in the Pacific
Ocean, which borders it for such a long distance, we would
find an easy way of approach. However, the records of
the various exploring expeditions which visited the
Pacific coast of North America show that they were
repeatedly driven southward by the northwesterly winds
and storms. Time and again the expeditions sent up the
coast from Mexico were beaten back and disabled. Par-
ties traveling by land made better time and encountered
fewer difficulties than those upon the ocean. The diffi-
culty of exploring the coast by sea caused both Drake
and Visciano to sail past the entrance to San Francisco
Bay without seeing it, and led to its interesting discovery
by a land expedition under Portola.

6 The Geography of California

CHAPTER II.
ORIGIN OF THE SURFACE FEATURES.

The traveler passing through California encounters the
most remarkable diversity of scenery, as well as of climate
and productions. Nowhere else in the United States is
there to be found in an equal area so many interesting
land forms, and nowhere else is shown so clearly the
influence which these exert upon climate and life. Within
the bounds of California are found nearly all the different
types of physical features which make up the surface of
the earth. We have, then, in our study of -California
geography a most remarkable opportunity to learn how
completely human life is dependent upon the conditions
surrounding it, and how this life has been modified by
these conditions.

Although we do not ordinarily realize the fact, the
surface of the earth is never at rest. In one place it may
be slowly rising, while in another it is sinking. As a rule
these movements are so slow that their effects are scarcely
noticeable in a lifetime, but now and then, when the
strain exerted by the forces within the earth is greater
than the crust will stand, the latter breaks and slips, and
we experience the sudden jar of an earthquake.

These forces which fold and break the surface operate
from within the earth. Upon the outside there are other
forces at work whose ultimate effect is to smooth down
the surface. Changes of temperature, frost, carbonic
acid, etc., are everywhere causing the exposed rocks to
crumble and decay, while the streams are the chief agents

Origin of the Surface Features 7

which are carrying these materials from the highlands to
the lowlands.

In trying to understand the physical geography of Cali-
fornia we must remember that the surface as we see it
is the result of the interaction of the two forces men-
tioned. We might say that they are more or less in con-
flict with each other. The first has folded and broken
the earth's surface, making mountains and broad valleys,
while the second has been tearing down the mountains
and fining up the valleys. During this process of erosion
the surface is sculptured into the infinite variety of peak
and canon which we see in the hilly and mountainous
portions of the State. If left undisturbed long enough
the loftiest mountains will finally be worn down to low
hills and even plains.

From what has been said it is clear that the higher and
steeper mountains are younger than those with gentle
slopes. In different parts of the State there are escarp-
ments which have been made by earthquake movements
in quite recent times. Such escarpments are particularly
well illustrated along the Great Rift of the Coast Ranges.
Although the opening of this rift at the earthquake of
1906 was due to a horizontal strain rather than a vertical
one, yet at earlier times the vertical movement predom-
inated, as is shown by long ridges and cliffs, in places
several hundred feet high. The grand and picturesque
eastern wall of the Sierra Nevada mountains facing
Owens Valley was formed by a series of similar displace-
ments extending through a long period of time, and
which have amounted to 10,000 feet in the Mt. Whitney

8 The Geography of California

region. The Owens Valley earthquake of 1872 showed
that these have not yet stopped.

In going from the Great Valley to Los Angeles we
cross the western arm of the Mohave Desert and obtain
an excellent view of a topography which contrasts most
strongly with that of the mountains just mentioned. This
is a region of ancient and almost worn down mountains.
No earthquake or other mountain-making movements
have disturbed this region for ages. It has been so long
subject only to the forces of disintegration and erosion
that its once mountainous surface has been reduced
almost to a plain. Low hills rise here and there, some of
them perhaps still worthy of the name of mountains, but
their slopes are gentle, and the accumulations of gravel
due to the occasional cloudbursts in places almost cover
the remnants of the one-time mountainous surface. This
region is in its topographic old age, and the desert waste
only adds to the impression of decay and death. Imagin-
ation fails to picture the length of time required to
accomplish this result, or the number of years that would
be required to reduce the lofty Sierra Nevadas to a simi-
lar condition.

In the northeastern part of the State we find a different
kind of mountains from those described. These are vol-
canoes, and although apparently extinct, some of them
give indications of having been in eruption so recently
that we should not be surprised to see them break forth
again. Earthquakes and volcanic action have had a great
deal to do with the shaping of our State, and both will
undoubtedly occur again in this region, as we know they
do at the present time in various parts of the earth.

Origin of the Surface Features 9

The lofty mountain ranges and volcanic peaks have
been formed by forces within the earth. The complex
detail, however, of each of these mountain ranges, in-
cluding rugged peaks, deep precipitous canons and clus-
tering foothills, is formed by the disintegration and
erosion of the solid rocks. The crumbling rock materials
are carried away chiefly by running water and deposited
in the lowland valleys, which were formed by the down
folding of the earth's crust. Thus have come to their
present state the great plain-like Sacramento-San Joa-
quin valley (the Great Valley of California), and the
many larger valleys of the Coast Ranges and of Southern
California.

10 The Geography of California

CHAPTER III.
THE COAST LINE OF CALIFORNIA.

The whole Pacific region of both North and South
America has through the long periods of the past been
subject to many and severe disturbances. We can easily
see why this is the case, because lying next to the largest
and deepest of the oceans the crust must be weakened by
the folding along the continental border. Fissures must
frequently form in this line of weakness, and through
these fissures flow the lavas which have covered so many
thousand square miles and built up the lofty, volcanoes.

Changes of level are constantly taking place along this
border land, and the effects of these are most quickly and
readily detected at the meeting point with the water, that
is, the shore line. We find remarkable illustrations of
both elevation and of submergence of the coastal region
throughout the whole length of California.

The particular character of our coast as it exists at
present has been determined by two important things.
One is the fact of recent submergence and the other is
the direction in which the leading mountain ranges
extend.

Before taking up in detail the causes which have made
our coast line what it is, we must say a few words about
the distinction to be made between continental masses and
ocean basins. As a usual thing the margins of the
continents are marked by downward folding of the earth's
crust making a fairly sharp division line between the
continental elevations and the ocean basins. It frequently

The Coast Line of California 11

happens, however, that the actual meeting point of the
land and water does not correspond with the real conti-
nental border, so that as the land changes its level the
edges of the continent may at times be submerged. This
is the case with the plateau of North America at the
present time. Soundings by the Coast Survey have
shown that off California there is a submerged shelf over
which the water is in most places comparatively shallow,
and outside of which the bottom descends very rapidly
to the abyssal depths of the Pacific. Canon-like depres-
sions extend from near the land across these shallows to
the deep water outside. We can explain them in no other
way than by assuming that they represent portions of the
channels of ancient rivers which were submerged by the
sinking of the land.

The continental plateau of which we have been speak-
ing is only about ten miles wide, off the coast of Northern
California. Several submerged canons extend across it,
one of which reaches so close to the present shore that a
ship taking soundings over it supposed, from the depth,
that it was far from the land, and so approached so close
to the rocks that it came near being wrecked.

At the Golden Gate the submerged plateau is thirty
miles wide, and the water over it so shallow that if the
land were to rise 200 feet one could walk dry shod out
to the Farallone Islands. These stand near the outer
edge of the plateau, and are really but the unsubmerged
portions of a line of low granite hills.

The largest of all of the submerged canons occupies
Monterey Bay and extends up so close to the land near

12 The Geography of California

the mouth of the Salinas river that a wharf and shipping
point has been established there.

The plateau is very narrow opposite the coast of Mon-
terey county, where the steep slope of the Santa Lucia
range extends downward with but little break to the
depths of the Pacific.

Off Santa Barbara the plateau rapidly widens, and its
outer margin is marked by the Channel Islands. Still
farther south it attains a width of 150 miles, while the
water over it is much deeper. Upon this portion of the
plateau are mountain peaks several of which, known
as San Clemente, Santa Catalina, and San Nicholas
islands, rise above the present sea level, while others
reach only part way to the surface, and are known as
"banks."

An elevation of 1000 feet would connect the Channel
Islands with the mainland, and that the land did actually
stand at least that much higher in very recent times is
shown by the presence of bones of the mastodon and
extinct horse upon the island of Santa Rosa.

Many movements have affected the coast of California,
and we have evidence that the land not only stood much
higher than at present, but also that at one time it was
at least 1500 feet lower than it is now. On the seaward
face of the hills near old Fort Ross, a few miles north of
San Francisco, there is a remnant of an ancient boulder
beach having an elevation of about 1500 feet above the
sea.

Remains of wave-cut cliffs and terraces are found more
or less distinct along the whole length of the California
coast. These are beautifully shown upon San Clemente

The Coast Line of California 13

Island, where they extend up to nearly 1500 feet. San
Pedro Hill, near Los Angeles, is terraced up to 1200 feet,
and other finely preserved terraces are found upon the
coast of Santa Cruz and San Luis Obispo counties, and
ranging in height from 10 to more than 700 feet. Near
Port Harford wonderful wave-cut caves occur in a
resistant rock 10 feet above present high tide. On Pt.
Loma, near San Diego, the elevated beaches exposed in
the present cliffs are full of fossil shells.

Along certain portions of the coast the mountains
extend directly down to the sea, but as a general thing
they are separated from the sea by a coastal plain varying
from a quarter of a mile to several miles in width. This
plain was a portion of the marginal sea floor at one time,
and is due in part to the leveling action of the waves,
and in part to the sediments which accumulated upon
this floor.

We would not have known California at the time of
which we have spoken when the land was so deeply
submerged. All the rich lowlands were flooded. Impe-
rial Valley and the Valley of Los Angeles formed deep
bays. The Great Valley was a vast inland sea. The Coast
Ranges were broken up into peninsulas and islands, and
only the loftiest points of the present islands rose above
the water. Such a story sounds like a romance, but we
have clear evidence that it is true.

The last thing that happened to our coast was a sinking
of the land, and we are not sure but that this movement
is still going on. This recent subsidence has flooded the
mouths of the streams along the whole length of the
State, and given rise to the present bays and tidal lagoons.

14 The Geography of California

The mouths of the larger streams remained open because
of the strong currents, but the waves threw up bars
across the mouths of most of them. Then began the
process of silting up the lagoons behind the bars, and
many of these have now been turned into marshes or
meadows.

None of the streams thus flooded are navigable except
the Sacramento. This large river, flowing down with
gentle grade through the large valley now occupied by
San Francisco Bay, was drowned completely across the
Coast Ranges through the Strait of Carquinez, and is
now affected by the tides even to the heart of the Great
Valley.

A little distance back we said that two' things had
determined the character of the coast of California. The
first was that the land has been moving up and down,
but now occupies a sort of middle position between great
uplift and great submergence. The second factor was
the character and direction of the mountain ranges ; these
are nearly parallel with the shore, but exhibit a little more
westerly trend, lapping past each other en eschelon. The
position of the mountains, then, taken in connection with
the fact that the continental border is not deeply sub-
merged, has resulted in a fairly even coast line with few
good harbors. It can readily be seen that if the land
were submerged 500 to 1000 feet more, as we know it
has been in the past, the coast line would be radically
changed and many deep bays would appear. Such a
condition would facilitate water traffic, but would destroy
the greater portion of the fertile valley lands which now
furnish us with the main body of our agricultural prod-

The Coast Line of California 15

ucts. As far as mining would be concerned the greater
portion of the oil fields would be buried, but mining for
the metals, being carried on mostly in the mountains,
would not be affected.

On the whole we can say that our race has come into
California at the best time possible for its expansion and
development. The vast expanse of lowlands is more
important to us than would be additional harbors result-
ing from a sinking of the coast.

16 The Geography of California

CHAPTER IV.

THE CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA.

- In our geographic study of California we cannot dis-
miss the subject of climate with a mere statement that it
rains heavily in some places and little in others; that it
is warm in one part and cold in another. We want to
know the causes governing the distribution of the rain,
why it rains nearly 100 inches each year upon the north-
west coast, and an average of only two or three inches
in the basin of the lower Colorado. We want to know
why it is cool upon the coast and hot in the interior. We
want to find out what part latitude plays, what is the
influence of the coast winds, of mountain ranges and of
elevation.

In seeking to learn the climate of a country we first
think of its latitude, since that is usually the most
important factor. In the case of California, however, this
inquiry does not help us very much. The map shows that
California has a coast line nearly 1000 miles in length,
reaching through ten degrees of latitude, and we would
expect that its northern part, which is nearly the latitude
of Chicago, would be cold in winter, and that the southern
part, which reaches to about the latitude of Savannah,
would be very warm, but in reality there is, near the coast,
only a few degrees difference in temperature between the
north and the south. Spring fruits appear first, and
oranges ripen earlier in Northern rather than in Southern
California. We shall have to look to the ocean, the wind

The Climate of California 17

and mountain barriers for an explanation of this strange
fact.

.Not only is there little difference in average tempera-
ture near the coast through many degrees of latitude, but
we encounter the farther anomalous fact that in the
course of only a very few miles in passing along any one
degree of latitude from our large valleys to the mountain
uplands we go through all variations of climate from the
sub-tropical to the arctic.

Now with regard to the small range in temperature
as we go north or south along the coast, we know that
the temperature of the ocean changes but little from win-
ter to summer. We also know that California, being in
the temperate zone, is situated in the belt of prevailing
westerly winds. The temperature of the air over the
ocean is determined, to a large extent, by that of the
water, and since the ocean varies but little throughout
the year, and the winds blow mostly from the ocean
toward the land, the latter is going to be cooler in summer
and warmer in winter than it otherwise would be.

If it were not for mountain barriers the cool ocean
winds would sweep far inland and temper the climate of
the whole State to a greater or less degree. The fact
that there are mountain ranges lying close to and parallel
with the coast has resulted not only in a deficiency of good
harbors, but has aided in making the climate of the inte-
rior subject to much greater extremes of temperature, as
well as decreasing its rainfall. By the time the winds
have passed the Coast Ranges their moisture and coolness
have been greatly reduced, while still farther eastward,
on the opposite side of the Sierra Nevadas, the summers

18 The Geography of California

are not only extremely hot, but the lack of moisture
makes the region a desert.

The influence of the ocean upon the adjacent land is
increased through the existence of fogs during the dry
season. The fogs are believed to be due to a descending
current of warm air which comes in contact with the cool
water some distance off the land. The temperature of
the air is thus reduced below the dew point and heavy
banks of fog result. These fogs are carried onto the
land by the westerly winds which blow very regularly
throughout the summer season. The fog is so dense and
continuous that the sun is often nearly or quite obscured
for days at a time. At points where valleys or passes
lead into the warm interior a strong draft is set up which
often carries the fog fifty miles inland. The fog keeps
the coast region moist and green longer than it otherwise
would be, and thus facilitates dairying and the growth of
many crops.

The ocean fogs of which we have been speaking rarely
reach the Great Valley, and then only through the gap
in the coast mountains occupied by the Sacramento-San
Joaquin river. As a result, this valley is so protected
from the ocean influence that spring opens early and the
summers are long and very warm, thus favoring the full
development of sub-tropical fruits.

Contrasting the Great Valley with the Los Angeles-
San Bernardino Valley, we find that the latter is not shut
off from the ocean winds by mountains so that the coast
fogs spread over the whole of this great region. These
fogs so temper the air that although so much farther

The Climate of California 19

south we find that many fruits, including oranges, do not
ripen as early as in the north central portion of the State.

In general, the farther we go from the ocean the
greater are the extremes in temperature between night
and day, between summer and winter. On the coast the
daily range of temperature is often less than 10 degrees,
while in the valleys of the interior it may sink to 40
degrees Fahrenheit at night, and rise to 90 degrees in
the daytime.

We all know that during the summer, except for the
thunderstorms in the mountains, it is very rare that any
rain falls over most of the State, although the air sweep-
ing in from the sea is saturated with moisture, as shown
by the fog it bears. We can say, then, that the air of the
coastal regions contains more moisture during the period
in which no rain falls than it does on the average during
the rainy period. Now we can legitimately ask the ques-
tion, Why does it not rain in summer when the moist
westerly winds are strongest? This point must be thor-
oughly understood if we would appreciate the climatic
conditions under which we are living.

In the first place, it must not be forgotten that there is
more or less moisture in the air at all times, but it is only
when it is saturated that this moisture becomes visible
in the form of fog or clouds. It is natural to conclude
that if we have no rains in the summer when the regu-
larly westerly winds bring in the dense fog banks, we
might have no rain at all if these winds blew through the
whole year. It is evident, then, that we must introduce
some other factor, and in fact our rains are due to other
and very different causes.

20 The Geography of California

In order to have rain, air must not only be cooled to
the dew point, but below that point, and the only thing
which will do that is exemplified in those irregular and
violent disturbances of the atmosphere which set up
currents carrying the moisture laden air to a great eleva-
tion where the temperature is sufficiently low to bring
this about.

If we except thunderstorms, which are due to a differ-
ent condition, we can say that rain is brought about
through the setting up of a spiral whirling motion in
the atmosphere very similar to the dust whirl so common
in warm summer mornings. The storm whirls of the
atmosphere are, however, almost infinitely greater than
the dust whirl, being sometimes hundreds, or even
several thousand miles in diameter. These great whirls,
although much larger are less severe than the tornado
or cyclone of the Mississippi Valley, and are commonly
known as cyclonic storms.

The most of these great cyclonic whirls which bring
our rain originate somewhere in the North Pacific Ocean
and move easterly or southeasterly with the prevailing
air currents of the temperate zone. They are much more
frequent and severe in winter than in summer, and com-
paratively few strike the land south of British Columbia
during the summer season. As winter approaches these
whirls become more frequent and move farther south
until finally they encounter and pass across California.
If the great cyclonic air whirl moves slowly the storm
lasts for several days, and if the movement of the air
within the whirl is very rapid we have the rain accom-

The Climate of California 21

panied by strong winds. Because of the fact that the
whirls revolve in a direction opposite to that of the hands
of a clock the coming of a storm is usually marked by
winds blowing from some southerly point.

With the passing of one of these cyclonic storms the
sky clears and the wind changes to some northerly point
and blows with greater or less intensity for some time.
These cool, dry northerly winds mark the passage of an
anti-cyclonic whirl in which the air currents move down-
ward in a direction opposite to that of the cyclone, and
in which the pressure of the air as indicated by the
barometer is abnormally high. The storm area, on the
contrary, is characterized by low barometer owing to
the upward movement of the air.

Many storms which pass across Northern California
fail to reach the southern portion, and they also usually
decrease in intensity toward the south, so that outside
of the mountain districts the southern portion of the
State has a very light rainfall. The influence of moun-
tains on precipitation is extremely important because of
the low temperature of their lofty tops. In the case of
many storms in Southern California which pass over the
lowland regions with but a slight rainfall, when they
encounter the mountains there is a heavy fall of snow or
rain. It is because of this fact that we find such great
differences in the rainfall in the course of a few miles.

During the summer there generally exists an area of
low air pressure over the Gulf of California, and here
originate the "Sonora" (so-called from the province of
Sonora, in Mexico) storms which bring frequent rains
to Southern Arizona and New Mexico. These storms

22 The Geography of California

sometimes reach into Southern California and give heavy
summer rains on the mountains and in the deserts. In
fact the heaviest rainfall of the whole year may occur
upon the Colorado desert in the midst of summer.

Summer thunder storms are frequent in all the higher
mountain regions of the State. They are partly due to
the low pressure areas just mentioned, and in part to
the influence of the cool mountain tops on the upward
moving air currents. They add quite materially to the
summer water supply.

The sea fogs which have been discussed in a previous
paragraph are not the only ones which are experienced
in California. During the clear cool periods of winter
a heavy blanket of fog, known as "tule fog," occurs in
nearly all the lowland valleys to a greater or less extent.
This generally breaks away during the day, but in the
lower San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley it may last con-
tinuously for weeks at a time, completely shutting out
the sun. The name is derived from its prevalence in the
tule region of the district just mentioned. This fog is
the result of the settling of the heavier and cooler air
into the hollows of the land where the evaporation from
the moist earth following the early winter rains finally
produces a saturated condition.

Destructive winds of cyclonic character are rarely
known in California. The most disagreeable, as well as
harmful, winds occur in the spring and fall. They are
dry and hot, and from their direction are known as
"northers." In Southern California this wind is locally
known as the "Santa Ana." During its occurrence the
air is more or less filled with dust, and for this reason

The Climate of California 23

is often called a "dust storm" in the drier parts of the
State.

From what has preceded it can be seen, in some degree
at least, how it is that California is characterized by such
a great variety of climates and productions. It is a
remarkable and interesting fact that a few miles travel
will take one from the sub-tropical belt of oranges,
lemons and figs, to the temperate belt in which apples
develop their best qualities. A few miles will also take
us from a region of abundant rainfall to typical deserts
where nothing can be raised without irrigation. Here
is to be found every transition between arctic cold and
tropic heat, impenetrable vegetation of the forests of
the Northwest and the barren desert of the Southeast.

24 The Geography of California

CHAPTER V.
NATURAL RESOURCES.

Water Supply. — Owing to the long dry summers in
California and the light rainfall in certain portions, it is
realized more fully here than in the central and eastern
portion of our country how much depends upon the
conservation and proper use of our water resources.
There are large areas in California where it is impossible
for people to live and cultivate the soil, be that soil ever
so fertile, without first giving attention to the develop-
ment of a water supply. Even in those parts of the State
where the rainfall is usually sufficient for the common
farm crops, there are years in which the rain does not
come, and without irrigation they would be a failure.

Rain is needed most during the spring and summer,
but as we have already seen, the greater part of the
yearly precipitation comes during the winter. On the
high mountains this falls in the form of snow which does
not immediately melt and run away, but lasts until the
warm spring sun shines upon it. This helps greatly in
keeping up the flow of the streams when the water is
needed.

In the warmer lowland regions of the State the greater
part of the water which does not soak into the ground
immediately runs off and may cause serious floods. In
many parts of the State it is extremely important to
preserve the flood waters, and as the population increases
this will become more and more necessary. There are
large areas in Southern California which have almost

Natural Resources 25

reached the limit of development with the present avail-
able supply of water. The great quantities of flood
waters which reach the sea after the heavy rains should
be stored in reservoirs for summer use, thus making
possible a much greater population and wealth.

The three largest rivers of the State are the Colorado,
the San Joaquin-Sacramento, and the Klamath. The
use of the Colorado for irrigation in California is prac-
tically limited to the Imperial Valley and the vicinity of
Yuma. The Klamath might be used in Shasta Valley
to great advantage, but the most of its course is through
mountains. The San Joaquin-Sacramento river, with
its vast plain-like basin filled with fertile soil, and its
innumerable branches heading in lofty mountains cov-
ered with snow until late in the season, is the most
important source of water for irrigation of any stream
in the State. The Sacramento branch of this river, occu-
pying the northern arm of the Great Valley, carries an
abundance of water for all the future needs of irrigation
upon the adjoining slopes, and in addition possesses a
navigable channel as far north as Red Bluff. The San
Joaquin and other streams of the southern arm, while
traversing as large if not larger area which will be
dependent on irrigation for its full development, carry
less water than will be needed.

The San Gabriel and the Santa Ana are the most
important streams of Southern California, and in the
summer are wholly used for irrigation. The Tejunga
river is also an important stream, as it forms the real
source of the Los Angeles river which supplies the city
with water. Owing to the fact that the forests have

26 The Geography of California

been so largely removed by fire from the steep slopes of
the San Gabriel range the San Gabriel and Tejunga
rivers run very low in the summer. Reforestation is an
extremely important problem in this region. The Santa
Ana river, rising in the more lofty San Bernardino
range, has a better summer flow. The summer flow is
further increased by the extensive deposits of boulders
and gravel in the form of moraines left by ancient gla-
ciers on San Gorgonio peak. These hold the waters
from the melting snows and give them off slowly through
the summer.

Owens river is the largest stream in the Great Basin,
and is supplied by the melting of the snows on the eastern
slope of the Sierra Nevadas. The water of this river
has in part been used for irrigation, and in part gone to
supply that great sheet of alkaline water known as Owens
Lake. An aqueduct is now being constructed to carry a
part of the water of this river 200 miles across the
Mohave Desert and intervening mountains to Los
Angeles. It is the most wonderful undertaking of its
kind in the world.

The Mohave river is another desert stream of consid-
erable size which rises in the San Bernardino Mountains
and flows northerly toward Death Valley.

The underground water supply obtained from wells
at first thought seems inexhaustible. Throughout all the
valleys and lowland regions wells furnish large quantities
of water. In most places it has to be pumped, but in
some parts of the San Joaquin Valley, the Valley of Los
Angeles and the Salton Basin, or Imperial Valley, the

Natural Resources 27

water flows out of the top of the well and is known,
then, as artesian water.

The underground waters have accumulated from rains
falling upon the surface and slowly sinking down through
the gravels and sands of the valley floor, but are really
not inexhaustible. In the fruit growing districts of
Southern California, where many wells have been put
down, the water level is gradually being lowered, so that
not only is less water obtained, but the wells have to be
deeper.

We have already seen that the precipitation is greater
upon mountains than on lowlands, and that much of it
falls as snow. The flow of the streams is thus made
more even than if all came as rain. Glaciers once covered
the higher mountains of the State, particularly the cen-
tral and northern portions, and left vast deposits of
gravel and boulders, which further aid in the retention
of the water from the melting snows. These deposits
also often form dams across the canons, giving rise to
lakes which are a very important agent in equalizing
the flow of streams.

Except for the Sacramento river the streams of Cali-
fornia are of very little use for navigation. Dredging
out of the channels of both the Sacramento and San
Joaquin Valleys should be of great assistance to the
inland development of California.

The streams of California, rising as they do in high
mountains and flowing with rapids and waterfalls down
to the valleys, are coming to be very important as sources
of power for commercial and manufacturing purposes.
There is hardly any limit to the electrical power which

28 The Geography of California

can be developed from them, and which now can be
transmitted to any point where we wish to use it.

Soil. — The surface of California is marked by a great
variety of soils, a fact due partly to the different condi-
tions under which they were formed and partly to differ-
ences in the underlying rocks from which they were
derived. The mountain sides and foothills where the
slopes are not too precipitous are covered with a soil
derived from the underlying bedrock. This is known as
residual soil because it is what remains when the con-
stituents of the rocks decay and crumble. These soils
are, as a rule, quite thin, with here and there masses of
rock projecting up through them. Although m fertile, and
extensively cultivated, residual soils are not as deep or as
rich as the valley soils. Where it is too rocky and the
surface is too steep, these soils are devoted to grazing
rather than to agriculture. This fact illustrates the
control which physical conditions exert upon life.

For ages the rocks of the highlands have been crumb-
ling and the streams have been carrying the finer and
richer particles, as well as the soluble constituents, to the
valleys or the ocean. The valley soils are therefore deep
and extremely rich in plant food. In some portions of
the San Joaquin, Imperial, and other valleys, there are
such large quantities of soluble materials, which are
usually known as alkalies, that it is difficult to raise crops
without first neutralizing or removing a portion of the
alkali. Such soils were formed in the beds of ancient
lakes or marshy flats where the waters as they dried up
left the substances which were in solution mixed with
the silt.

Natural Resources 29

The soils of the valleys vary with the conditions under
which they were formed. There is ( 1 ) the fine alluvium
of the flood plains which is very rich and sometimes
hundreds of feet deep. Such a soil is well shown in the
banks of New river, which cut a deep channel across the
Colorado Desert (Imperial Valley) at the time of the
last overflow of the Colorado river. The banks are in
some places 80 feet high, and consist of alternating layers
of light and dark silt from top to bottom.

The major portion of the valley slopes, particularly in
Southern California, consist of coarser material deposited
in form of debris fans below the points where the streams
issue from the mountains. These soils, taken together
with their position, offer the best conditions for the
growing of citrus fruits.

The soils of the coastal region are usually a fine sandy
loam. They may be confined to a narrow strip between
the mountains and the sea, or as about San Francisco
Bay and in the region south of Los Angeles, cover a large
extent of country. The clifTs along the Alameda and
Berkeley shores, as well as those at Long Beach, give
good exposures of these soils.

Soils are heavy if they contain a large amount of clay,
and light if there is much sand in them. Consequently,
in Southern California, where the rocks are largely gran-
itic, we find that light soils predominate, while in the
valleys of the Coast Ranges and in portions of the Great
Valley the soils are more often heavy and are known as
"adobe" soils. The latter, while rich, are more difficult
to work than the light soils.

30 The Geography of California

Some plants require a heavy soil, others require a light
soil to do well, and some thrive where there is much
alkali, but as a rule in California the most important
factors are climatic. We take into account first, then,
both the moisture or water supply available, and the
temperature conditions.

Vegetation. — The belt of coniferous forests extend-
ing from California northward through Oregon and
Washington is the finest in all the world, both in regard
to size and the variety of trees represented. For the
growth of such luxuriant forests there is needed a certain
amount of moisture, as well as a given range of tempera-
ture conditions. Trees are not found in the arctic climate
of the lofty mountain tops, nor in the extreme heat and
dryness of the arid and semi-arid regions. The forest
map of California is very interesting, for it shows how
greatly the mountainous areas affect the climate, and
through that the distribution of the trees. Each climatic
zone, from the sub-tropical of the warmer valleys to the
boreal or arctic on the mountain tops, is characterized
by its peculiar vegetation. In the deserts even, where
the rainfall is less than five inches annually, and some-
times a whole year passing without any rain, there is an
abundance of vegetation of a certain kind. The only
parts of California where to the ordinary observer there
is no vegetation at all, are the summits of those moun-
tains which rise above the timber line, the alkali sinks
of some of the desert regions, and the surface of recent
lava flows.

The forests are found within certain well defined limits.
The upper limit, determined by the increasing cold of the

Natural Resources 31

lofty altitudes, is commonly called the timber line. This
line varies with the exposure, being higher upon a south-
erly slope than upon a northerly one. It also varies with
the latitude, gradually rising toward the south and sink-
ing toward the north. In the latter direction it gradually
approaches the sea level, and beyond that point we find
vast plains and tundras devoid of trees. The timber line
upon Mt. Shasta reaches about 9500 feet. As we go
toward the southern end of the State it is found higher
and higher, until upon San Gorgonio, the highest peak
of the San Bernardino Range, which rises 11,485 feet, the
timber line is barely reached. The timber line, then, is
about 2000 feet higher in the southern end of the State
than in the northern.

The lower limit of coniferous forest growth upon the
mountain slopes is determined by the lack of moisture and
is sometimes called the dry timber line. While there is
but little of the State which rises above the cold timber
line, there is a very large area which sinks below the dry
timber, line.

Nearly all the valleys of the Coast Ranges and portions
of the Sacramento are dotted with oaks of which that
commonly known as the white oak is the most abundant.
As we go up the mountain slopes these finally give place
to the black oak which is most abundant in the lower
portion of the coniferous belt. Considering now the
coniferous forest, and this is the one which is by far the
most important because it forms the basis of the lumber
industry, we find the trees growing at sea level from
about the middle of the coastal region northward. In
the drier interior the lower limit is higher, being in the

32 The Geography of California

foothills of the Sierra Nevadas at an elevation of about
2000 feet. As we go southward this lower limit of the
coniferous forest rapidly rises, until we find the lowest
of the lumber producing trees, the yellow pine, growing
at an elevation of 5000 to 6000 feet. Upon the desert
slopes the pifion pine is found lower than the yellow pine,
and upon the San Gabriel and San Bernardino ranges
another conifer known as the big cone spruce grows in
the drier zone below the yellow pine.

The zonal distribution of the different species in the
coniferous forest is finely shown upon the slopes of the
Sierra Nevadas. Passing through the belt of oaks we
come to the digger pine. Above this is thev great yellow
pine belt in which are found many cedar and spruce.
This zone shades into the main forest belt of sugar pine,
spruce fir, and in the central Sierras the Big Trees
{sequoia gigantea), and extends up to an elevation of
nearly 9000 feet. Now we find ourselves in a forest
formed largely of tamarack pine, red fir, white pine,
mountain juniper, and finally alpine hemlock, and last of
all, dwarf white pine.

The most important lumber tree of the Coast ranges
is the redwood (sequoia setup ervir ens), which is found
from Monterey county north to the Oregon line. The
belt is an irregular one, the trees reaching their greatest
development, near, though not directly on the coast. The
most important forests are in Humboldt and Mendocino
counties, where they reach back 20 miles from the coast.
The sheltered canons where there is abundant moisture
contain the largest trees.

Natural Resources 33

The redwoods and Big Trees are wonderfully inter-
esting, not only for their great size and the age which
they reach, some being estimated to be as much as 4000
years old, but also for their ancient history. The Sequoia
is one of the oldest of tree genera, and the two California
species are, with one exception, the only living repre-
sentatives of a once widely distributed genus. It is
probable that the Sequoia has inhabited this region for
ages, since among some fossils which have been found
in shales upon the coast of Monterey county there are
forms which appear to represent the cones and needles
of this tree. These shales belong to one of the most
ancient rock formations of the Coast Ranges, and the
discovery mentioned carries the genus back millions of
years. It also tells us that very long ago there was a
forest of Sequoias in the region of the present Santa
Lucia Range.

The magnificent forests of California are clearly related
to certain definite temperature and moisture conditions,
and the latter are dependent upon latitude, elevation and
distance from the ocean. Consequently we see that in
Southern California the forest areas are limited to the
higher slopes of the different mountain ranges, the most
important of which are the San Gabriel, San Jacinto, and
San Bernardino groups. As we go northward to the
Sierra Nevadas we find a great block of lofty mountains
which offers an immense area lying between the arctic
cold of its crest and the warm dry expanse of the Great
Valley which is heavily timbered. This belt of timber
varies from 30 to 50 miles wide, and extends north

34 The Geography of California

into the Cascade Range and westward through the Klam-
ath mountains to the ocean.

We must not think that these coniferous forests are
the only ones of importance in California. There remain
the broad-leaved trees which although of relatively less
importance than in the eastern part of our country are
nevertheless of great value. The broad-leaved trees mix
somewhat with the coniferous forests along their lower
limit, as is shown particularly in the case of the oaks,
but in general they are scattered over the drier and
warmer slopes of the foothills and valleys. There are
many species of the oak, among which might be men-
tioned the black oak, which is found in the lower edge of
the coniferous forest; the white oak, which is scattered
over the Sacramento Valley and the foothills and valleys
of the Coast Ranges ; the tan-bark oak, live oak, etc. The
oaks give the valleys a beautiful park-like appearance,
and add much to the attractiveness of this region. Upon
the moist foothill slopes of the northern half of the State
occur the laurel and madrone. The alder marks the
streams in the mountains, and the sycamore is found
along their courses in the central and southern coastal
regions. Scattered cottonwoods occur near the streams
in drier and more desert parts.

Upon many mountain slopes where there have been
fires, or the soil is too poor, or the rainfall is insufficient
to grow trees, there is found a growth of shrubs com-
monly known as chaparral. Among these are the cha-
miso, California lilac, manzanita, buckthorn, sagebrush,
and scrub oak. Upon some mountains, particularly in

Natural Resources 35

Southern California, this growth is so dense that it is
almost impossible to make one's way through it.

Previous to the coming of the whites the Indians
burned the surface over in order to keep down the brush
so that the game might be seen. This destroyed almost
all the young trees, and if it had been continued would
have resulted in the final disappearance of the forests.
Since the Indians disappeared there has sprung up a
dense young growth of trees and brush, and the problem
of protection from fire is becoming a serious one.

Fires, together with the ax of the lumberman, are fast
depleting our valuable forests. The most valuable por-
tions have passed into the hands of lumber companies
which as a rule have regard only to the needs of the
present, and leave the cut-over areas almost as barren
as a desert. Following the destructive work of the
lumbermen the rains wash the slopes, carrying away the
humus and soil, and silting up our streams and bays.
The long dry summers of California make it very neces-
sary that we use every means in our power to increase
the flow of the streams during this period, and irrepara-
ble damage will soon be done if we do not take energetic
steps to preserve the slopes, about the headwaters of the
streams, in their natural condition.

An important step has been taken by the Government
in the withdrawal of all its remaining timber lands from
sale, and the formation of these into National Forests.
The cutting of trees on these forests will be conducted
with great care so as not to disturb the surface and kill
the young growth. These forests are patrolled by rang-
ers whose business is especially to look out for fires and

36 The Geography of California

protect the growth in every way from devastation. The
National Forests now include nearly all the timbered
lands of the State which have not passed into private
possession.

In addition to the areas included in the National For-
ests certain other tracts noted for their scenery or natural
curiosities have been set aside as National Parks. The
largest and most important is the Yosemite. There are
in addition to the Sequoia and General Grant parks, and
in the Coast Ranges near San Francisco, Muir Woods,
containing giant redwoods. The State controls one large
park known as the Big Basin, in the Santa Cruz moun-
tains, where there are many great redwood trees.

The parks are to be maintained forever as public
grounds in which no trees may be cut, and in which the
animals are also protected. Unless we can arouse a more
general sentiment in favor of the preservation of our
scenic beauties and wonders these parks, quite limited
in area, are the only portions of our wonderfully inter-
esting and attractive mountains which will pass down
to our descendants unmutilated.

Those parts of the State too dry for forest growth are
characterized by many peculiar and interesting forms of
vegetation. Where the rainfall is not too small the val-
leys and gentler hill slopes are covered with various kinds
of grasses, and in the spring are brightly colored by
many wild flowers. Deserts cover fully one-third of the
area of California, and it is in them that the most striking
forms of plant life occur. The surface of the desert is
usually covered with shrubs of various kinds which have
become adapted to the dry hot air and small rainfall.

Natural Resources 37

The Mexican creosote bush, scattered over the Mohave
Desert, is a good example. Its leaves have become very
small and its surface is covered with a resinous substance
which prevents the evaporation of the moisture from the
stems. Other plants, such as the cactus, have developed
a fleshy body and spines in the place of leaves.

In the Mohave Desert there are vast groves of a tree-
like yucca, and in some of the canons upon the eastern
slope of the San Jacinto mountains occurs the native
Washington palm so much used in garden decoration.
The mesquite, a peculiar thorny shrub bearing pods, is
found growing along the desert water courses.

We find in the semi-desert valleys and lower mountain
slopes a very widespread shrub known as sagebrush.
There are a number of species, and one that grows to
almost the proportions of a tree. The white sage, abun-
dant in Southern California, is valuable for bees, its
blossoms furnishing the best of honey.

The desert slopes exhibit a zonal arrangement of their
vegetation similar to that of the high mountains. In the
more arid portions of the Mohave Desert the chief shrub
is the Mexican creosote bush. Upon higher slopes,
where the rainfall is a little greater, we find the yucca.
Ascending the slopes of the low mountains we come upon
the desert juniper. Upon the higher mountains we finally
reach the scrubby pinon pines, and wherever there are
any mountains with sufficient height and rainfall we may
look for yellow pine.

The rainfall of the desert is very ' irregular in time of
occurrence, as well as in quantity. It would be impossible
for the desert shrubs to exist if they had not become

38 The Geography of California

wonderfully adapted to going without water, for some-
times two years pass without any rain. Then, again, at
times during the summer, heavy thunderstorms, which
we call "cloudbursts" because of their severity, flood
miles of country with water. In the desert we have forc-
ibly presented to our attention the important part which
plants and soil take in keeping the water from running
off too rapidly. Here there is little besides bare rock to
restrain the water upon the mountain slopes, and it runs
off in floods and leaves the surface in a short time as dry
as before.

Occasionally there are spring rains which start into
life innumerable seeds hidden in the sands. -In the course
of a few weeks the barren sandy desert is covered with
a luxuriant carpet of many-colored flowers. In places
their tints massed together may be seen from a distance
of five or six miles. These flowers mature quickly, and
with the coming of hot weather the seeds are dropped
into the sand and the dried plants are blown away by
the wind, and one would never suspect they had existed.

Animal Life. — Few of us have any realization of the
wealth of animal life in California sixty years ago. We
have not only crowded the Indians aside and nearly
exterminated them, but we have driven out the wild
animals as well. We seem actuated with a desire to
destroy.

Early explorers and settlers have left records, telling
of the variety and abundance of wild life, which almost
pass comprehension. Bear, including grizzlies, abounded
through all the region. Elk and antelope roamed the
valleys in countless numbers, and the deer were easier

Natural Resources 39

to approach than the Spanish cattle that had gone wild.
At certain seasons geese and ducks almost darkened the
sky.

We are not certain now that there are any grizzlies
left in the State. The antelope and elk are practically
gone, and geese and ducks are becoming scarcer every
year. We are trying to protect the deer, but they may
go the way of the other large game.

Unless every one is aroused to the importance of pro-
tecting what remains of our wild animals and birds one
of the great attractions of life in the open will be gone.
We must see that the laws which have been passed for
their protection are enforced. The main hope lies in
the education of the school children through the work in
Nature Study. We must show them not only the impor-
tance of preserving our forests, but also of saving the
wild things which inhabit them. We must preserve the
birds and animals, not only for their economic value,
but also because they appeal to our love of nature.

Many animals which wandered over the State a few
thousand years ago are now extinct and are known only
through their fossil remains. The most interesting
remains, in the form of vertebrate skeletons, have been
found in some tar springs a few miles west of Los
Angeles. Among these are giant wolves, sabre-toothed
tigers, horses, bison, camels, elephants, sloths, etc.

The lower animals are affected more readily by climatic
changes and changes in food supply than are men, for
they are not able to migrate as intelligently. Each
species or group of animals is adapted to certain condi-
tions, and when these conditions change the animals

40 The Geography of California

either have to migrate, to some region where conditions
are similar to those they are accustomed to, or die. From
the numbers and species represented in the fossil remains
referred to we must conclude, then, that there have been
remarkable modifications in our Pacific Coast climate in
very recent times.

The animals are distributed over the State in climatic
zones as are the plants, although being able to migrate
with the seasons their boundaries are not as well marked
as are those of plants. The animals of the desert, like
the plants of the desert, have been strangely modified to
suit the demands of their environment. One of the most
remarkable examples of these is the desert tortoise, which
has developed two water pockets so that it can go months,
and perhaps years, without replenishing its supply. It is
frequently found many miles from any water.

Minerals. — A mere description of the minerals, or in
fact of any of the natural resources of the State, is not
geography. It is only when we consider them in the light
of the conditions under which they occur, why they are
distributed as they are, and what makes them commer-
cially valuable, that their study can properly be consid-
ered geography. A mere description of California with-
out entering into causes and relations conveys little real
information. The relations exhibited by the various geo-
graphic factors in the region which we are studying is
so intimate and so marked that we must make use of
them in order to make our discussion intelligible.

It is rather peculiar, conceding that the stories of great
wealth of gold and silver led the Spaniards to send expe-
ditions into Arizona and New Mexico, that they made no

Natural Resources 41

serious effort to explore California with this object in
view. It is also interesting to note that many exploring
expeditions had visited the State without getting any
hint of the riches in the gravels of the Sierra streams.
"What surprises me," says Captain Sutter, after Mar-
shall's discovery, "is, that this country should have been
visited by so many scientific men, and that not one of
them should have ever stumbled upon these treasures;
that scores of keen-eyed trappers should have crossed
this valley in every direction, and tribes of Indians have
dwelt in it for centuries, and yet that this gold should
never have been discovered. I, myself, have passed the
very spot above a hundred times during the last ten years,
but was just as blind as the rest of them."

The precious metals are generally found in mountain-
ous regions where there have been important foldings
and dislocations of the earth's crust, and where the
ancient metamorphic rocks have been broken through by
igneous eruptions. By metamorphic rocks, we mean such
as slate, schist, quartzite, and marble. The slate and
schist were once clays in the bottom of some old ocean.
The quartzite was once sandstone, formed by the consoli-
dation of sand grains ; and the marble was once limestone
formed from the accumulation of shells and corals grow-
ing upon an ocean reef. Heat and pressure far within
the earth changed these loose and incoherent materials
into the bright sparkling "metamorphic rocks."

The whole Pacific border of both North and South
America is wonderfully rich in a great variety of miner-
als, and probably the most important cause for this is

42 The Geography of California

the oft-repeated and extremely severe disturbances which
this region has undergone.

During the folding and dislocation of the crust in the
California region innumerable seams and fissures were
formed in the rocks. Molten lavas broke through these
and formed great dikes, or spread over the surface. The
waters which everywhere fill the seams and crevices in
the rocks were heated by the molten materials and dis-
solved out some of the mineral constituents of these
rocks. Where the temperature was very high steam was
formed, and this forced the waters back toward the
surface of the ground, where they still issue in many
parts of the State in the form of hot or boiling springs.
As the waters approached the surface they deposited
some of the mineral constituents carried in solution, and
thus gave us the veins of ore which we mine in so many
places. In the quicksilver regions of Lake county sul-
phur and cinnabar, and in one instance gold, are now
being deposited in fissures of the rocks by hot springs.
Minerals are also being deposited by the hot waters of
the silver mines at Virginia City.

Gold is found in greater or less quantity throughout
all the mountains of the State except the Coast Ranges.
The larger part of the latter region is formed of rocks
more recent than the period of gold deposition. It is in
the foothills of the Sierra Nevadas, however, where the
first important discoveries were made, that we find by far
the greater quantity of gold. Here are innumerable gold-
bearing quartz veins, and one great system, in particular,
known as the "Mother Lode," which extends through the

Natural Resources 43

counties of Mariposa, Tuolumne, Calaveras, Amador and
Eldorado.

Gold was first found in the shallow gravels of the
present streams, having collected there during the long
ages that the quartz veins and enclosing rocks had been
decaying. Searching farther, the miners discovered gold
in the deep gravels of streams which long ago flowed
down the slopes of the mountains. Great changes in the
geography of our State have taken place since then. The
Coast Ranges were largely beneath the sea at the time
these ancient rivers existed, and over its bottom were
accumulating the ooze made up of the remains of low
forms of sea life which in the course of time was to be
hardened, folded and lifted above the sea and furnish
our great oil deposits. The streams of this ancient time
flowing down the mountain slopes in the Sierra region
gradually wore them away and the rock debris accumu-
lated in broad, deep channels at the bottom of which
were the grains and nuggets of gold derived from the
quartz veins.

Following the time of which we are speaking many
changes took place; the whole Pacific Coast region was
lifted, the Sierra block was tilted toward the west, and
numerous volcanic outbreaks took place. The streams
went to work upon the steeper slopes and inaugurated
the deep canons of the present time. They cut down
through the old gravel channels, and so exposed their
rich gold contents.

Hydraulic mining, as the getting of the gold from the
deep gravels is called, was very profitable, and was car-
ried on until it was found that the washing down of the

44 The Geography of California

gravel banks was filling up the streams, when it was
largely stopped. It is not the miner, however, who is
most to blame for the filling up of our streams and bays ;
it is rather the general destruction and erosion of the
surface of the ground all over the State, caused by the
cutting off of the vegetation, overstocking the grazing
lands, and careless farming in general.

Silver is also one of the important minerals found in
California, but it is largely confined to the mountains of
the Great Basin, in the eastern part of the State. Here
are great beds of limestone, and the presence of silver
seems in some way related to this rock.

In Shasta county and other parts of the State there
are extensive copper and iron deposits.

The most important metal found in the Coast Ranges
is quicksilver. Its presence seems to be related to volcanic
action and the resultant hot springs which are most
abundant north of San Francisco in the Clear Lake
region. The oldest quicksilver mine is the New Almaden,
near San Jose.

The oil deposits of California are confined to the
coastal region, where are the extensive beds already
referred to as having been formed of the remains of sea
organisms. These organisms are in part microscopic
forms of life, and in part fish remains. Under the influ-
ence of heat and pressure within the earth the organic
matter was distilled off in the form of gas and oil and
collected in porous sandstones. It is only recently that
the extreme importance of oil or petroleum in California
has been recognized, and now this mineral product over-
shadows all others.

Natural Resources 45

Of coal, California has little, there being a few small
beds of soft bituminous or lignite coal scattered here and
there. During the great coal-bearing periods this region
seems not to have been adapted to the production and
preservation of land vegetation.

Many mineral springs, some hot and some cold, are
scattered over California. They are particularly numer-
ous and varied in character in the Coast Ranges between
San Francisco and Clear Lake, and are undoubtedly
related as we have before said, to the late volcanic erup-
tions in this region. Mineral springs have their source
deep in the earth and are hence independent of the local
rainfall. Such springs might be numerous in the desert
regions because of this fact, while ordinary surface
springs are, as we would expect, very scarce.

Among the most interesting of the mineral deposits
found in California are the salts occurring in the desert.
Their presence and distribution are the direct result of
definite geographic conditions. The Great Basin region
is divided by mountains into innumerable valleys, each
one of which is a basin in itself. There is now so little
rainfall in this region that the most of these basins or
sinks show no surface water, but during the Glacial
Period the rainfall was so much greater that many of
them contained lakes. Few of these lakes, however,
overflowed their basins, and as a consequence the streams
which were continually bringing to them small quantities
of various minerals in solution finally made their waters
quite brackish. Gypsum, common salt, glaubers salt,
soda, borax, nitre, etc., were the most important of these

46 The Geography of California

minerals, but their relative amounts varied in the different
lakes.

As the climate became drier and the waters of the lakes
shrank through evaporation the salts began to be depos-
ited in the mud upon their bottoms. Now only a few of
these lakes, such as Owens and Mono, remain, and their
waters are so richly impregnated with soda and salt that
these substances can be obtained in commercial quantities.

In some of the old lake beds the water still gathers
during the wet season, but disappears with the approach
of hot weather. Others are dry all of the time, and the
salts, which were left mixed with the mud and clay in
their beds, through the process which we call efflores-
cence, slowly come to the surface and form a crust. This
is often of sufficient thickness to be scraped up and
refined. Thus we get soda, borax and salt. The beds
of salt existing in the Salton Sink before the formation
of the recent lake from the overflow of the Colorado was
undoubtedly derived from the ocean which once extended
from the Gulf of California north to this region.

In the southeastern portion of the Mohave Desert there
are extensive beds of gypsum and rock salt which were
probably derived from salt water long ago when the
region was occupied by an arm of the sea.

Large quantities of salt are manufactured on the tidal
flats about the southern arm of San Francisco Bay. Salt
water is allowed to flow into artificially prepared ponds
at intervals until, under the influence of evaporation, the
water becomes saturated and the salt begins to crystallize
out.

Primitive Inhabitants 47

CHAPTER VI.
PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS.

The first explorers found all parts of the State inhab-
ited by Indians. They moved from place to place with
the changing seasons and in search of food. They lived
in very simple habitations usually made of sticks bent
over in circular form, fastened at the middle and covered
with mud or skins. They subsisted chiefly on acorns,
roots and game. Along the coast, fish and mollusks
were an important article of diet. They have been called
in general terms "diggers," probably because of their
dependence on roots. Their dress consisted of skins and
woven bark fibre. They used stone implements, and made
beautiful baskets. California offered in general a pleas-
ant climate and abundant food supplies. The Indians
were then without the necessity for great exertion, and
were therefore indolent and lower in the scale of develop-
ment than the primitive inhabitants in most other parts
of our country.

The California Indians did not take kindly to the civil-
ization offered them by the Spanish missionaries, and
being unable to stand confinement in close buildings, and
association with the whites, they began to die off rapidly.
The passing of the Indians was greatly hastened by the
influx of gold seekers and settlers, who, although the
Indians were generally inoffensive, unless first attacked
or injured, embraced every opportunity or provocation
to get them out of the way. Indeed, sometimes they were
shot down with scarcely any provocation whatever.

48 The Geography of California

Now the Indians have practically disappeared from the
more thickly settled portions of the State.

With the Indians nearly extinct we are just awakening
to the fact that their languages, songs, and myths possess
exceeding interest, and if all could have been preserved
might have thrown great light upon the history of the
primitive peoples of Western America. The origin of
these people and the length of time they have been here
are important and interesting problems to be solved.

Many stories were current during the early period of
mining concerning the rinding of skeletons and imple-
ments in the gold-bearing gravels which were overlaid
by lava flows in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada moun-
tains. These stories were later discredited, but a renewed
study of the Indians of California, the shell mounds
about San Francisco Bay, and the limestone caverns of
the Sierras, have recently shown that the origin of the
Indians here is indeed remote, dating back perhaps thou-
sands of years.

Although the individuals of different tribes look much
alike, yet there is a remarkable diversity in the languages
which they speak. There are certain groups living side
by side whose languages have almost no root words in
common. Although the Indians are much more readily
affected by geographic conditions than are people of a
higher civilization, yet the differences between adjoining
tribes are often so great that it must have taken a very
long time to bring them about.

Definite evidence of a very interesting character show-
ing the long period of time which has elapsed since the
present Indians came is found in the shell mounds about

Primitive Inhabitants 49

San Francisco Bay. The excavations at Shell Mound
Park, and also at Ellis Landing, near Richmond, show
that the bases of these mounds are below the level of
low tide, that at Ellis Landing being submerged nearly
fifteen feet. That this change of level is not recent is
shown by the extensive tidal marshes in many of the
arms of San Francisco Bay. These marshes take a long
time to form through the accumulation of silt, and are
built up practically to accord with the present level of
the water.

The skeletons found in some of the caverns of the
Sierra Nevada are believed to belong to a race antedating
the present Indians, for the latter never bury their dead
in caves, and have no traditions of ever having done so.
Judging from all that we can gather, the earliest of our
primitive inhabitants found the geography of the Cali-
fornia region considerably different from that of the
present.

50 The Geography of California

CHAPTER VII.

SUCCESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFER-
ENT OCCUPATIONS.

It is not the object of the following paragraphs to trace
the industrial development of California, for that in itself
would not be geography, but rather to show how this is
related to and grew out of geographic conditions. It
must be borne clearly in mind that human activities, like
those of all living things, are dependent upon the environ-
ment. Those operations which we carry out successfully
are successful not merely because of our endeavors, but
rather because they are in harmony with the physical,
chemical and biological laws surrounding them.

It was nearly two hundred and fifty years after the
discovery of Upper California before there was any
attempt made by the Spaniards to take possession of the
land and establish settlements. Then, actuated by two
motives, ( 1 ) that of keeping the Russians from encroach-
ing on the north; and (2) the conversion of the Indians,
successive expeditions were sent out from Mexico until
a chain of missions was established, twenty-one in num-
ber, and scattered along, either on or near, the coast
from San Diego to Sonoma.

The Mission fathers came from a land where irriga-
tion was all-important, and seeing in the new land some-
what similar climatic conditions, placed the missions
where the soil was fertile and water could be easily
obtained for the gardens which were to follow. It was
very essential that the establishments be self-supporting

Successive Development of Different Occupations 51

as soon as possible, for communication with Mexico, the
source of supplies, was very uncertain and irregular.
With the use of water the soil was found to produce
abundantly, and a great variety of fruit and other prod-
uce was grown in the gardens, while their cattle, horses
and sheep increased wonderfully on the broad, grassy
ranges.

Settlers began to enter the country and were given
large grants of land. Nearly all the coastal region,
beyond which they seemed afraid to penetrate, was found
well adapted to grazing, and the hills soon became cov-
ered with countless thousands of cattle.

Only such quantities of grain, fruit and vegetables
were grown as could be consumed, for there was no
market outside the sparse population, but the products of
the cattle, such as hides and tallow, could be shipped with
a profit, and so stock raising continued to be the chief
industry. Spain for a long time tried to monopolize
the trade of the Pacific, but the American ships which
finally began to enter the Pacific and work their way up
the west coast, brought so many necessary articles in
trade for their hides and tallow that Spain no longer
tried to enforce her claim.

Affairs remained about the same for many years, and
up nearly to the time of the American conquest. A
number of Americans had entered California and obtained
land, chief of whom was Captain Sutter, who settled on
the Sacramento at the mouth of the American river. He
had been raising grain and other produce for ten years
at the time of the discovery of gold, and was in a position
to aid the emigrants very greatly.

52 The Geography of California

During the height of the gold excitement nearly every
other occupation was abandoned, but after the richest
placers had become exhausted many turned toward agri-
culture, for all products of the soil commanded fabulous
prices. From this time dates the commencement of
California's great agricultural and horticultural develop-
ment, although for rriany years progress in these lines
was slow.

Stock raising increased and long remained the most
important industry next to mining. It was commonly
believed that the most of the valley lands back from the
coast were too dry to grow anything, and irrigation on a
large scale had not yet been thought of. -The greatest
increase of agricultural products was grain, until the
Great Valley became one vast granary. Cattle and sheep
continued to increase in numbers, getting their support
largely from the public ranges. Sheep, in particular,
spread throughout all the State, penetrating even to the
most remote mountain valleys during the summers, until
the country was practically devastated. Serious injury
to the vegetation and to the meadows, resulting in the
destruction of the soils and humus of the mountain slopes
through erosion, began to be apparent. In order to make
more feed it was a common habit of the herders to set
fires which resulted in the destruction of untold quan-
tities of timber. The unrestrained torrents swept the
soil into the streams, valleys and canons were choked,
and forested areas became in some cases almost a desert.
The results of this overstocking are still to be seen in
nearly all parts of the State. Where the rainfall was

Successive Development of Different Occupations 53

slight and the slopes steep, as in Southern California,
these conditions were most noticeable.

The Government finally began to awake to the manner
in which not only the stockman, but the lumberman as
well, was devastating the public domain, and finally came
the inauguration of the present forest policy. Extensive
forest reserves, or National Forests, as they are now
known, were created and from these the stock are either
excluded entirely or allowed to graze in only limited
numbers. The stock industry began to decline, and now
the great herds and the limitless ranges have nearly dis-
appeared.

Cattle could be driven to market and their products
shipped by boat. Grain could also be shipped by boat,
but it could not profitably be taken to the boats until
railroads were built through the main valleys of the
State, connecting both with tide water and with the East.
We can find hardly any large agricultural district in the
United States where waterways aided as little in the
development of the country and in the transportation of
crops as in California. If we make an exception of the
lower Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, and the
various arms of San Francisco Bay, water transportation
has aided very little in the development of California.
The silting up of the streams since the early days, both
because of hydraulic mining and the injury done the
surface through careless agriculture and stock raising,
has still more limited the use of water as a transporting
agent.

The Great Valley of California is most admirably
adapted to water transportation, and the time will come

54 The Geography of California

when the streams will be deepened so that small boats
can traverse the whole length of the Sacramento and
San Joaquin arms of this valley. There are no engi-
neering difficulties whatever in the way of the construc-
tion of a canal from Buena Vista Lake at the extreme
southern end of the San Joaquin Valley northwesterly
through Tulare Lake to tidewater.

The three stages in the development of the products
of the soil in California are, (1) the raising of cattle
on the great ranches; (2) the great grain ranches, and
(3) the intensive culture, with diversified farming, of
small ranches made possible through irrigation.

Importance of Irrigation in California 55

CHAPTER VIII.

IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION IN
CALIFORNIA.

It was not until the value of irrigation upon a large
scale was recognized that California could start upon its
modern period of development. Since this development
could not have preceded the era of local and transconti-
nental railroads whereby a market in the East, and even
in Europe, was assured we might with truth say that
transportation is fully as important a factor as irrigation.
Irrigation turned the fertile but dry soil into productive
fields, while the railroads enabled the crops to be mar-
keted.

Owing to the absence of summer showers, even those
parts of the State where the rainfall is heavy require
irrigation for the growing of garden crops. In the drier
parts of the State, however, many temperate fruits can
be grown without irrigation by thoroughly cultivating
the soil. The successful growing of oranges and other
citrus fruits requires irrigation everywhere.

Irrigation was first carried on upon a large scale in
Southern California, where the extensive sagebrush val-
leys were for. a long time thought to be valueless. Where
it once required several square miles to support a few
half-starved cattle we now find a network of irrigating
ditches supplying water to luxuriant orchards.

Irrigation is rapidly being extended in the San Joaquin
Valley and the big grain ranches are being cut up into
small ones where an intensive culture will prevail. Vast

56 The Geography of California

irrigating systems are now being planned for the Sacra-
mento Valley. This is the one great valley in the State
where there appears to be abundant water for all needs.
In the San Joaquin Valley and in Southern California
the cultivation of the countless acres of rich soil available
will be limited by the water supply.

Huge reservoirs are being constructed at the heads
of many streams and at available points on their
lower courses to hold the water of the winter storms.
These reservoirs will lessen the danger from floods and
save the water for use in summer. The importance of
lofty mountains for the growth of a great population in
California is not always appreciated; if it-were not for
their cold summits, retaining the moisture in form of
snow far into the summer, there would not only be less
water available, but the problem of a summer supply
would be much greater.

Development of Industrial and Commercial Life

CHAPTER IX.

DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL AND
COMMERCIAL LIFE.

The manufacturing industries of California have been
slow in their development, partly because of the high cost
of labor and partly because of the scarcity of coal, nearly
all of which had to be imported. Then, besides, pig iron
has never been produced here, although several iron ore
deposits are known in the State, and all that was used
had to be brought from the East. Recently the fuel
question has been completely solved through the discovery
of extensive deposits of petroleum. This is mostly a
heavy oil and particularly well suited for use in boilers.

Although manufacturing must go on increasing in
importance and, notwithstanding the existence of many
valuable minerals, California is destined to be pre-emi-
nently an agricultural State. The great population which
it will undoubtedly support in the future will largely
depend upon the soil.

The centralization of the commerce of the Pacific
Coast upon the shores of San Francisco Bay has been
assured since Portola first looked down upon its great
expanse from the hills upon the south.

Shut in, as California is, by mountain ranges and
deserts, an extensive overland traffic never could have
been developed with the means at the disposal of our
forefathers. With the coming of the railroad which
spans canons, tunnels through mountains, and reaches
across the deserts, the barriers which Nature placed

58 The Geography of California

about California have been largely done away with.
When the proposed great tunnel through the Sierras,
on the line of the Central Pacific Railroad, shall have been
completed San Francisco Bay will be as accessible to the
interior of the continent as though the great river which
was once supposed to have its source in the Rocky Moun-
tains and flow westward into this bay, actually existed.

Southern California has been so isolated by Nature
from the rest of the State by the Mohave Desert and its
bordering mountain ranges that we would expect what
actually has happened, namely ; that there would grow up
here a large city which might rival San Francisco. Los
Angeles has become a great center of trade and manufac-
turing, and has extended her boundaries to San Pedro
harbor which is being enlarged as a seaport.

The particular advantages of San Francisco lie in its
great land-locked bay which offers unrivaled facilities
for foreign commerce, and for its accessibility to all
Northern and Central California. The growth of Los
Angeles is due essentially to its position as a supply
point for a large interior section, as well as to its location
in the heart of a great area of rich land susceptible of a
great variety of productions, and possessing a climate
which attracts many thousands of visitors yearly.

San Francisco and Los Angeles can never be rivals in
commerce and manufacturing. Nature did not intend
it to be so, and it is to be hoped that the historic State
of California will forever remain undivided, notwith-
standing the physical barriers separating the north from
the south.

PART II

THE DIFFERENT NATURAL REGIONS OR
PROVINCES OF CALIFORNIA.

60 The Geography of California

CHAPTER X.

NATURAL DIVISIONS OR PROVINCES.

California is such a large State and has such a diversity
of geographic features that, without the existence of
certain natural divisions enabling us to take up a part at
a time, it would be difficult to give an intelligent descrip-
tion. Fortunately, such divisions do exist, and while they
are not everywhere sharply defined yet they will aid us
very materially. Making use of the drainage and the
varying character of the relief we find that the surface
of the State naturally falls into seven distinct regions or
provinces. These are defined as follows: There is (1)
the Sierra Nevada Mountains forming one great block
of the earth's crust; (2) the Great Valley lying in the
heart of the State and inclosed by the Sierra Nevadas
and the Coast Ranges; (3) the Coast Ranges, a complex
system of mountains lying between the Great Valley and
the ocean; (4) Southern California, a designation usually
given to all that part of the State lying south of
Tehachapi Pass, but which in the following pages will
be applied to that part of this region lying upon the
coastal slope. The remaining portion, including the
Mohave and Colorado Deserts, belong in the Great
Basin and will be discussed under that head; (5) the
Klamath Mountains, occupying the northwest corner of
the State, and extending over into Oregon. As we look
at the relief map they do not appear separate from
the northern Coast Ranges, but are in reality much higher
and more rugged. The perpetual snow upon some of

Natural Divisions or Provinces 61

their lofty peaks, their rugged slopes and deep canons,
as well as their mineral resources, cause them to resemble
the Sierra Nevadas; (6) the Volcanic Plateau, distin-
guishing the northeast corner of the State. From its
broad elevated valleys rise mountain ranges and innum-
erable cinder cones and volcanic peaks, most noted of
which are Mts. Shasta and Lassen; (7) the Great Basin
occupying one-third of the area of California. This
region is distinguished by the peculiar fact, implied in the
name, that it has no external drainage. None of the
rain which falls in the basin ever flows away to the ocean,
but is largely evaporated in its desert air. We must not
fall into the error of thinking that the Great Basin is
one single depression with a rim of mountains about it.
It is, instead, broken up by hundreds of mountain ranges
into basins of varying size and position, and varying in
elevation from over 6000 feet above the sea to 278 feet
below. The Great Basin occupies the eastern portion of
the State, and extends its whole length.

After taking up those phases of our subject in which
we can best describe the State as a whole, we shall make
a detailed examination of these different provinces in the
order in which they have been given.

62 The Geography of California

CHAPTER XL
THE SIERRA NEVADA MOUNTAINS.

The Sierra Nevada Range is the most striking, as well
as the most important physical feature of California.
These mountains contain rich stores of mineral wealth;
their vast watershed supplies an almost unlimited volume
of water; their forests are the grandest in the world,
and properly conserved are inexhaustible; their scenery
is unsurpassed, and their value as a summer recreation
ground places them ahead of all other areas of the kind
in the United States.

Taken as a whole, the range forms a "great block of
the earth's crust which has been lifted along its eastern
side and tilted westward. Although the relief map shows
the range swinging around westerly at its southern end
and joining the Coast Ranges and continuous on the
north of Mt. Shasta, yet geographers have limited it
somewhat. It is customary to consider it as terminating
on the south at the Tehachapi Pass, although there is
no good reason why the short range known as the
Tehachapi Range and extending westward to the Coast
Ranges should not be considered a part of the Sierras.
On the north, however, the granitic rocks of the Sierras
terminate near the northern line of Plumas county, and
from this point northward into Oregon the mountains
are formed of lava. Consequently, beginning with Las-
sen Peak and including Shasta and many other volcanic
peaks, we speak of the mountains as the Cascade Range.
The Cascade Range is formed of volcanic materials

The Sierra Nevada Mountains . 63

entirely, and its rocks are much younger than those of
the Sierra Nevada.

The Sierra Nevada Range, as we have defined it,
has a general direction a little west of north, with a length
of about 400 miles and an average width of 80 miles.
The summit of the range lies close to the side along
which the fracturing and uplift took place, so that the
eastern slope is short and exceedingly bold and pictur-
esque, while the western slope, as a whole, is long and
gentle, although also fully as picturesque in detail. The
western slope, then, both because it includes seven-
eighths of the drainage, and because there is greater pre-
cipitation on that side, includes nearly all the large
streams. This fact becomes of great economic impor-
tance when we consider the vast extent of fertile soil in
the Great Valley which only needs the application of
water to produce abundantly. If the slopes were
reversed not only would the -precipitation be smaller, but
the most of the water would be lost in the deserts of the
Great Basin.

At the southern end the Sierra Nevada Range does
not much exceed 7000 feet in elevation, Tehachapi Pass
being 4025 feet. Here the southeastern face is not very
high nor very abrupt, but as we follow it northward in
a gently sweeping curve it becomes more lofty and impos-
ing. This face or escarpment west of Owens Valley is not
equaled for length, height and ruggedness by anything
else in North America. The eastern front of the Teton
Range, upon the borders of the Yellowstone Park, alone
compares with it in scenic grandeur.

64 The Geography of California

Owens Valley has itself an elevation of 4000 feet above
the sea, but the escarpment rises 10,000 feet above it,
culminating in jagged peaks, the highest of which is Mt.
Whitney, 14,501 feet. As viewed from the summit of
the Inyo Range, lying on the opposite side of Owens
Valley, the individual peaks do not stand out distinctly,
and we get a full realization of the mighty Sierra wall,
which, now of course much eroded, was originally formed
by a two-mile vertical displacement of the earth's crust.

North of Owens Valley extensive flows of lava have
been built up against the range so that the escarpment
does not appear so high, but as we approach Mono Lake,
which lies in a basin caused by the sinking of the earth,
we encounter another great escarpment more than a mile
in height, Mt. Dana rising about 7000 feet above the
waters of the lake.

As we continue to trace the Sierras northward and
approach Lake Tahoe, we find that the one great line of
fracture and displacement of the earth gives place to
three. The main eastern wall is well shown along the
western side of Carson Valley. The western one forms
the rugged mountains rising above Tahoe. The lake
itself occupies a sunken block, and is directly due to a
great flow of lava which formed a dam across the depres-
sion. This is the largest mountain lake in the State, its
surface having a height above sea level of 6225 feet, and
a depth of 1635 feet. The scenery, pure water, and
pleasant summer climate make the region prized as a
place for summer recreation.

Tracing the Tahoe Valley northward we pass a number
of glacial lakes, among which are Donner, Independence,

The Sierra Nevada Mountains 65

and Weber, and finally reach Sierra Valley. The lakes
drain easterly through the Truckee river into the Great
Basin, but Sierra Valley, lying in the same dropped
earth-block, empties westward through the Feather river
into the Sacramento. In following the Sierras northward
to this point the crest of the range, or line of highest
peaks, has formed the divide between the Pacific and the
Great Basin, but Sierra Valley is some miles east of this
crest, and the drainage, instead of going eastward, as we
should expect, is west through the crest by means of
Feather river, as before stated. It is difficult to explain
this anomaly unless we assume that the crest has been
slowly rising relatively to Sierra Valley, and the streams
once established maintained their courses by continually
deepening their channels. Going north and east from
Sierra Valley we gradually rise until we reach the top of
the eastern escarpment of the Sierras and look down 3000
feet upon Honey Lake Valley, lying in the Great Basin.
How different, then, are the opposite sides of the
Sierra Nevadas. Looking at the range from the east
we face a bold fault escarpment. Approaching it from
the west we can at only few points get a glimpse of the
summit, and have to travel many miles through gradually
rising valleys and mountains before we get a good view
of the summit.

Mountain Passes.

For more than 200 miles along the middle Sierras there
are no passes much lower than 11,000 feet, while scores
of peaks approach 14,000 feet in height. This continuity
of the lofty crest is quite remarkable, and made access

66 The Geography of California

to the fertile valleys of California very difficult for the
early emigrants. Because of this fact Fremont and party
nearly perished; many of the Donner party died; and
the Death Valley party were blocked and had to turn
southward. Wagon roads were finally built over the
Donner and Carson Passes, but on some of the other
routes there were places where the wagons had to be
taken apart and let down over precipices with ropes.

The first railroad was built over the Donner Pass, but
owing to the elevation of 7000 feet there has always been
much trouble with snow. Beckwith Pass, leading from
the Great Basin to Sierra Valley, is one of the easiest
passes in the range, having an elevation of only 5000
feet, but in this case we have an interesting illustration
that it is not always the crest of the range that is most
difficult to pass, for Feather river, the outlet of Sierra
Valley, could not be followed down to the Sacramento
Valley owing to the fact that it flowed much of the
distance through precipitous canons.

Until recently the highest pass occupied by a wagon
road was Sonora Pass, 9624 feet in elevation, but now
the State has opened a road through the Yosemite Park,
Tioga Pass and Leevining Creek to Mono Lake. Tioga
Pass has an elevation of 9941 feet, and is open for travel
only three to four months each year. Mono Pass, near
the head of the Tuolumne river, was much used by the
Indians in crossing from the east to the Yosemite Valley.
Mammoth Pass leads from the head of Owens river to
the North Fork of the San Joaquin river, and is occupied
by an important trail. Owing to the easy approach to

The Sierra Nevada Mountains 67

this pass from the east it may some time be used by a
railroad.

Perhaps the easiest of all is Walker's Pass, across the
southern Sierras to the valley of the South Fork of the
Kern river, which has an elevation of 5280 feet. Here,
however, the same difficulty is encountered as in the case
of Beckwith Pass, for the Kern cannot be followed down
to the San Joaquin Valley owing to the ruggedness of
the canon.

The Tehachapi Pass is approached very easily from
the Mohave Desert, on the south, but the descent to the
San Joaquin Valley, on the north, is so rapid that the
construction of a railroad across it was quite a difficult
undertaking. The old stage road from Los Angeles to
Bakersfield made use of the Tejon Pass, which is situated
between the Tehachapi Range and the San Emegdio
Mountains. This is the easiest route connecting Southern
with Central California, since in reaching the pass from
the south the Mohave Desert is skirted instead of crossed
as in the case of the road leading to Tehachapi. The
Tejon Pass is interesting because it is situated directly on
the Great Earthquake rift, and is in reality due to the
presence of the rift.

Geographical Story of the Sierra Nevada Mountains.

The Sierra Nevada Mountains are noted for many
things : for their mineral wealth, their forests, their lofty
peaks, and their wonderful canons, lakes and waterfalls.
To understand these we must learn something of the
history of the region, and this, when we know how to
decipher it, can be read in the character of its surface.

68 The Geography of California

We must recognize, to start with, that mountain ranges
are not permanent features of the earth. They begin as
the result of disturbances within the earth, finally attain
their greatest height, and are at last worn down through
the crumbling of the rocks, and the removal to lower
lands of this waste material through the agency of run-
ning water and glaciers. We have here in California
different mountain groups representing various stages
in this process of upbuilding and wearing down. We
shall also see that the particular stage of development in
which we find a mountain range determines its economic
importance to the district about.

As one ascends the long gentle western slope of the
Sierra Nevadas he is constantly reminded of a region of
low relief which has been lifted and tilted and is now
undergoing erosion. Long ago, then, the Sierras had been
worn down so that the streams flowed through broad
valleys, while the highlands along the divides rarely,
except in the loftiest part of the range, approached the
dignity of mountains. This old surface is shown better
in the basin of the upper Kern river than in any other
part of the mountains. The Kern Canon is about 2000
feet deep and bordered by distinct shoulders with plateau-
like tops which slope back gently to the lofty mountains
on the crests of the main range of the Great Western
Divide, a spur from this main range. This plateau once
formed the bottom of the valley through which the
ancient Kern flowed before the mountains were uplifted.
Since this last movement the canon has been cut, and
glaciers have modified the mountains along the divides,
until through the action of sapping by the cirques they

The Sierra Nevada Mountains 69

have been made very rugged and precipitous. The view
from some lofty point near the Yosemite Valley shows
a similar condition of the surface. The valley appears
as a deep precipitous cut in a rolling plateau which slopes
from the San Joaquin Valley to the summit of the range.
The present Sierras, then, show three dominant topo-
graphic features, namely, the deep canons, the plateau-
like shoulders bordering them, and the lofty glacier sculp-
tured divides.

That portion of the Sierras which is at present the
highest, namely, the Kings-Kern-Kaweah divide, was
also the highest in ancient times. Toward the north the
range was low, and during the accumulation of the
gravels of the ancient streams was nearly buried by these
and the later volcanic materials.

Finally there came a time when the movements of the
earth's crust opened anew the fissures along the eastern
base of these ancient mountains, and lava and streams of
volcanic mud, similar to that which destroyed Martin-
ique, flowed down many of the valleys and buried the
river beds. The volcanic material was particularly
abundant in the northern portion. Severe earthquakes
undoubtedly occurred, and the mountains began to rise
and tilt toward the west. In this way arose the steeper
slope in which the streams finally eroded canons 2000
to 3000 feet deep.

The Scenic Features of the Mountains.

The origin of the Yosemite Valley has been the cause
of a great deal of speculation ever since it was known.
There is, however, nothing which distinguishes it from

70 The Geography of California

the Hetch Hetchy Valley, the Kings, and the Kern river
canons, save that it is deeper and more precipitous. All
of these canons had the same origin. The agent which
produced them was chiefly running water, although their
last shaping was due to glacial action. The reason that
the Yosemite Valley is more precipitous and picturesque
than the others is because the granite here is cut by seams
or joints which are predominantly vertical, or nearly so.
The rocks decay along these seams, and as their material
is removed by water, cliffs finally result.

Waterfalls have originated chiefly through the differ-
ence in rapidity of erosion of a small stream as compared
with a large one. The Merced river cut down into the
granite so much faster than Bridal Veif or Yosemite
creeks that waterfalls of great height and beauty were
finally formed. The Merced river itself enters the valley
by two falls, the lower one of which is due to a hard rim
of granite, and the upper to the fact that at the melting
of the glaciers the stream was pushed out of its old
channel and forced to take a new one, over a cliff.

The glacial period was of great importance to Cali-
fornia. The increased precipitation led to the formation
of the numerous lakes in the Great Basin which are now
generally dry, and from whose beds we obtain salts of
various kinds. In the mountains the Glacial Period was
most noticeable. The glaciers scraped off all the loose
and disintegrated rock materials, leaving the surface bare
and smooth, and carried this material to the end of its
ice tongues in the canons, where water, in its turn, con-
tinued to transport the gravel and boulders on toward
the valley. After the melting of the ice it was a long

The Sierra Nevada Mountains 71

time before vegetation again spread over the surface, and
there are large areas where the trees are only just getting
a foothold in the crevices of the rocks.

The removal of the rock debris from the surface was
very bad in one way, since it allowed the rains and the
water from the melting snows to run off rapidly, thus
increasing floods and making the streams lower in the
summer. This effect was partly counteracted, however,
by the morainal materials which were left in great piles
and ridges here and there. This material acts as a
sponge, absorbing the melting snows and allowing the
water to go off slowly in form of springs.

It was for the creation of the lakes that we have the
most to be thankful to the glaciers for. The hundreds
and almost thousands of the glacial lakes not only add
immeasurably to the scenic features of the mountains,
but they are of very great economic importance. They
tend to equalize the flow of the streams, and hold back
large quantities of water which then runs away gradually
through the summer. A study of the floods of our coun-
try will show that those streams which have many lakes,
and an abundance of lakes is always found in recently
glaciated areas, seldom have floods which do any great
damage. Compare the upper Mississippi and the Ohio
in this regard.

The glacial lakes were formed in two different ways.
In one case the debris left by a glacier made a dam across
a canon and a body of water formed above. Such lakes
may be quite deep, and are generally found near the
terminations of the glaciers. Rock basin lakes are as a
rule higher upon the mountains, and sometimes occur in

72 The Geography of California

step-like series, even to the very head of the stream, the
last one occupying a cirque under the precipitous walls
of the crest. Previous to the coming of the glaciers the
rocks had everywhere decayed to a considerable depth,
this being much more pronounced in some places than in
others. As the glaciers passed down the slopes and into
the canons they scraped off the soft and more or less
loose rock material, finally tearing away portions of the
solid rock where it was projecting in its path, and lastly
grinding and polishing the surface. Where the rocks
were decayed deeply basins were formed, the more resist-
ant rock below causing the glaciers to rise and ride over
it until another softer spot was found where it again
scooped out a basin. We may say, then, that while the
glaciers modified the canons, they did not originate them.
The real agent was running water.

We do not know, with any certainty, the cause of the
Glacial Period in California, or whether it corresponded
exactly with the period of glaciation in the northeastern
States. We know, however, that about the time of gla-
ciation the whole Pacific Coast region stood much higher
above the sea than it does now. An elevation of 3000
feet would again cause extensive glaciation in the Sierra
Nevadas, as would also a comparatively slight increase
in the amount of precipitation. Small glaciers still exist
on the protected slopes of the highest peaks.

The southern limits of the ancient glaciers in the
Sierras was just above the lakes in Kern river canon, at
an elevation of 6000 feet. As we go northward the indi-
cations of glaciation reach lower, and in the Hetch Hetchy
region was something less than 4000 feet.

The Sierra Nevada Mountains 73

The Economic Importance of the Sierra Nevadas.

The Sierra Nevada Range is now in the stage of geo-
graphic development in which it is of the greatest eco-
nomic value, as well as of scenic attractiveness. If it
were older there would be less of the plateau-like upland
remaining, and it is this which supports a large propor-
tion of the forest. If the range were more nearly worn
down the precipitation would be less, the climate warmer,
the run-off of the water more rapid, and less remaining
for use in the summer. The streams, also, are at a stage
where they will produce a large amount of power for
commercial purposes. As we shall see later the San
Gabriel Range of Southern California has reached a
stage of development in which there are practically no
agricultural lands available. In the Sierra Nevadas there
are agricultural lands upon the plateau-like shoulders
between the canons, and at many points in the canons
themselves where erosion has resulted in producing val-
leys of considerable size. Several of the larger valleys
in the northern Sierras, such as Sierra and Indian Val-
leys, are not the result of erosion, but of faulted and
displaced earth blocks.

Mining was the industry which first brought this
region into prominence, and the population was for a
time very large. As placer mining decreased people
drifted away, and the region is dotted with almost aban-
doned towns. The most important of the old mining
towns remain, drawing their support largely from quartz
mining. Those along the Mother Lode include Mariposa
at the south, then Coulterville, Sonora, Angels Camp,

74 The Geography of California

San Andreas, Jackson, Plymouth and Placerville, and
farther north Grass Valley, Nevada City, Oroville and
Quincy were once important places.

The gold of the ancient river beds is far from being
exhausted, but hydraulic mining has largely ceased owing
to the damage done by the tailings to the valley lands.
One can travel for miles in Nevada and Placer counties
without being out of sight of abandoned placer and
hydraulic diggings. Thousands of acres of land once
valuable for agricultural purposes is now given over to
rock heaps. Much dredging for gold is now being car-
ried on in the bottom lands of the Feather river, below
Oroville, and it is proposed to dredge large areas along
the Merced river below Merced Falls. Although much
gold will undoubtedly be obtained, yet it is certain that
in the long run the loss of these fertile bottom lands will
be greater than the profit in gold taken out.

Quartz mining is of a more permanent character than
either placer or hydraulic mining, and does not injure
the surface to the same extent. Some of the mines on the
Mother Lode are down over 3000 feet and are still
obtaining a fair grade of ore.

Dairying is a profitable industry in many of the upland
valleys, particularly of the northern Sierras. Sheep are
now kept out of many parts of the mountains, and the
number of cattle which are allowed to graze in the
National Forests is limited. It is of the utmost impor-
tance that we take the best care of the watersheds of our
streams, that our summer water supply may not be
affected.

The Sierra Nevada Mountains 75

The forestry question in the Sierra Nevadas is of the
utmost importance. We have here one of the finest tim-
ber supplies remaining in the world, and it behooves us
to take good care of it. So much of the timber has
passed into the hands of corporations who take no care
in their lumbering operations that the solution of the
problem of conservation is difficult.

The timber in the National Forests is cut under the
supervision of the rangers; only mature trees are felled,
and the refuse, which ordinarily adds so much to the
danger of fire, is burned. When the white people first
came much of the lower timber belt had an open park-
like character, owing to the fact that the Indians fre-
quently burned off the surface to keep it clear so they
could hunt. This has now largely grown up to trees and
brush ; in fact the young timber will in a few years be an
important source of lumber. Those who advocate the
burning of the country as the Indians did forget that
this burning killed all the young trees, and if it had been
kept up would in time have resulted in the almost total
destruction of the forest. In past years there has been
the most criminal waste of this magnificent forest. In
order to stop it entirely, and also lessen the danger of
fire, the Government should supervise the cutting even
on private lands. The devastation which the most of the
lumber companies leave in their operations makes it neces-
sary that we do something at once.

The water power available in the numberless streams
of the Sierras is of great magnitude, and the development
of transmission lines makes it possible to transport this

76 The Geography of California

power to any point in the State, instead of having to use
it on the spot, as in past years.

The same water, after having supplied power, can be
utilized for irrigation in the Great Valley. We might
with truth say that the water furnished by the Sierra
Nevada Mountains is one of the most important assets
of California. Hundreds of thousands of acres of rich
land in the Great Valley would remain comparatively
useless if it were not for this water. There is little doubt
that every particle available will eventually be used, par-
ticularly in the San Joaquin Valley. We also see that
the Sierra water, taken from Owens river and the eastern
slope of the Sierras is destined to enable Southern Cali-
fornia to support a much larger population than it other-
wise could. The 200-mile aqueduct built at enormous
expense shows the importance of the water supply for
the drier parts of California.

In our description of the Sierra Nevada Mountains it
will not do to pass over the use of this region as a sum-
mer recreation ground. The value of the mountains for
this purpose cannot be overestimated, and it is being
appreciated more every year. There is no region in the
United States better adapted to outings for health and
recreation. The absence of rain, except for occasional
thunder storms, the bracing air of the forests, and the
magnificent scenery, make these mountains more valuable
for our health and happiness than for many of the so-
called economic uses. The heat of the interior valleys in
summer, as well as the cold fogs upon the coast, turn
people in the direction of the mountains.

The Sierra Nevada Mountains 77

The public parks, such as the Yosemite National Park,
will be forever kept in their natural wild state, and here
the birds and animals are to receive equal protection with
the forests. It is to be hoped that a much larger area
than the parks will be preserved as Nature made it, for
looking at the question even from a commercial stand-
point, there will eventually be more money left in Cali-
fornia by tourists and visitors, than if we cut away the
forests, sell their products and leave the mountain slopes
desolate and exposed to erosion by the winter storms.

78 The Geography of California

CHAPTER XII.
THE GREAT VALLEY PROVINCE.

General Characteristics. — The Great Valley de-
serves our attention next because it lies at the foot of the
Sierra Nevada Mountains, in the very heart of the State.
Its vast stretches, now but sparsely settled, will some
time hold the bulk of the agricultural population of
California.

The Great Valley is practically a plain 400 miles long
and 50 miles wide. It gradually rises through foothills
to mountains which inclose it on all sides. The northern
arm is known as the Sacramento Valley, the southern as
the San Joaquin, and each is drained by a river of the
same name. These two streams coming from opposite
directions unite in the western center of the valley and
flow westward through the Strait of Carquinez to San
Francisco Bay.

The Great Valley is one of the oldest of the present
existing physical features of California. It was formed
far back in the history of the earth through a down-
folding of the earth's crust. It has been either a valley
somewhat as it appears today, a brackish or fresh-water
lake, or an arm of the sea throughout the long time dur-
ing which the Sierra Nevadas were being uplifted and
worn down, while volcanoes and lava flows were forming
the volcanic plateau of the northeastern portion of the
State, and while the Coast Ranges were being folded
and dislocated in earthquake movements, and the ocean

The Great Valley Province 79

was invading their valleys or retreating from their pres-
ent shores.

For long ages rock waste brought by the streams from
the inclosing mountains has been accumulating in the
bottom of the Great Valley. Wells put down 3000 feet
fail to reach the bottom of these deposits, and the process
is still going on. To permit of this accumulation we must
understand that the valley bottom has been slowly sinking
relative to the mountains.

Drainage. — The combined Sacramento-San Joaquin
river was once a stream of considerable length flowing
down through San Pablo and San Francisco Bays and out
through the Golden Gate. Owing to the recent sinking of
the coast this river was so completely drowned that but
little now remains. Tidal influence is now felt as far
inland as Sacramento and Stockton. Another effect of the
subsidence was the flooding of the lower part of the Great
Valley, so now at the junction of its two rivers there is
an extensive delta and marsh region which is more or
less overflowed during the spring freshets. This region
is slowly being made into dry land as a result of the depo-
sition of the silt brought down by the muddy waters.
The surface is more or less overgrown with tules. Large
areas have been reclaimed by levees and are found to be
exceedingly productive.

The channel of the lower Sacramento river has for
many miles been built up, making its immediate banks
higher than the country lying back, so that in flood time
the banks are dry, while the country on either side is
occupied by vast bodies of water. While the immediate
effect of the silt brought down from the hydraulic mines

80 The Geography of California

was to shoal the beds of the Sacramento, Yuba, Feather
and other rivers, yet the ultimate effect might be made
very beneficial by turning the silt-laden waters into and
reclaiming the marshy lowlands.

When the gold miners first came small boats could
ascend the Feather river to Marysville, and the Sacra-
mento as far as Red Bluff, but these streams have been so
filled that now they are scarcely navigable above the city
of Sacramento. The San Joaquin carries less water and
has been used less than the Sacramento, although with a
little dredging it would be navigable as far up as the
mouth of the Merced.

The Merced, Tuolumne, Stanislaus, Mokelumne and
Cosumnes rivers have cut well defined channels below the
level of the valley on their way to their junction with the
San Joaquin. Farther south the Kings, Kaweah and
Kern rivers, carrying at most seasons a volume of water
which is relatively less in relation to the quantity of sand
and silt which they are bearing along, have built up
extensive deltas above the level of the valley. A study of
the map will show that these streams, with their many
channels, some of which are used one season, some
another, have a true delta character. Like the streams
of the arid region at flood time their channels are often
higher than the adjacent land, so that their waters are
forever changing their course.

The streams which flow into the San Joaquin Valley
from the Coast Ranges are small, and dry up in the
summer, while those from the Sierras are large and
numerous. The consequence is that the main drainage
lines of the San Joaquin Valley are forced over toward

The Great Valley Province 81

the west side by the delta accumulations on the side next
to the Sierras.

The Kings river has built so large a delta or debris
cone as to block the once continuous drainage of the San
Joaquin Valley, and behind the dam thus formed there
once existed a large permanent body of water known as
Tulare Lake. In late years so much water has been used
in irrigation that the lake has at times completely dried
up, although now (1910) there is a considerable body of
water there.

The Kern river, in building its debris cone, formed
another low dam across the valley, giving rise to Buena
Vista and Kern Lakes at the extreme southern end of
San Joaquin Valley. At times of high water Buena Vista
Lake discharges northward into the Tulare basin, and
also southeastward into Kern Lake. An old beach with
clam shells on it in the edge of the hills, 200 feet above
Buena Vista Lake, tells us that once a large lake occupied
the whole southern end of the San Joaquin Valley.

Climate. — As a result of the Coast Range barrier the
western sides of both the San Joaquin and Sacramento
valleys are much drier than the eastern, and consequently
much more in need of irrigation. In the former no per-
manent streams flow eastward from the Coast Ranges, the
main drainage lines, as in the case of the Sierras being
westward. Much of this land will bear grain crops on
average years, while other large areas are very dry, with
only a scanty vegetation, and suitable for grazing during
the spring months.

Cottonwood trees are scattered over the deltas of the
Kern and Kaweah rivers, and near the mountains the

82 The Geography of California

latter delta contains some oaks, but generally the San
Joaquin Valley is destitute of trees save for narrow
fringes along the streams. At Bakersfield the annual
rainfall is only about six inches, but this increases north-
ward until at Red Bluff it is twenty-five inches. Owing to
the heavier rainfall a large portion of the Sacramento
Valley is dotted with oaks. Some of these reach a great
size, and in places give the country the appearance of a
natural park.

The climate of the Great Valley is marked by much
greater extremes than is the coastal region. The sum-
mers are very warm, but as the air is dry the high tem-
perature is more easily borne than is much of the summer
weather in the Eastern States. The winters are scarcely
any cooler than those in Southern California, so that
citrus fruits are grown in perfection. Experiments have
shown that an orange belt extends practically the whole
length of the eastern side of the valley from Bakersfield
to Oroville. The climatic conditions are particularly
favorable for oranges where the valley merges into the
lower foothills. It is a peculiar and interesting fact that
oranges ripen a month to six weeks earlier at Oroville
than in Southern California. This is probably due to the
fact that the fruit belt of Southern California is not shut
off from the ocean by lofty mountains as is that of
Central California. The cool winds penetrating far
inland in the former make the growth of fruits slower.
We find another illustration of this fact in the
Vaca Valley region lying on the western side of the
Sacramento Valley and close under the Coast Ranges.
Here such fruits as cherries, apricots, etc., are produced

The Great Valley Province 83

earlier in the spring than in any other portion of the
State.

Another peculiar feature of the Great Valley, and one
which is not always pleasant, is the existence of winter
fogs which, from their prevalence in the tule covered
delta region, are known as "Tule fogs." Occasionally
during the clear cool weather of midwinter these fogs
spread over the whole valley.

Industrial Development. — It was at one time
thought that the vast semi-arid plains of the San Joaquin
Valley were only valuable as stock ranges. Then grain
was sowed, but produced little in dry years. The country
was desolate in the extreme. There were few comfortable
homes and almost no gardens.

With the introduction of irrigation all began to change.
The large ranches were cut up into small ones which were
much better taken care of and produced a better living.
What irrigation will do is shown in the thousands of
acres of vineyards, orchards and alfalfa fields spread over
the delta of the Kings river.

The greatest development of the orange industry up
to the present has taken place about Porterville. Not
only is the climate much like that of Southern California,
but the scenery is very similar. Unlike the most of the
western slope of the Sierras the valley lands here extend
up to the very base of lofty mountains whose snow-
covered crests are visible from the orange orchards.

Irrigation is now being extended to the Sacramento
Valley on a large scale, and many of the formerly unim-
proved grain and stock ranches are being cut up and
supplied with water. Important reservoirs are being

84 The Geograpny of California

built in the mountains to conserve the flood waters for
summer use. The most important of these is on the
upper Pitt river, which rises in the remote northeastern
corner of the State.

Since the Great Valley is mostly underlaid by very
recent accumulations we would not expect its mineral
resources to amount to much. A small bed of coal
occurs at lone. At Lincoln are deposits of clay which
are being utilized for tiles and pottery. Natural gas has
been found in deep wells at Stockton, and is abundant in
the vicinity of the oil deposits. Artesian water is found
at many points in the lower portion of the San Joaquin
Valley.

The one important mineral substance which occurs
upon the borders of the southern San Joaquin Valley is
petroleum. The fields have increased in extent and im-
portance until this region has become the great oil center
of the State. The important fields are the Kern River,
Coalinga, McKittrick, Sunset and Midway. The latter
is of the greatest extent, and in the spring of 1910
occurred the wildest excitement ever known since the
first discovery of gold. In the Sunset field is the greatest
oil well in the world, which for several months spouted
oil into the air at the rate of over 40,000 barrels every
twenty-four hours. The oils here are better suited for
fuel than for illuminating purposes. Large quantities of
gasoline, distillate and lubricants are produced in the
refining process.

The cultivation of the soil in the Sacramento Valley
was first undertaken by Captain Sutter, who obtained a
grant from Mexico and built a fort near the mouth of

The Great Valley Province 85

the American river. Shortly after the discovery of gold
General Bidwell planted orchards near the present town
of Chico.

All those who set out orchards during the early days
of the gold excitement, mastered the climatic conditions
which were so different from the East, and successfully
applied irrigation, received almost fabulous prices for
what they could raise.

Geographic conditions were all-important in determin-
ing the locations of the first towns. Sacramento early
became the main center for distribution of supplies to
the miners because boats of large size could readily
ascend the Sacramento river to this point. Before
hydraulic mining caused a shoaling of Feather river,
boats ascended as far as the present city of Marysville.
This fact determined the location of the place. Red
Bluff owes its location to the fact that boats could ascend
the Sacramento to that point.

Sacramento, in addition to being a supply point for
the mines, was also the terminus of the overland route,
so that nearly all the emigrants arriving by wagon team
went there first. The place also became the terminus of
the first overland railroad, and later an important railroad
center. It is now an important shipping point for early
fruit and vegetables destined for the East.

Stockton also grew up as a town because of its relation
to water transportation. Supplies were sent to the south-
ern mines from this point, but as the mines became less
important its position with regard to a vast and fertile
agricultural region has become the determining factor in
its destiny.

86 The Geography of California

The position of both Bakersfield and Fresno were
determined in a general way by the delta lands of the
Kern and Kings rivers, respectively. In a region which
is as dry as a large part of California the presence of an
abundance of water is one of the first considerations in
the location of the towns and cities.

There is no more fertile and easily cultivated region
in the world than the vast area of marsh and overflow
lands lying at the junction of the San Joaquin and Sacra-
mento rivers. The character of the soil, together with
the abundance of moisture, particularly adapts this region
to the growing of vegetables. The lands have to be
protected with dikes or levees, but during, severe floods
these are frequently broken down. Studies are now being
carried on as to the best methods for taking care of the
flood waters of this region and filling the marshes.
Investigations are also being made as to whether this
region is rising or sinking.

The Great Valley of California is most exceptionally
situated for the support of a great population. It is
rimmed with mountains from which the drainage lines
descend and converge at one point. From this point, at
the strait of Carquinez, there is communication with the
whole world by deep-water vessels. Large sailing vessels
can come up through the strait and receive their loads
at the very door of the valley. When the Sacramento
has been deepened to Red BlufT, and the San Joaquin
dredged and a canal built from it to the Tulare and Kern
basins then this great region will be prepared to begin its
boundless development.

The Great Valley Province 87

In addition to this possible water transportation the
Great Valley is at present connected with the rest of the
country by four important railroads which make use of
depressions or passes in the rim of mountains. On the
east Donner and Beckwith passes are used. On the
south Tehachapi, and on the north the Sacramento river
canon gives access to the northern part of the State,
from whence Oregon is reached by the Siskiyou Pass.
There are other passes, as we have seen, which will
doubtless be used as the population increases.

88 The Geography of California

CHAPTER XIII.

THE COAST RANGES.

As far as we can learn Fremont was the first to use
the name Coast Ranges for the mountains bordering the
coast of California. At that time too little was known of
the geography of this region for the name to have any-
very exact meaning. Although in reality mountains are
practically continuous along the coast from Oregon to
Southern California, yet, as far as our State is concerned
geographers have come to apply the term Coast Ranges
much as Fremont used it, meaning that portion of the
mountains bordering the Pacific Coast which lie between
the Great Valley of California and the ocean.

The Klamath Mountains, occupying the northwest
corner of the State, are more lofty and Sierra-like than
the Coast Ranges, contain important deposits of gold and
copper, and for the most part consist of older rocks.
These criteria are made the basis for the demarkation
between the two, which forms a pretty direct northwest
and southeast line, according closely with the lower
Klamath river and the South Fork of Trinity river, from
the head of which it is carried across the crest of the
range south of that group of peaks known as the Yallo
Bally Mountains.

The Coast Ranges are limited on the south by a line
drawn westerly from the extreme southern end of the
San Joaquin Valley, a line which closely accords with

The Coast Ranges 89

the northern boundary of Santa Barbara county. We
find this marked topographically by the Cuyamas Valley
and the Santa Maria river, and further by the fact that
to the south the mountains extend nearly east and west,
while the Coast Ranges have a northwest and southeast
.direction.

In describing the Coast Ranges we have to do, as the
name implies, with a group or system of mountains in
which there are a number of distinct ranges. They do
not constitute a simple mountain block like the main
part of the Sierra Nevadas. The folding of the earth's
crust and the formation of fracture and earthquake lines
in a general northwest and southeast direction have
given origin to the series of parallel mountains and val-
leys. The disturbances of the earth's crust in this region
have been many and severe, affecting now one part, now
another part.

A bird's-eye view from some lofty point shows the
ranges with the intervening valleys which make up the
system extending a little more to the west than the gen-
eral trend of the coast. This results in rocky headlands
where the mountains come out to the sea, while behind
the headlands, and lying at the mouths of the valleys,
are bays with sandy beaches penetrating the land more or
less deeply. Our bird's-eye view also shows that there
are comparatively few isolated mountain peaks, but many
somewhat uniform valleys and ridges which in a broad
way seem quite monotonous, but when viewed in detail
appear to be extremely varied and attractive. Many
passes and connecting valleys break up the region into a

90 The Geography of California

great complexity of features so that it is impossible to
describe its geographic development as a whole.

According to the records shown in the geographic
features, as well as in the rocks, no other portion of the
United States has had such a remarkably complicated
history. Nowhere else do we find stronger evidences of
the instability of the earth's crust. One part has been
folded, another has been raised or dropped along crustal
fracture lines. Then, here and there volcanic action has
been severe and long-continued. The region of the
Berkeley Hills was quite recently occupied by a fresh-
water lake, while another large lake occupied the lowland
district about the southern arm of San Francisco Bay.

The geographic features have been further complicated
by the movements of the land relative to the sea. At one
time, perhaps, there were many such times, the land
stood much higher than now, and the shore lay a varying
distance to the westward of the present shore, while the
streams cut channels, in some places canons, across what
is now a part of the submerged continental plateau.

At another time the Coast Ranges were submerged
until nearly buried beneath the waters of the Pacific.
They were then practically a group of islands and penin-
sulas separated from the Sierra Nevadas by a broad, deep
bay which occupied the Great Valley. Earthquakes and
volcanic outbreaks, and changes of the level of the land
seem never to have left the country at rest. We once
thought that it was at rest, and that there would be no
more changes, but the great earthquake of 1906 taught
us better.

The Coast Ranges 91

It was formerly believed that the Coast Ranges were
newer than the Sierra Nevadas, and that the continent
grew progressively westward from the Rocky Mountains.
This is a mistake, for there was extensive land here long
before there was any Sierra Nevada Range. The granite
exposed in the Santa Lucia, Gavilan and Santa Cruz
Ranges, on the Farallone Islands and at Point Reyes,
tells us there was land here long ago, and it was on this
ancient land that the earliest known representatives of
the Sequoias lived, as has already been mentioned.

The complexity of the geography of the Coast Ranges
is increased by the fact that the underlying rocks vary
greatly in their resistancy to decay and erosion. Valleys
may be formed where the rocks are soft, and where they
are resistant picturesque peaks may be developed as is
illustrated in the case of the San Luis Buttes. These are
the most striking mountain peaks, due to purely erosion
effects, which we have. They represent ancient igneous
eruptions which once broke up through the crust and
now stand out because they are hard and the rocks
around them are soft. They extend in line from the
town of San Luis Obispo northwesterly to the ocean,
and terminate in a great rock known as Morro Rock
which rises bare and rugged to a height of nearly 600
feet.

South of San Francisco there are three prominent
mountain axes. The southern one, which lies along the
ocean the major part of its length, is known as the Santa
Lucia. This is the most rugged of the mountains
included in the Coast Ranges. The lofty points and deep
rugged canons are quite Sierra-like in character. The

92 The Geography of California

main crest is about 4000 feet high, while Santa Lucia,
the highest peak, reaches nearly 6000 feet. For many
miles the range rises with extreme ruggedness from the
ocean in which its southern base rests. The continental
shelf, which borders almost the whole of California, is
absent here, so that the range really has its base in the
depths of the Pacific. On the south it merges into the
Cuyama Range of Santa Barbara county, and on the
north it terminates at Point Pinos, and forms the beau-
tiful Monterey Bay.

The middle axis of the southern Coast Ranges is the
Santa Cruz-Gavilan Range, which extends from Point
San Pedro, a few miles south of San Francisco, south-
easterly until it finally merges in the Mt. Diablo Range.
The highest peaks of the Santa Cruz Mountains rise to
3500 feet, while the Gavilan reaches about 3000 feet.
This axis is worn down in the middle, where the Pajaro
river crosses it, so as to make really two parts, as men-
tioned above.

The northern of the Coast Range axes, and the one
forming the watershed, is commonly known as the Mt.
Diablo Range. The name is derived from the double
peak rising to a height of 3849 feet a short distance
south of the strait of Carquinez. Mt. Diablo is the
most prominent landmark seen from across the Great
Valley as one journeys toward San Francisco.

A western spur of the Mt. Diablo Range is known as
the Contra Costa Hills, inclosing San Ramon and Liver-
more Valleys. The southern portion of the range lying
opposite the Santa Clara Valley is the Mt. Hamilton
Range, rising 4210 feet, and containing the Lick Observ-

The Coast Ranges 93

atory on its culminating peak. In a southeasterly direc-
tion the range decreases in height, but finally rises again
in San Carlos Peak, in southeastern San Benito county,
to a height of nearly 5000 feet. From this point the
mountain axis which we have been describing rapidly
sinks, exhibiting several low passes, and finally blends
with the San Emegdio Mountains south of the San Joa-
quin Valley.

North of San Francisco Bay we still find exhibited
the northwest and southeast parallelism of the mountains
and valleys of the Coast Ranges. Here Napa and
Sonoma Valleys divide the region into three mountain
axes. North of these valleys we can no longer distinguish
such a division, and from Clear Lake on to the Klamath
Mountains we appear to be dealing with one broad and
topographically complex range.

The highest peaks of the Coast Ranges are found
along the crest north of Clear Lake. Here Snow Moun-
tain rises to about 8000 feet, while other peaks connecting
with the Yallo Bally Mountains are nearly as high. To
the southeast the Coast Ranges also blend with lofty
mountains, the San Emegdio Range, one peak of which
reaches nearly 9000 feet.

Drainage. — The last submergence of the coast flooded
the only large river of the Coast Ranges. San Francisco,
San Pablo, and Suisun bays now occupy the former
channel of the Sacramento-San Joaquin river. Many
small streams which once entered this old river, such as
Napa, Petaluma and San Pablo creeks, now empty direct
into San Pablo Bay, while Alameda and Coyote creeks
flow into the southern arm of San Francisco Bay.

94 The Geography of California

Two other streams, which, from the general character
of the relief of this region, we should judge would
enter San Francisco Bay, turn before reaching it and
cut directly through intervening mountain axes to the
ocean. These are Russian river and San Benito river,
and if you will consult the relief map you will see that
they flow in opposite directions from the extreme ends
of the longest valley of the Coast Ranges. This valley
includes Russian river and Sonoma valleys, San Fran-
cisco Bay, Santa Clara, and San Benito valleys. The
Russian river is separated by an almost imperceptible
divide from San Francisco Bay, but leaves this unob-
structed course and turns at right angles and cuts a
canon through the mountains to the ocean. The only
explanation possible is that when the river -assumed its
present course the surface features must have been very
different from those of the present. The course which
now seems so anomalous was then the most natural one.

The San Benito river also flows, throughout the most
of its course, in the direction of San Francisco Bay, but
for a reason probably similar to that governing the direc-
tion of the river just described it leaves the open valley
and, by means of a canon through a gap in the Santa
Cruz-Gavilan Range, reaches Monterey Bay.

There are two important drainage basins in the Coast
Ranges. The largest of these is that of the Salinas river,
but this fact is far from meaning that this is the largest
river. A large part of this region has a very small rain-
fall, so that during the summer months much of its bed
is dry and covered with drifting sand. Water, however,
can always be obtained by digging in the sand, while

The Coast Ranges 95

here and there it comes to the surface. Much of the
area of the valley is treeless for lack of moisture, so that
during the winter storms the water runs off rapidly,
causing serious floods. The long bridges which span
the drifting summer sands then come into use.

Much of the area of the valley land is suitable for agri-
culture and diversified farming. Irrigation is necessary
to make this region support a large population, but as
yet no effort has been made to conserve the winter flood
waters.

The second largest drainage basin is that of Eel river.
This contrasts very markedly with the Salinas. The
rainfall is heavy, the slopes are generally more or less
forested, and the surface consists of a very complex
grouping of mountain ridges and deep canons, with few
valleys of any size. Round .Valley and the extensive
coastal plain at the mouth of the river comprise the
largest agricultural areas. The different forks of Eel
river drain nearly all of the northern portion of the Coast
Ranges.

The Santa Maria river drains the extreme southern
end of the Coast Ranges, being in reality practically on
the boundary of the region as we have defined it. The
rainfall, except upon the mountains, is small, and there
is but little running water in the summer. The Cuyama
Valley, at the upper end of the river, has a semi-arid
climate and is devoted to stock raising. Near the coast
fruit and sugar beets are raised, in addition to stock.
In the latter section the valleys widen, giving large areas
of lowlands.

96 The Geography of California

The Santa Maria river, or Cuyama, as it is known in
its upper course, heads in that exceedingly rugged com-
plex of mountains from which streams flow into the
Mohave Desert, the San Joaquin Valley, the Coast
Ranges and Southern California. The region south of
the Santa Maria river we have agreed to include in the
Southern California province. We might, with just as
much propriety, include nearly the whole of Santa Bar-
bara county in the Coast Ranges, for its mountains and
valleys are not separated by any distinguishing features
from the region which we have been describing.

The watershed of the Coast Ranges is comparatively
simple, and like that of the Sierra Nevada, lies near its
eastern edge. The only exception to this is the Clear
Lake basin, which is drained by Cache creek, which flows
easterly, finally to empty into the Sacramento river.
Clear Lake once drained westerly into Russian river, but
a landslide occurred below the beautiful blue lakes,
which lie in its old outlet, and the waters were turned
in the opposite direction. This is one of the most remark-
able examples of the reversal of the drainage which we
have in California.

If the watershed of the Coast Ranges was near the
coast it would supply much more water to the Great
Valley, but there would be little of the moist coast area
which is so favorable to dairying, and the growing of
beans and other crops. As the topography exists, how-
ever, conditions favor the penetration of the cool moist
air far inland, for many of the valleys lie in the direction
of the prevailing winds, and open out in funnel form
toward the ocean.

The Coast Ranges 97

A remarkable feature in the southeastern portion of
the Coast Ranges is the Carisa plain, a semi-arid valley
fifty miles long and ten miles wide. This has no outlet
to the sea, and thus resembles the sinks of the Great
Basin. A shallow lake once occupied this valley, but it
is now dry and in its place is a white deposit of salt and
alkali. At one spot the lowering of the watershed fifty
feet would drain the valley into the Salinas river basin,
but the rainfall is so slight that this has never been broken
through.

Climate of the Coastal Region. — While the average
temperature differs but little along the coast through a dis-
tance of 1000 miles, yet there is a remarkable difference
in the rainfall. This is due to the fact already explained
that the number and intensity of the storms increases
from south to north.

The valleys of the Coast Ranges particularly favor the
extension of the influence of the ocean far inland, for
they are not only wide at their mouths, but also lie in
the direction of the prevailing winds.

The strong summer indraft carries the cool fogs many
miles into the interior, but only at the strait of Carquinez
do these fogs succeed in penetrating the Great Valley,
cooling the delta region to a temperature considerably
lower than that of the rest of the valley.

The strongest wind draft is found in the Salinas Val-
ley, where the ocean winds coming in from Monterey
Bay finally attain almost the proportions of a gale. At
the town of Salinas the wind is not noticeably strong,
but increases up the valley for seventy-five miles. It
reaches the little town of Bradley in the afternoon, and

98 The Geography of California

blows very hard late into the night, after the wind has
gone down near the ocean.

Watsonville, lying partly protected by the Santa Cruz
Mountains from the prevailing westerly winds, feels so
little the influence of the ocean that it has become an
important fruit growing district. Apples, in particular,
do well here, while they are not raised successfully where
exposed to the ocean winds.

The low summer temperature and the foggy weather
make the coast region an unfavorable one for the grow-
ing of such fruits as oranges, figs, and raisin grapes.
Under favorable conditions, where mountains shut off
the coast winds, oranges will mature and do well as far
north as Santa Rosa.

Interesting exceptions to the rule that it becomes cooler
as one ascends a mountain will appear all along the coast
where it is bordered by high mountains. The fog mantle
does not usually reach above 1500 feet, and while below
this level the air is cool and damp, above it is warm and
pleasant. This is well illustrated on the slopes of Mt.
Tamalpais which has an elevation of 2064 feet. It is a
striking experience to climb one of the coast mountains
and pass all at once from the chilly sunless atmosphere
to the bright warm sun and see below the great ocean
of fog encircling the mountains.

This sea fog occurs only during the dry season, and is
at its worst during June, July and August. Whenever,
during this summer season, an area of high air pressure
exists in Eastern California and Nevada the air currents
are reversed and blow from the land toward the ocean,
giving clear hot summer weather similar to that of the

The Coast Ranges 99

interior. They usually last about three days, when the
fog comes in again.

Sometimes, for days in succession, the temperature
varies along the coast not more than 10 degrees in
twenty-four hours, while in the interior there may be a
daily range of 40 degrees.

Taking everything into account there is no more
attractive region in the world than the Coast Ranges.
The ordinary extremes of temperature, both winter and
summer, are modified by the nearness to the ocean, so
that not only is the climate pleasant most of the year,
but it is possible to grow a great variety of fruits.
Besides these things the valleys have a park-like appear-
ance on account of the oaks, and there is in most parts
water in abundance.

Mountain Passes: Lines of Communication. — If
we were to pick out the pass or gateway in California
which is of greatest economic importance we should
have to select Carquinez Strait, which permits of water
traffic between San Francisco Bay and the Great Central
Valley. Streams, valleys, and railroads radiate from the
bay region to nearly half the State.

Unless our attention is drawn particularly to the fact,
we do not realize how intimately the settlement and
development of the different parts of the State have been
affected by geographic conditions. While the Russians
once made a settlement known as Fort Ross, on the
coast of California, and held it for nearly a third of a
century, they did not succeed in penetrating inland, for
the reason that the mountains and valleys at that point
extend parallel with the coast instead of opening out to it.

100 The Geography of California

Humboldt Bay and San Diego Bay are the best two
bays, excepting San Francisco Bay, and cities destined
to be of great importance are growing up on each of
these, but their progress has been delayed because of land
barriers. Humboldt Bay and the tributary valleys are
separated by a rugged and mountainous country from
the rest of the State. Eureka is growing in spite of the
fact that it has had only water communication with San
Francisco. It is reached by stage line from the railroad
which runs up Russian river valley. Now this railroad
is being extended and will soon reach Humboldt Bay.
Owing to the steep mountains and deep canons there is
no communication with the Sacramento Valley otherwise
than by trails, but as there are large bodies of valuable
timber in the Klamath Mountains a railroad will
undoubtedly be built some time across this region.

Except at a few points where high mountains come
directly down to the sea, there is a strip of land which
we might call a coastal plain, varying in width from a
fourth of a mile to several miles, along the whole coast
of California. This coastal plain supports a considerable
population and important industries, chief of which are
lumbering and dairying. Nearly all points on this strip
of land are reached by wagon roads over the mountains,
but most of the traffic is by boat. Owing to the general
absence of protected bays the boats are anchored at
favorable points where deep water comes up close to the
shore and their cargoes are taken on by a cable.

A number of passes lead across the Mt. Diablo Range,
which, as has already been stated, forms the watershed
of that portion of the Coast Ranges lying southeast of

The Coast Ranges 101

San Francisco Bay. The lowest of these leads through
Niles Canon to Livermore Valley, and thence over the
mountains through a low pass to the San Joaquin Valley.
Farther south are the Pacheco, Panoche, Palonia, Palo
Prieta, and Templor passes, none of which are much
less than 2500 feet in elevation. Several of these will
some time be occupied by railroads.

Owing to the rugged character of much of the coastal
region the early padres experienced great difficulty in
working their way northward from San Diego. The
route of the exploring parties finally became the main
line of travel between Los Angeles and San Francisco,
and is known as the Camino Real. This route led from
Los Angeles to San Fernando, thence to San Buena-
ventura, and up the coast to Santa Barbara. From here
the coast was followed to Gaviota Pass, an important
gap in the Santa Ynez Range; then it turned inland to
Mission Santa Ynez, from which point valleys were
followed through to San Luis Obispo. Here the Santa
Lucia Range was crossed through Cuesta Pass to the
beautiful Santa Margarita Valley, on the headwaters of
the Salinas river. It was an easy matter to follow the
Salinas Valley down past Soledad Mission, and then
over a spur of the Gavilan Range to San Juan Mission,
a few miles from the present city of Hollister. From
this point on north it was a mere matter of following
open valleys to San Francisco.

The coast of California consists of rocky headlands
alternating with long stretches of sandy beach. A study
of the coast tells us many interesting things about the
geographical history of this region. Changes in the

102 The Geography of California

height of the land relative to the sea seem ever to have
been going on. It is believed that while there were
glaciers in the high mountains the land stood so much
higher that the present islands were a part of the main
land. Then the coastal valleys and plains were much more
extensive than now, as shown by the soundings, and gave
to the coast region quite a different aspect. When the land
sank it went down so far that there was but little land
left in what is now Western California, the Coast Ranges
being cut up into islands, bays and peninsulas.

We know that the land sank to a point fully 1500 feet
below the present because of the remnant of a boulder
beach at that elevation near the top of the mountain
ridge back of Fort Ross. We have evidence that after
this the land rose again to a point several hundred feet
above the present level, exposing the margin of the old
coastal plain. The last sinking of the land has drowned
a portion of this again, so that in places steep mountain
slopes rise directly out of the sea. It is interesting to
speculate upon the possibilities of agriculture in the
different stages of this development.

An examination of the cliff cut by the waves along the
coastal plain will show in many places remnants of the
ancient sea beach, with boulders, pebbles and shells,
formed when the coastal plain was a portion of the
marginal sea floor.

The waves are now eating their way into the land on
all exposed shores and making a new sea floor which at
some, future time may be uplifted to form a new coastal
plain. The old levels of the sea, or terraces as we com-
monly call them, stand out distinctly along the coast of

The Coast Ranges 103

Mendocino and Sonoma counties, and south of the bay
region in Santa Cruz and San Luis Obispo counties.

Old Levels of the Mountains. — Our study of the
Sierra Nevada Range has shown us that long ago the
mountains were low and that the streams flowed at a
gentle grade through broad valleys. The watersheds
were so worn down that they presented a very even sky
line, with only here and there an elevation which stood
out distinctly. We have unraveled a similar story in
the geographic features of the Klamath Mountains and
Coast Ranges. Their western slopes were buried beneath
the sea up to a level 1500 feet above the present. The
remaining land was low, and there were none of the
present canons, the streams flowing through broad val-
leys. The whole region of the northern Coast Ranges
and Klamath Mountains was so worn down that the
surface, save scattered elevations about the heads of the
streams, had a plain-like character. The outline of this
old plain can now be seen from many points in this
region. A trip through it also shows many remnants of
the old surface in the flat-topped ridges between the
present canons.

The central and southern Coast Ranges present more
of a diversified character, and have been more broken
by subsequent movements, but here and there remnants
of an ancient surface of low relief can be seen. This is
notably true in the case of the even sky-line forming the
top of the Santa Lucia Range, and in the general char-
acter of the whole Salinas river basin, where gentle
slopes and flat-topped ridges abound. Through these the
present streams have cut canons and valleys, thus adapt-

104 The Geography of California

ing the slope of their beds to the present level of the land.
The flat ridges are of great economic importance, par-
ticularly upon the northern coastal region, for they are
exposed to climatic conditions which adapt them particu-
larly to fruit growing.

The different stages of the uplift of the land from that
time of depression and low relief are shown upon both
sides of the Santa Cruz Mountains, in the form of
benches or terraces. River terraces appear at many
points along the Salinas, at one point six terraces, one
above the other, can be counted in the hard rocks. The
Arroyo Seco, rising in the Santa Lucia Range and flow-
ing northeasterly into the Salinas, exhibits the most
perfect terraces of any stream in the State.

Ancient Volcanoes. — The most of the many vol-
canoes which once existed in the Coast Ranges have been
worn away, but there still remain many extensive bodies
of lava, some of which are very ancient. The last vol-
canic eruptions covered a large area of country between
San Pablo Bay and Clear Lake, and it is on the southern
edge of the latter body of water that volcanic mountains
and craters still exist. Here rises Mt. Konocti, or Uncle
Sam, as it is sometimes called, to a height of 4246 feet.
Mt. St. Helena is another lofty peak, a few miles to the
south, which has an elevation of 4300 feet, and although
formed of lava, gives no indications of ever having been
a volcano.

About Clear Lake are innumerable mineral springs of
various kinds, some hot and some cold. At the eastern
end of the lake is the noted Sulphur Bank, where sul-
phur and cinnabar are still being deposited from hot

The Coast Ranges 105

springs. Borax Lake, a small body of water close under
the northern side of Uncle Sam, occupies what is prob-
ably an explosive crater. On account of the presence
of mineral springs, as well as a pleasant summer climate,
this region is much resorted to for health and pleasure.
The mineral springs are directly related to the recent
volcanic activity, and show that far below the surface
this is not yet extinct. It might be instructive to remark
here that while in many parts of the earth the earthquakes
are due directly to volcanic action, yet in this section, as
well as over California as a whole, the frequent earth-
quakes are due to an entirely different cause.

The Great Earthquake Rift. — The Great Earth-
quake Rift, or San Andreas fault, as it is called in the
Carnegie Report, is one of the most remarkable and
interesting features of the Coast Ranges, if not of the
whole world.

The rift is a fracture in the earth's crust of unknown
length, and along which movements have taken place
for many thousands of years. It is due to a strain in the
crust, similar in some ways, although upon a much
larger scale, to other rifts which have been concerned
in the making of the mountains of the West.

The known length of the rift is about 700 miles, but
neither end has yet been found. It appears first upon
the north a little distance southeast of Eureka, in Hum-
boldt county, and is traceable southeasterly through the
Coast Ranges and finally into the Colorado Desert.

Previous to the great earthquake of 1906 a part of this
line had been recognized and studied by geographers

106 The Geography of California

who saw in the peculiar surface features indications of
comparatively recent movements.

The features by which we have come to know the rift
are low ridges and escarpments, hollows, ponds, lakes,
springs and meadows. The topography has been greatly
modified along this line because of the easy erosion of
the broken and crushed rocks. Canons, long narrow
valleys and passes make it convenient to use the rift line
for roads and trails, and this, together with the existence
of springs and meadows, gives it great economic impor-
tance.

The part of the Great Rift appearing upon the land
begins its main course a few miles east of Pt. Arena,
where it comes in from the sea. It passes up the Gualala
river canon and over a spur of the mountains and goes
into the sea a little distance southeast of Ft. Ross. It
is seen again on the neck of land north of Tomales Bay,
then passing up the bay traverses a long valley to
Bolinas Bay. The rift passes outside the Golden Gate
and strikes the land again six miles south of the Cliff
House. It now skirts the eastern base of the Santa Cruz
Mountains, and crossing them passes close to the San
Juan Mission and along the eastern side of the Gavilan
Range. From this point we trace it to the Cholame
Valley, and then finally into and through the whole
length of the Carisa plain. The remaining portion
belongs in Southern California, and will be described
later.

The earthquake of 1906 opened the northern half of
the rift, making a sixteen-foot horizontal displacement
near Pt. Arena. This decreased to a foot or less near

The Coast Ranges 107

San Juan in San Benito county. The southern half of
the rift opened in the great Tejon earthquake of 1857.

We might as well recognize the fact that earthquakes
may happen any time along this rift, and be prepared to
meet them. Earthquake movements similar to that of
1906 have been the main factor in the origin of our lofty
mountains and magnificent scenery, and I am sure that
with this insight we should be willing to take them philo-
sophically.

Natural Resources. — The Coast Ranges are distin-
guished from most of the other mountains of California
in that they contain few deposits of the precious metals.
Cinnabar, the ore of quicksilver, is the most important
mineral product, unless we except petroleum. It is found
in many places in the region southeast of Clear Lake, at
New Almaden, near San Jose, where it was first mined
in the State; at New Idria, in San Benito county, and
in San Luis Obispo county. California is the one impor-
tant quicksilver producing State in the Union.

Small quantities of a poor variety of coal are found at
various points, the most important being in eastern Mon-
terey county. But little is mined at the present time.
The enormous deposits of petroleum, suitable for fuel,
which have recently been discovered will certainly take
the place of coal. We should perhaps distinguish the
different origin of these two substances. Coal is in no
way related to petroleum, for it required swampy or
marshy areas and a warm, moist climate favorable to the
growth of a luxuriant vegetation. It was further neces-
sary, after the accumulation of a great thickness of vege-
table matter, that these areas should sink beneath the

108 The Geography of California

sea and became covered deeply by other rock accumula-
tions. Petroleum, on the contrary, is formed from
accumulated remains of countless organisms, the most of
them microscopic, in the depths of the sea.

The chief deposits of petroleum of the Coast Ranges
are in the southern part, the most important field yet
developed being the Santa Maria field in western Santa
Barbara county. Petroleum is also found here and there
over the region between San Francisco and Santa Maria,
wherever exist the so-called "bituminous shales," or oil
shales which, as we have seen, were formed long ago in
the deep sea. Asphaltum is the term "applied to an oil
which has become solid from the evaporation of its vola-
tile constituents, while bituminous rock is a vsand impreg-
nated with a thick tar-like oil. This is quarried and used
extensively for paving streets.

The distribution and importance of the forests of the
Coast Ranges is dependent upon the amount of rainfall.
Slope, exposure and soil also influence the growth of
vegetation. Nearly all the valleys are dotted with oaks,
while many of the mountain slopes, particularly toward
the south, are covered with brush.

The most characteristic tree is the redwood {Sequoia
sempervirens) which occurs in groves, whose trees are
of giant size, from the Oregon line south to Monterey
county. These trees occur in greatest numbers in Del
Norte, Humboldt and Mendocino counties, with some
extensive groves in Santa Cruz, Sonoma and Marin
counties. Its natural home appears to be the moist
canons and lowlands near the coast wherever they are
more or less protected from the direct ocean winds. One

The Coast Ranges 109

of the largest of the groves in the Santa Cruz Mountains
is found in Big Basin, and has been reserved as a State
park. Another grove in Redwood Canon, at the southern
base of Tamalpais, has been preserved from destruction
and is now known as Muir Woods.

The redwood has a remarkable vitality, and is likely
to survive as an important tree for the use of our descen-
dants in spite of the efforts of many to clear the ground
on which it grows and use it for other purposes. The
tree sprouts from the roots and stump, and it is almost
impossible to kill it unless the stump is burned up. Much
of the land on which the redwood grows is more impor-
tant for growing trees than for anything else, and people
should be prohibited from carrying out their foolish
efforts to kill these trees.

Of limited importance, as a source of lumber, are the
other trees of the Coast Ranges. There are some spruce
and pine, and oak which is largely used for fuel, although
much of it would be valuable for commercial purposes.
The tan-bark oak, although a valuable hardwood tree, has
been cut in large quantities and only the bark saved.
Such is the criminal waste of our resources which has
been, and is still going on in this region. Madrone and
laurel are scattered over the more moist slopes, and the
digger pine in the drier mountains. The oaks — both
white oak and live oak — give a most beautiful appear-
ance to many of the valleys of this region.

The water power available in the Coast Ranges is small
in comparison with that of the Sierra Nevadas, for the
main streams flow down to the sea with a gentle grade.
Owing to the fact that the Coast Ranges lie outside of

110 The Geography of California

the area of glaciation, except for one or two small areas
we find here but few lakes, Clear Lake being the only
one of any size.

The stock raising and grain industries of earlier days
have in large part given place to fruit growing, particu-
larly in the valleys about the San Francisco Bay region,
where there is good transportation to market. A most
remarkable combination of climatic conditions permits
the growing of a great variety of fruits, such as pears,
peaches, apricots, cherries, apples, etc. In Napa and
Sonoma valleys large quantities of wine grapes are
grown in addition to those for table use. In the warmer
valleys there are fig and olive orchards, and there is
little doubt that the lemon and orange could be success-
fully grown.

Southern California 111

CHAPTER XIV.
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.

Relief and Drainage. — That part of California lying
south of Tehachapi is a region of great diversity of surface
and climate. Although it extends through only two and
one-half degrees of latitude it would be difficult to find
another area of the same size which offers a wider range
of life conditions and so great a variety of sub-tropical
and temperate productions. Mountains whose tops are
white with snow through half the year look down on
the one hand on highly cultivated valleys stretching away
to the sea, and on the other hand over the scorching
sands of the Mohave and Colorado deserts.

Southern California is divided by a series of mountain
ranges into two strongly contrasted parts. The western
one slopes to the ocean, and until recently contained
nearly all the population. The eastern one possesses no
external drainage, and consists for the most part of bar-
ren mountains and desert valleys. This interior region
is geographically a part of the Great Basin, and we shall
take it up under the head of the latter region.

We shall, then, include under the designation Southern
California only that portion of the State lying on the sea-
ward slope south of Tehachapi, or more strictly speaking,
south of a line drawn westerly from the extreme south-
ern end of the San Joaquin Valley. Southern California,
although very complex in detail, is, as thus defined, a
geographic unit. It includes Santa Barbara, Ventura,

112 The Geography of California

Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego and the western por-
tions of San Bernardino and Riverside counties.

The mountains of Southern California are so diverse
in character, and at first sight so confusedly arranged,
that it is not easy to reduce them to any kind of order
for the purpose of study. We can distinguish, however,
two main groups or systems. One forms the northern
boundary of the province, having a general east and west
direction. The other lies to the south, and with its spurs
has a direction nearly north and south. As we follow it
south into Lower California it forms what in general
terms is called the Peninsula Range.

The mountains occupying the northern portion of the
Southern California province appear from ihe relief map
to be really a continuation of the Coast Ranges which in
Santa Barbara county turn more toward the east, become
high and rugged, and exceedingly complex. Nearly the
whole of eastern Santa Barbara county is a mass of
mountains. The most important and distinct single
range is the Santa Ynez, whose western end forms Point
Conception, and whose position determined the abrupt
change in the direction of the coast line of Santa Barbara
county. To the north is San Rafael Range, Cuyama
Range and the Mt. Diablo Range, all of which blend in
an easterly direction in the San Emegdio Mountains.
The relief map shows these mountains to be a part of the
main northerly group which separates Southern California
from the desert, and as we follow them easterly we pass
successively the San Gabriel and San Bernardino ranges.
East of the latter the chain of mountains turns again in
a southerly direction, skirting the northern edge of the

Southern California 113

Colorado Desert as far as the Colorado river. The
Santa Susana and other local ranges of Ventura county,
the Santa Monica Range and the Verdugo Mountains
we will group with this main axis forming the northern
border of Southern California.

The complex of mountains of eastern Santa Barbara
and northern Ventura counties, which unite in the San
Emegdio Mountains, forms one of the most sparsely set-
tled districts of California. There is comparatively little
land suited to farming, while the mountain slopes, either
covered with dense brush or scattering timber, make it
of little value as a grazing region. The mountains rise
from 5000 to 7000 feet, culminating in Frazer Mountain,
8026 feet in height, and Pine Mountain, 8826 feet. These
two peaks of the San Emegdio Mountains rise from a
plateau-like base which has an elevation of 5000 feet,
and contains several large valleys overgrown with sage-
brush. Pine timber covers the two peaks mentioned, as
well as other mountains which rise above 6000 feet.

The San Emegdio Mountains illustrate extremely well
the almost inconceivable geographic changes which have
taken place in this part of California in comparatively
recent times. We learn from the topography that once
no barriers separated the San Joaquin Valley from the
Mohave Desert, and that the latter region sloped away
toward the ocean, with no intervening watershed or
mountains.

The drainage is away from the San Emegdio Moun-
tains in all directions. On the north San Emegdio Canon
drains into the Great Valley. On the west is the Cuyama
river, while on the south are the Piru and Sespe, tribu-

114 The Geography of California

taries of the Santa Clara river. The Santa Ynez and
Sisquoc rivers drain west across Santa Barbara county
from the group of mountains about which we have been
talking. The Santa Ynez Valley, with its tributaries,
includes the larger part of the agricultural land of the
county aside from the strip of land lying along the sea
at the southern base of the Santa Ynez Range.

The most important stream of Ventura county is the
Santa Clara river, whose direct course to the sea through
a mountainous region shows that it occupies a line of
folding or faulting of the earth's crust. The headwaters
of the river extend away back into the mountains, almost
cutting them into two parts. At one point known as
Soledad Pass there is such a low gap between the Mohave
Desert and this stream that the Southern Pacific Railroad
easily crosses the watershed on the route from Bakers-
field to Los Angeles.

Parallel mountains border the Santa Clara river nearly
all the way to the sea. On the south, and separating it
from San Fernando Valley, is the Santa Susana Range,
and on the north, lower down in its course, Sulphur
Ridge separates the river from the Ojai, a picturesque
and fertile valley. The mountains upon both sides of
the river throughout the middle part of its course contain
valuable oil deposits.

The southern portion of Ventura county is made up
in part of a rolling plateau dotted with oaks. South of
this rises the Santa Monica Range which, in its east and
west course, determines the direction of the adjoining
coast line. These mountains rise directly from the sea
throughout the western half of their course, and then

Southern Calif onnia 115

pass inland forming the northern boundary of the fertile
plain of Los Angeles, and separating it from the San
Fernando Valley.

San Fernando is a large valley lying north of the Santa
Monica Range, and is bounded on the east and north by
the San Gabriel and Santa Susana mountains. It is
extremely fertile and possesses a good climate. When
supplied with sufficient water, as it is likely to be when
the Los Angeles aqueduct is finished, the valley will
become one of the garden spots of Southern California.

From a study of the relief map one would judge that
the main mountain axis of Southern California, which
in its different parts is known as the San Emegdio, San
Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains, is a unit as
regards its history and development, just as is that great
mountain block, the Sierra Nevada. Such is not the
case, however, for the Cajon Pass marks an important
break between the San Bernardino Mountains and the
central and western portion of the axis. The two parts
are of a different age and have had a very different
history, and this, as we shall see later, has an important
economic aspect.

As one looks southerly across the wide expanse of the
Mohave Desert he sees a continuous mountain wall which
forms the northern face of the axis of which we have
been speaking. At the western end where the Tehachapi
Range joins this, rises the lofty rounded top of Frazier
Mountain. Following these mountains in an easterly
direction along the southern border of the desert, we
find them decreasing in height, with several low passes
leading over the watershed to the Pacific slope. Among

116 The Geography of California

these is Elizabeth Lake Canon, Francisquita Pass,
through which the old Los Angeles-Bakersfield stage
route used to go, and to the east, Soledad Pass used by
the Southern Pacific Railroad. East of the latter pass
the mountains begin to rise again, and from this point to
Cajon Pass are known as the Sierra Madre or San
Gabriel Range. The former term was given by the early
Spaniards, meaning Mother of Mountains. This is
peculiarly appropriate, since recent geographic investiga-
tions have shown this range to be one of the oldest of
the lofty mountains of Southern California. The bold
southern front which adds so much to the scenery of
Southern California, is an ancient fault escarpment which,
although deeply cut by numberless canonst is remarkably
well preserved. Its origin is the same as the bold face
of the San Bernardino Range and the eastern wall of
the Sierra Nevada.

Each of the successive stages in the history of a
mountain range has, as we have seen in the case of the
Sierra Nevada, its own peculiar topographic features.
The rolling uplands and plateau-like areas between the
canons in the Sierra Nevada are remnants of an ancient
surface which existed before the range was uplifted and
running water had an opportunity to erode the existing
canons. As time goes on and the work of water con-
tinues these canons will be widened and the slopes of
their walls reduced until no part of the old surface
remains. The upland surface will have all gone and
there will be left simply canons and valleys, with their
slopes terminating in sharp divides. This is the period
so interestingly shown in the San Gabriel Range. It is

Southern California 117

simply a network of steep, narrow canons and sharp
ridges. There is scarcely 100 acres of cultivatable upland
in the whole range. Valleys are also absent, for the
streams are not widening their canons to any extent.

The surface of the steep mountain slopes has been so
injured in past years by sheep and forest fires that in many
places where there once existed a strip of bottom land
we now find a barren, gravelly flood plain. This is well
♦shown in the East Fork of the San Gabriel river. There
are few springs on the upper slopes, and no true meadows
occur in any part of the range. The San Gabriel Range
exhibits a stage of development which makes it of the
least possible economic importance. This is far from
saying that the range does not play an important part
in the making of Southern California. Wherever there
are lofty elevations in an arid or semi-arid land there we
find the precipitation increased, and so the San Gabriel
Range plays an important part as a source of a needed
water supply. The higher portions of the range are tim-
bered, but the most of this is quite inaccessible, and
besides is needed to protect the surface and retain the
water.

The San Gabriel is a great block of the earth's crust
which was once continuous with the Mohave Desert, but
at some remote time was folded upward and broken
along its southern face. While no level upland remains,
yet the even sky-line of the ridges brings out the original
character of the surface. The crest of the range has an
average elevation of 6000 to 7000 feet, while the highest
peak, San Antonio, or Baldy, as it is commonly called,
reaches 10,080 feet.

118 The Geography of California

Big Rock creek and Little Rock creek are the main
streams flowing into the Mohave Desert on the north.
The Santa Clara river drains the northwestern portion,
and the Tejunga river, source of the Los Angeles water
supply, occupies the western slope. In no part of South-
ern California is the damage done by forest fires more
apparent than in the Tejunga basin. If this were refor-
ested so that the slopes and the beds of the streams were
protected from the direct rays of the sun there is no
question but the water supply furnished by this stream
system would be greatly increased.

Little Rock creek flows easterly, while the San Gabriel,
San Dimas, and Cucamonga are the main streams flowing
southerly. The San Gabriel has by far the largest water
flow, and during periods of heavy rain reaches the sea.
Without these streams the extensive area along the base
of the range, so well adapted to fruit growing, would
remain a brush-covered desert. These streams are
directly due to the presence of the lofty mountains which
we have been describing.

The topography of the San Bernardino Range con-
trasts in a most remarkable manner with that of the
San Gabriel Range. The latter is old geographically,
while the former is comparatively young. The Great
Rift line, which we shall describe later, lies along the
northern base of the San Gabriel Range, crosses its
eastern end diagonally and forms the southwestern base
of the San Bernardino Range. The position of this
important fault and earthquake line shows clearly the
likelihood of a different age and different history for the
two ranges.

Southern California 119

The San Bernardino Range exhibits rolling, flat-topped
ridges, and broad valleys with numerous Sierra-like
meadows. The features remind us much of portions of
the Sierra Nevadas. In a broad way the surface of this
range has a resemblance to the desert on the north, and
there can be no doubt that it is an uplifted portion of
that region.

The San Bernardino Range includes the largest area
of elevated land in Southern California, and supports a
boreal flora and fauna over many square miles. About
the upper slopes of San Gorgonio Mountain there are
numerous cold springs and green meadows. San Gor-
gonio, or Grayback as it is often called, is the highest
peak of Southern California, reaching 11,485 feet. It
lies at the eastern end of a lofty ridge, the western end
of which is known as Mt. San Bernardino. The latter
has an elevation of 10,630 feet, and although of no par-
ticular importance as viewed from San Gorgonio, yet as
seen from the San Bernardino Valley appears fully as
prominent as the main peak.

San Gorgonio is very interesting from the fact that
there are clear indications of the former existence of
several glaciers upon its northern slope. It thus marks
one of the most southerly points of glaciation in the
United States.

The two largest streams heading in the San Bernardino
Range are the Mohave river and the Santa Ana river.
The former flows northerly into the Mohave Desert,
carrying the largest (excepting Owens river) volume
of any stream entering the desert. It is but little utilized,
and in the course of fifty miles sinks in the sands.

120 The Geography of California

The Santa Ana is the largest and longest river of
Southern California. The summer flow of this stream
is unusually large, and this fact is due mainly to springs
issuing from the extensive accumulation of glacial debris
on the northern slope of the San Gorgonio-San Bernar-
dino crest. These gravels hold the waters from the
snow, which lasts nearly all summer in some of the
protected recesses, and give it of! slowly. After leaving
the mountains the Santa Ana traverses a valley region
of low relief, and then cuts through the northern end of
the Santa Ana range, which lies in its path to the sea.

The San Gabriel and Santa Ana rivers, with their
large volume of water, call forcibly to our attention the
important part which mountains play in the development
of Southern California. Water is so urgently needed,
in order to increase the agricultural population of this
section, that the greatest care and thought should be
given to the protection of the watersheds about the heads
of the streams. The flow from many watersheds might
be much increased with the proper attention to the condi-
tion of the surface.

Two great peaks dominate this portion of California
and stand guard over San Gorgonio Pass. One is San
Gorgonio, and the other is San Jacinto. They belong to
different ranges and are separated not only by the pass,
but by the Great Rift line. San Jacinto forms the north-
ern point of a range of the same name, and is the second
highest peak in Southern California, having an elevation
of 10,805 feet.

The San Jacinto Range has the appearance of being
very old, and of having undergone little disturbance in

Southern California 121

recent times. Its streams, which enter San Gorgonio
Pass, carry little debris, and erosion upon its slopes
appears to be slow. The very opposite appearance is
presented by the streams entering the pass from the
San Bernardino Range. The Great Rift which crosses
the southern slope of the latter range appears to have
shaken the mountains severely and badly shattered them,
for immense quantities of debris are being borne down
into the pass.

The San Jacinto Mountains present a wonderfully
rugged and precipitous escarpment as viewed from the
Colorado Desert, near Palm Spring Station. There is no
doubt that this originated long ago through a slipping of
the earth's crust, but if there has been any movement in
late times it has been one of depression, for the base of
the range appears to be buried in the accumulations of
the Colorado Desert.

The western edge of the range is also marked by a
fault line, but this is one along which very recent move-
ments have taken place, as is shown by earthquakes. This
latter fault line, which stands out so clearly in the moun-
tain wall north of the town of San Jacinto, extends south-
easterly into the Colorado Desert, and cuts off the San
Jacinto Mountains from the rest of the Peninsula Range
with which they are topographically continuous. The
San Jacinto Mountains, then, extend southeasterly, finally
terminating in a spur known as the Santa Rosa Range,
in the heart of a barren and desolate region which forms
a part of the Colorado Desert.

The mountains lying south of the San Bernardino-Los
Angeles Valley, which we have before referred to as the

122 The Geography of California

second most important mountain axis in Southern Cali-
fornia, extend nearly north and south, and all seem more
or less related to the Peninsula Range of Lower Cali-
fornia. This range, although much lower than the Sierra
Nevada, the highest peaks outside of San Jacinto reach-
ing from 6000 to 7000 feet, very much resembles the
latter in its general structure. There is the long western
slope of San Diego county and the abrupt eastern slope
toward the desert. The latter slope is marked by fault
lines, so that the range is a great tilted block which has
not been elevated as much as the Sierra Nevada. Plateau-
like remnants of an old surface are very numerous upon
the summit and western slope of the range. The Cahuilla
Indian Reservation, a few miles south of the town of San
Jacinto, is located upon a remarkable plateau having an
elevation of 4000 feet. About the region of the mining
town of Julian and the Cuyamaca Mountain, as well as
on the summit of the Laguna Mountains and the Campo
region near the Mexican line, are extensive plateau-like
areas which formed part of an old surface before the
recent moderate elevation of the Peninsula Range.

The westward sloping ridges of these mountains form
a remarkably even sky-line when seen in profile, and back
of the city of San Diego is a remnant of an ancient aurif-
erous gravel channel. This old channel bears the same
relation to the present canon of the San Diego river as
the old channels in Northern California do to the Ameri-
can and Feather rivers.

The slope from the plateau occupied by the Cahuilla
Indian Reservation was once continuous westward to the
ocean. The whole region had a low relief, for there were

Southern California 123

no canons, and only gently rolling granite hills broke the
surface.

Then there came a time . of slipping of the earth's
crust along a line of fracture, and the Santa Ana Moun-
tain block began to appear. A sharp escarpment formed
along the eastern face of this block, and in the depression
at its base we have the Temecula-Elsinore Valley of the
present day. The growth of the mountain block was
slow, so that Temecula creek maintained its course, and
now flows from the broad valley of the same name by
means of a canon which it has cut through the moun-
tains, to the sea. The road from Temecula to Fallbrook
passes across the southern end of this uplifted block
through a little valley which has been beheaded.

At Lake Elsinore the displacement was greater still,
and the San Jacinto river, which at one time must have
flowed westerly to the sea, formed a lake under the
escarpment and was then deflected northerly, finally to
empty its waters into the Santa Ana river. The climate
is so dry now that rarely is there any overflow from
the lake down the old course of the river.

This mountain wall, shutting in the Temecula-Elsinore
Valley on the west, is one of the most striking features
which we have illustrating the formation of mountains
through slipping of the earth's crust. Climbing this wall
from Temecula we come out upon a rolling plateau with
broad valleys and low granite knobs, covered in places
by the remnants of an ancient lava flow. The region is
known as the Santa Rosa plateau, and one of the most
symmetrical lava remnants, forming a flat-topped hill,
goes by the name of Mesa Redonda.

124 The Geography of California

As we follow the Santa Ana Mountains northward we
find that beyond the point where the Santa Ana river
crosses it the fault disappears and a fold of the earth
giving rise to the Puente Hills takes its place. To the
southeast we trace the fault, or slip, as we may call it,
along the base of Palomar, or Smiths Mountain, border-
ing the valley of the upper San Luis Rey river. Smiths
Mountain, then, has been raised to its present height
by movements along this rift, only here the uplift was
on the opposite side of the break, for the bold front of
the mountain faces westerly, while farther north the
escarpment faces east.

Numerous streams, the largest of which are the San
Diego and San Luis Rey rivers, flow westerly to the sea
across San Diego county. Their courses for the most
part lie in valleys, although here and there narrowed by
resistant rocks. Since their channels were first eroded
the land has sunken several hundred feet, and now their
lower courses are over silted-up channels. In the sum-
mer they are nearly dry, but after ordinary winter rains
carry a considerable volume of water.

The Verdugo Mountains, forming a long narrow, but
precipitous range, lie between the San Fernando Valley
upon the southwest and a valley known as La Canada,
which separates them from the San Gabriel Range on the
northeast. Most peculiar and interesting drainage fea-
tures are exhibited by the streams which come down to
La Canada from the San Gabriel Mountains, for instead
of going around the Verdugo Mountains, as the topog-
raphy would lead one to expect, they flow directly across
it. This seems to indicate that either the Verdugo Moun-

Southern California 125

tains have been raised across the courses of pre-existing
streams without displacing them, or that the San Gabriel
Range has sunken. There is clearly a line of fracture and
displacement running through the Canada Valley between
the two ranges.

Lakes. — Southern California, as we might suppose,
has few natural lakes. Elsinore is the largest, and
belongs to a type of lake frequently occurring at the foot
of fault escarpment throughout the mountains of the
West. At present it rarely overflows its basin, and is
quite alkaline.

Lake Elizabeth, lying on the southern edge of Antelope
Valley, in the Mohave Desert, is due to the blocking of
a small stream which is crossed by the Great Rift. In
the San Bernardino Mountains are several small lakes
occupying basins which have been uplifted from the level
of the Mohave Desert and have not yet been drained.
On San Gorgonio are two small glacial lakes. In the
head of the middle fork of the San Gabriel river is a
small lake lying behind a great ridge of rock which has
slid from the crest of the range as the result of some
earthquake disturbance. At the mouths of some of the
streams, and separated from the ocean by barrier beaches,
are lagoons. These have been formed as a result of the
last submergence of the coast drowning the adjacent low-
lands.

One of the most interesting of the shore features found
along the whole coast of California is the Mesa of San
Diego county. In its main features it represents an
ancient sea floor formed along the base of the mountains
when the land stood lower than at present. The mesa

126 The Geography of California

lies between the mountains and the sea, and terminates
at the latter in cliffs. South of Oceanside lines of ancient
dunes mark its surface. During a period of elevation
the streams cut steep-walled valleys or canons across it.
With the last sinking of the land the sea flooded the
lower portion of these valleys. Then the waves threw
up barrier beaches, transforming the bays into lagoons,
and since then they have been largely silted up by flood
waters.

Coast and Islands. — The character and direction of
the shore line at any given point is dependent upon the
nature of the land lying back of it. Where mountains
approach the shore the coast is rocky and bold, and
headlands extend out into the sea. This is illustrated at
Pt. Arguello and Pt. Fermin. Where there are lowlands
lying back there are long, gently incurving sandy beaches,
as are shown south of Santa Monica, for many miles both
northwest and southeast of Long Beach, and at Cor-
onado.

The present shore is a mere accident, so to speak. It
is not permanent, but has moved back and forth with
the rising and sinking of the land. Just how great these
movements have been we do not know, but their vertical
range is probably 3000 feet.

All the lowland region of Southern California was at
one time the floor of the sea, and at another time the
land reached far to the westward of the present boundary,
including the Santa Barbara and probably other islands.
We have come upon the scene while the land stands half
way between these extremes, so that the surface is divided
between mountains and broad lowland valleys. The fer-

Southern California 127

tile plain upon which Santa Barbara stands is part of a
much greater plain stretching away under the sea to the
islands. The plain of Los Angeles is only a part of a
much larger one, the remainder of which is submerged.-

Between Santa Barbara and Ventura the mountains
which form the great barrier between Central and South-
ern California come directly down to the shore, leaving
room for a road only at low tide. The coast has recently
risen three-fourths feet south of Los Angeles. This has
given opportunity for the Santa Fe Railroad to build a
number of miles of track on the sand which has accumu-
lated at the base of the old sea cliffs south of San Juan
Capistrano. San Diego is thus more easily reached than
it otherwise would be. The condition of the shore is then
an important economic factor in communication between
different regions.

The relative position of the mountains and the charac-
ter of the valleys taken in connection with the present
level of the land, have given us a fairly even coast line
with few good harbors. Santa Barbara roadstead is
protected largely by the Channel Islands. San Pedro,
originally a small shallow harbor, is being adapted to the
use of large vessels by the building of a costly Govern-
ment breakwater.

San Diego possesses, next to San Francisco, the best
natural harbor on the coast of California. It is due to the
same cause as the others, that is, the recent sinking of
the land several hundred feet. San Diego Bay is pro-
tected both by Pt. Loma, a long, rocky headland, and a
long barrier beach connecting with islands behind the
headland.

128 The Geography of California

The ocean is at most times so quiet that at many points,
such as Ventura, Santa Monica, Long Beach and Ocean-
side, long piers have been built for the transfer of freight
and passengers.

The Islands. — All the islands except the Farallones
lie off the coast of Southern California. They are tops
of mountains which rise from a sunken portion of the
continent to which reference has already been made.
This submerged plateau widens and sinks as we follow
it southward past the Santa Barbara Islands until off
San Diego soundings show that its margin is fully 150
miles out beyond the present shore. In addition to the
mountains on this plateau which rise above the water
there are several "banks" marking the places of those
which are completely submerged.

Much, and probably all, of this plateau has at some
time been dry land. It is definitely known that the land
has stood at least 1000 to 1500 feet above the present
level, for the Santa Barbara Islands were a part of the
mainland in quite recent times. On Santa Rosa Island
there are bones of the mastodon, extinct horse, and other
mammals. These must have reached that point by means
of some land connection. There are other evidences of
submergence in the shape of canon-like depressions which
extend from the land down onto or across the submerged
plateau. In several instances these reach the deep sea
at a depth of 2000 to 3000 feet, and are believed to have
been made by running water.

That the coast of Southern California has been sub-
merged at least 1400 feet below the present level is shown
by the wave-cut terraces and ancient sea cliffs extending

Southern California 129

up to that height upon San Clemente Island, and also
upon the seaward face of San Pedro Hill. The last
movement of any consequence, except the slight upward
one referred to, was a sinking of perhaps 300 feet, and
it is this which has given us our present harbors.

The downward movement drowned the mouths of the
streams and formed bays at their mouths. The larger
streams, carrying much silt, have filled these up. Many
small ones still exist, in the form of lagoons, as is par-
ticularly well shown along the coast of San Diego county.

The island of Santa Catalina is important as a summer
resort, Avalon being situated upon a bay formed by the
last sinking of the land. The other islands are chiefly
used as stock ranges. The islands, if we can judge from
San Nicholas, once supported a large Indian population.
The latter is now utterly barren, and is being covered
with drifting sand owing to overstocking with sheep.
Outside of the channel islands there is a most remarkable
submerged escarpment shown by soundings. The slope
is very precipitous to the depths of the Pacific, and prob-
ably represents a great fault or earthquake slip.

Earthquake Lines. — The earthquake rift of the
Coast Ranges, or San Andreas fault, as it has been
termed by the Earthquake Commission, which opened so
disastrously in 1906, has a much greater length than was
at that time supposed. It extends through the whole
length of the Coast Ranges, across Southern California
and into the Colorado Desert.

We have already followed it through the Coast Ranges
to the Carisa Plain. From there it continues on south-
easterly through the San Emegdio Mountains, the name

130 The Geography of California

meaning patron saint of earthquakes, across Tejon Pass
and the southern slope of Antelope Valley. Movements
have occurred along this line for so long a time that
valleys and canons have had time to develop. The crush-
ing of the rocks near the fracture line has made erosion
more rapid, and hence the marked effect which it has
produced upon the topography. The slipping of the
walls have also resulted in important escarpments.

West of the San Emegdio Mountains San Juan Canon
has been eroded 2000 feet deep on the line of the rift.
San Emegdio creek rises in an important longitudinal
upland valley eroded through the heart of the San Emeg-
dio Mountains, and this is also due to movements of the
rift. Along the northern side of Cuddy Valley there is
an escarpment 50 to 200 feet high which forms a straight
line for some miles. The sunken side of the valley is
marked by meadows.

Crossing the Tejon Pass the rift continues in an almost
perfectly straight line along the southern side of Ante-
lope Valley and the Mohave Desert. The old stage road
from Bakersfield to Los Angeles follows it for some miles
east of Tejon Pass. The earthquake of 1857, known as
the Tejon earthquake, shook this road all to pieces, and
the effects are still plainly visible.

Long narrow valleys mark the rift for many miles. It
has not only affected greatly the topography of the coun-
try, but it has habitable valleys with springs in an other-
wise very dry region, and has determined the position of
trails and roads which follow it almost continuously.

The rift follows a straight course along the mountain
slopes bounding the Mohave Desert on the south for fully

Southern California 131

100 miles. Then, climbing the northern spurs of the
San Gabriel Range, it continues over a divide 7000 feet
high and descends toward the lower end of Cajon Pass.
Sink holes, escarpments, springs and cienegas enable us
to trace it easily almost the whole distance.

The rift traverses the mesa which lies between the base
of the San Bernardino Range and the valley, and breaks
it into two parts, showing in places long bluffs and ridges
forty to fifty feet high. Above the rift there is an
abundance of water at shallow depths; below it can
scarcely be found. This is because of the impervious
layer of clay in the fissure which forces toward the sur-
face the underground waters seeping from the mountains.

Passing up Potato Canon to the east of Riverside the
rift passes over a spur of the range and then down
toward the San Gorgonio Pass. It then turns more east-
erly along the base of the range, and after crossing the
Whitewater River disappears in the sands of the Coa-
chella Desert. The whole of that portion of the rift
traversing Southern California opened in the Tejon
earthquake of 1857.

Another earthquake line of importance has already
been mentioned. This has produced the steep mountain
wall lying north of the town of San Jacinto. This line
of displacement can be traced southeasterly along the
southern slope of the San Jacinto Mountains and into
the Borego Desert, where it forms a wonderfully regular
escarpment. A severe disturbance along this fissure in
1897 severely damaged the town of San Jacinto and
killed several Indians.

132 The Geography of California

The Temecula-Elsinore earthquake line appears to have
ceased making any disturbance, for there are no indica-
tions of recent movements. The eastern slope of the
Peninsula Range shows in many places the effects of
great displacement. For hundreds of miles, extending
far into Lower California, there is an abrupt wall very
similar to that of the Sierra Nevada. The frequent
earthquakes, hot springs and mud volcanoes of the Colo-
rado Desert indicate that movements of the sunken desert
block are still taking place.

Geographic History. — Something of the wonderfully
checkered shore-line history of California has already
been given. Fully as remarkable events have taken place
in the history of the land, as we learn from a study of the
existing geographic features.

The climate and geography have both been changing
throughout the long periods of the past. Disturbances
in the earth's crust would slowly give rise to mountains.
The forces of decay, together with the rains and running
streams, would attack these mountains and in the course of
time wear them entirely away. Mountain-making forces do
not act with the same energy in all places and at all times,
while in some places the mountains wore away more
rapidly than in others. It thus came about that in dif-
ferent regions we find mountains exhibiting different
stages of development. In the Mohave Desert and about
Perris, Riverside county, there are mountains almost
worn down, while the San Gabriel and San Bernardino
exhibit steep, rugged slopes of newer mountains. As
a result of the changing land we have an ever-changing
climate, fauna and flora.

Southern California 133

A careful study of the features of Southern California
leads us to believe that at one time there were no lofty
barrier mountains between the Mohave and Colorado
deserts and the sea. The drainage from these districts
reached the sea over a surface of low relief. The San
Gabriel, San Bernardino and Peninsula ranges had not
been born. The summits of the sharp ridges of the
San Gabriel Range, which form so even a sky line,
appear to arch upward gently from the Mohave Desert
with its almost worn-down mountains. The San Ber-
nardino Range is without question an uplifted region
which at one time was topographically a part of the
present desert. The Peninsula Range was once much
lower and exhibited no eastern escarpment, and the
ancient uplifted river bed, with its gold deposits, proba-
bly had its head far to the east of the present crest and
over the sunken Colorado Basin.

The geographic features of these ancient times of
which we have spoken were perhaps first modified in
the appearance of the San Gabriel Mountain block. A
fault or slipping of the earth along its southern side
began to raise an escarpment which as it grew more
lofty was more and more attacked by the forces of decay
and erosion until the present deep canons came into
existence, and the old upland was reduced to sharp-
edged ridges. Such is the story of the still precipitous
front of the San Gabriel Range, which adds so much to
the scenic features of this region.

At a much later period movements along the Great
Rift, of which we have spoken, began to uplift the San
Bernardino Mountain block, but the ancient surface of

134 The Geography of California

this area has not yet been greatly modified, although
canons have been eroded about its margins, and these
will in time reduce it to the same condition as the San
Gabriel. Both ranges will, at some time in the distant
future, if other movements do not interfere, take on
much of the appearance of the rolling, hilly country
about Riverside and Perris.

The old features of the last-mentioned district are
relics of the most ancient geography which we can dis-
tinguish in California. The time required for lofty
mountains to be worn down to a surface almost plain-
like in character, such as that southwest of Perris, is
greater than we can conceive of. It is this contrast
between very ancient and comparatively new geographic
forms which we find so well shown in the area which we
have been discussing that makes its study so interesting.
Here we also see in remarkable distinctness the dependence
of the climate and productions, as well as man's indus-
tries, upon the physical features of the earth.

Geographic Barriers. — With all the modern conven-
iences for travel we are apt to forget the difficulties
which the early explorers encountered in trying to get
into California. One expedition ascended the Colorado
river, but did not get far away from it because of the
inhospitable character of the country. A long and weary
route led overland from the Missions of Lower California
to San Diego, and the sea with all of its head winds
offered the only other means of access.

Except for the one route up the coast, where the
mountains crowd the road to the edge of the sea, moun-
tain ranges and deserts completely shut off Southern

Southern California 135

from Central and Northern California. When the inte-
rior became better known another route by Elizabeth
Lake, Tejon Pass and canon came into use, but much
of the way was desert, and there were three mountain
passes to cross, namely, San Fernando, Francisquita,
and Tejon. The main route, however, continued to be
thai along the coast known as the Camino Real. The
latter lay mostly through well-watered valleys, and with
only two passes of any consequence, Gaviota across the
western end of the Santa Ynez Range, and Cuesta Pass
leading from San Luis Obispo across the Santa Lucia
Range.

The deserts offered more effective barriers to the early
emigrants from the East than did the mountains. It
was practically impossible to cross the Colorado and
Mohave deserts in the heat of summer, but there were
several passes leading through the mountains into South-
ern California which could be used at all seasons.

Mountain passes have had an important influence upon
the development of Southern California. This fact is
illustrated in the relatively rapid growth of Los Angeles
as compared with San Diego. The former is situated
directly at the meeting point of valleys which lead to
mountain passes opening east and north, while San Diego,
having the great advantage of being located upon the
second best harbor upon the coast of California, is never-
theless, so hemmed in by mountains that it has been
difficult for railroads to reach it. Even the route along
the coast, occupied by the Santa Fe, was not an easy one
to follow. The Peninsula Range offers no low passes,

136 The Geography of California

but it is now proposed to build a railroad across it, and
thus go direct from San Diego to Yuma.

San Gorgonio is the easiest and lowest pass leading into
Southern California. It has an elevation of only 2600
feet, and is really a broad valley connecting San Bernar-
dino Valley with the Colorado Desert, which has been
arched upward in the middle during mountain-making
movements. It is used by the Southern Pacific Railroad.

Cajon Pass is higher and steeper than San Gorgonio
Pass. It lies in the break between the San Bernardino
Range and the San Gabriel, and opens out on the north
into the Mohave Desert. The pass is used by both the
Santa Fe and Salt Lake railroads. In early days it was
made use of by the Mormon trail, which led from Utah
across Southern Nevada to the San Bernardino Valley,
where these people had made a settlement.

The Southern Pacific Railroad in going from the San
Joaquin Valley to Southern California crosses three
mountain passes, namely, Tehachapi, leading to the
Mohave Desert ; Soledad, between the desert and the head
of the Santa Clara River, and San Fernando, between the
latter basin and the San Fernando Valley.

The emigration into California by the southern routes
was comparatively small in the early days. This was
partly because the deserts of the Southwest were more
dangerous to cross, and partly because the mines were
reached more directly by the northern route. Two trails
were used to reach Southern California, one across New
Mexico and Arizona, entering California at Yuma. The
other, known as the Old Mormon trail, has already been
mentioned. From Yuma one route led tn San Diego,

Southern California 137

the other to Los Angeles. Winter parties sometimes
made use of these routes, and it was in the effort to find
a new cut-off to the north of the Mormon trail that the
Death Valley party had its terrible experience.

Climate. — The climate of Southern California has
already been discussed in a general way. Although lying
in the belt of prevailing westerly winds, fewer storms
reach this southern coast, and the climate is drier than
farther north. The precipitation varies greatly in differ-
ent parts. It averages 10 inches at San Diego. At Los
Angeles it is about 15, while upon the mountains it is
from 40 to 50 inches. We would ordinarily expect the
greatest rainfall to occur along the coast, but owing to
the cooler air of the mountains, and the disturbance which
they create in the atmospheric currents the precipitation
upon their slopes is very much greater. The influence
of the mountains is, then, a very beneficent one, for if it
were not for them the rainfall would be so small that
there would be no streams of any consequence, there
would be no snow and no summer supply for irrigation.

The lack of rainfall from storms accompanying the
easterly moving air currents is partly compensated for
by the existence of a summer storm area over the Gulf
of Lower California. Storms from this center sometimes
reach into Southern and Eastern California, producing
thunderstorms and cloudbursts in the late spring and
summer which may be very severe. In the summer of
1909 as much rain fell in a single storm in the Colorado
Desert as ordinarily fell in a whole year.

While the summer fogs are much colder and more
dense along the coast, yet owing to the fact that there

138 The Geography of California

are no intervening mountain ranges their influence is
felt far inland. "High fog" occurs very frequently in
the mornings in summer, even in the San Bernardino
Valley. Thus it happens that many fruits, including
oranges, ripen later in Southern California than in the
Great Valley, hundreds of miles farther north.

A disagreeable wind from the north occurs in the
spring and fall, and often does considerable damage.
This is known as the Santa Ana, and while it lasts the
sky is obscured by clouds of dust. It is a high-pressure
or anti-cyclone wind due to the existence of such an area
over Southern Nevada. Its warm dry character is not
wholly due to its passage over the deserts, as is commonly
supposed, but more to the fact that it is a descending air
current, and such currents are drier and often warmer
than other winds.

Natural Resources. — California is made up of so
many and diverse parts that we can describe its resources
most intelligibly by taking each part by itself. Southern
California is noted particularly for its oranges, and
undoubtedly the growing of citrus fruits will always be
the leading occupation. The dividing up of the land into
small tracts, each of which is cultivated with care, will
keep the larger part of the population in the country and
small towns, and lead to the best type of our modern
civilization.

Owing to the fact that the area that is sufficiently high
to receive heavy rains is comparatively limited, the timber
resources of Southern California are not extensive.
Important lumbering operations have been carried on in
the San Bernardino Range for some years, but careful

Southern California 139

measurements of the streams which flow from the defor-
ested areas indicate clearly that the effect upon the sum-
mer supply will be disastrous if this work is not soon
stopped. It is far more important that Southern Cali-
fornia be not stripped of her forest cover, and thus crip-
ple the water supply which goes to support thousands of
people, than that a few lumber companies should grow
rich.

The coniferous forest is practically confined to the
mountain slopes above 5000 feet, although there is one
species, the big-coned spruce, which can thrive upon
drier slopes, and grows much lower. Below the conifer-
ous forests, particularly where the slopes are steep, the
surface is covered with a dense growth of chaparral,
consisting of scrub oak, California lilac, chamisal, man-
zanita, etc. The more moist valleys are dotted with oaks,
as are the valleys of the Coast Ranges. Many of the
more arid valleys and slopes support a growth of sage-
brush and other semi-arid shrubs.

If we except petroleum, the mineral resources of South-
ern California are comparatively limited. Gold occurs
from the San Emegdio Mountains southward in those
parts of the mountains made up of the ancient crystalline
rocks. Antimony was formerly mined in the San Emeg-
dio Mountains, and a tin mine was at one time in opera-
tion in the mountains east of South Riverside. At Colton
there are important marble deposits used in making lime.

In San Diego and Riverside counties occur valuable
deposits of tourmaline, beryl and kunzite, which are next
to diamonds, perhaps the most valuable of gems.

140 The Geography of California

It is interesting to note, in connection with a descrip-
tion of the minerals of Southern California, that here
was made the first discovery of gold. In San Francis-
quita Canon, fifty miles northwest of Los Angeles, gold
was discovered in placers in the year 1838, and these were
worked with profit for some years. The priests, however,
discouraged mining by the Indians, fearing it would take
them from the missions. In 1843 a Mexican officer
attempted to arouse his government to the possible impor-
tance of gold in California.

Deposits of petroleum occur over a wide area in Santa
Barbara, Ventura, and Los Angeles counties. The oil is
usually obtained by drilling, but in portions of the Ven-
tura field it is obtained from tunnels run into-the sides of
a mountain. In the field southwest of Los Angeles is the
deepest well ever drilled. It extends more than a mile
down into the earth.

A most interesting and remarkable collection of fossils
has been obtained from the La Brea tar springs, a few
miles southwest of Los Angeles. Here is an almost com-
plete representation of the animals which inhabited this
region during the last few thousand years. Some came
to drink the water and fell into the tar ; others, such as the
carniverous animals, got in while attempting to feed upon
other animals which had been caught. Nearly all the
animals and birds whose skeletons have been found are
now extinct.

Water Supply. — In no other part of California is the
question of an adequate water supply so important as in
the region which we are discussing. Here are many
hundreds of thousands of acres of land suited to the

Southern California 141

growth of a great variety of sub-tropical fruits, but
without water for irrigation little of this great region
could support more than a sparse population.

We have already seen that it is due to the presence of
lofty mountains lying back of the lowlands that there is
any water for irrigation. The water now used is obtained
partly from the gravels along the base of the mountains,
by means of wells and pumping plants, partly from the
natural flow of the streams, and partly from artificial
reservoirs constructed in the mountains. Bear Valley
reservoir, in the San Bernardino Range, is the most
important of the latter sources.

The limit of the agricultural possibilities of Southern
California with the water now at hand has nearly been
reached. There are various ways by which the supply can
be enlarged. Los Angeles and the region about will soon
have a greatly augmented water supply in the great
Owens river canal. Large quantities of water run away
to the sea during the winter floods, and this should all
be conserved for summer use through the construction
of reservoirs.

Another factor which will affect the water supply, but
which has not yet attracted the attention which it should,
is an increase in the forest area. Incalculable damage has
been done the slopes about the headwaters of many of
the streams by forest fires. In the basin of the upper
Tejunga river, from which Los Angeles gets its present
water supply, there are many square miles of country
once forested which are now almost bare. The stream
bed is open to the hot sun, and a large part of the water
which would otherwise reach the valley is now evapor-

142 The Geography of California

ated. The indiscriminate cutting of the lumber of the
mountain slopes of Southern California must be stopped,
for every acre cut over lessens the supply by a certain
amount.

Value of Different Slopes. — We can, from an eco-
nomic standpoint, distinguish three different types of
surface and soil in Southern California. First, there is
the mountain upland with slopes of varying steepness
where the bedrock is undergoing disintegration and run-
ning water is removing the loosened rock particles with
greater or less rapidity. Where the accumulation of rock
particles is faster than the removal we find a layer of
soil of slowly increasing thickness. Where erosion is
more rapid we have crags and steep rocky slopes.

The waste rock material, including fragments of all
sizes from sand and clay up to those several feet in
diameter, are swept into and down the deep narrow
canons by the rains which are frequently torrential in
character. At the mouths of the canons, the water no
longer confined, spreads out and loses its transporting
power in a large degree. The coarser material is
dropped, and only the finer is borne on to the lowlands
and finally to the sea. Gravel slopes at the bases of
the mountains characterize the whole of the Southern
California region. They are formed of the coalesced
debris fans and are most strikingly shown along the
southern base of the San Gabriel Range. They con-
tain vast stores of water, and have generally a rich soil.
The good drainage, and climatic conditions particularly,
adapt them to the growing of oranges.

Southern California 143

The gravel slopes along the base of the San Bernardino
Range are considerably eroded by the present streams,
owing probably to a recent uplift of these mountains.
The dissected and truncated remnant is known as the
"Mesa." This forms the very best orange land, and is
more nearly free from frost.

Below the slopes which we have been describing are
the bottom lands and flood plains of the streams. These
are particularly adapted to the growing of vegetables,
alfalfa, walnuts, sugar beets, etc. In addition to the
types of land described there are considerable areas of
gently rolling lands whose materials accumulated beneath
the sea when the country stood lower than now. These
soils are always fine and rich. Near the sea there are
damp marshy areas of similar origin, rich in peaty
organic matter, and are particularly adapted to the grow-
ing of celery.

Industrial Development. — The industrial develop-
ment of Southern California can be divided into three
somewhat overlapping stages, namely, pastoral or graz-
ing, general agriculture and grain raising and horticul-
ture, or fruit growing. The first belongs characteristic-
ally to the old California days when life was taken easily
and only work enough done to make a living. Hides
and tallow were the only products for which there was
much of a market. They were taken by the American
trading vessels which frequented the coast during the
earlier half of the last century.

From the very first settlement of the State irrigation
was considered necessary for the successful growing of
garden products and orchards, but only sufficient was

144 The Geography of California

raised to satisfy the needs of the various small communi-
ties. The grassy hills and brush-covered valleys were
considered valuable only for the grazing of horses, cattle
and sheep. With the increase of the population it was
discovered that large areas of what was supposed to be
almost worthless lands would produce good crops of
wheat and barley in years of average rainfall. California
came to be known as a great grain State, and shipment
was made by boats to all parts of the world.

Orange trees were introduced into California by the
Mission fathers, and small orchards were maintained at
the various settlements, but with the secularization of the
Missions these were generally neglected. It was not
until the coming or the railroads into Southern California
that the growing of fruit was undertaken on a large
scale, for previous to this event there was no way of
shipping it outside the State. Beginning about the time
of 1870 there has been a continual growth of the fruit
industry, along with the continually increased shipping
facilities and a more extensive application of irrigation.
Perishable fruits and vegetables can now be distributed
all over the United States and portions of adjoining coun-
tries. We see, then, that water for irrigation and a
means of getting the products to market were the two
geographic factors, in addition to a favorable climate
and miles upon miles of fertile soil, which were needed
in order to turn brush-covered wastes into smiling gar-
dens which would support a great and prosperous agri-
cultural community. The development of a larger sum-
mer water supply is the one thing needed now more than

Southern California 145

all else that the thousands of acres of still unoccupied
land may be made to produce.

The climate and generally picturesque surroundings of
the valleys of Southern California will always make it
an attractive region. Los Angeles has become almost as
large as San Francisco, and in addition to being a tourist
center, is assuming importance in commercial and manu-
facturing lines. The annexation of San Pedro gives Los
Angeles a seaport which will be of great importance when
the harbor improvements are completed. It is probable,
however, that Los Angeles will continue to be noted
chiefly for those things with which nature has endowed
it, namely, an agreeable climate and far-reaching fertile
valleys backed by rugged mountains.

San Diego is the second city in size in Southern Cali-
fornia, and because of its magnificent harbor, will become
of great commercial importance. It is also noted as a
summer and winter resort, for it has a remarkably equa-
ble climate. In the valleys lying back from the coast
oranges, lemons, and grapes are grown, while higher in
the mountains there is an important apple region.

Santa Barbara is noted as a resort, as well as for its
groves of olives and walnuts. The town is situated on a
fertile plain at the base of the Santa Ynez Range. With
these mountains on the north and the Channel Islands
lying out at sea, the region is well protected from harsh
winds.

Pasadena, having an elevation of nearly 1000 feet on
the gently sloping plain at the foot of the rugged San
Gabriel Range, has an ideal location for climate and
beauty, and has become far-renowned as a winter resort.

146 The Geography of California

San Bernardino, Redlands, and Riverside are equally
noted for their pleasant winter climate, and are sur-
rounded by orange orchards.

Long Beach, Santa Monica, and Redondo have become
important places, chiefly because of their attractive
beaches. Avalon is the most widely known of the island
resorts.

Klamath Mountain Region 147

CHAPTER XV.
KLAMATH MOUNTAIN REGION.

Location and Boundaries. — The term Klamath
Mountains is applied to a lofty, mountainous area in the
northwestern part of the State. Although on geographic
grounds this region is not easily separated from the
Coast Ranges and Cascades, yet, when we come to study
the rocks and the history of the region we see" that the
distinction is a good one. The Klamath Mountains
resemble the Sierra Nevadas in their surface features, in
their ancient rocks and in their mineral deposits.

The older text-books state that the Coast Ranges,
Sierra Nevadas, and Cascade Range meet in Mt. Shasta,
but this classification is no longer accepted. The Sierra
Nevadas really terminate in Plumas county, and the
mountains which continue on toward Shasta are a part of
the Cascade Range. Throughout Oregon the Cascade
Range is formed entirely of volcanic materials, and these
extend south past Shasta and Lassen to the ancient rocks
of the Sierra Nevadas, which disappear in northern Plu-
mas county. These volcanic mountains and plateaus of
Northeastern California fill what was once a great depres-
sion extending northeasterly from the upper Sacramento
Valley. This depression separated the Sierra region
from the Klamath Mountains, and reached into Southern
and Eastern Oregon. According to this distinction, Mt.
Shasta is one of the great peaks of the Cascade Range,
and is separated from the Klamath Mountains by Shasta
and Strawberry valleys.

148 The Geography of California

North of Redding the Klamath Mountains send a long
spur eastward, and include most of the rough mountain-
ous district between the upper McCloud and the lower
Pitt river. This spur is surrounded on three sides by the
lavas of the Cascade Range.

Physical Features. — The Klamath Mountains, like
the Sierra Nevadas, San Gabriel and San Bernardino
ranges, were once much lower than they are now, and
their surface features were quite tame and uninteresting.
The rivers of that time flowed through broad valleys,
portions of which still remain as plateau-like shoulders
overlooking the deep canons of the present day.

There came a time when the region began to rise, and
with the increase of slope the streams began to deepen
their channels. As one looks at a relief map he is puz-
zled to understand why the Klamath river leaves the
broad Shasta Valley and flows through the mountains
in a deep canon direct to the sea. If we should fill up
the canon the Klamath river would first form a lake in
Shasta Valley and then break through the lowest point
in the rim which leads in a southerly direction past Mt.
Shasta to the Sacramento river.

The only way in which we can explain the peculiar
features mentioned is by the supposition that long ago,
before the mountains had been elevated to their present
height, the lowest outlet to the sea lay directly across the
mountains where the river flows now, and that as they
rose the movement was so slow that the river was able
to cut its channel down, and so maintain its position,
until the canons became 2000 to 3000 feet deep.

Klamath Mountain Region 149

Only three valleys of any size are found within the
whole Klamath Mountain region. The most important
one is Scotts Valley, then comes Hay Fork Valley and,
last, Trinity Valley. In addition, the canons widen here
and there sufficiently to give room for a little bottom
land, and if the soil has not been washed away in
hydraulic mining, we are likely to find little ranches. The
rest of the surface is mostly made up of steep and rugged
mountain slopes terminating in deep canons.

The Klamath Mountain group includes a number of
distinct mountain ranges which form the watersheds of
the different river basins. The highest and most pictur-
esque of these is the Salmon Mountains, which consti-
tute the divide between the Salmon and Trinity rivers.
Several peaks have an elevation of over 9000 feet. This
region, in common with the other higher mountain
ridges of the Klamath Mountains, was once glaciated.
There are, in consequence, numerous little alpine lakes
very similar to those in the Sierra Nevadas. The snow-
fall is heavy, and on the north slope of Thompsons Peak,
which rises 9345 feet, there is a small glacier.

Scotts Mountains lies between the head of the North
Fork of Trinity river and the upper Sacramento. They
include Castle Crags, widely known for their striking
scenic features.

The Siskiyou Mountains lie north of the Klamath
river and partly in Oregon. They include several peaks
about 9000 feet in height. The Trinity Mountains form
a high, sharp divide between the Trinity river and the
Sacramento river. They pass southward into the Yallo

150 The Geography of California

Bally Mountains, which lie at the extreme southern end
of what we are calling the Klamath Mountains.

The Trinity is the largest stream which lies wholly
within the Klamath Mountain region. Its various
branches drain the southern portion, and its waters finally
reach the Klamath river.

The Klamath is the largest river of Northern Califor-
nia. It rises in the lake region of Southern Oregon, and
flows a little south of west across a depression in the
Cascade Range, or rather volcanic plateau, as we shall
call this part of it in the following pages, and directly
into and through the Klamath Mountains, as we have
already seen.

The Sacramento river also cuts across the Klamath
Mountain region. Its main source is in large springs
near the southwest base of Shasta, and flows southerly
through a picturesque canon. Long ago a lava stream
swept fifty miles down this canon, burying the old river
bed. The present stream has cut down through the lava
and exposed in some places the gravels of its former
channel.

The McCloud river lies east of the Sacramento, and
flows nearly parallel with it. Its waters issue in great
springs from the side of the canon, and give a constant
flow of pure cold water throughout the year. These
springs, like other large springs in Northeastern Cali-
fornia, are due to the fact that the surface waters sink
down through the lava and collect in underground
streams. The lower McCloud river is bordered by pic-
turesque limestone mountains, in the caverns of which
extinct animal remains have been discovered.

Klamath Mountain Region 151

One of the most interesting mountain trails in Califor-
nia is that which leads from Scotts Valley westerly along
the divide between the Klamath and Salmon rivers. The
scenery is attractive, and in addition we can see from
many points the even sky-line ridges of the ancient Klam-
ath country which existed here before the present moun-
tains and canons. For many miles these even-topped
ridges approach 6000 feet in elevation, while at their
upper limits rise the peaks which long ago were compara-
tively insignificant in height, but which now reach 8000
to 9000 feet.

The mountains were lifted to their present position by
stages, and at each period of rest the streams, after
having established a new grade and ceased to cut down,
began to meander on their flood plains and widen their
channels from canons to valleys. Then, when the uplift
was renewed they began to cut down again. In this
way were formed the river terraces, some of which are
covered with gravel and are rich in gold.

Climatic Features. — The climate of the Klamath
Mountain region varies greatly in different parts. Upon
the coast it is extremely wet, and the temperature is mild,
but as we go inland the precipitation becomes less, the
summers warmer and the winters colder. On the higher
mountains semi-arctic conditions prevail. Upon the
eastern edge of the district the rainfall is comparatively
light.

Here, as in many other parts of the State, there is a
remarkable vertical range exhibited by many plants and
trees. The madrone ranges through 3000 feet, under the
right conditions of slope exposure. On the dry, sunny

152 The Geography of California

slopes of some of the canons occur such plants as the
Spanish bayonet, which normally belong in the semi-arid
portions of the State.

Resources. — The Klamath Mountains early became
known as a mining region, chiefly on account of the
placers, which proved to be very rich. Gold was found
both in the gravels of the present streams and in the ter-
race remains of the older streams. The gravels were
often so deep that they could not be worked by ordinary
placer methods, and so recourse was had to hydraulic
operations. The "bars," as they are often called, are
now largely worked out, but at one time hundreds of
"giants" were hurling streams of water with terrific force
at the gravel banks and washing their materials into long
sluices where was placed quicksilver to catch the gold
as it was swept along.

West and northwest of Redding are many old mining
camps, some of which are thriving today on quartz min-
ing, while all through the Klamath Mountains are veins
bearing gold and copper.

The agricultural population of the Klamath Mountain
district is mostly confined to the three large valleys
which have been mentioned, and to valleys about the
borders. In Scotts Valley dairying and cattle raising
are important industries, while fruits of the temperate
latitudes do well in all the valleys.

Forests are among the most important resources of the
Klamath region. Owing to the inaccessibility of the
greater part of these forests lumbering has been mostly
confined to the coastal region and to the district about
the head of the Sacramento river. The redwood tree

Klamath Mountain Region 153

reaches its northern limit in Del Norte county. The
other important lumber trees are the yellow pine, sugar
pine, spruce and fir.

The effects of careless lumbering are seen in the devas-
tated region about Sissons and in the McCloud River
Valley. Here is a beautiful and attractive region lying
at the base of that scenic wonder of California, Mt.
Shasta, which has been practically ruined in having its
forests stripped off. There is no more attractive summer
outing region in the State, and the main body of the
forests should have been left. Many valuable mineral
springs are scattered along the upper Sacramento river
canon, and large numbers of people resort to them.

154 The Geography of California

CHAPTER XVI.
THE VOLCANIC PLATEAU REGION.

While there have been volcanoes and lava flows in
nearly all parts of California at various times in its
geographic history, yet it is in the northeastern portion
that we find them most extensive. One of the greatest
lava floods of the earth's surface covers Eastern Oregon,
Eastern Washington, Southern Idaho, Northern Nevada
and Northeastern California. Throughout a long period
of time this region has been subject to the outpouring of
molten material from within the earth. This was partly
in the form of lava streams which spread in thin sheets
over the country, and partly solid or semi-solid material
which was blown out of the craters of innumerable vol-
canoes and cinder cones. The then existing geographic
features were buried by the lava, sometimes to a depth
of 2000 to 3000 feet. Here and there islands of the
older surface rose above the flood, while about the bor-
ders its relation to this old surface was that of the sea
to the land, with bays of lava instead of water. In this
manner was built up what we call the Columbia Plateau,
which is today one of the most prominent topographic
features of the Northwest.

Folding and slipping of the earth's crust along lines of
fracture followed the building of the plateau, so that now
it appears broken up by many mountain ranges. The
most important of such ranges in California is the War-
ner Range in the extreme northeastern corner. This
both creates a water supply for the fertile Surprise Val-

The Volcanic Plateau Region 155

ley, and cuts it off from the coast drainage and throws
it into the Great Basin.

An examination of the relief map shows Northeastern
California to be a plateau elevated 3000 to 5000 feet, with
many broad, plain-like valleys and low mountain ridges.
Here are lava flows, some very ancient, and others so
recent that soil has not yet accumulated on their surfaces.
Here are also innumerable cinder cones, and one line of
iofty volcanoes beginning with Lassen Peak on the south
and reaching north past Mt. Shasta. This line of peaks,
with the high land from which they rise, is known as
the Lassen Peak Volcanic Ridge and, as already
explained, belongs in the Cascade Range.

The lava streams frequently interrupted the drainage
upon the volcanic plateau, giving rise to lakes. At the
present time most of the lakes have been drained by the
streams cutting down their channels at the outlets.
Large lakes once existed in Fall River and Big valleys.

The main stream draining the plateau region is Pitt
river. It had its source in former times in Goose Lake,
a large body of water upon the California-Oregon
boundary, but with the small rainfall of the present time
the lake does not overflow.

Tule Lake is another large body of water upon the
northern boundary of the State. Long ago it emptied
into the Klamath river, but now the evaporation is equal
to the inflow, and the water has become quite alkaline.
The Klamath reclamation project will partly drain this
lake.

Large areas of country have no surface drainage,
owing to the porous character of the underlying lava.

156 The Geography of California

The water seeps downward until it encounters a layer
of gravel between two lava flows, where it continues in
the form of underground streams. Reaching the edge
of the overlying flow or the side of a canon, it comes
out as large cold springs. Such springs are common
along the base of the Cascade Range, both in Oregon
and California. They are often so large that they form
full-fledged rivers. Fall river, a clear, cold stream in
eastern Shasta county, is formed entirely of such springs.
One of these, alone, has been used to run a sawmill.
Another group of similar springs give rise to Hat creek,
a tributary of Pill river.

Eagle Lake lies near the southeastern border of the
Plateau region, and from the fact that it has no outlet,
might be considered as lying in the Great Basin. It is,
however, surrounded by a volcanic country.

Volcanoes and Recent Eruptions. — With the
exception of a small area near Mono Lake there is no
other part of California presenting such interesting
volcanic phenomena. At Cinder Cone, a few miles north-
east of Lassen Peak, occurred what was probably the
last eruption in the United States. The stubs of some
of the trees killed by the ashes thrown out of Cinder
Cone are still standing. Later even than the cinder erup-
tion which built this cone there was a flow of black
basalt which spread over about ten square miles of coun-
try. The lava was viscous and cooled with a very rough
surface and very precipitous margins, sometimes fully
seventy-five feet high. The lava formed a dam across
a valley and gave rise to Snag Lake. The eruption prob-
ably occurred less than one hundred years ago. The

The Volcanic Plateau Region 157

recent date of the eruptions at Cinder Cone brings
forcibly before us the possibility of such events in the
future.

West of Tule Lake are the Modoc Lava Beds, which
are interesting from the fact that the lava is full of cav-
erns which were occupied by the Indians during the
Modoc war, the last outbreak in the State.

Hot and boiling springs are found in the neighborhood
uf Hot Spring Valley, a few miles southeast of Lassen
Peak. There is one group of boiling mud springs known
as the Devil's Kitchen. A body of water, underlaid by
boiling springs, is called Lake Tartarus.

Lassen Peak has an elevation of 10,437 feet, and has
been greatly eroded by stream and glacial action. Mt.
Shasta, rising 14,380 feet, is the most striking mountain
in California. This is due to the fact that it rises from
a base which is comparatively low, about 4000 feet. The
fringe of forest on the lower slopes and the snow-covered
top standing all alone, offers a grand and majestic spec-
tacle. Erosion is rapid in the soft fragmental materials
of which it is largely composed, and in time will reduce
it to comparative insignificance. Many older and almost
worn down volcanoes are scattered along the crest of the
Cascade Range. A number of glaciers of considerable
extent are found upon the northerly slopes, and are doing
their share in tearing down the mountain.

We must bear in mind, in studying the geographic
features of volcanic regions, that lava flows generally
produce gentle slopes and spread over the surface in
thin sheets, while the cinder cones and lofty peaks, such
as Shasta and Lassen, with their steep slopes, are formed

158 The Geography of California

in large part of the solid or semi-solid fragments of
lava hurled from the craters during the periods of violent
eruption. These 'fall down about the orifice and thus
gradually build up the rim of the crater. Lava flows
may burst from the crater, but they are more likely to
break out part way down the outer slope, or near the
base.

Climate. — Owing to its elevation the winter climate
is colder than that of most of the other settled portions
of California. The precipitation decreases as we go
from the main Lassen Peak volcanic ridge easterly, so
that fully half of the region has a semi-arid climate.
There is generally sufficient rain to produce grain, but
gardens must be irrigated.

Resources. — There is but little mining in the plateau
region, for the older rocks which in other parts of the
State carry minerals are here buried by the lava. The
important industries are lumbering, agriculture, and
stock raising. The population is scattered, and there are
no towns of any size in the district.

The western part of the plateau region lies within the
great forest belt of the Sierra Nevada-Cascade Range.
As we go eastward toward Nevada the lessened rainfall
is shown in the fact that the forests become confined to
the mountain ridges, while the valleys are covered with
sagebrush.

Much of the region about Mt. Shasta has been lum-
bered over, and owing to careless and destructive meth-
ods will be non-productive for a long time. In other
parts the forests are now being cut, but it is to be hoped

The Volcanic Plateau Region 159

that before the country is entirely stripped that enlight-
ened methods will be introduced.

The large valleys of the central portion of the region
are given over to a variety of farm products, but the
region is so isolated that few of these can be shipped to
market. Grain and hay are produced for stock, and as
the latter can be driven out they form the most important
product.

Fruit, particularly apples, are now grown in many of
the valleys, and with the entrance of railroads into the
region will prove profitable crops.

The plateau province embraces Lassen, Modoc and the
eastern part of Shasta and Siskiyou counties.

160 The Geography of California

CHAPTER XVII.
THE GREAT BASIN PROVINCE.

Extent and General Character. — Fremont was the
first to explore and describe that vast interior portion of
the continent lying between the Rocky Mountains and
the Sierra Nevadas. He found it to be a succession of
sandy deserts and barren mountain ranges with no
external drainage. Here and there were alkaline or
saline lakes, often disappearing completely during the
heat of summer and leaving a white crust over the sur-
face. There were almost no streams, save torrential ones,
which existed for a short time after exceptipnally heavy
storms, and springs were few and hidden away in the
mountain recesses. The larger part of the torrential
waters were either evaporated or absorbed in the sands,
so that the different basins, of which there were hundreds
and perhaps thousands, never overflowed, and no drain-
age system was set up. Fremont pictures this vast desert
region, or Great Basin, as he called it, as dreary and
desolate, and what little life it contained as dwarfed and
peculiar in character. For us, who can now enter this
region under more favorable circumstances, it has most
wonderful attractions. The desert, at certain seasons of
the year when the air is cool and the sky clear, is one of
the most inspiring regions of the continent.

We must not conceive of the Great Basin as a simple
region with a rim of inclosing mountains, but rather
as made up of an almost innumerable number of smaller
basins. The bottoms of some of the basins or valleys

The Great Basin Province 161

have an elevation of 6000 feet, while others are below
the level of the sea. The Great Basin includes the west-
ern part of Utah, nearly the whole of Nevada, and the
eastern one-third of California.

In spite of the geographical importance of the Great
Basin, it is hardly more than mentioned in our geogra-
phies, and most school children know nothing about it.
The region forms one of the most important barriers
separating California from the East, contains valuable
deposits of the precious minerals, and owing to its unique
climatic conditions, contains some of the most important
beds of salt, soda and borax known in the world.

The northern and southern boundaries of the Great
Basin are determined by the drainage systems of the
Columbia and Colorado rivers, respectively. Its western
boundary, beginning in Northeastern California and
going south, is first ; the Warner Range, followed by the
Sierra Nevada, Tehachapi, San Emegdio, Francisquito,
San Gabriel, San Bernardino, San Jacinto and Peninsula
ranges. The watershed separating the Pacific drainage
from the Great Basin forms the meeting point of two
sharply contrasted climatic provinces. In the desert one,
which we are discussing, are many strange plant and
animal forms. At first sight these seem few in number
and to have a hard struggle for existence, but in reality
they are very numerous and have become so adapted to
their conditions that life for them is as easy as it is for
organisms in other regions.

Surface Features. — That part of the Great Basin
lying in California is far from having a uniform charac-
ter. For convenience we might distinguish three parts,

162 The Geography of California

namely : ( 1 ) The narrow strip lying east of the Warner
Range and Sierra Nevadas; (2) the Mohave Desert,
occupying a large area in the central southern part, and
(3) the Salton Sink, otherwise known as the Colorado
Desert or Imperial Valley.

In the extreme northeastern corner of the State the
lofty Warner Range, with its eastern fault escarpment,
supplies water for the fertile Surprise Valley. This is
perhaps the best cultivated portion of the Great Basin in
California. In the center of the valley is a sink contain-
ing three alkali lakes which nearly dry up in the middle
of summer.

Farther south we come to Honey Lake and valley of
the same name. This valley lies close under the fault
escarpment of the Sierra Nevadas which, although not as
high as farther south, is yet quite precipitous. The part
of the valley lying along the base of the mountains is
dotted with many ranches, water for irrigation being
supplied by streams from the Sierras. Susanville is the
leading town of this region. The next important feature
to the south is the Lake Tahoe basin. This lake, although
lying high up in the Sierras, in a region of heavy precipi-
tation, drains through the Truckee river into the Great
Basin. This is the largest stream of the whole desert
region. Much of the water is now diverted to irrigate
thousands of acres of sagebrush desert in Nevada, and
what is left finally reaches Pyramid Lake, in the north-
western part of the State.

The next important basin to the south is that occupied
by Mono Lake. This body of water and the surrounding
volcanic region offers one of the most interesting places

The Great Basin Province 163

for study in the whole of California. The lake itself
lies in the lowest portion of a sunken fault block, back of
which rises the snow-covered peaks of the Sierra Nevada.
This region is still sinking, as is evidenced by the fact of
an escarpment at the point where Mill creek issues from
the mountains, which shows a recent displacement of
forty feet.

Mono Lake has about the same elevation as Lake
Tahoe, but instead of being pure fresh water, is so
intensely alkaline and saline that the only form of life
which it contains is a brine shrimp. The islands in the
lake are formed largely of lava, and one contains a
volcanic cone. The fissured and broken rocks tell the
story of violent earthquakes following the cessation of
the volcanic activities.

South of the lake is a group of mountains known as
the Mono Craters, which are extremely interesting. At
one spot is a flow of black lava which looks as if it had
cooled but yesterday. At other points are deep craters
formed by explosive forces, while fine pumice or "vol-
canic ashes," is spread all over the surrounding country.
In one crater is an eruption of obsidian lava or volcanic
glass, as it is often called. Here the Indians used to
come for the material for their arrow and spear points,
and this, through exchange, was taken to distant parts of
the State.

Continuing south along the eastern base of the Sierras
over a volcanic country which in places has the appear-
ance of a table land, we reach Owens Valley. This is
the largest, with the exception of Imperial, of the valleys
of the Great Basin which lie in California, and supports

164 The Geography of California

a considerable population. The valley occupies what we
might call a deep trough, although it has an elevation of
4000 to 5000 feet, between the rugged Sierras on the
one hand and the Inyo- White Mountain Range on the
other. The highest peak of the White Mountains has an
elevation of over 14,000 feet, while on the opposite side
of the trough rises the lofty escarpment of the Sierras,
with peaks culminating in Mt. Whitney, 14,501 feet.
The length of Owens Valley is about seventy miles, and
average width ten miles. It is due to the dropping of
the earth between the two mountain ranges, and is in
reality formed of two main blocks, the eastern one of
which is occupied by the lowlands along Owens river,
while the western one is higher, and is best exemplified
in the Alabama Hills, near the town of Lone Pine. The
great Owens Valley earthquake of 1872 was the result
of movement between these two earth blocks.

East of the Inyo-White Mountain Range we find a
succession of desert valleys and north and south moun-
tain ranges taking us into Nevada. Saline Valley, at
the eastern base of the Inyo Range, is of great interest.
The block of the earth's crust which forms the valley has
been dropped in times so recent that the mountain wall,
which rises above it fully 8000 feet, is still extremely
precipitous.

Owens Lake is a large shallow body of water, and very
alkaline. Although it receives the drainage of the eastern
slope of the highest parts of the Sierras, yet it is steadily
decreasing in size, and will eventually disappear. This
event will be hastened through the construction of the
Los Angeles aqueduct, which will take away a large por-

The Great Basin Province 165

tion of the water of Owens river. Mono Lake, on the
contrary, is rising slowly. Its waters can never be
diverted, owing to the nature of the country, although
some of the supplying streams can be used for irrigation.

Owens Lake overflowed its basin during the glacial
period and sent a mighty stream southward between the
Coso Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. The gap is
known as Little Lake, from a body of water occupying a
portion of the ancient channel. The stream spread over
a part of the Salt Wells Desert, and finally reached the
basin known as Searles Borax Marsh. The shore lines
of the ancient lake are still clearly marked along the sides
of the inclosing mountains.

The Argus Range, the Panamint Range and the
Funeral Mountains lie east of the Sierras and north of
the Mohave Desert. They have a north and south direc-
tion, and are noted landmarks. Panamint Valley is but
a little more than 1000 feet above sea level, and was once
occupied by a lake. On the opposite side of the Panamint
Range are the desolate reaches of Death Valley which at
Bennetts Wells is 276 feet below the level of the sea.
In spite of the fact that this region is extremely arid
there is plenty of water in Death Valley if one only
knows where to look for it. The vast stretch of salt and
alkali marsh through the center of the valley is its most
dangerous feature. Extensive lakes once occupied the
most of the valleys of this desert region.

All the mountains in the region east of the Sierra
Nevadas have a north and south direction, and have been
uplifted in times as recent as the uplift of the lofty Sierra,
if we can judge from their steep escarpments. When we

166 The Geography of California

get as far south as the Mohave Desert, however, we
encounter a country possessing a radically different char-
acter. Here are very ancient mountains. There have
been no important disturbances of the earth's crust, and
these old mountains have been almost worn away. The
features suggest old age and decay.

For long ages the mountains of the Mohave Desert
have been wasting away under the influence of rock
disintegration and erosion. Before the uplift of the
Sierra Nevadas and the San Gabriel Range disturbed
the drainage lines of these ancient times and made the
Great Basin the streams undoubtedly flowed away to the
sea. They then carried with them the debris of these old
mountains, but for a long time past there has been no
outlet, and the waste has gone on accumulating in the
valleys until in some of them it is probably several thou-
sand feet deep. Where the desert is crossed by the
Southern Pacific Railroad we have the best view of these
almost vanished mountains. The once young and pre-
cipitous mountains have become old, and the processes
of decay and erosion have almost ceased. They are
probably the oldest topographic features to be found in
California, excepting only the region of low relief about
Riverside and Perris, in Southern California.

As one goes easterly across the Mohave Desert, on
the Santa Fe Railroad, the same old mountains, although
not quite so nearly worn down, appear all the way to
the Needles. At only two places are there new features,
and these consist of small craters and flows of black lava
which contrast strongly with the desert sands.

The Great Basin Province 167

The Mohave river is the only stream of any conse-
quence which enters this vast desert region. It flows
northerly from the San Bernardino Mountains and in the
direction of Death Valley, but sinks in the sand long
before reaching it.

Next to the mountains, the most interesting feature
of the desert is the broad, gently sloping plains of rock
waste which surround the scattered mountains on all
sides and dip away to the sinks. These plains are miles
in extent and are made up of gravel or sand which the
occasional torrential streams have brought down from
the mountains and spread out in sheets. When it does
rain here the waters gather quickly on the barren rocky
slopes of the mountains, roar through the canons and
then, with their load of rock debris, spread out over miles
of country. In such a dry land, where streams are many
miles apart, it is strange that the effects of water should
be so prominent, but it is nevertheless true. There are
places where the railroads have to build many miles of
ditches to keep the tracks from being washed out. Occa-
sionally lakes are formed, and in 1909 traffic on the Santa
Fe was stopped by such a body of water.

Low, barren mountains, the southeastward prolonga-
tion of the San Bernardino Range, separate the Mohave
from the Colorado Desert. Reaching the latter we find
a very different country from that just described. It is
equally barren and destitute of water, at least before the
formation of the Salton Sea, but its surface was built up
in a very different manner. The Gulf of California once
extended as far north as the town of Indio, while the

168 The Geography of California

mouth of the Colorado river was a short distance below
Yuma.

The changes in the earth's surface which great rivers
effect in the course of long ages, is well illustrated in
the work of the Colorado river. The waters of this
stream are so loaded with silt during periods of flood
that they look like so much seething mud. An estimate
of the amount of silt brought down by the Colorado in
the year 1890 gave 61,000,000 tons. This is enough to
make fifty-three square miles of dry alluvial soil one foot
deep, or the same area more than three feet deep with
recently settled mud.

Bearing the above facts in mind it is easy to under-
stand how the river in the course of unnumbered thou-
sands of years built its delta across the Gulf of California
forming the inclosed area now known as the Salton
Basin. The tides of the gulf bore much of the silt far-
ther to the south, so that the total amount of material
finally deposited is much greater than that which appears
as dry land.

Salton Basin was at first a salt lagoon, being filled with
sea water which had been cut off from the gulf by the
delta. As the river channels moved here and there over
the delta much of the water was at times diverted into
the basin, and the lagoon became a fresh water lake.
Such was its condition at the time of the last maximum
expansion recorded in the ancient beaches and wave-cut
cliffs which can be traced all around the borders of the
Colorado Desert, for the fresh-water clam shells strew
the beaches in countless numbers.

The Great Basin Province 169

As the river swung back and forth on the delta there
were times when no water of any consequence reached
the lake, and its bed finally became dry save for the salt
marsh in the lowest place. This salt may have been
partly derived from deposits left in the ancient salt
lagoon, and partly from the accumulation of this material
in solution in the river water.

The recent overflow of the river, and the formation of
Salton Sea, was due directly to the presence of a canal
which at time of high water allowed the river to break
through into the basin, but indirectly to the fact that it
had been flowing to the south for many years, and that
part of its delta had become so lessened in slope that
very likely it would have broken into Salton Basin in the
course of a few years, even if man had not come in as a
disturbing factor.

Climate. — The climate of the Great Basin is one of
its most interesting and peculiar features. Every phys-
ical condition tends to make a desert of this region. In
the first place it lies in the interior of the continent, and
is shut off from the sea by mountains. In the second
place the mountain ranges extend north and south, and
as the storms move easterly with the prevailing westerly
air currents of the temperate zone, they abstract a large
part of the moisture of the air before it reaches this
interior basin. In addition to being very dry the summer
temperature of the lower and southern portions of the
Great Basin is intense. There is an extraordinary range
of temperature between night and day, owing to the clear
air and the radiation from the barren surface. The

170 The Geography of California

temperature is further affected by the presence of lofty
mountains cutting off the cool sea winds which so greatly
temper the summers along the coast.

We have already learned that the storms which pass
inland from the Pacific are more numerous in the north-
ern United States, and as these deserts extend pretty well
to the south and almost out of the course of these storms,
we have an added reason for their dryness. The barrier
mountains of the Mt. Whitney region are also more lofty
than farther north. It is in the deserts back of these
mountains, so to speak, that we have the greatest heat
and greatest aridity.

Most remarkable contrasts in climate are found in the
Great Basin where lofty mountains break vthe surface.
The tops of those mountains which reach up to 8000 to
10,000 feet have a cool climate with moderate precipita-
tion, while the desert sands at their bases seldom receive
rain, and are subject to such high temperature that it
would appear as if no living thing could exist.

The climate has given rise to much that is unusual in
the topography. The lack of water to form streams has
left innumerable basins instead of a series of valleys with
a connected drainage system. In some of the basins are
lakes strongly impregnated with salts of various kinds.
In a normally moist climate there would be found here
neither lakes nor salts unless the displacements of the
land and the mountain-making movements were so rapid
that continuous drainage lines could not be maintained.

The peculiarities of the living things which have
adapted themselves to the lack of moisture show how, in

The Great Basin Province 171

the course of time, climate aids in the development of
new species. Among plants, the size of the leaf has
decreased in order that there may be less evaporation,
and frequently the surface of leaf and stem is covered
with a sticky or resinous substance which still further
aids in retaining the moisture. Some plants, such as the
cactuses, have developed a fleshy body which in certain
species holds large quantities of water. Thorns also
appear evidently as a means of protection. Among the
animals there are also strange adaptations. The most
remarkable is the desert tortoise, which has two water
pockets, enabling it to exist for a long time without a
new supply.

The air conditions are such, particularly in the sum-
mer, that when it does rain the precipitation is sudden
and heavy, and we call the storm a "cloudburst." Owing
to the lack of a protecting cover of vegetation, the water
runs off the mountain slopes with great rapidity, spread-
ing out in thin sheets over miles of the desert sands.
Some years the rains come at the right time in the spring
and the desert soon becomes a veritable flower garden,
with many varieties of plants and a wealth of color. The
seeds mature, the plants dry up, and in a few short weeks
the desert is again a mass of barren gravel and drifting
sand. The seeds lie buried, perhaps for years, until
another favorable season occurs, when the process is
repeated.

In the eastern parts of the Mohave and Colorado
deserts the rainfall is rarely in excess of two or three
inches, and sometimes two years pass with scarcely any

172 The Geography of California

rain. There is no portion of the desert, however, which
does not contain more or less vegetation except the sinks,
where, owing to the presence of such quantities of salts
of various kinds are apparently absolutely barren.

Natural Resources. — The vegetation of the desert
varies with the soil, elevation and rainfall. Over the vast
reaches of the Mohave Desert the most widely distrib-
uted plant is the Mexican creosote bush. Along the dry
water courses are many mesquite trees, and in portions
of the Colorado Desert these form thorny and almost
impenetrable groves. In the moister portions of the
desert, particularly toward the north, the sagebrush
abounds, and under favorable conditions grows to a
height of twelve feet.

In the Mohave Desert there are extensive groves of
a tree-like yucca, which sometimes covers miles of the
long, gentle gravel slopes. The cactus is more or less
generally distributed, but in the western portion of the
Colorado Desert it grows in the greatest variety and pro-
fusion. The native California palm, so widely grown for
ornamental purposes, is found in many of the mountain
canons tributary to the Colorado Desert.

A zonal distribution of plants on the mountain slopes
is well illustrated in many places. In the eastern part of
the Mohave Desert, for example, we pass from the zone
of the Yuccas to that of the desert juniper. Higher still,
with more rain and a lower temperature, we reach the
pifion pine, and if the mountains be high enough we may
reach the yellow pine. As one travels through the desert
he can make a rough estimate of the elevation by the kind
of vegetation which he encounters.

The Great Basin Province 173

The fiber of the tree-yucca has qualities which will
some day make it useful. Desert plants have large roots
in many cases, and these are dug out and used as fuel.

Springs are so rare in portions of the desert that it is
unsafe to travel there without a guide. It is interesting
to observe upon a map of the desert how the courses of
all trails and roads are determined more by the watering
places than by any other factors. The difficulty of obtain-
ing water often makes it impossible to work certain
mineral deposits which would otherwise be valuable.

It is mainly the presence of minerals in the desert
mountains that has called a considerable population into
this region. Gold, silver and copper are the most impor-
tant of the metals obtained. Among the most valuable
of the minerals of the Great Basin are salt, soda and
borax. Deposits of borax have long been worked in
Death Valley and Searles Borax marsh. It also occurs
in Saline Valley, east of the Inyo Range. Salt is found
in a number of places, both in the form of rock salt and
as a loose surface deposit. Salt of the latter kind was
obtained from the Salton Sink before it was flooded by
the inflow of the Colorado river. The Danby salt marsh,
in the eastern Mohave Desert, contains an inexhaustible
supply of rock salt. It was quarried at one time and
hauled to the railroad by a traction engine. An interest-
ing cabin made of blocks of salt still stands here, for
there is not rain enough to dissolve it.

The most noted mining town east of the Sierra Neva-
das is Bodie, in Mono county. It has many large mines
which have produced a great deal of gold. Inyo county

174 The Geography of California

is also noted for its gold mines, and in past years for the
production of silver and lead.

Agriculture in the Great Basin is restricted to those
areas where water can be obtained for irrigation. The
Truckee, Carson and Walker rivers supply large valleys
in the northern portion of the district which we have
been describing. Owens Valley is well watered, and sup-
ports a considerable population. The chief exports are
cattle and horses. Apples and many other temperate
fruits do well here.

The delta of the Colorado river is composed of a deep
and inexhaustible soil, and can for the most part be
reached by irrigation ditches. The population of this
region, now known as Imperial Valley, is rapidly grow-
ing, and many thousands of acres are under cultivation
where a few years ago many a desert traveler has per-
ished for lack of water. All the semi-tropical fruits are
grown here, and ripen so early that they can be placed
on the market ahead of those from any other part of the
State.

Not the least among the uses which can be made of
the desert is that of a sanitarium. The bracing, life-
giving air which moves across its vast stretches is not
only a pleasure for the strong to breathe, but is very
beneficial to the sick in the case of many diseases.

Effect of Geographic Conditions 175

APPENDIX.

EFFECT OF GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS ON
THE SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOP-
MENT OF CALIFORNIA.

California, as has already been shown, is far from
being a geographic unit. Stretching along the Pacific
through nearly ten degrees of latitude, and reaching 250
miles into the interior across broad valleys, deserts and
lofty mountain ranges, the State presents a remarkable
variety of geographic conditions. If we consider the
variety of surface features, climates and productions,
which range from those of the sub-tropical zone to those
of the arctic, we might justly consider California as a
whole empire in itself.

It is difficult to say which is the most important geo-
graphic factor concerned in the settlement and develop-
ment of California. It is ordinarily assumed that the
location or position of a country is the most important
one, but in the region under discussion we shall have to
consider much more seriously than is ordinarily neces-
sary the factors of surface features or topography,
climate and mineral resources.

We have seen that latitude is of less significance than
is usually the case, but that climate as influenced by the
ocean, by the direction of the prevailing winds, by the
position and direction of the mountain ranges, and by

176 The Geography of California

elevation above the ocean possesses extraordinary impor-
tance.

As far as the position of California is concerned in its
development we see that it plays a much less important
pare now than in the period of early exploration and
discovery. Lying upon the Pacific, which Spain claimed
the right to control, and adjacent to Mexico, what was
more natural than that those people should discover and
take possession of the region? In its remoteness and
geographic isolation from the early English settlements
along the eastern shore of the continent there was no
reason whatever to suppose that English speaking people
would ever control California.

Passing by, for the moment, the Spanish discovery
and settlement, we can say that the real development of
California began with the discovery of gold. Previous to
this event the region was practically unoccupied save for
a few small Spanish settlements whose inhabitants had
come the comparatively short and easy journey from
Mexico, and an occasional American who had either come
by some trading vessel or had wandered across the con-
tinent.

While the gold seekers came from all parts of the
world, by far the larger number were from the Eastern
United States. The stories of fortunes to be made in
the gravels of the mountain streams started a great
migration to a region which not only occupied a remote
portion of the continent, but was further isolated by
almost impassable geographic barriers. The journey
across the continent occupied many months, and was
difficult and dangerous. Many went by sailing vessel

Effect of Geographic Conditions 177

around the Horn, but this was fully as long and danger-
ous as the overland trip. The Isthmus route was shorter,
but dangerous, because of the prevailing fevers.

It was the lure of gold, then, which in spite of the
most serious physical obstacles, caused the rapid settle-
ment of California. Had gold not existed here California
would have been settled slowly by an agricultural popu-
lation, as in large part was Oregon and Washington. It
was gold which kept the almost continuous line of ox
teams crossing the vast reaches of the Great Plains. It
was gold which led men, women and children to suffer
privation and sometimes death on the deserts. It was
gold which led them across the lofty Sierras, where snow
sometimes blocked their passage, and where their wagons
had to be taken to pieces and let down by ropes over
cliffs. Without the great incentive offered by gold Cali-
fornia would have long remained sparsely settled. The
larger number of Eastern emigrants would have awaited
the coming of the transcontinental railroad — that modern
leveler of physical barriers.

We can say, then, that the situation and geographic
environment of California would have tended, under
ordinary conditions, to make its growth in population
slow. To be sure, many people would have come over-
land to settle in the fertile valleys, as they did in Oregon.
Many would have made homes on the prairies and great
plains of the Middle West, and transportation by boat
would have played a relatively more important part.
People would not have hurled themselves blindly against
such dangerous barriers as under the then existing condi-
tions surrounding California.

178 The Geography of California

The position of California made it natural that Spain
should explore and send the first settlers to its shores.
The advantage which she had was, however, not followed
up The remoteness of the province, and the ease with
which the people supported themselves on the rich soil,
and in an agreeable climate, tended toward stagnation
instead of advance. If the people had been progressive
the geographic barriers which separated California from
the East would have aided Mexico greatly in retaining it.

It is easy to understand why the early exploration of
California was not carried on by land expeditions from
Mexico. One party got as far north as the Grand Canon,
but could not cross it. Another went up the Colorado
river from the Gulf of California, but owing to the bare
and forbidding aspect of the country the men did not
dare to go far from their boats.

We are accustomed to think of the sea as the great
highway, and the shores of a new country as most easily
explored by boat. We would naturally think it a simple
matter for the explorers and settlers from Mexico to
make their way north along the Pacific Coast, but as a
matter of fact this was not the case. The narratives of
all the expeditions by water speak of the scarcity of good
harbors, and the constant succession of head winds. It
often took as long for a vessel to beat up the coast as for
an expedition to traverse the distance by land. It is
interesting to note, then, what little advantage California
had in the early days from her position upon the Pacific.

Nearly all new countries were traversed first by means
of their rivers and lakes. In California, however, and
in fact throughout all the vast region extending eastward

Effect of Geographic Conditions 179

to the Missouri river, the emigrants and explorers met
with scarcely no assistance from the waterways. The
Platte and Arkansas rivers were generally too shallow
for the use of boats, while the Colorado was found buried
in an inaccessible canon, and the Shake broken by canons
and rapids. The Columbia was used for a comparatively
short distance from The Dalles to the sea. In California
the only inland water made use of by the emigrants was
about 100 miles of the lower Sacramento, between the
town of the same name and San Francisco.

The missions of San Diego, Monterey, Santa Barbara,
Santa Cruz and San Francisco were located with refer-
ence to harbors, while the sites of the others which were
strung along the main highway connecting these, and
which reached as far north as Sonoma, were chosen with
especial reference to the presence of water for irrigating
their gardens. The Mission Fathers were not long in
discovering that California had a climate similar in many
respects to that of Mexico, and it was their first care to
select well watered and fertile valleys for the founding
of their establishments.

Owing to the fact that the country appeared drier and
more forbidding toward the interior, the settlements
which grew up along the line of Missions showed little
tendency to spread far from the coast. The priests dis-
couraged attempts at mining, and there was little other
inducement to explore the vast and almost unknown
interior. The isolation of California tended to make the
people self-supporting, and to the development of a quiet
and peaceful life. There was no market for products
other than hides and tallow, which the New England

.SO The Geography of California

trading vessels occasionally called for, and so cattle rais-
ing became the only important industry.

We find, then, that up to the period of gold discovery
geographic conditions determined in the fullest degree
the position of the settlements and the occupation of the
people. If it had not been for this discovery the develop-
ment of California as an agricultural and commercial
State would have proceeded along much the same line as
the Spanish settlement. The seaports and valleys where
water was abundant would have received the bulk of the
emigrants, and from these they would gradually have
spread, as they learned to make use of irrigation, into
the drier valleys and mountains. As it was, however,
the search for gold carried the bulk of the people away
from the distinctly agricultural districts and into the
gulches and canons of the Sierra Nevada and Klamath
mountains.

The situations chosen for the numerous towns which
sprang up through the foothill belt as a result of the
mining excitement are in many cases peculiar and inter-
esting. The location of each was determined by con-
venience to some particularly rich "bar" or stream. Some
of them were in narrow gulches or on steeply sloping
mountain sides, and they were rarely placed with regard
to agricultural possibilities or thought of future lines of
travel and communication.

The only available port in which supplies could be
received by ship, and all had to come that way, was San
Francisco, and that little town soon became a bustling
city. From San Francisco goods and passengers could
easily reach Stockton, Sacramento, Marysville and Red

Effect of Geographic Conditions 181

Bluff, from which points they were distributed to the
various mining camps. It is very interesting to compare
San Francisco and Monterey as regards their growth
during the gold excitement. Monterey was one of the
oldest places in the State, as well as metropolis and early
capital, while San Francisco was merely a little hamlet.
The geographic position and environment of these places
became all-important. Monterey, although situated in a
fairly well protected bay, had no direct connection with
the interior, and was, moreover, farther from the mines.
It lay upon no line of communication with them, and
scarcely felt the exciting events of the gold period, and
up as late as 1890 it remained one of the most typical
of the old Spanish towns of California.

The wonderful growth of San Francisco was foreshad-
owed by its position upon the great bay. There is no
other place upon the Pacific Coast of the United States
so clearly adapted by nature to be the seat of a great
commercial city. The situation of San Francisco Bay
is central, and with its arms and tributary valleys reach-
ing out into the heart of the central and northern portions
of the State, it controls an area which will some day be
populated by many millions.

The situation of Sacramento gave it an advantage
over the other valley towns which came into existence
as supply points for the mines. Larger boats could
ascend the Sacramento river to this point than could
reach the other places. Sutter Fort was situated on the
American river near the town, and was a well known
rendezvous for all the early emigrants, so that all the
main overland trails converged here.

182 The Geography of California

At the breaking out of the gold excitement Captain
Sutter was engaged in growing grain in the Sacramento
Valley, but home-raised supplies of all kinds, with the
exception of meat, were soon entirely inadequate to meet
the demand, and living became very high. No one
wanted to do such prosaic work as farming when gold
was to be had for the mere digging in the river gravels.
In a comparatively short time matters began to mend,
for the richest placers were soon exhausted, and those
unsuccessful at mining, as well as the late comers, turned
to agriculture.

After a time the ancient river channels were opened
up by means of hydraulic mining, and quartz veins began
to be discovered and worked, but these operations
employed comparatively few men, and the great bulk of
the population which had so quickly gathered began to
slowly drift away. Scores of once bustling towns grew
quiet, and after a few years many of them were recognized
only by deserted and tumble-down buildings. With the
increase in the agricultural population and the develop-
ment of manufacturing and trade California society
began to take on a normal character.

We have already traced the agricultural growth of the
State from the period of stock raising through the period
of the great ranches which were given over largely to
grain, to the modern period characterized by diversified
farming and growing of fruits upon small and carefully
cultured tracts. Each of the above periods existed as
the result of definite geographic conditions, whose modifi-
cation led to the transition to the next stage.

Effect of Geographic Conditions 183

Owing to the isolation of California under Mexican
rule, the chief products which could be profitably shipped
were hides and tallow, and there would have been no
demand for these if it had not been for the energy and
pluck of the New England trading vessels. With the
growth of the population there came a demand for meat
and grain. The former could be driven any reasonable dis-
tance to market, but the profitable growing of grain was
limited to those areas near water transportation, until
the railroads were extended through the main valleys.

The development of California has been greatly
retarded through the lack of internal waterways. The
various arms of San Francisco Bay within comparatively
short reach of the Sacramento river and its tributaries
being the only ones available.

From a geographic standpoint, no finer conditions
could exist for an important waterway than those fur-
nished by the Great Valley and the drainage lines in it.
By proper dredging, the Sacramento river could be used
for freighting crops and merchandise to a point nearly
or quite as far north as Redding. In the San Joaquin
Valley only a slight divide of about twenty-five feet
separates the waters of the San Joaquin from the basins
of Lake Tulare and Buena Vista Lake. A canal could
be constructed from the latter lake, at the southern end
of the San Joaquin Valley northwesterly to the San
Joaquin river and tidewater, with no serious engineering
difficulties in the way, thus affording a cheap outlet to
one of the greatest and richest garden spots of the world.

Irrigation was first looked upon by the settlers from
the East as a laborious and tedious method of growing

184 The Geography of California

crops, and it was some time before they began to under-
stand its application, and the great advantage which it
offered in enabling them to moisten the ground just
when moisture was needed, rather than to depend upon
chance showers.

Irrigation is of great importance to California, not
only because there are large areas where the rainfall is
insufficient, but because much of what does fall comes
at the wrong season of the year. Winter is the wet
season in California, and at that time the weather is so
cool that plants grow but little, even in the warmer
valleys. As spring comes on the precipitation grows
less, and finally ceases entirely in the summer months,
just when growing things need it the most.

Another thing which makes irrigation easy to carry
out on a large scale is the fact that the extensive lowland
valleys lying about the bases of the mountains in which
the streams head, have a gentle, even slope just suited to
canals and ditches. At the mouth of every canon there has
been built up a broad flat debris cone, and it is the union
of these cones in one broad plain which gives rise to the
valley slopes.

The importance of lofty mountains in a region defi-
cient in moisture is clearly illustrated in California. They
not only increase the precipitation several times what it
otherwise would be, but much of it is left in the form
of snow, which melts slowly and aids greatly in keeping
up the summer flow of the streams. A supply of water
for irrigation is thus made possible where, if the moun-
tains were absent, the region must remain an unproduc-
tive desert.

Effect of Geographic Conditions 185

The possibilities of irrigation for the growth of fruit
and vegetables could not be fully realized until a market
could be obtained outside of the State. The building of
the transcontinental railroads was the final link in the
chain of causes and effects, and was really the opening
up of our modern California development. Dried fruits,
grain and other non-perishable products could be shipped
around the Horn by boat, but until the railroads came
there was no market for fresh fruit outside the State
and the immediately adjoining coastal regions. With the
rapid overland trains we now deliver fresh fruit and vege-
tables by the thousands of carloads all over the United
States.

The growth of manufacturing industries in California
has been seriously affected by geographic conditions.
The cost of living continued high for many years follow-
ing the gold excitement because of the comparatively
small attention given to agriculture, and so it was diffi-
cult to compete with eastern products. Besides this,
almost all the coal used had to be imported by boat from
distant countries. Although iron deposits are known to
exist in California, little, if any ore has been mined and
smelted. The recent discovery of immense petroleum
fields in the Coast Ranges, whose deposits seem inex-
haustible, is a very important thing for manufacturing,
since the larger part of the oil is better adapted for fuel
purposes than any other.

If we except the redwoods along the coast, the forests
of California are found mostly in the mountains, and
were difficult to reach by the means at the command of
the early settlers. During the period of the gold excite-

186 The Geography of California

ment materials for many houses were brought around the
Horn.

Owing to geographic conditions being very different
from those surrounding the forests in the Eastern States,
lumbering in California has been carried on in a different
manner. The rivers were not available for "log drives,"
since they were generally found to flow swiftly over
rocky beds through deep canons. In order to get the
lumber to market, then, mills were erected in the forests
in the mountains, and flumes constructed leading from
the mills at a gentle grade down to the valleys where
they connected with the railroads. As the logs were
sawed the lumber was thrown into the flumes, which
were filled with water, and borne by its rapi4 current
around the mountains and along the sides of canons a
distance sometimes of thirty to fifty miles.

We have seen that physical conditions such as climate,
water supply, nearness to the ocean, or to that great
highway known as the Camino Real, were the determin-
ing factors in the location of the early Spanish settle-
ments. We have seen also that with the discovery of
gold physical conditions were practically ignored. Men
braved every danger and surmounted every physical
obstruction in their rush for the mines. Outside of the
supply towns and the port of San Francisco the popula-
tion was mainly concentrated in the gold belt. With the
exhaustion of the placers the population began to spread
according to the demands of agriculture, that most funda-
mental of all occupations.

The marked differences in climate of various parts of
the State influenced the distribution of the early agri-

Effect of Geographic Conditions 187

cultural population even more than physical features and
accessibility to market. People settled first where the
rainfall was sufficient to grow the common crops with
little or no irrigation. Large areas in Southern California
and in the San Joaquin Valley were passed by, although
the soil appeared to be of the best. Nearness to water,
either springs or streams, determined the locations of the
first homes under irrigation. Then came the leading of
water by ditches and canals many miles onto land which
was worthless without water, and with this the apparently
desert portions of the State began to settle up.

Another factor which affected the distribution of the
early agricultural population, and in some degree affects
it today, was the existence of Spanish grants. Nearly
all the valleys of Southern California, as well as parts
of the adjacent mountain slopes which were of value for
grazing purposes, and all the valley lands of the Coast
Ranges as far north as the San Francisco Bay region,
had at some time been granted by the Mexican govern-
ment to the early Spanish settlers, and these titles were
confirmed with the transfer of the region to the United
States. Stock raising has continued down to the present
to be the only industry upon some of these grants, while
others have been devoted to grain. The most of these
grants have now been cut up into small tracts for inten-
sive farming.

The effect of climate on the distribution of the various"
agricultural pursuits forms an interesting study. The
State is divided into belts and zones, some of which are
determined by elevation, others by their position with
relation to the ocean. Oranges, lemons, figs, olives,

188 The Geography of California

raisin grapes, etc., are grown to best advantage in the
warm interior valleys. Many fruits belonging naturally
in a more temperate climate do well in the same valleys.
Among these are peaches, pears, apricots, plums and
prunes. The latter really do better, however, in the
cooler valleys near the coast, as well as in the mountain
valleys where the elevation is too great for citrus fruits.
Cherries do not produce in the hot valleys, nor are the
apples grown there good. The best apples are grown in
the mountains at an elevation of 3000 to 4000 feet, but all
through the Coast Ranges there are many favored spots
at a much less altitude where large quantities are raised.

Few fruits do well upon the open coast where they
are exposed to the winds off the ocean. This' belt is,
however, especially adapted to dairying, since the cool
air, moisture, and more abundant grass through a longer
portion of the year are all favorable factors. Since the
development of irrigation and the growing of large quan-
tities of alfalfa dairying has been carried on much more
extensively in the interior.

In the lowland valleys of the Coast Ranges, too cool
or frosty for citrus fruits, the walnut and almond are
grown extensively. Beans do best in the sandy soils of
the damp coastal region. The variations of soil and
climate in California are so great that space forbids the
presentation of more detail along this line. We should
make note, however, of the remarkable variety of fruits
and vegetables which, though here grown to perfection
side by side, are ordinarily found in different climatic
zones.

Effect of Geographic Conditions 189

Each of the seven provinces under which the State
has been discussed in the previous pages has certain
fairly well defined physical and biological characteristics
which should enable one to recognize it when these are
described. The importance of having a clear mental
image of the relief of California, in the light of what has
already been said, cannot be over estimated.

It should be noted further, in connection with a study of
the influence of relief, that the rivalry which has at times
existed between Northern and Southern California, and
threatened to start a movement for State division, has a
real basis in geographic conditions. The Mohave Desert,
with its plateau-like surface and inclosing mountain
ranges, which separate it alike from Central and Southern
California, forms a great wedge pointing westward
which almost cuts the State in two parts. In earlier
times this barrier would have given rise, without doubt,
to two separate peoples having their communication
mainly by water. With modern means of communication
afTorded by the railroads, deserts and mountains are prac-
tically obliterated. As it is now merchants in Los
Angeles actually ship goods across this once important
barrier into the San Joaquin Valley in competition with
the merchants of San Francisco.

In looking over the physical conditions under which
California life is developing, we see that physical bar-
riers can be overcome. We see that water can be con-
ducted from where it is abundant to where it is needed
in order to utilize the land, as illustrated in the fullest
degree in the case of the Los Angeles aqueduct. There

19C The Geography of California

is one factor, however, that cannot be changed by man,
and that is climate.

We cannot make the climate in a given place either
warmer or colder, nor can we change the amount and
distribution of the rainfall. We can, however, seriously
affect the benefits of the rainfall by careless treatment of
the forested slopes about the heads of the streams. If
we cut down the forests and remove the humus cover
from the soil the waters will run away in floods, bearing
the best of the soil with it, while the floods will be
followed by almost dry stream beds in the long, hot
summers.

The future development of California is intimately
dependent upon the careful and rational conservation of
its forests and streams. The geographic environment
given us by Nature can be modified in some ways, but
in others its exactions are merciless.

ACTUAL RELIEF MAP OF CALIFORNIA.

The value of relief maps for teaching Geography and
Physiography is now so generally understood and
acknowledged that it is not necessary to explain the
great advantages to be derived from this map.

The Actual Relief Map of California is 34 inches by
41^2 inches. (Scale eighteen miles to the inch with a
vertical scale of seven to one.) It is large enough to
show the details of the topography of the State clearly
to an entire class. The map is made of a special com-
position which is hard and durable, and at the same
time light, so that it can readily be handled by the
teacher. It may be hung on the wall for general dem-
onstration or placed on a table for class study. The
map is mounted in a substantial oak frame.

The modeling is accurate down to the smallest pos-
sible details, and in addition to all of the topographical
features of the State, the principal lakes, rivers, cities
and towns are located, and the names of the important
bays, ranges, mountains and peaks are shown. The
counties also are outlined and the principal railroads of
the State located as are also the large forests and
national reserves.

Supplementary to the main model of the State of
California, in the northeast corner of the map a relief
model of San Francisco and vicinity is included. This
is modeled on an enlarged scale, namely, four miles
to the inch, with a vertical scale of three to one. It
shows the topography of San Francisco, the harbor and
the surrounding country to much better advantage than
is possible on the regular map of smaller scale. Los
Angeles and vicinity is also treated in the same way on
a scale of ten miles to the inch and vertical scale of two
to one.

Price, in strong oak frame, $17.50.

WHITAKER & RAY-WIGGIN CO.,

San Francisco.

"TNIV

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