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The Geography
of Participation
in the Arts and
Culture
A Research Monograph Based on
the 1 997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts
The Geography
of Participation
in the Arts and
Culture
A Research Monograph Based on
the 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts
J. Mark Schuster
Research Division Report #41
March 2000
This monograph was funded by the Research Division, National Endowment for
the Arts, under contract C97-49. The conclusions contained in this monograph
are those of the author and do not represent the opinions of the National
Endowment for the Arts or the United States government.
National Endowment for the Arts
Seven Locks Press
Santa Ana, California
Table of Contents
Executive Summary 1
1. The Basics of Participation Rates 9
2. Confidence Intervals 42
3. Participation by Region 58
4. Other forms of Participation 61
5. The Relationship Between Participation Rates — Regions 71
6. The Relationship Between Participation Rates — States 77
7. Explaining Variation in Participation Rates Across Regions 83
8. Explaining Variations in Participation Rates Across States 95
9. How to Change Participation Rates 105
10. The Demographics of Audiences 115
11. In Summary 168
Notes 173
IV
I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture: A Research Monograph Based on the 1997
Survey of Public Participation in the Arts is Report #41 in a series on matters of interest to the arts
community commissioned by the Research Division of the National Endowment of the Arts.
First printed in 2000
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
is x available from the publisher
ISBN 0-929765-87-7
Printed in the United States of America
Seven Locks Press
Santa Ana, California
800-354-5348
VII
The Geography of Participation
in the Arts and Culture
J. Mark Schuster
Recent debates over the budget for the National Endowment for the Arts,
coupled with calls for increasingly large proportions of that budget to be dis-
tributed through the states, as well as significant changes in the state arts
agencies' own budgets, are all factors that are increasing analytic attention on
geographic patterns in American cultural life. Moreover, as renewed emphasis
is placed on understanding what has worked and what has not worked in
American cultural policy, it is only natural to want to observe variation in cul-
tural support and policies in order to extract lessons from that variation. The
natural place to turn is to the regions, the states, and to local communities in
order to understand that variation and to enlist that understanding in a more
nuanced consideration of cultural policies. Thus, it seems inevitable that ana-
lytic attention will focus much more attention on the role of the states and
regions in cultural policy, making it increasingly necessary to understand key
variations in these patterns.
This monograph focuses on participation rates in the arts and culture,
exploring variations in those participation rates through an explicitly geo-
graphic lens. In some sections, the emphasis will be on the variation in
participation rates in various art forms across ten of the largest American states
and across various demographic groups of individuals. In other sections, the
emphasis will be on the variation in participation rates in various art forms
across the nine regions of the country. Each of these approaches has advantages
and disadvantages; by moving back and forth between them, it is my hope that
a fuller and more responsible view of the geographic variation in participation
rates can be developed.
The key data source for this analysis is the 1997 Survey of Public
Participation in the Arts, conducted on behalf of the National Endowment for
the Arts. This survey is one of a wave of such surveys that have been conducted
in the last fifteen to twenty years throughout the world. These surveys docu-
ment the arts and cultural behavior patterns of various populations and develop
a base line of statistics to which future change and evolution can be compared.
Since 1982, the National Endowment for the Arts has commissioned four such
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Selected Findings
The basic findings concerning participation rates are presented in Sections 1
and 2. These results include:
• Generally speaking, these ten states have higher than average participation
rates across all eight key art forms.
• Some art forms (art museums and musical plays) enjoy high participation
rates across the board, while others (opera and ballet, in particular) have
much lower participation rates.
• Certain states, most notably New York, Massachusetts, and New Jersey,
stand out from the other six as states with generally high participation
rates. Pennsylvania and Texas, on the other hand, systematically have
lower than average participation rates.
• Nevertheless, there is more variation across art forms than there is varia-
tion across states, i.e., participation levels for a particular art form are
quite similar across states while participation levels for each state vary
quite widely across art forms.
• Participation in the three other cultural activities is quite a bit higher than
participation in the eight key art forms.
• The data suggest that there may be some substitution among types of cul-
tural participation, with the citizens of a particular state trading off
participation in one art form with participation in another. The possibil-
ity of substitution is particularly strong when considering the tradeoff
between the eight key art forms and the other three types of cultural activ-
ities, which are more popular in their appeal.
• At a regional level, the highest participation rates can be found in New
England, the Middle Atlantic region, and the Pacific region. New England
has the highest participation rate for five of the eight key art forms and
the second highest rate for two others. The East South Central region, on
the other hand, reports the lowest participation rates for six of the eight
art forms. The pattern differs somewhat for the three other cultural activ-
ities, but the East South Central region still reports the lowest
participation rates by a considerable margin.
The SPPA also allows the measurement of participation in the arts and cul-
ture through various media. These results are discussed in Section 3.
• Nearly seven out of ten American adults report having participated in at
least one of the eight key art forms through the medium of television or
Acknowledgements
In preparing this monograph I received invaluable assistance from my
Research Assistant, Ming Zhang, who performed miracles with the data. I am
also grateful to Kelly Barsdate of the National Assembly of State Arts Agencies,
who through lengthy conversations helped shaped much of the content and for-
mat of this monograph. Several staff members at the National Endowment for
the Arts including Tom Bradshaw, Andi Mathis, and Bonnie Nichols read drafts
of the monograph and made many useful suggestions. Thank you, one and all.
Executive Summary
With the new attention on cultural policy and cultural funding at the
regional and state levels in the United States, it is becoming increasingly impor-
tant to collect basic information on the arts and culture on a geographic basis.
This monograph explores the geographic variation in the participation of the
American adult population in arts and cultural activities. It is based primarily
on data from the 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts, the latest is a
sequence of participation studies commissioned by the National Endowment for
the Arts as a way of documenting the cultural consumption patterns of the
American adult population.
The primary goals of this monograph are twofold:
• to establish a baseline of results on the geographic variation of participa-
tion in the arts and cultural activities in the United States, and
• to provide some preliminary analyses that suggest possible explanations
for the observed geographic variations.
The 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts was conducted at a scale
sufficient to allow the consideration of participation levels as well as the con-
struction of a series of profiles of the audiences for various art forms and
cultural activities across all nine regions of the country. The data are such that
they also allow an analysis at the state level for ten of the largest states:
California, Florida, Illinois, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, New York,
Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas. Analyses at both the regional level and state
level are reported in this monograph.
The Survey of Public Participation in the Arts focuses on attendance at eight key
art forms: jazz, classical music, opera, musical stage plays or operettas, non-
musical stage plays, ballet, dance other than ballet, and art museums or art
galleries. The data also allow a consideration of participation in three other cul-
tural activities: reading literature, visiting historic parks or monuments, and
visiting art or crafts fairs or festivals. A wide variety of ancillary analyses are
possible as well, and several are reported in this monograph.
It is rather difficult to summarize briefly all of the findings and results of the
many analyses that we have conducted, given that they consider eleven art forms
and cultural activities over nine regions and ten states in relationship to a wide vari-
ety of other variables. In this summary we report some selected findings, hoping
that they will encourage the reader to dig deeper into the following pages.
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Selected Findings
The basic findings concerning participation rates are presented in Sections 1
and 2. These results include:
• Generally speaking, these ten states have higher than average participation
rates across all eight key art forms.
• Some art forms (art museums and musical plays) enjoy high participation
rates across the board, while others (opera and ballet, in particular) have
much lower participation rates.
• Certain states, most notably New York, Massachusetts, and New Jersey,
stand out from the other six as states with generally high participation
rates. Pennsylvania and Texas, on the other hand, systematically have
lower than average participation rates.
• Nevertheless, there is more variation across art forms than there is varia-
tion across states, i.e., participation levels for a particular art form are
quite similar across states while participation levels for each state vary
quite widely across art forms.
• Participation in the three other cultural activities is quite a bit higher than
participation in the eight key art forms.
• The data suggest that there may be some substitution among types of cul-
tural participation, with the citizens of a particular state trading off
participation in one art form with participation in another. The possibil-
ity of substitution is particularly strong when considering the tradeoff
between the eight key art forms and the other three types of cultural activ-
ities, which are more popular in their appeal.
• At a regional level, the highest participation rates can be found in New
England, the Middle Atlantic region, and the Pacific region. New England
has the highest participation rate for five of the eight key art forms and
the second highest rate for two others. The East South Central region, on
the other hand, reports the lowest participation rates for six of the eight
art forms. The pattern differs somewhat for the three other cultural activ-
ities, but the East South Central region still reports the lowest
participation rates by a considerable margin.
The SPPA also allows the measurement of participation in the arts and cul-
ture through various media. These results are discussed in Section 3.
• Nearly seven out of ten American adults report having participated in at
least one of the eight key art forms through the medium of television or
Executive Summary ' 3
video in the previous year. Among the ten states, this rate is highest in
California and lowest in Pennsylvania.
• Participation via radio is at a somewhat lower level; slightly less than six
out of ten American adults report having participated in at least one of the
eight key art forms via radio in the previous twelve months.
Massachusetts and California show the highest levels of participation via
radio broadcasts, and Ohio and Pennsylvania report the lowest levels.
• Participation via listening to records, compact discs, or tape cassettes is
lower still; slightly less than half of the adult population reports partici-
pation via one of these media. New Jersey has the highest participation
rate, followed by California.
Section 4 of the monograph uses the SPPA data to gauge a more direct form
of participation: participation through direct personal involvement in artistic
creation or performance.
• Five out of nine American adults report having been involved in one or
another form of direct artistic creation in the previous twelve months.
Higher than average levels of participation in creation are reported for
Massachusetts and New Jersey; a lower than average level is reported in
Pennsylvania.
• Approximately four out of every ten American adults report participation
in one or another art form through personal performance. Of the ten
states considered here, Florida has the highest rate of participation in per-
formance followed by Massachusetts. Ohio reports the lowest rate of
participation in personal performance and California the second lowest.
Sections 5 and 6 of the monograph ask what the relationship is between par-
ticipation rates across art forms. Is relatively high participation in one art form
accompanied by relatively high participation in another art form? Or does it
tend to be accompanied by a relatively low participation rate? Or does there
seem to be no relationship? Section 5 looks at this question from the perspec-
tive of regions and Section 6 from the perspective of the ten states.
• At the regional level, all of the participation rates are positively correlated
with one another, whether they are for the eight key art forms or for the
additional three cultural activities, and many of these correlations are
quite high. Thus, at the regional level participation rates tend to parallel
one another. High participation in one art form or cultural activity will be
an indicator of high participation in another.
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
• At the state level, however, a slightly different pattern emerges. While the
correlation coefficients for the eight key art forms are, with one exception,
positive, they are not as strong as they are at the regional level. This is not
too surprising because one would expect to observe more nuance and vari-
ation at the lower geographic aggregation. When this analysis is extended
to other cultural activities, however, negative correlations appear with
respect to attendance at historic parks or monuments and attendance at
art or crafts fairs or festivals, suggesting that at the state level there is some
degree of substitution between participation in the eight key art forms and
participation in these cultural activities.
Sections 7 and 8 of the monograph begin to explore possible explanations for
the observed geographic variations in participation rates. Section 7 looks at this
question from the perspective of regions, Section 8 from the perspective of the
ten states. In each section, two sets of independent variables are considered:
ones that measure socio-economic characteristics of the area's population and
ones that measure the presence of cultural organizations of various types.
At the regional level:
• Education, particularly as measured by the percentage of the adult popu-
lation with a bachelor's degree, is an excellent predictor of participation
rates in all of the art forms as well as in the three other cultural activities.
• Median household income is positively correlated with participation in all
of the art forms, while percentage below the poverty level is negatively
correlated with ten of the eleven art forms and cultural activities. Median
household income is the better predictor.
• The percentage of the population that is minority has mixed value as a
predictor of participation. The strongest correlations are with attendance
at historic parks or monuments and attendance at fairs or festivals, sug-
gesting that these cultural activities may be less attractive to minority
audiences.
• The density of the population as measured by persons per square mile is
not a particularly good predictor of participation rates, .but two other
indicators of urbanization — "percentage non-metropolitan" and "per-
centage rural" — are both strongly negatively correlated with participation
in each of the art forms, as one might expect.
Executive Summary
• The density of arts and cultural organizations when measured per capita
is strongly and positively correlated with participation rates when the
boundaries of the sectors for which the data have been collected are com-
parable. When density is measured per square mile it is generally not as
good a predictor.
At the state level:
• Education, at least as measured by the percentage of high school gradu-
ates, is not a particularly good predictor of participation rates for these
ten states. Percentage of the adult population with a bachelor's degree, on
the other hand, is a much better predictor.
• Median household income is positively correlated with participation in
nine of the eleven art forms and cultural activities. Percentage below the
poverty level is negatively correlated with participation in seven of the
eleven art forms and cultural activities.
• Percentage minority is once again a mixed predictor of participation rates.
• Population per square mile is a very good predictor of participation rates
in a number of art forms. Percentage non-metropolitan is a reasonably
good predictor as well. Percentage rural is generally a less useful predic-
tor.
• At the state level, the density of arts and cultural organizations when
measured per capita is moderately and positively correlated with partici-
pation rates when the boundaries of the sectors for which the data have
been collected are comparable. When density is measured per square mile,
however, the correlation coefficients increase and a number of very strong
correlations are observed, particularly with respect to attendance at both
musical and non-musical plays.
Do responses to the SPPA suggest points of leverage or particular policy
instruments that might be particularly important in increasing participation
rates? Section 9 explores this question by looking at three other sets of ques-
tions asked in the survey: questions concerning interest in increased
participation, questions concerning perceived barriers to increased participa-
tion, and questions concerning various socialization experiences that might
affect later participation in the arts and culture.
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
• Nearly two-thirds of the American adult population would like to attend
art museums and galleries more often. Over half the population would
like to attend both musical plays and non-musical plays more often. There
is less interest in increased participation in the other art forms.
• Residents of California, New York and New Jersey report more interest in
increased participation for all of the eight key art forms than do the resi-
dents of the United States on average. Because these three states generally
turn up as high participation states m many of the analyses reported here,
this might be due to a concentration of cultural institutions in these states
raising the population's expectations or the demand of a population that,
socio-economically, is particularly inclined toward these forms of cultural
consumption.
• Residents of Pennsylvania and Ohio, on the other hand, show less inter-
est than average in increased participation.
• "What is most important to notice, however, is that an interest in increased
participation is expressed much more often by those who have attended a
particular art form in the previous twelve months than by those who have
not, and this is true irrespective of the state under consideration.
• With respect to barriers to increased attendance, the most often cited rea-
son, cited by nearly two-thirds of those who would like to attend more
often, is a broad one: "It is difficult to make time to go out." Roughly half
of those who would like to attend more often cite "Tickets are too expen-
sive," "There are not many performances held or art museums or galleries
in my area," and "The location is usually not convenient." These reasons
are more susceptible to policy intervention.
• Nearly half of American adults report having had lessons or classes in
music at one time or another in their lives. Roughly one-quarter reports
having taken lessons or a class in each of the following: the visual arts, cre-
ative writing, art appreciation or art history, and music appreciation.
Lower percentages have had acting or dance lessons.
• California, Florida, Massachusetts and New Jersey have higher than aver-
age levels of socialization for all of the eight key art forms. Texas, on the
other hand, has lower than average socialization levels.
Finally, Section 10 of this monograph, uses the SPPA data to construct demo-
graphic profiles of the audiences for various art forms, facilitating comparisons
Executive Summary
across art forms as well as across states. The analyses reported in this section
consider four important demographic variables: education level, income level,
race/ethnicity, and gender. A careful distinction is drawn in this section between
an audience profile of visitors (separately identifiable individuals making no
adjustment for their relative frequency of attendance) and an audience profile
of visits (adjusting for the fact that some visitors attend more frequently than
others).
• Visitors are more highly distributed toward upper educational levels than
the overall population, clearly indicating the importance of education in
predicting whether someone will be a visitor to any of the art forms.
• Because individuals with higher educational levels also have higher frequen-
cies of attendance, the distribution of visits by educational level is even more
highly skewed toward individuals with higher levels of education.
• Upper income individuals are over-represented among visitors to each of
the art forms.
• Weighting individuals by their frequency of attendance and constructing
an income distribution of visits results in a more complicated picture
because frequency of attendance does not necessarily rise with household
income and the pattern differs for different art forms.
• With respect to race and ethnicity, the patterns become more complex.
According to the SPPA data, members of certain minority groups are
under-represented among visitors to some art forms, while they are over-
represented among visitors to others. The same is true of the profile of
visits to various art forms.
• Women are over-represented among visitors to all of the eight key art
forms except jazz. With respect to visits, however, they are under-repre-
sented in the audiences for jazz, classical music, and dance forms other
than ballet.
Caveats
While these are the main findings of this monograph, they only begin to
scratch the surface of the detail contained in these pages. Before encouraging the
reader to wade into the main text, however, it is necessary to add a few words
of caution to aid in the interpretation of the findings.
8 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
• Because the SPPA data are the result of sampling, all of the estimates of
participation rates in this monograph are subject to random sampling
error. Because of that error many of the observed differences in participa-
tion rates may be attributable, at least in part, to random sampling error
rather than to any real differences in participation rates. Only very large
observed differences are likely to be immune from this complication. This
issue is discussed at some length in Section 2 of the monograph, but is very
much present in the other sections as well.
• Each of the correlation analyses that looks at all of the ten identified states
simultaneously needs to be understood in a rather modest manner.
Because these ten states are not a simple random sample of the fifty states,
the results of these analyses cannot be generalized to all of the states. They
simply measure the correlation that one observes when looking at various
pairs of variables across this particular set of ten states.
These caveats notwithstanding, it is our hope that with the analyses contained
in these pages we have begun a fruitful inquiry into the geographic variation in par-
ticipation across the United States. Perhaps the SPPA does not afford the ability to
produce the definitive analysis that might be desirable, but it does provide a solid
base of data on which future research and inquiry can be developed.
1. The Basics of Participation Rates
This monograph is based on an analysis of participation rates in various arts
and cultural activities by the American adult population eighteen years of age
or older. Simply put, the participation rate for a particular activity is the per-
centage of the adult population that, when asked whether he or she has
participated in that activity in the previous twelve months, answers "Yes." As
participation studies have joined (and perhaps even eclipsed) audience studies
as a mode of studying the cultural behavior of populations, participation rates
have become an important benchmark, indicating the level of cultural activity
of a population and offering a profile of engagement in the various cultural
activities that are investigated.
Eight Key Questions
The 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts contained eight key ques-
tions that will command most of our attention:
The Eight Key Participation Questions
• With the exception of elementary, middle, or high school per-
formances, did you go to a live jazz performance during the
last twelve months}
• With the exception of elementary, middle, or high school per-
formances, did you go to a live classical music performance
such as symphony, chamber, or choral music during the last
twelve months}
• With the exception of elementary, middle, or high school per-
formances, did you go to a live opera during the last twelve
months}
• With the exception of elementary, middle, or high school per-
formances, did you go to a live musical stage play or an
operetta during the last twelve months}
• With the exception of elementary, middle, or high school per-
formances, did you go to a live performance of a non-musical
stage play during the last twelve months}
10 i The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
• With the exception of elementary, middle, or high school per-
formances, did you go to a live ballet performance during the
last twelve months}
• With the exception of elementary, middle, or high school per-
formances, did you go to a live dance performance other than
ballet, such as modern, folk, or tap during the last twelve
months?
• During the last twelve months, did you visit an art museum
or gallery?
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
As you read this monograph, you may find it useful to refer back to this list
of questions from time to time in order to remind yourself just what is being
measured through the various participation rates. Throughout the analysis that
follows, a shorthand method to identify each of these eight art forms has been
adopted, referring to them simply as "jazz," "classical music," "opera," "bal-
let," "other dance," "musical play," "non-musical play," and "art
museum/gallery." While this shorthand method neglects some of the nuances in
the original questions, arguably, the essential differences among the art forms
delineated in the eight separate questions are maintained.
Ten States and Nine Regions
The goal of this monograph is to document and explore geographical differ-
ences in participation rates across the United States. Particular attention will be
paid to participation rates at the state level, but at several points in the analysis
attention will shift to the more highly aggregated regional level.
One's ability to use the SPPA to explore differences across states is limited by
the mathematics of sampling. Because the Survey of Public Participation in the
Arts is based on a sample of the American adult population, one needs to be
wary about the extent to which the conclusions that can be drawn from the data
are affected by relative sample sizes. This particularly becomes a concern as one
begins to disaggregate the overall sample into smaller geographic units (as well
as according to the values of other variables of interest). Even though the SPPA
sample ultimately included some 12,349 responses drawn from throughout the
United States, only ten states have sufficient responses to be able to draw con-
clusions with a sufficient degree of confidence. Thus, any analysis of the SPPA
data by state must perforce be restricted to these ten states.
The Basics of Participation Rates ' 1 1
Nine of the ten states for which there are sufficient data to justify separate atten-
tion are, as one would expect, the nine states with the largest populations:
California, Florida, Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
and Texas. These nine are joined by the state of Massachusetts, which is actually
the thirteenth state by population size. The sample size for Massachusetts was
increased to allow for a sufficient number of cases in the final dataset so that par-
ticipation in the Boston metropolitan area could be compared to participation in
other major metropolitan areas in the United States.
Why are these technical points important? As we consider differences in par-
ticipation rates across states in the pages that follow, it will be necessary to
remember, first of all, that we are not able to draw conclusions about differences
or relationships across the fifty United States. We will be measuring differences and
relationships for only a particular subset of the fifty states, and the extent to which
we can argue that the findings would likely apply to all fifty states — if viewed
simultaneously — is limited. Moreover, though it may be tempting to say that the
analysis that we have conducted applies to the largest states, even that simple state-
ment is not technically correct. Because it will become tedious to constantly caveat
the discussions that follow with these points, let it suffice to say at the outset that
the conclusions that are drawn here with respect to participation rates at the state
level apply to these ten states and to these ten states alone. (This is why, for exam-
ple, that these ten states are not treated in this analysis as though they are a simple
random sample of the fifty states.)
At certain points in the analysis it will be advantageous to look at the entire
country and that requires moving up to the regional level of aggregation because
only at the regional level are the sample sizes sufficient to allow complete coverage
of the country. The regional definitions that are used here are the following: 1
New England: Massachusetts, Maine, Hew Hampshire,
Vermont, Connecticut and Rhode Island
Mid-Atlantic: New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey
South Atlantic: Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North
Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, District of
Columbia, Maryland, and Delaware
East North Central: Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indiana
West North Central: North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa,
Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri
East South Central: Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama
West South Central: Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana
1 2 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Mountain: Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah,
Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico
Pacific: California, Alaska, Hawaii, Oregon, and
Washington
Yet, a regional analysis may come at the cost of losing important variation in
participation rates that may only be revealed at lower levels of geographic
aggregation. Thus,, the decision to conduct a geographic analysis of participa-
tion rates by state as opposed to region involves an analytical trade-off that it
will be important for us to remain aware of in later chapters.
With these caveats in mind, I turn first to a consideration of participation
rates by art form and by state.
Base Participation Rates
Table 1.1 summarizes the participation rates for the eight key art forms by state
and is probably the most important table in this monograph. This table forms the
basic reference point back to which much of the later analysis will refer.
This table is constructed to facilitate a number of different comparisons of
interest. Scanning across the rows of Table 1.1, one can make comparisons
within states across art forms. Considering the data in this way leads to the first
important observation. The eight forms can be roughly separated into three
groups by virtue of their participation levels. Relatively speaking, high partici-
pation rates are reported for attendance at art museums and galleries and for
attendance at musical plays. 2 Overall, slightly more than a third of the American
adult population reports having attended an art museum or gallery in the pre-
vious year; one-quarter of the American adult population reports having
attended a musical play over the same period. At the other extreme, quite low
participation rates are reported for opera — 4.7 percent — and for ballet — 5.8
percent. The other four art forms fall in between at what might be called mod-
erate levels: jazz at 11.9 percent, dance other than ballet at 12.4 percent,
classical music at 15.6 percent, and plays other than musicals at 15.8 percent.
This overall pattern is repeated for each state: art museums and galleries and
musical plays have the highest participation rates, and opera and ballet have the
lowest participation rates, irrespective of the state under consideration. It must
be noted, of course, that some of the differences in participation rates may be
attributable primarily to the narrowness or broadness of the definition used for
each art form; one would expect, for example, that the participation rate for
other dance would be higher than the participation rate for ballet because of the
number of possible dance forms subsumed under "other" dance.
The Basics of Participation Rates 13
One can also make comparisons down the columns of Table 1.1, constitut-
ing a comparison by art form. At the bottom of each column of Table 1.1, an
aggregate participation rate in each art form for the entire United States is
reported, so that one can easily tell whether a particular state falls above or
below the national average for that art form. An aggregate participation rate for
all of the other states (minus these ten) is also reported, giving a sense of how
each state compares to the average of the rest of the United States.
14
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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Generally speaking, these 10 states show higher than average participation
rates across the art forms. For each art form either seven or eight of these ten
states have participation rates that are equal to or higher than the national aver-
age. What is particularly interesting is that even though the states that fall below
the national average vary from art form to art form, there is considerable over-
lap, suggesting that it might be worthwhile exploring why that is the case. What
is it that leads some states to have lower participation rates than others and why
does this vary by art form? This will be addressed from a variety of perspectives
in later sections of this monograph.
Figures 1.1 through 1.8 provide a graphical presentation of the participation
rates for these ten states for each of the eight art forms. In each case, the states
are ordered from the lowest participation rate to the highest participation rate
for that art form, and a horizontal line indicates the overall participation rate
for the United States. In comparing these figures, note that Figures 1.6 and 1.8
have different vertical scales from the others. This is to allow a clear presenta-
tion of the higher participation rates experienced for musical plays and for art
museums and galleries.
Pennsylvania and Texas fall below the national average for participation in
jazz (Figure 1.1). These same states fall right at the national average for partic-
ipation in classical music, while Massachusetts has an unusually high
participation rate (Figure 1.2). With respect to opera, Texas and Florida are the
states in this study that are identifiable as falling below the national average
(Figure 1.2). With respect to ballet, however, it is Illinois, New Jersey, and
California among this group who fall below the national average (Figure 1.4).
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan have participation rates that are lower than
average for other dance forms (Figure 1.5). Florida and Texas fall below the
national average for participation at musical plays (Figure 1.6), while Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and Michigan fall below the national average for participation at
non-musical plays (Figure 1.7). Finally, Ohio and Pennsylvania have participa-
tion rates that fall below the national average for art museums and galleries,
while Massachusetts' participation rate is conspicuously higher than all the oth-
ers (Figure 1.8).
While it is tempting, of course, to interpret a state's success (or failure) by the
number of times it falls above or below the respective national averages (a topic
that is discussed later in this section), it is also tempting to consider the degree
to which it falls above or below the national average for each art form. Figures
1.1 through 1.8 call for such a comparison.
16
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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24 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Two ways of making such a comparison are summarized in Tables 1.2a and
1.2b. Table 1.2a makes the simplest such comparison; for each art form it takes
the participation rate for each state and subtracts from it the average participa-
tion rate for the entire United States. Thus, the entries in this table are the
number of percentage points that each state is higher than (positive signs) or
lower than (negative signs) the respective national average. Arbitrarily setting a
difference of ± five percentage points as worthy of note, one finds relatively few
such variations. Participation rates in Massachusetts are 8.7 percentage points
higher than the national average for classical music, 6.1 percentage points higher
for musical plays, 5.4 percentage points higher for non-musical plays, and 13.2
percentage points higher for art museums and galleries. In New Jersey, participa-
tion rates are 8.4 percentage points higher than the national average for musical
plays, 6.4 percentage points higher for non-musical plays, and 5.4 percentage
points higher for art museums and galleries. In New York, they are 8.6 percentage
points higher than the national average for musical plays and 6.6 percentage points
higher for art museums and galleries. Finally, in Michigan, the participation rate in
musical plays is 5.7 percentage points higher than the national average. It is inter-
esting to note that the major differences are noted with respect to attendance at the
theater and at art museums and art galleries, suggesting, perhaps, that part of the
explanation of differences in participation rates across states may be related to the
geographic distribution of arts institutions.
Focusing on the other side of the ledger, none of these states shows a partic-
ipation rate that is more than five percentage points lower than the
corresponding national average (though there may well be states among the
remaining forty with such participation rates).
Table 1.2b, on the other hand, compares participation rates in each state
with the overall participation rate by using a different metric. It is based on the
reasonable assertion that a given percentage point difference is relatively more
important for a low participation rate art form than for a high participation rate
art form, e.g. a difference of one or two percentage points in participation rates
for art museums and galleries, which enjoy participation rates in the high thirty
percent range, is less significant than a difference of one or two percentage
points in participation rates for opera, whose overall participation rate is less
than five percent to begin with. Accordingly, Table 1.2b takes the participation
rate for each state, subtracts from it the average participation rate for the entire
United States, and then divides by the average participation rate for the entire
United States, resulting in a figure that represents each state's participation rate
as a percentage of the national average.
The Basics of Participation Rates i 25
To make sense of Table 1.2b, let me once again adopt an arbitrary bench-
mark — ± 30 percent — and use it to identify unusually large deviations from the
national average. Seen through the perspective of this indicator, Massachusetts
evidences the most extreme behavior. Its participation rate for classical music is
nearly 56 percent higher than the national average and its participation rate for
ballet is over 62 percent higher than the national average. Its participation rates
for non-musical plays and for art museums are, respectively, 34 percent and
nearly 38 percent higher than the corresponding national averages. In New
York, the participation rate for opera is 53 percent higher than the national
average; the participation rate for ballet is 55 percent higher; and the participa-
tion rate for musical plays is 35 percent higher. Similarly, in New Jersey the
participation rate for musical plays is 34 percent higher than the national aver-
age, and the participation rate in non-musical plays is more than 40 percent
higher. In California, the participation rate for opera is 36 percent higher than
the national average, while in Texas, that participation rate is nearly 32 percent
lower than the national average. Yet, in Texas the participation rate for ballet is
more than 36 percent higher than the national average. Note that, seen from
this perspective, opera and ballet join the theater and art museums as sectors
that enjoy quite a bit higher than average participation rates among these ten
states. But remember, there may well be other states whose participation rates
are just as high or as low as the participation rates in the included states but are
not reported separately because of the relatively small sample size for that state.
26
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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28 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
League Tables
With all of these results it is tempting to ask whether one can conclude that
the citizens of one state participate more in the arts than the citizens of another.
Is it possible to construct one league table to summarize that overall level of
participation? Despite all of the caveats in the interpretation of these data that
we have accumulated already, not the least of which is the possible unrepresen-
tativeness of these ten states, constructing a couple of different league tables
might help tease out some of the essential differences in participation rates, at
least among these ten states.
Table 1.3 offers one quick way of constructing such a league table. The pro-
cedure used to construct this table is the following: First, the participation rates
for each art form were converted to ranks. Thus, the state with the highest par-
ticipation rate for that art form was assigned a rank of 1, the state with the
second highest participation rate was assigned a rank of 2, and so on. Then, for
each state a mean rank was calculated across the eight art forms, and the rows
of the table were sorted so that the state with the highest average rank appears
first. Finally, the standard deviation in ranks for each state was also calculated.
It is important to note a couple of the mathematical properties of this proce-
dure: (1) the replacement of participation rates with ranks replaces a metric
measure with an ordinal measure thereby losing the more detailed mathemati-
cal information contained in the actual participation rates but focusing, instead,
on order alone; and (2) averaging the ranks across the eight art forms treats
them as mathematical equivalents — no weights are used to value certain art
forms more highly than others.
Several findings of note can be extracted from Table 1.3. New York and
Massachusetts are the two states with the highest average participation rank-
ings and they are quite clearly separated from the rest. At the other end,
Pennsylvania, Texas, and Ohio are the three states with the lowest average par-
ticipation rankings. Whatever else is true concerning the details of the
participation rates for particular states in specified art forms, these states stand
out among these ten as having, respectively, the highest or the lowest participa-
tion rates. The standard deviations are also of considerable interest here. The
fact that the standard deviation in rankings is so much less for New York and
for Pennsylvania than it is for any of the other states indicates that there is very
little variation in these states' rankings. In other words, among these ten states
New York's participation rate rankings are high and they tend to be high across
all the art forms, whereas Pennsylvania's are low and they tend to be low across
all the art forms.
The Basics of Participation Rates
29
Another approach to constructing a league table is offered in Table 1.4. The
analysis in this table recognizes the fact that art forms might be substitutes for
one another, with, for example, residents of one state are more likely to attend
musical plays than non-musical plays and residents of another state more likely
to attend non-musical plays than musical plays. Here the central indicator is a
participation rate that measures the percentage of the adult population that has
participated in any one of the eight art forms; in other words, it measures the
participation rate for the union of the eight art forms.
Viewed from this perspective, the ordering of the league table changes some-
what. New Jersey and Massachusetts head the list with just slightly more than
60 percent of the population indicating that they participated in at least one of
the eight key art forms in the previous year. At the low end is Texas with just
slightly less than half of the population having participated in at least one of
these art forms.
Table 1.3:
Analysis of Ranks of Participation Rates
Across Eight Art Forms by State, 1997
State
Mean Rank
Across Eight
Art Forms
Standard Deviation
in Ranks Across
Eight Art Forms
New York
Massachusetts
New Jersey
California
Michigan
Illinois
Florida
Ohio
Texas
Pennsylvania
2.4
2.8
4.3
5.1
5.4
5.9
6.0
7.3
7.6
8.4
1.1
2.2
2.4
2.2
2.2
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.3
1.7
Note: This table is calculated by first ranking each state according to its participation rate for
each art form. These rankings range from 1=highest to 10=lowest for each art form. Then the
mean rank and the standard deviation in ranks are calculated for each state across the eight art
forms. The lower the mean rank the higher the participation rates of a particular state relative to
the other states in this group of ten states.
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
30
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Table 1.4:
Participation Rates by State for Various Combinations
of Art Forms, 1997
State
All Arts
Benchmark Arts
All Performing Arts
Benchmark
(Bght Art Forms)
(Seven Art Forms)
Performing Arts
New Jersey
60.9%
59.1%
52.2%
49.2%
Massachusetts
60.5%
59.1%
50.6%
48.8%
New York
. 58.0%
57.3%
48.9%
47.5%
Illinois
56.9%
54.4%
48.0%
44.1%
Michigan
55.6%
54.7%
47.1%
46.0%
California
54.8%
52.8%
43.7%
40.4%
Pennsylvania
53.1%
51.5%
43.6%
41.2%
Florida
51.1%
49.5%
43.0%
40.2%
Ohio
50.9%
49.4%
44.4%
42.0%
Texas
49.8%
47.2%
41.7%
38.2%
All Other States
48.4%
46.8%
38.6%
36.1%
United States
51.6%
49.9%
42.2%
39.6%
Notes: "All Arts" includes the eight core art forms: jazz, classical music, opera, ballet, other dance,
musical play, non-musical play, and art museum/gallery. "Benchmark Arts" deletes the category of
"other dance." This grouping is designed to be comparable to groupings created from data in earlier
Surveys of Public Participation in the Arts and, accordingly, is only of interest in comparing these results
to results from earlier SPPAs. "All Performing Arts" includes the seven core performing art forms: jazz,
classical music, opera, ballet, other dance, musical play, and non-musical play. "Benchmark Performing
Arts" deletes the category of "other dance." This grouping is designed to be comparable to groupings
created from data in earlier Surveys of Public Participation in the Arts and, accordingly, is only of inter-
est in comparing these results to results from earlier SPPAs.
The rows of this table have been sorted so that the states are ordered according to the participation
rate for all eight art forms taken together (Column 1).
Source: 1 997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
The Basics of Participation Rates I 31
Tables 1.5a and 1.5b are equivalent to Tables 1.2a and 1.2b considered ear-
lier; they look at each state and ask, respectively, how many percentage points
above or below the national average the aggregate participation rate is for that
state and what percentage above or below the national average the aggregate
participation rate is for that state. Seven of these ten states have aggregate par-
ticipation rates above the national average (Table 1.5a), with Illinois, New
York, Massachusetts, and New Jersey all having a rate at least five percentage
points higher than the overall average. These results are essentially replicated in
Table 1.5b, though in percentage rather than percentage point terms.
Tables 1.4, 1.5a, and 1.5b also report results for three alternative ways of
aggregating participation rates. In each of these tables the second column refers
to the "Benchmark Arts," which include all of the eight art forms except "other
dance." This aggregation is only of interest if one wishes to make comparisons
to analyses conducted with earlier versions of the Survey of Public Participation
in the Arts, as those earlier versions did not include a question concerning par-
ticipation in dance other than ballet. The third column looks at the performing
arts alone, omitting art museums and galleries from consideration. And, finally,
the fourth column looks at the "Benchmark Performing Arts," once again delet-
ing "other dance" for the sake of comparability with earlier versions of SPPA.
32
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Table 1.5a:
Comparison of Participation Rates for Each State with Overall
Participation Rates for Various Combinations of Art Forms, 1997
(percentage point differences)
State
All Arts
Benchmark Arts
All Performing Arts
Benchmark
(Eight Art Forms)
(Seven Art Forms)
Performing Arts
New Jersey
+9.3
+9.2
+ 10.0
+9.6
Massachusetts
- +8.9
+9.2
+8.4
+9.2
New York
+6.4
+7.4
+6.7
+7.9
Illinois
+5.3
+4.5
+5.8
+4.5
Michigan
+4.0
+4.8
+4.9
+6.4
California
+3.2
+2.9
+ 1.5
+0.8
Pennsylvania
+ 1.5
+1.6
+1.4
+ 1.6
Florida
-0.5
-0.4
+0.8
+0.6
Ohio
-0.7
-0.5
+2.2
+2.4
Texas
-1.8
-2.7
-0.5
-1.4
All Other States
-3.2
-3.1
-3.6
-3.5
Notes: "All Arts" includes the eight core art forms: jazz, classical music, opera, ballet, other dance,
musical play, non-musical play, and art museum/gallery. "Benchmark Arts" deletes the category of
"other dance." This grouping is designed to be comparable to groupings created from data in ear-
lier Surveys of Public Participation in the Arts and, accordingly, is only of interest in comparing these
results to results from earlier SPPAs. "All Performing Arts" includes the seven core performing art
forms: jazz, classical music, opera, ballet, other dance, .musical play, and non-musical play.
"Benchmark Performing Arts" deletes the category of "other dance." This grouping is designed to
be comparable to groupings created from data in earlier Surveys of Public Participation in the Arts
and, accordingly, is only of interest in comparing these results to results from earlier SPPAs.
Each entry in this table is the number of percentage points each state's participation rate is higher
or lower than the corresponding overall participation rate for the United States. For example, the
California participation rate in All Arts is 3.2 percentage points higher than the participation rate for
All Arts in the United States as a whole.
The rows of this table have been sorted so that the states are ordered according to the participa-
tion rate for all eight art forms taken together (Column 1 of Table 1.4).
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
The Basics of Participation Rates
33
Table 1.5b:
Comparison of Participation Rates for Each State with Overall
Participation Rates for Various Combinations of Art Forms, 1997
(difference as a percentage of overall participation rate)
State
All Arts
Benchmark Arts
All Performing Arts
Benchmark
(Eight Art Forms)
(Seven Art Forms)
Performing Arts
New Jersey
+18.0%
+ 18.4%
+23.7%
+24.2%
Massachusetts
+ 17.2%
+ 18.4%
+ 19.9%
+23.2%
New York
+ 12.4%
+ 14.8%
+ 15.9%
+ 19.9%
Illinois
+ 10.3%
+9.0%
+ 13.7%
+ 11.4%
Michigan
+7.8%
+9.6%
+11.6%
+ 16.2%
California
+6.2%
+5.8%
+3.6%
+2.0%
Pennsylvania
+2.9%
+3.2%
+3.3%
+4.0%
Florida
-1.0%
-0.8%
+ 1.9%
+ 1.5%
Ohio
-1.4%
-1.0%
+5.2%
+6.1%
Texas
-3.5%
-5.4%
-1.2%
-3.5%
All Other States
-6.2%
-6.2%
-8.5%
-8.8%
Notes: "All Arts" includes the eight core art forms: jazz, classical music, opera, ballet, other dance,
musical plays, non-musical play, and art museum/gallery. "Benchmark Arts" deletes the category
of "other dance." This grouping is designed to be comparable to groupings created from data in
earlier Surveys of Public Participation in the Arts and, accordingly, is only of interest in comparing
these results to results from earlier SPPAs. "All Performing Arts" includes the seven core per-
forming art forms: jazz, classical music, opera, ballet, other dance, musical play, and non-musical
play. "Benchmark Performing Arts" deletes the category of "other dance." This grouping is
designed to be comparable to groupings created from data in earlier Surveys of Public Participation
in the Arts and, accordingly, is only of interest in comparing these results to results from earlier
SPPAs.
Each entry in this table is the percentage that each state's participation rate is higher or lower than
the corresponding overall participation rate for the United States. For example, the California par-
ticipation rate in All Arts is 6.2 percent higher than the participation rate for All Arts in the United
States as a whole.
The rows of this table have been sorted so that the states are ordered according to the participa-
tion rate for all eight art forms taken together (Column 1 of Table 1.4).
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
34 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Three Additional Questions: Other Cultural Activities
Among the questions that were asked of all of the respondents to the Survey
of Public Participation and the Arts were three additional questions concerning
participation in other arts and cultural activities. 3 Expanding our attention to
these art forms clearly brings into the picture several other modes of cultural
participation, modes that are perhaps somewhat less identified with the tradi-
tional definition of "the arts and culture." Moreover, it is useful to conclude this
section of the monograph with a consideration of these forms of participation,
as they reveal a somewhat different geographic pattern than the art forms that
we have considered up to this point.
Three Additional Participation Questions
• With the exception of books required for work or school, did
you read any books during the last twelve months! Did you
read any plays? Did you read any poetry? Did you read any
novels or short stories?
• During the last twelve months, did you visit an historic park
or monument, or tour buildings or neighborhoods for their
historic or design value?
• During the last twelve months, did you visit an art fair or fes-
tival, or a craft fair or festival?
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
To facilitate comparison with other monographs that are being written based
on the 1997 SPPA, the responses to the question on reading have been modified
to reflect reading "literature" rather than just reading any book. Any respon-
dent who answered "Yes" to having read a play, poetry, or a novel or short
srories was considered to have read literature. (If one had used, instead, the def-
inition of reading as having read a book of any type, somewhat higher
participation rates would have resulted. 4 )
Table 1.6 reports the participation rates for these other cultural activities.
Several things are striking about these participation rates. The participation
rates are substantially higher than the participation rates for any of the eight key
art forms. Among the American adult population, these are clearly more popu-
lar activities. Nearly, two thirds of the American adult population report having
read a piece of literature in the preceding year. Nearly half report having visited
The Basics of Participation Rates • 35
an historic park or monument, and, similarly, nearly half report having visited
an arts or crafts fair or festival.
Figures 1.9, 1.10, and 1.11 depict the participation rates in each of these
activities by state and compare them to the overall participation rate for the
United States. With respect to reading literature (Figure 1.9), the participation
rate for each of these ten states is quite high (as is the overall rate), but
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and New York fall below the national average. For
attendance at historic parks or monuments (Figure 1.10), residents of Michigan,
Ohio, California, and Texas participate less than average, while residents of
Massachusetts participate at a considerably higher rate than average. Finally,
residents of New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, Texas, and California show
lower participation rates than average when it comes to participating in arts or
crafts fairs and festivals (Figure 1.11). Note that all of these states except Texas
have consistently shown higher than average participation rates in the previous
sections of this analysis.
Table 1.6:
Participation Rates in Other Cultural Activities by State, 1997
State Reading Historic Parks Art or Crafts
Literature or Monuments Fairs or Festivals
California
Florida
Illinois
Massachusetts
Michigan
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Texas
All Other States
United States
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
66.1%
44.5%
46.9%
63.2%
47.8%
49.2%
62.3%
49.7%
51.0%
69.8%
58.7%
45.4%
64.1%
40.7%
56.7%
69.5%
50.6%
43.9%
62.8%
46.7%
45.2%
61.5%
42.8%
54.8%
60.7%
49.1%
50.4%
63.9%
45.3%
46.4%
62.0%
47.2%
46.3%
63.1%
46.9%
47.5%
36 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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The Basics of Participation Rates
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38 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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The Basics of Participation Rates I 39
Following the dual approach used earlier, Tables 1.7a and 1.7b consider the
degree to which each state's participation rates in these three additional cultural
activities differ from national averages. Massachusetts and Michigan are the
states that stand out when considering straight percentage point differences
(Table 1.7a): participation in reading literature in Massachusetts is 6.7 percent-
age points above the national average and the participation rate that is derived
from visiting historic parks or monuments is an impressive 11.8 percentage
points above the national average; participation in art or crafts fairs or festivals
is 9.2 percentage points above the national average in Michigan, but participa-
tion via visiting historic parks or monuments is 6.2 percentage points lower
than the national average. Considering percentage point differences as a per-
centage of the overall national participation rate (Table 1.7b), focuses attention
on Massachusetts and Michigan but also highlights New Jersey, whose partici-
pation rate in reading literature is 10.1 percent higher than the national average,
and Ohio, whose participation rate in arts or crafts fairs or festivals is 15.4 per-
cent higher than the national average.
The other finding that emerges from these tables is the suggestion that there
may be some substitution between forms of cultural expression and participa-
tion, particularly when it comes to the relationship between the eight key art
forms considered earlier and the more popular art forms considered here. This
phenomenon is perhaps clearest when correlating the participation rates in arts
or crafts fairs in these ten states with their participation rates in each of the eight
key art forms. These relationships will be explored more carefully in Section 6
of this monograph.
Beyond the Basics
This concludes a first tour of the basic participation rates in each of these ten
states. We have seen that there is a noticeable variation across states and con-
siderable variation across art forms. Some patterns have begun to emerge.
Participation rates vary, but they vary systematically, across art forms with
some art forms enjoying high participation rates and others having only mod-
erate or low participation rates. Certain states, most notably New York,
Massachusetts, and New Jersey have begun to stand out from the other seven
states as states with higher participation rates. On the other hand, Pennsylvania
and Texas emerge as systematically having lower than average participation
rates. We have seen the suggestion that there may be some substitution among
types of cultural participation with the citizens of a particular state trading off
40 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
participation in one art form with participation in another. This substitution
may occur among the eight key art forms themselves or may occur across the
divide between more highly institutionalized and less highly institutionalized art
forms or the divide between more elite and more popular art forms. This ques-
tion will be explored further in Sections 5 and 6 of this monograph.
Though we have not yet begun a systematic consideration of why we see such
a variation in participation rates, we have also begun to see hints of explanations
for the variation in participation rates that we have observed. A variety of possible
explanations will be explored in Sections 7, 8, 9, and 10 of this monograph.
In Section 2, 1 turn to the question of how a statistician might view the results
that have been reported so far, recognizing the possibility that much of the vari-
ation observed may simply be due to the random variation that occurs when
samples, rather than population censuses, are used as the basis of study. Sections 3
and 4 extend the presentation of base participation rates in Section 1. Section 3
documents participation by region of the United States, a higher level of geo-
graphic aggregation. Section 4 looks at other forms of participation in the arts
in culture: participation via the media, participation through personal creation,
and participation through personal performance.
Table 1.7a:
Comparison of Participation Rates for Each State with Overall
Participation Rates for Other Cultural Activities, 1997
(percentage point differences)
State Reading Historic Parks Art or Crafts
Literature or Monuments Fairs or Festivals
California
Florida
Illinois
Massachusetts
Michigan
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Texas
All Other States -1.1 +0.3 -1.2
Note: Each entry in this table is the number of percentage points each state's participation rate is
higher or lower than the corresponding overall participation rate for the United States. For exam-
ple, the Massachusetts participation rate in reading literature is 6.7 percentage points higher than
the participation rate for reading literature in the United States as a whole.
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
+3.0
-2.4
+0.6
+0.1
+0.9
+ 1.7
-0.8
+2.8
+3.5
+6.7
+11.8
-2.1
+ 1.0
-6.2
+9.2
+6.4
+3.7
-3.6
-0.3
-0.2
-2.3
-1.6
-4.1
+7.3
-2.4
+2.2
+2.9
+0.8
-1.6
-1.1
The Basics of Participation Rates I 41
Table 1.7b:
Comparison of Participation Rates for Each State with Overall
Participation Rates for Other Cultural Activities, 1997
(difference as a percentage of overall participation rate)
State Reading Historic Parks Art or Crafts
Literature or Monuments Fairs or Festivals
California
Florida
Illinois
Massachusetts
Michigan
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Texas
All Other States -1.7% +0.6% -2.5%
Note: Each entry in this table is the percentage that each state's participation rate is higher or lower
than the corresponding overall participation rate for the United States. For example, the
Massachusetts participation rate in reading literature is 10.6 percent higher than the participation
rate for reading literature in the United States as a whole.
Source: 1 997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
+4.8%
-5.1%
-1.3%
+0.2%
+ 1.9%
+3.6%
-1.3%
+6.0%
+7.4%
+ 10.6%
+25.2%
-4.4%
+ 1.6%
-13.2%
+19.4%
+ 10.1%
+7.9%
-7.6%
-0.5%
-0.4%
-4.8%
-2.5%
-8.7%
+15.4%
-3.8%
+4.7%
+6.1%
+ 1.3%
-3.4%
-2.3%
42
2. Confidence Intervals —
A Statistician's Look at Participation Rates
Because the Survey of Public Participation in the Arts, like all surveys, is
based on samples, one needs to be particularly careful in interpreting its results.
Section 1 has already pointed to one problem that derives from the fact that the
SPPA is based on samples, the fact that only ten states have sufficient sample
sizes to separate them out for detailed attention and that these ten states are in
no meaningful way representative of the entire population of fifty states. This
section of the monograph deals with a second sampling issue, the error that
comes from the process of sampling itself. Though this section is rather techni-
cal, it is a necessary step toward a fuller understanding and interpretation of the
participation rates that are estimated in this monograph.
Estimating from Samples
The participation rates that have been presented in Section 1 are all point
estimates of the actual participation rates in which we are interested. They are
estimates because they are all based on sample data yet they are being used to
describe the (unknown) participation rates in various populations, e.g. the par-
ticipation rate in opera of the entire adult population of the state of Ohio. They
are point estimates because they are the single best estimate that we have at our
disposal.
In the absence of a census of the adult population, one can never know the
actual participation rates in that population (or its subpopulations) with cer-
tainty. Therefore, one has to account for the error in estimation that comes from
the process of sampling itself. The technique that is used to account for this
error is to calculate a second estimate, an estimate of the likely size of the error
due to sampling ("random sampling error") and to use the estimate of that error
to create an interval estimate of the population parameter in which one is inter-
ested. An interval is constructed around the sample statistic, and that interval
becomes the estimate. Different error estimates are calculated depending on
how certain one wants to be that the interval estimate that one creates will actu-
ally include the population parameter that is being estimated. Although
different confidence levels are used in different circumstances, a typical level of
confidence is 95%. Adopting a 95% confidence level basically means that we
have agreed to create interval estimates that will actually include the true pop-
ulation parameter that is being estimated 95% of the time.
Confidence Intervals I 43
In estimating various participation rates, we are basically estimating popula-
tion proportions: the percentage of a specified population that has a particular
attribute. The width of each interval estimate of a population proportion
depends on four factors:
1. The design of the sample on which the estimate is based (in this case, a
complex sampling design leads to higher error estimates than a simple ran-
dom sample would have).
2. The size of the sample on which the estimate is based (holding other fac-
tors constant, the larger the sample, the more precise the estimate will be;
thus, larger samples result in narrower interval estimates). 5
3. How far away from 50 percent the estimated proportion is (Statistically
speaking, one can do a more precise job estimating proportions that are
relatively small [ closer to percent] or relatively large [closer to 100 per-
cent] than in estimating proportions that are closer to 50 percent; thus, the
further away from 50 percent the true proportion is, the more precise the
estimate and the narrower the interval will be.).
4. The confidence level that one has chosen to adopt (in this case, 95 percent).
The calculation of the expected random sampling error and the use of the
random sampling error in the calculation of the boundaries of each interval esti-
mate take all of these factors into account. Accordingly, to interpret fully the
results reported in Section 1, one must calculate and report the appropriate
sampling errors and confidence intervals.
Interval Estimates of Participation Rates
In this section, these statistical ideas are applied to the estimation of the par-
ticipation rates that have already been reported in Tables 1.1 and 1.6. The
results of these calculations are presented in graphical form rather than tabular
form because their importance is easier to grasp when seen in this way. Prior to
turning to these presentations, however, it may be useful to report one such
result to demonstrate how to interpret it.
Look at the very first participation rate reported in Table 1.1, the participa-
tion rate for jazz in the state of California. The point estimate based on the
sample results is that 13.73 percent (rounded in Table 1.1 to 13.7 percent) of
the adult population of the state of California attended a performance of live
jazz in the preceding year. But that estimate is the result of a sample. The
expected size of the sampling error, given the size of the sample, the level of the
44 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
estimate, and the desire for 95% confidence, is ± 1.56 percentage points 6 . Thus,
the interval estimate for the participation rate in jazz among the adult popula-
tion in California is from 12.2 percent to 15.3 percent. This interval, which is
the result of a statistical process that will include the actual population partici-
pation rate 95% of the time, is the best estimate that we have that takes into
account the expected size of the sampling error in this case.
Extending these calculations to all of the participation rates reported in
Tables 1.1 and 1.6 and presenting these results in graphic form leads to Figures
2.1 through 2.11. Each of these figures presents the 95% confidence interval
estimates for participation in one of the art forms in all of the ten states. Note
that the narrowest confidence intervals are those for the state with the largest
sample size — California. Conversely, the widest intervals are those for the states
with the smallest sample sizes — Massachusetts, Ohio, and New Jersey.
Taken together these figures bring considerable caution to bear on the inter-
pretation of which states have higher participation rates than others.
Individually, they lead to the following observations:
Figure 2.1: Because of the width of the confidence intervals, it is very
hard to conclude that any one state's participation rate in
jazz is actually higher than another's. (All of the confi-
dence intervals overlap with one another.) It appears that
the participation rates in Florida, Michigan, and
California are above the overall participation rate for the
United States, but an equivalent confidence interval
would also have to be constructed around the point esti-
mate of the overall participation rate as well (omitted
here to simplify the figure).
Figure 2.2: The participation rate in classical music in Massachusetts
is clearly above the national average.
Figure 2.3: It is difficult to conclude that there is much variation
across these states with respect to participation rates in
opera, though New York and California likely have rates
above the national average, while Texas has a rate that is
below the national average.
Figure 2.4: Real differences in participation rates for ballet are diffi-
cult to detect given the overlap of the confidence
intervals. The participation rates in Massachusetts and
New York are likely to be above the national average.
Confidence Intervals I 45
Figure 2.5: The highest participation rates in other dance are likely
to be higher than the lowest participation rates, i.e. the
participation rate in Illinois is likely to be higher than the
participation rate in Pennsylvania. The rates in Illinois
and California are likely to be higher than the national
average.
Figure 2.6: With respect to participation rates for musical plays, the
confidence interval analysis suggests more distinct differ-
ences than in the other cases. The participation rates in
New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Michigan
are all likely to be greater than the national average, and
they are certainly higher than the participation rates in
Texas and possibly in Florida.
Figure 2.7: Participation in non-musical plays is likely to be higher
than the national average in New Jersey and
Massachusetts, and their participation rates are also
higher than the participation rates in Ohio and
Pennsylvania.
Figure 2.8: Not only is the Massachusetts participation rate for art
museums and galleries likely to be higher than the
national average, it is also likely to be higher than the
participation rate in seven other states (Ohio through
California). The participation rates in California and
New York are also likely to be higher than the national
average.
Figure 2.9: Participation in reading literature is likely to be higher
than the national average in Massachusetts, New Jersey,
and California.
Figure 2.10: Participation via visiting historic parks or monuments is
higher than average in Massachusetts and higher than in
seven of the other states (Michigan through
Pennsylvania).
Figure 2.11: Finally, participation in arts or crafts fairs or festivals is
likely to be higher than the national average in Michigan
and Ohio, and it is higher in these states than in five of
the other states (New Jersey through California).
46 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
The essential message here is that all of the estimates of participation rates in
this monograph (as well as in other monographs based on the Survey of Public
Participation in the Arts) are subject to random sampling error. Because of that
error, many of the observed differences in participation rates may be attributa-
ble, at least in part, to random sampling error rather than to any real differences
in participation rates. Only very large observed differences are likely to be
immune from this complication.
The rest of the current monograph will not be cluttered with estimates of the
random sampling error associated with each of the many estimates of partici-
pation rates that will be reported here, though it would be possible to make
these calculations. Rather, it is an important caveat that must be considered in
interpreting these results. Of course, one could take the stance that the point
estimates reported in this monograph are the best single estimates one can
extract from the sample data, 7 but once one begins searching for explanations
of differences in participation rates in order to recommend programmatic ini-
tiatives to minimize those differences, one needs to be conscious of the fact that
one may be trying to eliminate a difference that may, in fact, not exist in the
population that is being sampled.
Confidence Intervals
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The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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58
3. Participation by Region
While the sample sizes in the SPPA are only sufficient to separately identify
ten states, they are sufficient to justify a complete look at the various regions of
the country. Because it allows complete coverage, albeit at a higher level of geo-
graphic aggregation, such an analysis serves as a useful counterpoint to the
analysis of participation rates by state. 8
Table 3.1 summarizes participation rates in the eight key art forms by region
and by art form. 9 Generally, the highest participation rates can be found in New
England, the Middle Atlantic region, and the Pacific region. New England has
the highest participation rate for five of these eight art forms and the second
highest participation rate for two others. (With respect to opera, however, New
England is fifth, the median of the nine regions.) At the other end of the scale,
the East South Central region has the lowest participation rates for six of the
eight art forms. For ballet and plays other than musicals this region has the sec-
ond lowest participation rate. Section 7 explores this pattern further by testing
to what extent it might be explained by various demographic or organizational
variables.
Expanding the art forms under consideration to include reading literature,
visiting historic parks or monuments, and attending art or crafts fairs or festi-
vals leads to Table 3.2. New England has the highest participation rates in both
reading literature and visiting historic parks; it is second with respect to attend-
ing arts or crafts fairs or festivals. The Pacific region is second in participation
in reading literature; the West North Central region second in visiting historic
parks or monuments; and the East North Central region second in attending
arts or crafts fairs or festivals. The latter two art forms, once again, have a
noticeably different geographic pattern from the other art forms. Yet, the East
South Central region still evidences the lowest participation rates, lower than
the other regions and the national average by a considerable margin.
Participation by Region
59
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60 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Table 3.2:
Participation Rates in Other Cultural Activities by Region, 1997
State
Reading
Historic Parks
Art or Crafts
Literature
or Monuments
Fairs or Festivals
New England
69.7%
53.0%
52.3%
Middle Atlantic
63.3%
48.3%
46.8%
South Atlantic
61.0%
49.0%
43.1%
East North Central
61.0%
45.0%
53.7%
West North Central
62.8%
50.6%
51.9%
East South Central
59.2%
41.3%
39.1%
West South Central
61.3%
43.7%
46.5%
Mountain
66.6%
48.2%
47.1%
Pacific
66.9%
45.1%
47.6%
United States
63.1%
46.9%
47.5%
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
61
4. Other Forms of Participation
The 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts went beyond the eleven
basic art forms already discussed. This section turns to the evidence on varia-
tion in several other forms of participation.
Participation via the Media
Increasingly, the media have become important mediating vehicles for par-
ticipation in the arts and culture. Recognition of the role that the media might
play in participation suggests a number of interesting research questions: Does
participation via the media replace live participation? Does participation via the
media supplement live participation? Does participation via the media encour-
age increased live participation? 10
In the 1997 SPPA, a battery of questions was asked to determine the extent
to which respondents made use of various media in the course of their partici-
pation in the arts and culture. Note that the questions concerning participation
via the media were asked of only a subsample that included slightly less than
half of the SPPA respondents, thereby reducing the effective sample size on
which these results are based for each state. One of the implications of this, of
course, is that it increases the size of the sampling errors involved in estimating
the participation rates reported in this section.
In Table 4.1 are the results that derive from creating several aggregated vari-
ables to measure the level of participation in the arts via various media. This
table first considers participation via television or videotape. Nearly 70 percent
of the American adult population reports having participated in one or another
of the key art forms through the medium of television or video in the previous
twelve months. For the ten states that the SPPA allows us to consider separately,
this rate climbs as high as 76.9 percent in California and falls as low as 63.1
percent in Pennsylvania.
Participation via radio is at a somewhat lower level; 57.9 percent of
American adults report having participated in the key art forms via radio in the
previous twelve months. Massachusetts and California show the highest levels
of participation via radio — 65.3 percent and 65.1 percent, respectively. Ohio
(52.0 percent) and Pennsylvania (52.6 percent) report the lowest levels.
Finally, participation via records, compact discs, or tape cassettes, is lower
still: 48.0 percent of the adult population reports participation via one of these
media, but this time, New Jersey (58.3 percent) has the highest participation
62 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
rate, followed by California (55.9 percent). Of these ten states, Ohio (46.0 per-
cent) has the lowest participation rate, but this rate is only two percentage
points lower than the national average.
As has been done earlier in this monograph, Tables 4.2a and 4.2b compare
the participation rates for each state with the overall rates of participation for
the United States using, respectively, absolute differences and percentage differ-
ences. Participation via television or video is clearly higher in California than in
the other states. Conversely, it is quite a bit lower in Pennsylvania and Ohio.
Participation via radio is clearly higher in Massachusetts, California, and
Illinois; but substantially lower in Ohio and Pennsylvania. And participation via
records, compact disks, or tape cassettes is substantially higher in New Jersey,
and quite a bit higher in California, Massachusetts, and Illinois, while all other
states taken together have an aggregate participation rate that is 12.1 percent
(5.8 percentage points) lower than the overall national participation rate.
Other Forms of Participation 63
Table 4.1:
Rates of Participation in the Arts via the Media by State, 1997
State TV/Video Radio Records/CDs/
Cassettes
California
Florida
Illinois
Massachusetts
Michigan
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Texas
All Other States
United States
Notes: TV/Video includes all respondents who in the previous twelve months watched a jazz per-
formance; classical music performance; an opera; a musical stage play or operetta; a non-musical
stage play; a dance performance; or a program about artists, art works, or art museums on televi-
sion or on a videotape.
Radio includes all respondents who in the previous twelve months listened to jazz; classical
music; opera music; a musical stage play or operetta; or a performance of a non-musical stage
play on the radio.
Records/CDs/Cassettes includes all respondents who in the previous twelve months listened to
records, tapes, or compact discs of jazz, classical music, opera music, or a musical stage play or
operetta.
Questions concerning participation in the arts via the media were asked of a subsample of the
total sample.
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
76.9%
65.1%
55.9%
73.7%
61.8%
50.9%
73.5%
63.7%
52.9%
70.9%
65.3%
55.7%
70.0%
58.5%
50.2%
74.4%
62.5%
58.3%
68.9%
62.4%
52.6%
65.0%
52.0%
46.0%
63.1%
52.6%
46.7%
73.8%
58.8%
50.4%
66.6%
53.5%
42.2%
69.9%
57.9%
48.0%
+7.0
+7.2
+7.9
+3.8
+3.9
+2.9
+3.6
+5.8
+4.9
+ 1.0
+7.4
+7.7
+0.1
+0.6
+2.2
+4.5
+4.6
+10.3
-1.0
+4.5
+4.6
-4.9
-5.9
-2.0
-6.8
-5.3
-1.3
+3.9
+0.9
+2.4
64 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Table 4.2a:
Comparison of Participation Rates for Each State with
Overall Rates of Participation via the Media, 1997
(percentage point differences)
State TV/Video Radio Records/CDs/
Cassettes
California
Florida
Illinois
Massachusetts
Michigan
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Texas
All Other States -3.3 -4.4 -5.8
Notes: TV/Video includes all respondents who in the previous twelve months watched a jazz per-
formance; classical music performance; an opera; a musical stage play or operetta; a non-musical
stage play; a dance performance; or a-program about artists, art works, or art museums on televi-
sion or a videotape.
Radio includes all respondents who in the previous twelve months listened to jazz; classical music;
opera music; a musical stage play or operetta; or a performance of a non-musical stage play on the
radio.
Records/CDs/Cassettes includes all respondents who in the previous twelve months listened to
records, tapes, or compact discs of jazz, classical music, opera music, or a musical stage play or
operetta.
Questions concerning participation in the arts via the media were asked of a subsample of the total
sample.
Each entry in this table is the number of percentage points each state's participation rate is higher
or lower than the corresponding overall participation rate for the United States. For example, the
California participation rate via TV and Video is 7.0 percentage points higher than the participation
rate via TV and Video for the United States as a whole.
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
+ 10.0%
+ 12.4%
+ 16.5%
+5.4%
+6.7%
+6.0%
+5.2%
+ 10.0%
+ 10.2%
+ 1.4%
+ 12.8%
+ 16.0%
+0.1%
+ 1.0%
+4.6%
+6.4%
+7.9%
+21.5%
-1.4%
+7.8%
+9.6%
-7.0%
-10.2%
-4.2%
-9.7%
-9.2%
-2.7%
+5.6%
+ 1.6%
+5.0%
Other Forms of Participation 65
Table 4.2b:
Comparison of Participation Rates for Each State with
Overall Rates of Participation via the Media, 1997
(difference as a percentage of overall participation rate)
State TV/Video Radio Records/CDs/
Cassettes
California
Florida
Illinois
Massachusetts
Michigan
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Texas
All Other States -4.7% -7.6% -12.1%
Notes: TV/Video includes all respondents who in the previous twelve months watched a jazz per-
formance; classical music performance; an opera; a musical stage play or operetta; a non-musical
stage play; a dance performance; or a program about artists, art works, or art museums on televi-
sion or a videotape.
Radio includes all respondents who in the previous twelve months listened to jazz; classical music;
opera music; a musical stage play or operetta; or a performance of a non-musical stage play on the
radio.
Records/CDs/Cassettes includes all respondents who in the previous twelve months listened to
records, tapes, or compact discs of jazz, classical music, opera music, or a musical stage play or
operetta.
Questions concerning participation in the arts via the media were asked of a subsample of the total
sample.
Each entry in this table is the percentage that each state's participation rate is higher or lower than
the corresponding overall participation rate for the United States. For example, the California par-
ticipation rate via TV and Video is 10.0 percent higher than the participation rate via TV and Video
for the United States as a whole.
Source: 1 997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
66 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Direct Participation via Creation or Performance
Another set of questions included in the 1997 Survey of Public Participation
in the Arts allows a look at forms of direct personal participation in the arts and
culturel through creation or performance. Note that, similar to the questions on
participation via the media, questions concerning personal arts participation
were asked of a subsample that included approximately 36 percent of the SPPA
respondents, thereby reducing even further the effective sample size on which
these results are based for each state. One of the implications of this would be
to increase even more the size of the sampling error involved in estimating par-
ticipation rates reported in this section.
Rather than focus on individual forms of creation or performance, I have cre-
ated two aggregate variables to measure whether or not each respondent was
involved in any creative activity or in any performance activity in the previous
twelve months. "Creation" combines six separate questions concerning the
respondent's active participation in crafts, sewing, photography, drawing, writ-
ing, or composing. Respondents are considered to have participated in creation
if they report having participated in at least one of these activities in the previ-
ous twelve months. "Performing" combines nine separate questions concerning
the respondent's active participation in playing a musical instrument, perform-
ing jazz, performing classical music, singing music from an opera, singing music
from a musical play or operetta, performing with a chorus or other singing
group, performing in a non-musical play, dancing in a ballet, or dancing in any
other type of dance performance. Respondents are considered to have per-
formed if they report having participated in at least one of these activities in the
previous twelve months.
The basic findings of this analysis of direct personal arts participation are
reported in Table 4.3. Five out of nine American adults, 55.3 percent, report
having been involved in one or another form of direct artistic creation in the
previous twelve months. This rather high level of participation is not too sur-
prising given the looseness with which creation is defined. For example, any
form of writing, drawing, or photography would qualify one to be included.
Higher than average levels of participation in creation are reported for
Massachusetts (60.6 percent) and New Jersey (60.4 percent); a level that is
clearly lower than average is reported in Pennsylvania (51.0 percent).
Turning now to personal participation via performance, approximately four
out of every ten American adults, 40.8 percent, report participation in one or
another art form by performing. Of the ten states under consideration here,
Florida has the highest rate of participation in performance (47.6 percent) fol-
Other Forms of Participation 67
lowed by Massachusetts (45.5 percent). At the other end of the spectrum, Ohio
reports the lowest rate of participation (37.3 percent) and California the second
lowest (37.6 percent).
With respect to both creation and performance, the variations in participa-
tion rates that are observed here (Tables 4.4a and 4.4b) appear to be somewhat
less than what we have observed for other forms of participation. The rate of
participation in performing in Florida is 16.7 percent higher than the average
for the United States as a whole, while rates of participation in Massachusetts
are identifiably higher for both creation — 9.6 percent higher than the national
participation rate — and performing — 11.5 percent higher than the national par-
ticipation rate.
In summary, the picture that emerges with respect to direct personal partici-
pation is a picture of less geographic variation across these states.
Massachusetts still exhibits high participation rates, but it is joined by New
Jersey for creation and Florida for performing.
68
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Table 4.3:
Personal Arts Participation through Creation and
Performance by State, 1997
State
Creation
Performance
California
Florida
Illinois
Massachusetts
Michigan
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Texas
Other
United States
54.5%
55.7%
54.7%
60.6%
54.7%
60.4%
52.9%
57.9%
51.0%
54.2%
55.6%
55.3%
37.6%
47.6%
40.9%
45.5%
39.3%
41.9%
38.4%
37.3%
41.3%
40.7%
40.9%
40.8%
Notes: "Creation" combines six separate questions concerning the respondent's active participa-
tion in various art forms through creative activity — crafts, sewing, photography, drawing, writing, or
composing.
"Performance" combines nine separate questions concerning the respondent's active participation
in various art forms through performance — playing a musical instrument, performing jazz, perform-
ing classical music, singing music from an opera, singing music from a musical play or operetta,
performing with a chorus or other singing group, performing in a non-musical play, dancing in a bal-
let, or dancing in any other type of dance performance.
Questions concerning personal arts participation were asked of a subsample of the total sample.
Source: 1 997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
Other Forms of Participation
69
Table 4.4a:
Comparison of Personal Arts Participation Rates for Each State
with Overall Participation Rates, 1997
(percentage point differences)
State
Creation
Performance
California
Florida
Illinois
Massachusetts
Michigan
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Texas
Other
-0.8
+0.4
-0.6
+5.3
-0.6
+5.1
-2.4
+2.6
-4.3
-1.1
+0.3
-3.2
+6.8
+0.1
+4.7
-1.5
+ 1.1
-2.4
-3.5
+0.5
-0.1
+0.1
Notes: "Creation" combines six separate questions concerning the respondent's active participa-
tion in various art forms through creative activity — crafts, sewing, photography, drawing, writing, or
composing.
"Performance" combines nine separate questions concerning the respondent's active participation
in various art forms through performance — playing a musical instrument, performing jazz, perform-
ing classical music, singing music from an opera, singing music from a musical play or operetta,
performing with a chorus or other singing group, performing in a non-musical play, dancing in a bal-
let, or dancing in any other type of dance performance.
Questions concerning personal arts participation were asked of a subsample of the total sample.
Each entry in this table is the number of percentage points each state's participation rate is higher
or lower than the corresponding overall participation rate for the United States. For example, the
California rate of participation in creation is 0.8 percentage points lower than the rate of participa-
tion in creation for the United States as a whole.
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
70 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Table 4.4b:
Comparison of Personal Arts Participation Rates for Each State with
Overall Participation Rates, 1997
(difference as a percentage of overall participation rate)
State Creation Performance
California -1.4% -7.8%
Florida +0.7% +16.7%
Illinois . -1.1% +0.2%
Massachusetts +9.6% +11.5%
Michigan -1.1% -3.7%
New Jersey +9.2% +2.7%
New York -4.3% -5.9%
Ohio +4.7% -8.6%
Pennsylvania -7.8% +1.2%
Texas -2.0% -0.2%
Other +0.5% +0.2%
Notes: "Creation" combines six separate questions concerning the respondent's active participa-
tion in various art forms through creative activity — crafts, sewing, photography, drawing, writing, or
composing.
"Performance" combines nine separate questions concerning the respondent's active participation
in various art forms through performance — playing a musical instrument, performing jazz, perform-
ing classical music, singing music from an opera, singing music from a musical play or operetta,
performing with a chorus or other singing group, performing in a non-musical play, dancing in a bal-
let, or dancing in any other type of dance performance.
Questions concerning personal arts participation were asked of a subsample of the total sample.
Each entry in this table is the percentage that each state's participation rate is higher or lower than
the corresponding overall participation rate for the United States. For example, the California rate
of participation in creation is 1 .4 percent lower than the rate of participation in creation for the
United States as a whole.
Source: 1997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
71
5. The Relationship Between Participation
Rates— Regions
Earlier sections of this monograph have asked whether certain results might
indicate substitution among art forms. At other points there is speculation
about the similarities in levels of participation from one art form to another.
What is the relationship between participation rates for the various art forms?
As participation in one art form rises does participation in other art forms also
rise, or does it fall? Do the various art forms serve as substitutes for one another
or does participation in one reinforce participation in another? These questions
can be addressed from a geographic point of view by looking at the relationship
between pairs of participation rates across geographic areas.
The basic mathematical tool that I will use to explore these relationships is
the correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient is a measure of the degree
to which two variables have a linear relationship with one another. The corre-
lation coefficient is a number that has a value between 0.0, which indicates no
linear relationship, and 1.0, which indicates a perfect linear relationship. The
closer the value of the correlation coefficient is to 1.0, the stronger the linear
relationship; the closer it is to zero, the weaker the linear relationship. Also of
importance in interpreting any correlation coefficient is its sign: a positive sign
indicates that the two variables under consideration tend to have a direct linear
relationship — as the value of one variable increases so does the value of the
other; a negative sign indicates that the two variables under consideration tend
to have an inverse linear relationship — as the value of one variable increases, the
value of the other variable tends to decrease. In the current context, a positive
correlation coefficient indicates that higher participation rates for one art form
tend to be matched by higher participation rates for the other art form; a neg-
ative correlation coefficient, on the other hand, would suggest substitution — a
higher participation rate for one art form would tend to be matched with a
lower participation rate for the other art form.
In this section of the monograph, correlation coefficients are used as a way
of looking at the relationships between pairs of participation rates across all
nine regions of the United States; in the next section relationships across the
restricted set of ten states are considered. Neither of these analyses is a substi-
tute for considering the relationship between participation in one art form and
participation in another art form at the level of individual respondents, a topic
that is being explored in other monographs.
72 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Correlating Participation in the Eight Key Art Forms Across
Regions
Table 5.1 is the correlation matrix that results from calculating the correla-
tion coefficient for participation rates in each pair of art forms across all nine
regions. 11 At this high level of aggregation the relationships between each pair
of participation rates are all positive and nearly all of them are quite strong. The
higher the regional participation rate in one of the eight key art forms, the
higher the regional participation rate in another of these art forms. The two
exceptions are the correlation between participation rates in non-musical plays
and in opera, which, though also positive, is a modest +0.28, and the correla-
tion between non-musical plays and in dance other than ballet, which is +0.29.
The Relationship Between Participation Rates — Regions
73
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74 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
It is important to be quite precise about what these correlation coefficients
are measuring and what they are not measuring. They should not be interpreted
at an individual level; these correlation coefficients by themselves do not indi-
cate that an individual who participates in one art form is more likely to
participate in another art form than someone who does not participate in the
first art form. They do, however, indicate that in any given region a relatively
high participation rate in one art form is likely to be accompanied by a rela-
tively high participation rate in another and that a relatively low participation
rate in one art form is likely to be accompanied by a relatively low participa-
tion rate in another.
Correlating Participation for the Three Other Cultural
Activities Across Regions
When this regional correlation analysis is expanded to the three other forms
of cultural participation that have been considered above — reading literature,
visiting historic parks or monuments, and attending arts or crafts fairs or festi-
vals — a similar set of patterns emerges (Table 5.2). Once again, all of the
correlation coefficients are positive, indicating that at the regional level these
participation rates tend to parallel one another. For some art forms, the corre-
lation with attendance at historic parks or monuments and the correlation with
attendance at arts or crafts fairs or festivals are both lower than the other cor-
relation coefficients. This indicates, perhaps, that the audiences for these art
forms are rather different from the audiences for other art forms. (This pattern
is revealed more clearly when the analysis turns to the state level in the next sec-
tion of this monograph.) Participation in live ballet is the most striking example,
with a correlation of +0.22 with attendance at historic parks or monuments and
a correlation of +0.21 with attendance at fairs or festivals.
& P P
In the context of the Survey of Public Participation in the Arts, an analysis of
participation rates by region is sensible because it allows for a consideration
that encompasses the entire United States. Yet, as the level of aggregation
increases, it is quite likely that any interesting geographic variations in partici-
pation rates will get washed out of the analysis. The larger the geographic areas
under consideration, the less opportunity there is to detect interesting local
variations. In other words, at high levels of aggregation one would expect to
observe well-behaved correlation coefficients such as those calculated in Table
5.1 or Table 5.2. The fact that the participation rates in various pairs of artistic
activities parallel one another at the regional level corresponds to one's innate
The Relationship Between Participation Rates — Regions I 75
sense of what the relationship is likely to be, but an analysis at the regional level
may not be the best test of that relationship. For this reason, despite the fact
that the SPPA data only allow for the separate identification of participation
rates for ten states, it makes sense to see what patterns are revealed when the
same analysis is conducted at the state level. This analysis is presented in the
next section.
76
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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6. The Relationship Between Participation
Rates — States
In this section of the monograph, the analyses of Section 5 are repeated, but
this time using data based on the ten available states. Caution is advised as these
ten states might well show a high correlation between the participation rates for
any two art forms while all fifty states might show a very low correlation (or
even a negative correlation). Similarly, it is possible that these ten states might show
a very low correlation, while all fifty states might actually have a high correlation.
Because we cannot draw a complete scattergram for all fifty states, we cannot iden-
tify which portion of that scattergram we are looking at when we consider these
ten states. Thus, it is important to be aware that the conclusions that are drawn
through this analysis presented in this part of the monograph are for these states
alone and are not necessarily able to be generalized to all fifty states.
Correlating Participation in the Eight Key Art Forms Across
the Ten States
Table 6.1 is the correlation matrix that results from calculating the correla-
tion coefficient for each pair of art forms across these ten states. 12 A number of
interesting observations can be made about the results. First, for the key eight
art forms, twenty-seven of the twenty-eight separate correlation coefficients
reported here are positive. 13 Generally speaking, this means that higher partici-
pation rates in one art form are associated with higher participation rates in
each of the other art forms. The sole exception, a -0.03 correlation between the
participation rate for ballet and the participation rate for opera, is a surprising
one. One would have expected, I think, a positive correlation coefficient
between these two art forms (which, in any event, might have been observed if
one had been able to observe this relationship across all fifty states).
Attendance at art museums and galleries appears to be something of a bell-
wether. It is positively correlated with participation rates for all of the other art
forms — very highly so in the cases of classical music, other dance, musical
plays, and non-musical plays — and is more highly correlated with the other art
forms than is participation in most of the other art forms. What this means is
that if a state has a relatively high participation rate in art museums and gal-
leries, then it is a good bet that it has a relatively high participation rate in any
of the other key art forms as well.
78 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Logical pairs command our attention. A higher participation rate in jazz
strongly signals a higher participation rate in both classical music and a bit less
so in opera. Interestingly, participation in ballet is not correlated with partici-
pation in other dance — a correlation coefficient of +0.08. They do not
substitute for one another, but a high rate of participation in one does not guar-
antee a high rate of participation in the other either. Participation in musical
plays is highly correlated with participation in non-musical plays, indicating
that these participation rates move together.
Thus, at least as far as these eight art forms are concerned in these ten states,
there is quite a bit of complementarity in evidence and virtually no substitution.
This, of course, is a statistician's way of saying something that we have already
observed earlier in a somewhat less formal way: that certain states tend to sys-
tematically rise to the top of the participation rate tables and that others tend
to systematically fall to the bottom.
The Relationship Between Participation Rates — States
79
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80 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Comparing Table 5.1 to Table 6.1 leads to an additional set of observations.
The correlation coefficients are generally higher when measured across regions
(Table 5.1) than when they are measured across states (Table 6.1). Part of the
reason for this may be mathematical — the regional analysis is based on nine
data points (nine regions) while the state analysis is based on ten data points
(ten states); the more data points the more difficult it is to achieve a high cor-
relation coefficient — and part of the reason may be statistical — the ten states
constitute a non-random sample of states rather than a census of the fifty
states — but a more important reason is likely to be the fact that higher levels of
aggregation are likely to wash away the interesting variations in the phenome-
non that is being observed. In other words, behavior at higher levels of
aggregation is likely to look more similar across geographic areas than behav-
ior at lower levels of aggregation.
Correlating Participation in the Three Other Cultural
Activities across the Ten States
In Table 6.2, the three other forms of cultural participation that have been
considered above — reading literature, visiting historic parks or monuments, and
attending arts or crafts fairs or festivals — are added to this analysis. Here, for
the first time, we observe strong negative correlation coefficients. Participation
via attending an arts or crafts fair or festival is negatively correlated with par-
ticipation in all of the other art forms except jazz, for which the correlation
coefficient is essentially zero. In a couple of cases — non-musical plays and art
museums and galleries — these correlation coefficients are strongly negative.
These results suggest substitution between attending fairs and festivals and
attending many of the other art forms. Interestingly, this result does not hold for
visiting historic parks or monuments, another activity which one might have
expected to be negatively correlated with participation in the eight more tradi-
tional and more highly institutionalized art forms. Instead, visiting historic
parks or monuments is positively correlated with participation in all of the other
art forms except opera and fairs and festivals. Attendance at art museums or gal-
leries is again a bellwether, being highly correlated with all three of these additional
forms of participation, albeit negatively with attendance at fairs and festivals.
Comparing Tables 5.2 and 6.2 leads, once again, to the observation that the
correlation coefficients are generally lower in the state analysis than they are in
the regional analysis. This undoubtedly occurs partially for the same reasons as
have been outlined above, but the fact that one observes negative correlation coef-
ficients for attendance at historic parks or monuments and for fairs and festivals,
The Relationship Between Participation Rates — States i 81
some of them quite strong, and the fact that one observes very weak correlation
coefficients in Table 6.2 but not in Table 5.2 suggest the possibility of substitution
in participation between these two cultural activities and the others.
Tables 5.1, 5.2, 6.1 and 6.2 offer only simple descriptions of the relationships
between the various participation rates. The next three sections of this mono-
graph consider a number of ways to begin to develop a more explanatory sense
of the variation in participation rates across regions and across states.
82
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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7. Explaining Variation in Participation
Rates Across Regions
Why do participation rates vary geographically? In the presence of sample
data there is always the possible explanation that the participation rates that I
have estimated, whether for regions or for states, vary due to sampling error.
This explanation has already been explored to some extent in Section 2. But
surely there are other, more substantive explanations that are worth exploring.
In this part of the monograph two such sets of explanations are explored: (1)
explanations that are linked to the population demographics of the geographic
area under consideration and (2) explanations that are linked to the geographic
distribution of arts and cultural organizations. 14 The focus of this section is on
explaining variation in participation across the nine regions, and in the next sec-
tion variation across the ten states.
What would be ideal would be to conduct a multivariate analysis that would
allow one to test the simultaneous influence of a set of possible explanatory
variables on geographic variations in participation rates. With only nine regions
or ten states, unfortunately, is not possible to proceed very far with a multi-
variate analysis because the number of observations is so low. 15 Instead, the
influence of one possible explanatory variable at a time is examined.
Accordingly, correlation coefficients will be used as a way of measuring the
nature of the relationship between each pair of variables.
Throughout this section and the next section of this monograph it is impor-
tant to keep in mind that this is a construction of a geographical story of arts
participation and that this is very different from trying to construct a story of
arts participation by individuals. Demographic variables that may be critical
predictors of individual participation in the arts and culture may wash out of a
regional or a state-based account of participation. Other monographs in this
series will focus on trying to explain variations in individual participation, and
their accounts may turn out to be rather different than what one sees when one
chooses to view participation through an aggregated geographic lens.
Demographic Explanations
Undoubtedly, there are many things about the demographics of a place that
influence the participation rates of the residents of that place. In this section,
four different sets of demographic variables are considered: ones that measure
educational level, ones that measure income, ones that measure the geographic
84 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
distribution of the residents, and a single one that measures the level of minor-
ity residents. Out of curiosity, a variable that measures the aggregate level of
state arts funding per capita in the region is added to this section to test whether
it has any relationship to participation levels. The correlation coefficients that
result when participation rates for each art form are correlated with each of
these explanatory variables over all nine regions are reported in Table 7.1.
16
Explaining Variation in Participation Rates Across Regions
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86 ! The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Educational Level
Educational level has consistently been shown to be the most important pre-
dictor of an individual's participation in arts and cultural activities. 17 Here I
explore to what extent that finding also holds up at the regional level of aggre-
gation.
Table 7.1 uses two alternative ways of measuring the educational level of a
region: (1) the percentage of the adult population age 25 or older that has grad-
uated from high school and (2) the percentage of the adult population age 25
or older that has earned a bachelor's degree. Percentage of high school gradu-
ates is positively correlated with participation in each of the art forms. It is a
particularly good predictor of participation in opera (r = +0.70). Percentage
with a bachelor's degree is a much better predictor; some of the correlation coef-
ficients, most notably for jazz (r = +0.98) and for classical music (r = +0.94), are
very high. Interestingly, the correlation coefficients for the more popular art
forms, historic parks and fairs or festivals, are not lower than the correlation
coefficients for other forms, indicating that at least at the regional level partic-
ipation in these art forms parallels educational level.
Income Level
Income has also been shown to be an important predictor of participation in
the arts and culture, though it is typically highly correlated with educational
level (which is the better predictor). 18 Here two different measures of the income
level of a region are used: median household income and the percentage of indi-
viduals living below the poverty line.
At a regional level, median household income is positively correlated with
participation in all of the art forms. For some art forms, most notably jazz (r =
+0.86) and classical music (r = + 0.82), the correlation is very high. On the
whole, however, median household income is not as good a predictor as percent
of the residents with a bachelors' degree.
Generally, one would expect negative correlations between participation
rates in the various art forms and percentage below the poverty level, and,
indeed, ten of the eleven correlation coefficients are negative at the regional
level. The fact that percentage below the poverty level is moderately positively
correlated with participation rates for ballet suggests that there may be some-
thing particular about this audience worth identifying: Is it, perhaps, more
highly composed of minorities? Does ballet particularly draw on students and
others whose incomes may be temporarily low? Or do respondents conflate
actual participation in dancing with attendance at dance performances when
88 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
nities, and that, in turn, may affect participation rates. I have used three differ-
ent measures of geographic distribution to attempt to capture some of the
salient attributes of relative location.
The simplest measure of all is to divide the population of the region by the
region's land area to get a measure of population density. This measure is posi-
tively correlated with participation in all of the arts forms except for other
dance and reading literature, but the correlation coefficients in those two cases
are so small that they are virtually zero. Even though the signs are more or less
what one would expect, persons per square mile is not a particularly good pre-
dictor of participation in any of the art forms. The highest correlation is with
participation in musical plays (r = +0.58).
Another way to approach the measurement of the geographic distribution of
the population is to ask what percentage of the population lives in urban as
opposed to non-urban areas. The Bureau of the Census uses two different ways
to measure this: percentage non-metropolitan and percentage rural. Percentage
non-metropolitan measures the percentage of a region's population that lives
outside of defined metropolitan areas. 20 (This is a measure that is generally used
by government agencies and, indeed, it is the one used by the National
Endowment for the Arts and the National Assembly of State Arts Agencies
when they are trying to measure how well their programs are meeting the needs
of these populations.) Percentage rural, on the other hand, recognizes that there
may well be rural areas within the metropolitan areas defined by the Bureau of
the Census definition and separates them out. Put another way, metropolitan
areas are defined as areas that are highly populated and economically inte-
grated, urban areas are defined as a central city or cities plus the surrounding
closely settled territory. Thus, the two provide somewhat different but related
measures.
One would expect percentage non-metropolitan to be negatively correlated
with participation rates, and this is the case across the board. The strength of
this correlation is highest for ballet (r = -0.74), for jazz (r = -0.73), and for clas-
sical music (r = -0.72).
Similarly, one would expect percentage rural also to be negatively correlated
with participation rates, and it is. It is most highly correlated with participation
in dance forms other than ballet (r = -0.86), with opera (r = -0.79), and with art
museums and galleries (r = -0.76).
Neither of these measures dominates the other. In some cases percent non-
metropolitan is the better predictor of participation rates at the regional level;
in other cases percent rural is better.
Explaining Variation in Participation Rates Across Regions 87
they answer questions about the latter? On the other hand, this result may sim-
ply be due to instability caused by the relatively small number of participants in
dance who happen to be captured in the various samples.
As measured by the strength of the correlation coefficient — i.e. its value
rather than its sign — median household income, when considered by itself, is a
better predictor of participation rates in each of the art forms than is percent-
age below the poverty level.
Level of the Minority Population
From a public policy point of view it is important to test whether or not the
percentage of the population that is minority is a strong predictor of participa-
tion rates. Arts organizations and arts funding agencies exert considerable effort
on expanding the participation of minorities in the arts and culture.
Using the data collected as part of the SPPA one can approach the analysis
of minority participation in a number of ways. For the purposes of this mono-
graph, I have chosen a rather straightforward definition of "minority"; I have
considered any respondent who answered the SPPA question on race and did
not identify himself or herself as "White, but not of Hispanic origin" to be a
member of a minority group. 19
At the regional level, percentage minority has mixed value as a predictor of
participation. Surprisingly, it has virtually no correlation with participation in
jazz (though this result would undoubtedly have been different if a distinction
had been made between blacks, whose participation rate in jazz is quite high,
and other minorities, particularly Hispanics, whose participation rate in jazz is
quite a bit lower). Somewhat less of a surprise, there is also virtually no corre-
lation with participation in opera, classical music, reading literature, or visiting
art museums. Percentage minority has a moderate positive correlation with par-
ticipation in ballet and other forms of dance, again leading one to wonder about
the particulars of the audiences for dance (and to worry about the relative sam-
ple size). The strongest correlations are with attendance at historic parks (r =
-0.68) and with attendance at fairs or festivals (r = -0.74), suggesting that these
forms may be less attractive to minority audiences. Of course, because of the
inability to complete a multivariate analysis at the regional level of aggregation,
it is not possible to draw a definitive conclusion with respect to the pure influ-
ence of this variable on participation.
Geographic Distribution of Residents
How the residents of a region are distributed throughout that region may
indicate quite a lot about their relative proximity to arts and cultural opportu-
Explaining Variation in Participation Rates Across Regions I 89
State Arts Expenditures
The final column of Table 7.1 explores a rather different direction. It asks to
what extent expenditures on the arts and culture at the regional level are linked
to participation rates, but it explores this relationship in only a very rough way.
A rather simple measure of regional arts expenditures is constructed here,
beginning with the simplest of all definitions of state arts expenditures: the 1997
appropriations for each state arts agency. These appropriations are then added
together for all of the states in each region and divided by the population of the
region. No attempt to include funds transferred to each state from the National
Endowment for the Arts, expenditures that might be made by state agencies
other than the designated state arts agencies, any other income that might come
to the state arts agency from other sources, or any indirect aid that might result
through foregone taxes at the state level has been made. There is no way to
identify the expenditures of these appropriations by art form.
The direction of causation that might be implied here is considerably more
murky than for the other variables explored in Table 7.1. Do increased partici-
pation rates put more pressure on state legislatures resulting in higher regional
expenditures on the arts and culture per capita, or do higher appropriations to
the arts and culture ultimately lead to higher participation rates? Or are higher
appropriations per capita a response to low participation rates in the hope of
raising them? Some research has been conducted on these questions; 21 here the
correlation between the two is simply measured.
All of the correlations with regional appropriations per capita are positive
except for other dance, whose correlation coefficient is essentially zero. Given
the high level of geographic aggregation here and the fact that it is not possible
to disaggregate regional appropriations per capita by art form, it is not surpris-
ing that the correlations are not particularly strong. Nevertheless, non-musical
plays (r = +0.78) and historic parks or monuments (r = +0.76) provide rather
strong exceptions.
Overall, the analysis summarized in Table 7.1 demonstrates that certain of these
variables, when specified in certain ways, are rather good predictors of the regional
variation in participation rates, particularly percentage with a bachelor's degree
and median household income. This means that they surely must play a role in any
fuller explanation of that variation. At the regional level, there are few surprises,
with the correlation coefficients behaving more or less as expected.
90 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Explanations Based on the Geographic Distribution of
Organizations
As we have seen, participation by the residents of a region is linked in many
ways to their demographic characteristics, but it is also linked to the presence
and accessibility of arts and cultural organizations. In this section, a very rough
analysis of the relationship between participation rates and the presence of arts
and cultural organizations of various types is presented. This analysis is com-
plicated by the fact that good data sources documenting the existence and
location of various arts and cultural organizations are still to be developed. (As
of this monograph, the National Endowment for the Arts, the National
Assembly of State Arts Agencies, and the Urban Institute are working on the
development of a unified database on arts organizations, which promises to rec-
tify much of this problem.)
The source chosen for data on the geographic distribution of arts and cul-
tural organizations is the 1992 Census of Service Industries. 22 This provides a
useful but incomplete enumeration of arts and cultural organizations. The uni-
verse of organizations that receive questionnaires as part of this census includes
(1) filers of FICA reports that provide payroll tax information to the Social
Security Administration and (2) filers of IRS business income tax or informa-
tion reports (Form 990). Very small organizations and organizations that are
operated as subsidiaries of organizations that are classified in different indus-
tries (e.g. college and university art museums or performing arts centers) are
unlikely to be included in either of these lists. Nevertheless, this source is prob-
ably the best that is currently available, though efforts are continuing to
improve the quality and coverage of such data.
A second problem is that the categories that are used in the Census of Service
Industries do not correspond to the art form definitions that are used in the
SPPA surveys. Generally, the categories used in the Census of Service Industries
are broader ones than those separately identified in SPPA, though they do dis-
tinguish between organizations that are commercial and operating for a profit
and those that are nonprofit, which might be helpful in untangling the determi-
nants of participation rates. Special tabulations prepared by the Bureau of the
Census from the 1992 Census of Service Industries consider "Symphony
Orchestras, Operas, and Chamber Music Organizations" as one broad category
that is further subdivided into commercial and nonprofit organizations; the
other major music category is "Other Music Groups and Artists." Participation
rates in jazz have been correlated with the latter, even though there is little rea-
son to believe that the geographic distribution of organizations in the latter
Explaining Variation in Participation Rates Across Regions I 91
category in any way approximates the distribution of jazz organizations and
venues. Of necessity, participation rates in opera and in classical music are cor-
related with the entire category of symphony orchestras, operas, and chamber
music organizations. Also reported are correlations with all music organizations
taken together, and, finally, with all of the arts and cultural organizations
reported (a variable that is less likely to provide a good predictor than the oth-
ers that have more natural links to the eight art forms).
Theater is similar to music in its complexity. The major categories in the
Census of Service Industries are "Live Theatrical Producers" and "Other
Theatrical Producers and Services," neither of which corresponds to the dis-
tinction drawn in the participation data between musical plays and non-musical
plays. Participation rates in ballet and other dance are simply correlated with dance
groups and artists, and attendance at art museums is correlated with museums and
art galleries. The latter is probably the art form for which the SPPA definition and
the Bureau of Census Industries definition most closely correspond.
Number of Organizations per Capita
In correlating participation rates by region with the geographic distribution
of arts and cultural organizations, it makes most sense to use measures of orga-
nizational density to measure relative geographic distribution. Correlating the
number of organizations of various types per capita with the appropriate par-
ticipation rate across the nine regions results in Table 7.2a.
Generally speaking, the sector-specific correlations reported in the first three
columns of Table 7.2a are all quite high and positive, indicating that participa-
tion in seven of the eight key art forms is strongly and directly related to the
number of organizations of that type per capita in the region. The correlation
results in the category "other music groups and artists" is harder to interpret.
Some of these correlation coefficients are quite small; some are actually nega-
tive. These results are probably not very important from a substantive point of
view because of the miscellaneous nature of this organizational category. The
correlation coefficients for all music organizations per capita are also quite
small; this is likely due to the very broad coverage of this category.
The far right-hand column reports the correlations of participation rates in
each of the key art forms with the total of all arts and cultural organizations per
capita in the nine regions. These correlation coefficients are surprisingly high,
yet they are generally not as high as the correlations that are seen when organ-
izations are disaggregated by field.
92
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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Number of Organizations per Square Mile
An alternative measure of the geographic density of arts and cultural organ-
izations is the number of organizations per square mile. This measure offers a
rough way of measuring accessibility. Table 7.2b repeats the analysis of Table
7.2a using organizations of various types per square mile rather than organiza-
tions per capita as the independent variable.
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three columns of the table, all of the correlation coefficients are positive and rel-
atively high, though not as high as those observed with organizations per capita
as the independent variable. At the regional level organizations per square mile
is not as good a predictor of participation rates as is organizations per capita.
Looking at the other organizational categories, in some cases organizations
per square mile is the stronger predictor while in other cases organization per
capita is better. Given the indistinct and broad boundaries of these categories,
this is probably not too surprising.
94
The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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8. Explaining Variation in Participation
Rates Across States
This section of the monograph repeats the analysis reported in Section 7, but
with respect to the ten states rather than the nine regions. What patterns are
revealed at the state level that are not revealed at the regional level, and what
regional patterns disappear when participation behavior is considered at the
state level? The choice of level of aggregation is an important analytical choice
that can make an important difference in what one sees.
The caveat that has already been voiced several times still applies: we have
no idea how representative these ten states are of the entire fifty states. Thus,
the analysis presented in this section should be understood solely as an analysis
of the relationship between the variables under consideration for these states
alone and not as a representation of what we might find if we were able to con-
duct this analysis with adequate data on all of the fifty states.
Demographic Explanations
In this section, the same demographic variables as were used in Section 7 are
investigated, but this time they are measured at the state level. The correlation coef-
ficients that result when participation rates for each art form are correlated with
each of the explanatory variables over the ten states are reported in Table 8.1.
Educational Level
As before, Table 8.1 uses two alternative ways of measuring the educational
level of a state: (1) the percentage of the adult population age 25 or older that
has graduated from high school and (2) the percentage of the adult population
age 25 or older that has earned a bachelor's degree.
With respect to the percentage of high school graduates, the correlation coef-
ficients show a number of surprises. Most importantly, none of the relationships
(as measured by the correlation coefficient) is particularly strong. Moreover,
attendance at art museums and galleries and attendance at non-musical plays
shows virtually no correlation with the percentage of the adult population that
has graduated from high school. Participation in dance, whether at ballet or at
other dance forms, is actually negatively correlated with the percentage of high
school graduates — the higher the percentage of high school graduates, the lower
the participation rate in either of these art forms. Surprisingly, the strongest cor-
relation is with attendance at arts or crafts fairs and festivals (r = +0.48),
followed closely by a very different art form, classical music (r = +0.47).
96 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Thus, ir appears that the percentage of high school graduates is not a partic-
ularly good predictor of participation for any of the art forms, at least for these
ten states. It is possible, of course, that the effect of this variable is being masked
by the presence of another variable and if one were able to separate out the
effect of that other variable, the effect of this variable would be more clearly
revealed. But this is not always possible with such analyses.
Explaining Variation in Participation Rates Across Regions
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98 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Percentage of adults with a bachelor's degree, on the other hand, is a much
better predictor, presumably because it better specifies one of the attributes in
educational level that does make a difference in participation. Nearly all of the
correlation coefficients are now positive, indicating direct relationships between
this variable and participation rates in the various art forms. The one exception
is for attendance at arts and crafts fairs or festivals for which the correlation
coefficient is negative. Because this is such a different art form, much more pop-
ulist than the others, one is not at all surprised to find a negative correlation
here. Moreover, with the exception of jazz, all of the correlation coefficients are
stronger (i.e. closer to 1.0, irrespective of sign) for percentage with bachelor's
degrees than for percentage of high school graduates. Some of the correlation
coefficients are very strong: arts museums and galleries (r = +0.92), reading lit-
erature (r = +0.81), and visiting historic parks or monuments (r = +0.80).
Comparing the correlation coefficients for these two measures of educational
attainment for these ten states (Table 8.1) with the corresponding correlation
coefficients for the nine regions (Table 7.1) reveals that both of these variables
are much better predictors of the various participation rates at the regional
level. It is possible that these variables may be more able to assert their influ-
ence on participation at the regional level than at the state level — participation,
after all, is not deterred by state boundaries (or regional boundaries, for that
matter) — but what seems more likely is that the state analysis simply misses
measuring much of the relationship between educational attainment and par-
ticipation because it is truncated to a non-random sample of ten states. If SPPA
had included a sufficient number of respondents to estimate participation for
each of the fifty states (or even for a random sample of states), the analysis at
the state level might also have resulted in higher correlations.
Income Level
At the state level, median household income is positively correlated with par-
ticipation in each of the art forms except ballet and fairs or festivals. The
negative correlation with attendance at fairs or festivals is less surprising, given
what we have already seen about the rather different patterns of participation
in this type of cultural activity. The negative correlation with ballet is more sur-
prising. One wonders whether the income level of audiences for ballet is rather
different from the income level of audiences for other an forms and rather dif-
ferent from the state populations from which they are drawn, at least with
respect to income. These possibilities can be explored to some extent using the
audience results reported in Section 10 of this monograph. But once again there
Explaining Variation in Participation Rates Across Regions I 99
is the lingering suspicion that the negative correlation with participation rates
in ballet may simply be due to the instability of small sample sizes.
Median household income of a state is most highly correlated with reading
literature (r = +0.70). It is also highly correlated with attendance at plays (r =
+0.64 for musical plays and +0.63 for non-musical plays). These results are per-
haps understandable because of the relative cost of attending plays as compared
to the cost of attending most of the other art forms, but, of course, the lower
correlation of median household income with participation in opera, the most
expensive art form of all to attend, seems to call this explanation into question.
Generally, one would expect negative correlations between participation
rates in the various art forms and percentage below the poverty level, and,
indeed, seven of the eleven correlation coefficients are negative. The fact that
percentage below the poverty level is moderately positively correlated with par-
ticipation rates for both ballet and other forms of dance suggests once again
that either there may be something particular about these audiences worth iden-
tifying or that we may be observing the results of basing an analysis on small
sample sizes. Nevertheless, as measured by the strength of the correlation coef-
ficient, percentage below the poverty level, when considered by itself, is a better
predictor of participation rates in ballet and other forms of dance (and arts and
crafts fairs) than is median household income. For other art forms and cultural
activities it is a poorer predictor.
As was the case with educational attainment, these measures of income level
are generally poorer predictors of participation rates across the ten states than
they are across the nine regions, and this probably happens for the combination
of reasons already discussed above. Interestingly, though, not only does the cor-
relation coefficient for percentage below the poverty level have an unexpected
sign with respect to participation in ballet and participation in other forms of
dance (the sample size problem once again?), it is also a better predictor (i.e. the
absolute value of the correlation coefficient is greater) at the state level than at
the regional level. Once again, this suggests the possibility that something dif-
ferent may be happening demographically within the dance audience.
Level of the Minority Population
Percentage minority has mixed value as a predictor of participation at the
state level. It has virtually no correlation with participation in jazz, but once
again the aggregation of rather different minority groups into one measure of
minority status may be masking important differences between blacks and
Hispanics with respect to participation in this art form. Percentage minority
100 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
also has little correlation with participation in opera, ballet, or art museums. It
has a moderate positive correlation with participation in other dance forms and
a moderate negative correlation with participation in classical music perform-
ances as well as with attendance at arts or crafts fairs.
Geographic Distribution of Residents
Using the three measures of geographic distribution to capture aspects of rel-
ative location leads to the following results at the state level. Population per
square mile is positively correlated with participation in all of the arts forms
except for attendance at arts or crafts fairs, repeating the emerging pattern. In
a number of cases population per square mile is a very good predictor, indeed:
non-musical plays (r = +0.77); reading literature (also r = +0.77, though it is
unclear why population density would affect the most individual and most dis-
persed form of art participation unless residential density is a good proxy for
the availability of bookstores and libraries, which it may well be); musical plays (r
= +0.61); and visiting historic parks or monuments (r = +0.65, which clearly makes
sense because higher density would mean that at least that state's parks and mon-
uments would be in closer average proximity to more of the population).
Turning next to the relative concentration of the population in urban as
opposed to non-urban areas, one would expect percentage non-metropolitan to
be negatively correlated with participation rates and, indeed, that is the case
except, once again, for attendance at arts and crafts fairs. The strength of this
correlation is highest for non-musical plays (r = -0.81, an unsurprising result);
for art museums and galleries (r = -0.73, also unsurprising); and for reading lit-
erature (r = -0.78, causing one to wonder once again whether percent
non-metropolitan is, perhaps, a proxy for the lack of accessibility to bookstores
and libraries). For all of the other art forms the strength of the correlation is
moderate.
At the state level percentage rural is generally a poorer predictor of partici-
pation rates than percentage non-metropolitan is. Only with respect to
participation in dance other than ballet is this correlation stronger. Again the
correlation coefficients are negative except for attendance at arts or crafts fairs,
reinforcing the distinctness of participation in this art form. The correlation of
percentage rural with attendance at ballet performances is essentially zero.
These measures of the geographic distribution of residents are often, but not
always, better predictors of participation rates at the regional level (Table 7.1)
than at the state level (Table 8.1). The caveats are the same as before.
Explaining Variation in Participation Rates Across Regions I 101
State Arts Expenditures
The final column of Table 8.1 examines the relationship between state arts
agency appropriations per capita and participation rates. With this variable, the
division that we have observed between attendance at arts and crafts fairs and
participation in all of the other art forms continues but changes its nature. Any
correlation with attendance at arts and crafts fairs essentially disappears. The
correlations with all of the other art forms are positive and in a couple of cases
quite strong: classical music (r = +0.78) and jazz (r = +0.75).
Perhaps surprisingly, state arts appropriations per capita are in some cases a
better predictor of participation rates when they are aggregated to the regional
level (Table 7.1) than when they are simply used at the state level (Table 8.1).
Once again, the caveats discussed above apply.
P & P
Overall, the analysis summarized in Table 8.1 tells us that certain of these
variables, when specified in certain ways, are rather good predictors of the vari-
ation in participation rates. This means that they surely must play a role in any
fuller explanation of that variation. We have also seen that, at the state level,
attendance at arts and crafts fairs generally behaves in the reverse direction
from participation in the other art forms, reinforcing what was suggested by the
analysis in Section 5. Some of the results in Table 8.1 also suggest that it might
be worth taking a look at the audiences for the various dance forms where par-
ticipation rates seem sometimes to have different mathematical properties than
in other art forms, though any results from such an analysis would have to be
weighed against the possibility of instability due to relatively small sample sizes.
Explanations Based on the Geographic Distribution of
Organizations
In this section the geographic distribution of organizations across states is
considered and the extent to which the two different measures of this geo-
graphic distribution are correlated with participation is tested. The same raw
data are used as in Section 7 but without aggregation to the regional level.
Number of Organizations per Capita
Table 8.2a reports the correlation coefficients that are calculated by corre-
lating participation rates with the number of organizations of various types per
capita over the ten states. Participation in opera is highly correlated with all of
the various specifications of the density of music organizations. Participation in
classical music is moderately correlated with the various specifications of the
density of symphony, opera, and chamber music organizations. Participation in
102 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
ballet is highly correlated with the density of nonprofit dance groups and artists,
but less correlated with the density of commercial dance groups and artists.
Attendance at art museums and galleries is strongly correlated with the density
of nonprofit museums as well as with the density of all museums.
Comparing Table 8.2a to Table 7.2a leads to the by now familiar observa-
tion that, generally speaking, the various specifications of organizations per
capita are generally better predictors of participation rates in the respective art
forms at the regional level than at the state level. The standard caveats apply.
Number of Organizations per Square Mile
Table 8.2b reports the same correlations once again, but this time using num-
ber of organizations per square mile as the measure of organizational location
and density. Some of the highest correlation coefficients observed occur when
participation rates are correlated with number of organizations per square mile.
Arbitrarily selecting a correlation coefficient of +0.80 or higher as worthy of
note, one finds no fewer than twelve such correlations in Table 8.2b.
Organizations per square mile is a particularly good predictor for participation
in classical music (r = +0.83), attendance at art museums (r = +0.81), and partici-
pation in theater — the correlation between the number of live theatrical producers
per square mile and participation in musical plays is r = +0.82, and the correspon-
ding correlation with participation in non-musical plays is r = +0.76.
For participation in musical plays, non-musical plays, and art museums, all
of the correlation coefficients go up from what they were in Table 8.2a, indi-
cating that at the state level organizations per square mile is a better predictor
of participation rates for each of these art forms than organizations per capita. 23
In the dance and musical sectors, on the other hand, the pattern is less clear with
some of the correlations being higher for organizations per capita and some of
the correlations being higher for organizations per square mile.
Finally, while the correlations in Table 8.2b (states) tend to be higher than
the correlations in Table 7.2b (regions), this pattern is not as striking as it is
with the demographic analyses or the analysis by organizations per capita.
Explaining Variation in Participation Rates Across Regions I 103
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9. How to Change Participation Rates
What can one do to increase participation levels? What hints are contained
in the SPPA data? Sections 7 and 8 have already demonstrated that increasing
the density of opportunities could be one way to increase participation levels.
Do responses to any other SPPA questions suggest points of leverage or partic-
ular policy instruments that might be particularly important? Three sections of
the SPPA seem particularly useful in providing background of this sort: the sec-
tion that asks questions concerning interest in increased participation, the
section that asks questions concerning barriers to increased participation, and
the section that asks questions concerning various socialization experiences that
might affect later participation in the arts and culture. But at the outset one
must note that because each of these sets of questions was asked of a subset of
the overall sample, the random sampling errors associated with each of the esti-
mates reported in this section of the monograph are larger than those reported in
Section 2. That is to say, there is more uncertainty associated with each estimate.
Interest in Increased Participation
Earlier versions of the Survey of Public Participation in the Arts have uncov-
ered surprisingly high levels of interest in increased participation in the arts and
culture, and the 1997 SPPA is no exception.
Table 9.1 provides a summary of the responses to the questions concerned
with increased participation. 24 If one were to ask where the most interest in
increased participation could be found it would be with respect to art museums
and galleries: approximately two-thirds (67.1 percent) of the American adult
population indicates that they would like to attend art museums and galleries
more often. This is followed by plays: 53.6 percent would like to attend musi-
cal plays more often and 54.0 percent would like to attend non-musical plays
more often. Half of the adult population would like to attend dance forms other
than ballet more often.
There is less interest in increased participation in jazz and classical music —
in both cases slightly more than a third of the adult population expresses a
desire to attend more often — and there is even less pent up demand for ballet
(27.4 percent) and opera (18.2 percent). Of course, one suspects that all of these
estimates are high. If all impediments to attending these art forms were removed
it would still be rather unlikely that all of those expressing a desire for increased
participation would actually attend more. It is easy to say you would like to do
1 06 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
something, less easy to say you would actually do it, and even less easy to actu-
ally do it when the opportunity presents itself.
Looking at these results one state at a time can help identify states in which
there is a higher than average interest in increased participation and states in
which it is lower than average. Residents of California, New York, and New
Jersey (with a slight exception for classical music) report more interest in
increased participation for all of the eight art forms than do the residents of the
United States on average. Because these three states have generally turned up as
high participation states in many of the analyses reported here, one wonders
whether this might be due to a concentration of cultural institutions in these
states raising the population's expectations or to the demands of a population
that is particularly inclined toward these forms of cultural consumption.
How to Change Participation Rates I 107
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How to Change Participation Rates 109
On the other end of the spectrum, Pennsylvania's residents show less interest
in increased participation than average across the art forms; and Ohio's resi-
dents show less interest than average for all of the art forms except art
museums, for which they show slightly more interest. Interest in increased par-
ticipation among residents of the other states is more mixed, above the national
average for some art forms and below the national average for others.
To go beyond this broad brush summary with the results reported in Table
9.1 is a bit difficult to justify, especially given the effect of the sampling error
that accompanies each of these estimates.
What is important to notice, however, is the fact that an interest in increased
participation is expressed more often by those who have attended a particular
art form in the previous twelve months than by those who have not. To see this,
compare the second row to the third row for each art form.
By way of illustration, consider a couple of examples. While only 29.2 per-
cent of the respondents who did not attend a jazz performance in the previous
year express a desire to attend more often, over three-quarters (75.3 percent)
who did attend express a desire to attend more often; thus, the level of interest
in increased participation is two and a half times higher among attendees than
among non-attendees. While only 16.2 percent of the respondents who did not
attend an opera performance in the previous year express a desire to attend
more often, 57.1 percent of those who did attend express the same desire, a
level that is more than three times higher.
For nearly no state or art form, with the major exception of opera, does the
level of interest in increased participation fall below 70 percent for attendees;
occasionally it rises above 90 percent. Levels of interest in increased participa-
tion among non-attendees, on the other hand, are more typically in the twenty
to forty percent range for jazz, classical music, and ballet, while they are in the
40 to 60 percent range for dance other than ballet, musical plays, non-musical
plays, and art museums and galleries. For opera, the levels of interest in
increased participation are quite a bit lower for both attendees and non-atten-
dees, generally in the 50 to 70 percent range for attendees and in the 10 to 20
percent range for non-attendees.
These figures pose an interesting dilemma for those concerned with increas-
ing arts attendance. They suggest that it might be easiest to coax an additional
visit out of the members of the current audience (especially since they are eas-
ier to find and identify), but because the number of non-attendees is larger than
the numbers of attendees, particularly for opera and ballet, there may well be
more non-attendees than attendees who are interested in increased participa-
110 ! The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
tion. An efficient marketing strategy has to be carefully targeted to distinguish
between attendees and non-attendees.
Though it is possible to make state by state comparisons of the desire for
increased participation — one might speculate, for example, about the higher
levels of interest in increased opera participation in New York, California, and
Florida, for example; or the extremely low level of interest in increased opera
participation in Illinois and Ohio; or the elevated levels of interest in theater par-
ticipation in New York and New Jersey — it is difficult to interpret any particular
result without considerable contextual information (and without closer attention
to whether the differences might be simply attributable to sampling error).
Barriers to Increased Participation
What do respondents cite as the primary barriers to their increased partici-
pation in the arts and culture? The SPPA questionnaire offered a list of possible
barriers to increased participation in order to gauge their relative importance.
The issue of sample size becomes even more important here, as the questions
concerning barriers to participation were only asked of those respondents who
expressed a desire to attend at least one of the eight key art forms more often,
and those who were asked about their desire to attend more often were, them-
selves, a subset of the overall sample. Thus, the sampling error, particularly
when disaggregated by state, increases once again.
Respondents who expressed a desire to attend one or more of the art forms
more often were asked to identify from a list of possible reasons those factors
that kept them from attending performances or art museums as often as they
would like. They were invited to identify as many responses as they wished.
These responses are summarized in Table 9.2.
The most often cited barrier across all the states — "It is difficult to make time
to go out." — is cited by nearly two-thirds of those who would like to attend
more often. This, of course, is a barrier that arts organizations or arts funding
organizations are powerless to affect. The next three barriers, cited by approx-
imately half of those who would like to attend more often are more amenable
to policy intervention: "'Tickers are too expensive" (cited by 52.1 percent);
"There are not many performances held or art museums or galleries in my area"
(55.7 percent); and "The location is usually not convenient" (47.0 percent).
Thus, price, location, and frequency of performance are key variables to which
these responses point.
As they are presented in Table 9.2, the first six barriers are barriers that
might be affected through policy interventions of one sort or another, though it
How to Change Participation Rates I 111
would not necessarily be easy to do so. The last four barriers are more personal
in nature and, therefore, more resistant to policy intervention, though some
imaginative planning and management might make a difference, e.g. forming
affinity groups for attendees who do not wish to attend alone, providing on-site
child care, or easing access and interpretation for individuals with handicaps.
The seventh barrier — "I think I may feel uncomfortable or out of place." — falls
squarely between these two groups; surely the degree of comfort has something
to do with the characteristics of the individual as well as with the characteris-
tics of the institution or event that one might attend.
Once again, speculating about the meaning of specific levels of response for
particular states is a bit difficult without more, information. Does the fact that
the lack of performances is cited so much less often among Massachusetts resi-
dents who would like to attend more often than among similar residents of
other states actually reflect the relative frequency of performances and the rela-
tive density of available institutions? What is the explanation for the fact that a
much higher percentage of the New Jersey residents who would like to attend
more often cite safety concerns as a barrier to higher participation than do res-
idents of the other states? Is it because their logical destination would be New
York City? If so, is it a factual concern, a perceptual concern, or something else?
Why do only 9.4 percent of those in Massachusetts who would like to attend
more often cite the fact that there is no one to go with, as compared to a
national average of 21.8 percent? Indeed, are there substantive explanations
here or are we just observing the small number of large differences that we
would expect to observe because of sampling error?
112 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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How to Change Participation Rates I 113
Socialization
Another fundamental way in which the populations of the various states
might differ in a manner that might be expected to affect participation rates, is
in the degree of socialization to the various art forms that those populations
may have experienced.
Table 9.3 reports the level of various socialization activities among the
American adult population. Nearly half of American adults report having had
lessons or classes in music at one time or another in their lives. Roughly, 25 per-
cent report having taken lessons or a class in the visual arts, 25 percent report
having taken lessons or a class in creative writing, 25 percent report having
taken a class in art appreciation or art history, and 25 percent report having
taken a class in music appreciation. Smaller proportions of the adult population
have had acting lessons or dance lessons.
What is most striking about Table 9.3, perhaps, is the fact that the variation
across states for participation in each type of socialization is so small. At least
for these ten states, there is hardly any variation in the level of each form of
socialization. Even so, some states stand out. California, Florida, Massachusetts
and New Jersey have higher than average levels for all of the eight forms of
socialization identified here; Illinois has higher than average levels for all forms
except acting lessons; and New York has higher than average levels for all forms
except music lessons. Texas, on the other hand, has lower than average levels
for all forms or socialization, while Pennsylvania has lower than average levels
for all forms except music appreciation classes.
Given the low variation in socialization rates, there are hardly any levels (and
forms) of socialization that stand out for a particular state. Perhaps
Pennsylvania has an unusually low percentage of adults who have ever had les-
sons or classes in the visual arts (20.2 percent as compared to a national average
of 28.7 percent) or an unusually low percentage who have ever had lessons or
classes in theater (6.4 percent as compared to 11.6 percent). Perhaps Texas has
an unusually low percentage who have ever taken lessons or classes in creative
writing (17.7 percent as compared to 24.6 percent) or an unusually low per-
centage who have ever had a class in music appreciation (15.8 percent as
compared to 23.3 percent). New Jersey, on the other hand, may have an unusu-
ally high percentage who have had a class in music appreciation (31.4 percent
as compared to 23.3 percent).
114 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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10. The Demographics of Audiences
This section of this monograph departs from a direct consideration of par-
ticipation rates and turns to a rather different way of employing the SPPA data,
looking at geographic differences in participation in the eight key art forms.
Previous research using data from the various Surveys of Public Participation
and the Arts has pointed repeatedly to the importance of various demographic
variables in predicting participation in the arts and culture, and I have already
looked at several ways of exploring these relationships in Section 6 of this
monograph. Using SPPA data it is also possible to use demographic information
in another way — to construct demographic profiles of the audiences for various
art forms, facilitating comparison across art forms as well as across states. In
this section of the monograph, a number of such profiles are constructed. This
will involve considerably more tabular analysis than has been necessary in the
other parts of this monograph.
The analyses reported here consider four important demographic variables:
educational level, income level, race/ethnicity, and gender. All four of these are
important variables in explaining variations in participation levels and all four
are of concern to arts organizations and arts funding agencies, both of whom
would like to have the audiences of arts and cultural activities better reflect the
demographics of the American population.
Visitors v. Visits
In studying audiences it is always important to remember the critical dis-
tinction between visitors and visits. Here, a visitor to a particular art form is
someone who reports having attended that art form at least once in the previ-
ous twelve months. Visitors are separate, identifiable individuals who have
attended one or another of the arts forms. Yet visitors might make many visits
to a particular art form during the year, several visits, or even only one visit. The
audiences that arts organizations see coming through the door and sitting in the
auditorium are audiences that are made up of visits; frequent attendees show up
proportionately more frequently in these audiences than do infrequent atten-
dees. This distinction comes up most clearly, perhaps, when comparing the two
primary ways of studying arts audiences: participation studies such as SPPA are,
in the first instance, studies of visitors; audience surveys, on the other hand, are
studies of visits. Another way to think about this distinction is to think about
possible applications of these analyses. The arts manager who is most con-
1 1 6 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
cerned about ticket sales will, arguably, be more concerned about the profile of
visits than the profile of visitors: what are the demographic characteristics of
those who are purchasing seats? The director of marketing or of the sales shop
may be more concerned about the profile of visitors: how many different, iden-
tifiable people are we attracting and what are their demographic
characteristics? Similarly, the development director will also be concerned about
visitors: how many different, identifiable people might we tap for contributions
to the organization and what are their characteristics?
Each of the analyses that follows begins with a demographic profile of visi-
tors derived directly from the information given by respondents to the Survey
of Public Participation in the Arts. Then a second analysis is presented, which
weights each respondent by his or her frequency of attendance to the art form
in question and which allows the creation of a demographic profile of visits. 25
Caveats
The problem of small sample size affects a number of the analyses that one
would like to present for a full demographic consideration of the various arts
audiences. First, the samples for some states are considerably smaller than oth-
ers; second, the participation in some art forms, particularly opera and ballet is
quite low as compared to the other art forms, reducing further the number of
respondents on which a demographic profile of the audience can be built; third,
the more categories into which each demographic variable is categorized, the
more likely it is that some of those categories will have extremely few or even
no cases in them; and fourth, some categories are small in any event (e.g. the
number of American Indian or Alaskan Natives in the population of some
states) so it is likely that few such cases would be picked up in any sample.
Taken together, these factors mean that some of the results that follow are
affected to an unusual degree by small sample sizes. This is clearest to see when
no cases show up in a particular demographic category. These situations are
indicated by a dash "-" in the appropriate cell of the table. But any analysis for
a state with a small sample size, for a low participation art form, with a multi-
ple category demographic variable should be treated with extreme caution.
Because of the relatively generous sample size, results for California (as well as
for the United States as a whole) are immune from this concern.
A related problem occurs when a respondent who has a low probability of
turning up in the sample for demographic reasons is actually selected and hap-
pens to have an unusually high frequency of attendance for a particular art
form. This can result in surprisingly large numbers in certain categories in the
The Demographics of Audiences I 117
analysis by visits. Results that are likely to suffer from this problem are high-
lighted in the discussion that follows.
The analyses in this chapter are presented by state because the demographic
profile of the adult population of each state is the appropriate base of compar-
ison. Each audience should be compared to the pool from which it draws.
However, this does not mean that an analysis using SPPA data actually provides
a profile of audiences in each of the ten states. For example, if an arts institu-
tion in Massachusetts looked at its audience it would find residents of other
states, residents of other countries, and children younger than the age of eight-
een in its audience. What this means is that the "audiences" that can be
constructed using SPPA data are the audiences that would be made up of the
adult residents of each state who report having attended a particular art form.
Thus, in some sense, they are hypothetical audiences, ones that we would never
observe in a particular place at a particular point in time. Nevertheless, these
hypothetical audiences are of considerable analytical interest because they do high-
light important demographic patterns that relate, at least in part, to the arts and
cultural opportunities that are available in each state as well as to the demographic
and socialization characteristics of the adult population of that state.
Each of the tables in this section reports a profile of the entire adult popula-
tion of the state in question (or the United States as a whole) by one or another
of the key demographic variables as well as the equivalent profile of the audi-
ences in that state for each of the individual art forms. Instead of using United
States Bureau of the Census data to create these profiles of the entire adult pop-
ulation, the profile of the relevant adult population is derived by applying the
weights developed within the SPPA itself to both the attendees and non-atten-
dees included in the SPPA sample. On occasion, this method of calculating a
demographic profile of the adult population gives results that are somewhat dif-
ferent from the data reported by the Bureau of the Census. Nevertheless,
calculating these profiles from the SPPA data themselves seems to be preferable
in the current context because it provides a base of comparison that is consis-
tent with, and therefore comparable to, the calculations that have been done to
establish the various profiles of visits and visitors.
In the pages that follow some eighty-eight tables are presented:
visitors or visits x ten states plus the United States x four demo-
graphic variables
This presentation is done systematically and slowly, so that with the
roadmap set out above, it should be relatively easy to follow the analysis.
118 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Educational Level
Previous research based on the Surveys of Public Participation in the Arts has
consistently shown educational level to be the most important predictor of par-
ticipation in the arts and culture, so this is perhaps the most reasonable place to
begin. To analyze the profile of audiences according to educational level, a rel-
atively compact categorization scheme with five categories has been adopted:
those who have less than a high school education, those who completed their
education as a high school graduate, those who have had some college but have
no degree, those who have received a bachelors degree but no graduate degree,
and those who have received a graduate degree. 26
Table 10.1a summarizes the distribution of visitors by education for the eight
art forms for each of the ten states as well as for the United States as a whole.
Begin by looking at the data for the United States, the last information pre-
sented in the table. These data clearly indicate the importance of education in
predicting whether someone will be a visitor to any of the art forms. For all of
the art forms, visitors are more highly distributed toward upper educational lev-
els than is the overall adult population. For example, whereas individuals with
graduate degrees comprise 6.9 percent of the adult population of the United
States, they comprise 20.4 percent of visitors to opera performances (the art
form for which visitors are most skewed toward upper educational levels). 55
percent of the visitors to opera performances and nearly half of the visitors to
classical music performances have one or another college degree, whereas only
22 percent of the adult population has such a degree. On the other hand, adults
with less than a high school education comprise slightly more than 20 percent of
the adult population but comprise small percentages of the number of visitors to
each of the arts forms. Overall, adults with a high school diploma or less are under-
represented among visitors, irrespective of the art form, whereas adults with more
than a high school diploma are over-represented among visitors.
The remainder of Table 10.1a allows one to look at these patterns state by
state, in each case making a comparison to the educational profile of that state's
own adult population. The dashes scattered throughout these tables remind us
of the fact that the sample sizes get very small or even disappear in some of these
cells, so that one should focus on broad patterns rather than on specific cell-by-
cell differences.
Table 10.1b weights individual respondents by the appropriate frequency of
attendance and presents the resulting distributions of visits by educational level.
The basic observation to be made here is that because individuals with higher
levels of education also have higher frequencies of attendance, the various dis-
The Demographics of Audiences I 11 9
tributions of visits are skewed even more toward higher educational levels than
are the corresponding distributions of visitors. Thus, for example, the 22 per-
cent of the American adult population with college degrees, while generating
nearly half of the visitors to classical music and 55 percent of the visitors to
opera, generates nearly 60 percent of the visits to both.
1 20 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
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1 32 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
Income Level
Income is another variable that has been shown to be an important predic-
tor of participation, albeit a somewhat less important predictor than
educational level. The SPPA reports each respondent's household income, so
that measure is used here to draw demographic profiles of both visitors and vis-
its to the various,art forms by state.
Table 10.2a summarizes the distributions of visitors by household income for
the eight art forms for each of the ten states as well as for the United States as
a whole. Beginning, once again, with the United States as a whole, while
approximately 16 percent of the Adult population had household incomes
higher than $75,000. roughly twice that percentage of visitors to each of the art
forms had incomes that high or higher. In other words, these income groups
were over-represented in the audience of visitors to these art forms by a ratio of
about 2:1. Individuals with household incomes less than $40,000 are under-rep-
resented among visitors to each of the art forms, whereas individuals with
incomes greater than 550,000 are over-represented among visitors to each of
the art forms.
Once again, it is difficult to systematically digest the vast quantity of informa-
tion that is presented for the various states here. The best advice is to focus on the
state or the art form that most interests you to see what patterns have emerged.
Table 10.2b weights individual respondents by the appropriate frequency of
attendance and presents the resulting distribution of visits by household
income. The results here are not as clear-cut as they were when considering edu-
cational level. Apparently, frequency of attendance does not rise systematically
with household income, so changes between the distribution of visitors and the
distribution of visits are less predictable. In some cases, low-income groups
make up a higher percentage of visits than they do of visitors. One of the expla-
nations of this result may be the presence of students, who often may be high
frequency attendees, among those with low incomes. /Another explanation is
possible if certain art forms attract younger audiences than others, audiences
whose incomes, therefore, might be expected to be lower. Yet another explana-
tion might he in relative household size and the fact that, ceteris paribus, larger
households would be expected to have larger household incomes. These alter-
native explanations notwithstanding, with the exception of the audience for
other dance, individuals with household incomes less than $40,000 are under-
represented among visits to each of the art forms, whereas individuals with
incomes greater than $50,000 are over-represented among visits to each of the
art forms.
The Demographics of Audiences
133
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Race/Ethnicity
Of concern in many government art programs is the degree to which various
minority groups are represented in arts audiences and are participating, more
generally, in arts and cultural activities. Although race and ethnicity are techni-
cally considered to be two different demographic variables, the Office of
Management and Budget has promulgated a set of guidelines for government
sponsored survey research that calls for combining these two variables into a
composite variable to measure the minority status of the American population.
Accordingly, this practice was followed in the design of SPPA. Respondents
were offered five categories as possible descriptions of their race/ethnicity:
Hispanic, white not Hispanic, black not Hispanic, American Indian or Alaskan
Native, and Asian or Pacific Islander.
Table 10.3a summarizes the distributions of visitors by race/ethnicity for the
eight key art forms for each of the ten states as well as for the United States as
a whole. Beginning, once again, with the United States as a whole, white non-
Hispanic individuals comprise just less than three-quarters of the American
adult population. They are over-represented among visitors to each of the art
forms except dance other than ballet, though this overrepresentation is rela-
tively small except for classical music, opera, and ballet. Non-Hispanic blacks,
who make up 11.3 percent of the American adult population, are over-repre-
sented among visitors to jazz, dance other than ballet, and non-musical plays.
Hispanics are over-represented among visitors to dance other than ballet.
Turning attention to the distribution of visitors at the state level, one has to be
extremely careful because of the problem of sample size and low numbers of cases.
Nevertheless, one sees that Hispanics are over-represented among visitors to forms
of dance other than ballet in New Jersey and New York and are very strongly over-
represented among these visitors in Texas (where 27.8 percent of the adult
population is Hispanic but 41.6 percent of visitors to other dance are Hispanic).
Blacks are over-represented among visitors to jazz in all of these ten states.
Table 10.3b weights individual respondents by the appropriate frequency of
attendance and presents the resulting distribution of visits by race/ethnicity.
Looking at the racial/ethnic distribution of visits for the United States as a
whole, Hispanics are somewhat over-represented among visits to ballet as well
as to other forms of dance; blacks are somewhat over-represented among visits
to jazz as well as slightly over-represented among visits to other forms of dance.
At the state level, Table 10.3b is particularly susceptible to the problems of
small samples coupled with some unusually high frequencies that were observed
for the individuals who happened to be included in those samples. For example,
1 46 The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
the data suggest that non-Hispanic blacks make 32.1 percent of the visits to
opera in Florida and that 39.7 percent of the visits to other dance are made by
American Indians or Alaskan Natives. Neither of these is likely to be the case.
Because of the considerably larger sample size, the results for California are
likely to be the only ones for visits that can be used with confidence.
The Demographics of Audiences
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Gender
The final demographic variable that I will consider is gender. It is often
claimed that audiences for many art forms are disproportionately female. The
SPPA offers an opportunity to look at that question in some depth.
Table 10.4a summarizes the distributions of visitors by gender for the eight
art forms for each of the ten states as well as for the United States as a whole.
Women comprise slightly more than half of the adult population of the United
States. The only art form for which they are under-represented among visitors
is jazz, for which they comprise 46.3 percent of visitors. Nearly two thirds of
visitors to ballet performances are women, while the respective percentages for
the other art forms are somewhat less. This general pattern also holds true for
residents of California, Florida, Illinois, and New York, but for the other states
there are some variations with women under-represented among visitors to
some art forms.
Table 10.4b weights individual respondents by the appropriate frequency of
attendance and presents the resulting distribution of visits by gender. For the
United States as a whole, women are over-represented among visits to classical
music, opera, ballet, dance other than ballet, musical plays, non-musical plays,
and art museums and galleries, though in some of these cases the difference in
distribution is very slight. They are under-represented among visits to jazz.
160
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11. In Summary
Using data drawn primarily from the 1997 Survey of Public Participation in
the Arts, this monograph has addressed two questions:
• How do participation levels in the arts and culture vary geographically in
the United States?
And, more importantly,
• Why do those participation levels vary?
With the available data it has been possible to establish a baseline of partic-
ipation rates for a variety of art forms both for the ten states for which the SPPA
data are sufficient to allow a separate consideration and for all nine regions of
the United States. These results have been presented in Sections 1, 2, 3, and 4.
This monograph has also begun to explore a set of possible answers as to
why participation levels vary. These results, summarized in Sections 5 through
10, should be considered suggestive rather than definitive, but, nevertheless,
they do suggest important factors that influence participation rates across geo-
graphic areas.
How Do Participation Levels Vary Geographically?
With respect to live participation in the arts and culture, we have seen that
most of these ten states have higher than average participation rates irrespective
of art form. Certain states, most notably New York, Massachusetts, and New
Jersey, stand out from the other six as states with generally high participation
rates. Pennsylvania and Texas, on the other hand, systematically have lower
than average participation rates. As expected, some art forms (art museums
and musical plays) enjoy high participation rates across these states, while oth-
ers (opera and ballet, in particular) have much lower participation rates.
There may be some substitution among types of cultural participation, with
the citizens of a particular state trading off participation in one art form with
participation in another. The possibility of substitution is particularly strong
when considering the tradeoff between the eight key art forms and the three
other types of cultural activities considered here — reading literature, visiting his-
toric parks or monuments, and visiting art of crafts fairs or festivals — which are
more popular in their appeal.
At a regional level, the highest participation rates can be found in New
England, the Middle Atlantic region, and the Pacific region. New England has
In Summary ! 169
the highest participation rates for five of the eight key art forms that have been
studied here and the second highest rate for two others. The East South Central
region, on the other hand, reports the lowest participation rates for six of the
eight art forms. The pattern differs somewhat for the three other cultural activ-
ities, but the East South Central region still reports the lowest participation
rates by a considerable margin.
Participation in the arts and culture through various forms of media — televi-
sion and video; radio; and records, compact discs, and tapes — also varies
substantially across states. Depending on the media under consideration,
California, Massachusetts, or New Jersey evidences the highest participation
rates. Pennsylvania consistently has the lowest participation rates.
Finally, direct participation through creation and through performance were
also considered. Higher than average levels of participation in creation are
reported for Massachusetts and New Jersey; a lower than average level is
reported in Pennsylvania. Of the ten states considered here, Florida has the
highest rate of participation in performance followed by Massachusetts. Ohio
reports the lowest rate of participation in personal performance and California
the second lowest.
Taken together, these findings begin to suggest the shape of the arts partici-
pation terrain with its highs and lows and with its interrelationships, but
without additional data for the other forty states, one should be careful about
comparisons that conclude that participation in a particular art form in a par-
ticular state is unusually high or low.
Why Do Participation Levels Vary Geographically?
Beginning with sections 5 and 6 of this monograph, our attention turned to
the second question: why do participation levels vary geographically? We
began by asking what the relationship is between participation rates across art
forms in order to focus on whether participation levels in one art form tend to
be positively or negatively related to participation levels in other art forms. Our
interest here was in ascertaining whether levels of participation in the arts were
generalizable across art forms or whether there was evidence of substitution, with
one art form appearing to substitute for another in a particular region or state.
At the regional level, all of the participation rates are positively correlated
with one another, whether they are for the eight key art forms or for the addi-
tional three cultural activities; and many of these correlations are quite high.
Thus, at the regional level, participation rates tend to parallel one another.
High participation in one art form or cultural activity is an indicator of high
participation in another.
1 70 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
At the state level, however, a slightly different pattern emerged. While the
correlation coefficients for the eight key art forms are, with one exception, pos-
itive, they are not as strong as they are at the regional level. This is not too
surprising because one would expect to observe more nuance and variation at
the lower geographic aggregation. When this analysis is extended to other cul-
tural activities, however, negative correlations appear with respect to attendance at
historic parks or monuments and attendance at art or crafts fairs or festivals, sug-
gesting that ar the state level there is some degree of substitution between
participation in the eight key art forms and participation in these cultural activities.
We then turned, in sections 7 and 8 of the monograph, to exploring more
explicit possible explanations for the observed geographic variations in partici-
pation rates. To begin to develop a sense of possible explanations for this
geographic variation, two sets of independent variables were considered: ones
that measure socio-economic characteristics of the area's population and ones
that measure the presence of cultural organizations of various types.
At the regional level, percentage of the adult population with a bachelor's
degree is an excellent predictor of participation rates in all of the forms of art
and culture considered here. Median household income is also a good predic-
tor. Two indicators of relative urbanization — "percentage non-metropolitan"
and "percentage rural" — are both strongly negatively correlated with participa-
tion in each of the art forms, and, thus, they too are good predictors of variation
in participation rates. Finally, the density of arts and cultural organizations per
capita is strongly and positively correlated with participation rates when the
institutional boundaries of the sectors for which the data had been collected are
comparable.
At the state level, percentage of the adult population with a bachelor's degree
is also a good predictor. Population per square mile is a very good predictor for
a number of art forms, and percentage non-metropolitan is a reasonably good
predictor as well. The percentage of the population below the poverty level is
negatively correlated with participation in seven of the eleven art forms and cul-
tural activities. The density of arts and cultural organizations per square mile
produces a number of very strong correlations.
Section 9 explored whether responses to the SPPA suggest points of leverage
or particular policy instruments that might be particularly important in increas-
ing participation rates. Three sets of questions were explored: (1) questions
concerning the respondent's interest in increased participation, (2) questions
concerning perceived barriers to increased participation, and (3) questions con-
cerning various socialization experiences that an individual had had that might
affect later participation in the arts and culture.
In Summary 171
With respect to an interest in increased participation, nearly two-thirds of the
American adult population would like to attend art museums and galleries more
often. Over half the population would like to attend both musical plays and
non-musical plays more often. There is less interest in increased participation
in the other art forms. What is most important to notice, however, is that an
interest in increased participation is expressed much more often by those who
have attended a particular art form in the previous twelve months than by those
who have not, and this is true irrespective of the state under consideration.
Residents of California, New York and New Jersey report more interest in
increased participation for all of the eight key art forms than do the residents of
the United States on average. Because these three states generally turn up as
high participation states in many of the analyses reported here, this might be
due to a concentration of cultural institutions in these states, raising the popu-
lation's expectations or the demand of a population that, socio-economically, is
particularly inclined toward these forms of cultural consumption. Residents of
Pennsylvania and Ohio, on the other hand, show less interest than average in
increased participation.
With respect to barriers to increased attendance, the most often cited barrier,
cited by nearly two-thirds of those who would like to attend more often, is a
broad one: "It is difficult to make time to go out." Roughly half of those who
would like to attend more often cite "Tickets are too expensive," "There are not
many performances held or art museums or galleries in my area," and "The
location is usually not convenient." These reasons are more susceptible to pol-
icy intervention.
Finally, with respect to socialization, nearly half of American adults report
having had lessons or classes in music at one time or another in their lives.
Roughly one-quarter reports having taken lessons or a class in each of the fol-
lowing: the visual arts, creative writing, art appreciation or art history, and
music appreciation. Lower percentages have had acting or dance lessons.
California, Florida, Massachusetts and New Jersey have higher than average
levels of socialization for all of the eight key art forms. Texas, on the other
hand, has lower than average socialization levels.
The last section of this monograph, Section 10, used the SPPA data to con-
struct a wide range of demographic profiles of the audiences for various art
forms, facilitating comparisons across art forms as well as across states. The
analyses reported in this section considered four important demographic vari-
ables: education level, income level, race/ethnicity, and gender. A careful
distinction was drawn between an audience profile of visitors (separately iden-
1 72 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
tifiable individuals making no adjustment for their relative frequency of atten-
dance) and an audience profile of visits (adjusting for the fact that some visitors
attend more frequently than others).
As with all of the other results in this monograph, these results should be
considered as beginning steps in the construction of a robust baseline of geo-
graphic-based data on participation rates.
Caveats
At the risk of beating the point to death, in concluding this monograph it is nec-
essary to repeat the cautions that have been mentioned repeatedly throughout.
Because the SPPA data are the result of sampling, all of the estimates of par-
ticipation rates in this monograph are subject to random sampling error.
Because of that error many of the observed differences in participation rates
may be attributable, at least in part, to random sampling error rather than to
any real differences in participation rates. Only very large observed differences
are likely to be immune from this complication. This issue has been discussed
at some length in Section 2, but it obviously would affect the interpretation of
the results in all of the other sections as well.
To the extent that our analysis of why participation rates vary is built upon
correlation coefficients calculated across a non-random sample of ten states,
these results must be understood in a rather modest manner. Put simply, the
results of these analyses cannot be generalized to all of the states. They simply
measure the correlation that one observes when looking at various pairs of vari-
ables across this particular set of ten states.
These caveats notwithstanding, we repeat the statement that we made at the
outset. It is our hope that with the analyses contained in these pages, we have
begun a fruitful inquiry into the geographic variation in participation across the
United States. Such information has a particularly valuable role to play as the
focus of American cultural policy turns inevitably to the regional and state lev-
els. A solid base of data will be required to develop that policy in a responsible
and effective manner.
173
Notes
1 The terminology used in this monograph differs slightly from the terminol-
ogy used by the United States Bureau of the Census. The Bureau uses the word
"region" to refer to four highly aggregated geographic areas of the United
States: the West (thirteen states), the Midwest (twelve states), the South (sixteen
states plus the District of Columbia), and the Northeast (nine states). The
Bureau uses the word "division" to refer to the nine more disaggregated geo-
graphic areas that are considered here. For the purposes of the current
monograph this finer level of aggregation is more appropriate, but because the
word "division" is less widely recognized, "region" is used in a generic sense to
capture this level of geographic aggregation.
2 What constitutes a "high" participation rate as compared to a "medium"
or "low" participation rate depends, of course, on many subjective factors.
Here the modifiers are used in a comparative, rather than in an absolute sense.
3 Several participation questions were asked of subsamples. These questions
are considered in later sections of this monograph.
4 This narrower definition makes little actual difference. The overall partici-
pation rate for reading a book is 663 percent, while the overall participation
rate for reading literature is 63.1 percent.
J The samples sizes for each state are summarized in the following table:
Survey of Public Participation in the Arts, 1997:
Sample Size by State
State Sample Size
California 2,574
Florida 628
Illinois 709
Massachusetts 459
Michigan 712
New Jersey 490
New York 782
Ohio 460
Pennsylvania 974
Texas 81 8
Source: 1 997 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts.
The sample size was considerably larger in California than in other states
because extra resources were invested in sampling in California so that reliable
estimates could be derived for various regions of the state.
1 74 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
' This calculation of the random sampling error is the result of multiplying
the standard error of the estimate, 0.798, by the number of standard errors
included in a 95% confidence interval, 1.96. Note that the standard errors of
the estimates were all calculated using the replicate weight method as suggested
by Westat, the contractor who designed and conducted the 1997 Survey of
Publication and the Arts. Calculations were made using WesVarPC software
available from the, Westat web site, http://www.westat.com .
" This is effectively what has been done in many of the monographs that have
been written based on SPPA data over the years. Errors of the estimates have
been overlooked.
8 For another compilation of geographic variations in participation rates see,
"Arts Participation by Region, State, and Metropolitan Area," Research Note
#72, Research Division, Office of Policy Research and Analysis, National
Endowment for the Arts, Washington, D.C., January 1999.
9 In a monograph based on data from the 1992 Survey of Public Participation
in the arts, Charles Gray concluded, "The statistics related to cross-participa-
tion in the arts via media alternatives and live attendance indicate that those
who shunned live attendance also shunned media participation and vice versa;
but very often, a majority of those who participated by media did not attend
live performances or showings. A more positive slant is that respondents who
did not attend live performances or showings did participate by media. This fur-
ther suggests that the media constitute a more-or-less readily available
alternative to live attendance." Charles M. Gray, Turning On and Tuning In:
Media Participation in the Arts, National Endowment for the Arts, Research
Division Report #33 (Carson, California: Seven Locks Press, 1995), p. 78. This
monograph took individuals as its unit of analysis, while the current one takes
various geographic areas as its unit of analysis, an important distinction that
could lead to differing interpretations of the role of the media in participation.
10 Each correlation coefficient in this table is calculated in the following man-
ner: first, the point estimates of the participation rates in each art form are
calculated for each of the nine regions; then, two art forms are selected and the
nine pairs of participation rates are used to calculate the correlation coefficient
between these participation rates across the nine regions.
11 Each correlation coefficient in this table is calculated in the following man-
ner: first, the point estimates of the participation rates in each art form are
calculated for each of the ten states; then, two art forms are selected and the ten
pairs of participation rates are used to calculate the correlation coefficient
between these participation rates across the ten states.
Notes 175
12 Note that each correlation coefficient actually appears twice in this table,
as it is symmetric around its major diagonal.
13 The analysis in Sections 7 and 8 shares many similarities with the analysis
I used in an earlier monograph, though the purpose of the monograph was
rather different: to try and explain geographic variations in the support for arts
and culture. J. Mark Davidson Schuster, "An Inquiry into the Geographic
Correlates of Government Arts Funding," research monograph prepared for the
Research Division, National Endowment for the Arts, Washington, D.C.,
March 1988, published in an edited version as "Correlates of State Arts
Support: The Geographic Distribution of Organizations, Artists, and
Participation," in David B. Pankratz and Valerie B. Morris, eds. The Future of
the Arts: Public Policy and Arts Research (New York: Praeger, 1990).
14 The authors of other monographs in this series whose unit of analysis is the
individual respondent will be able to explore these questions in the context of a
multivariate model.
15 Once can debate the year for which the independent variables should be
measured. If one is asked in 1997 to remember one's participation in the arts
and culture in the previous twelve months, one is likely remembering 1996
behavior. From this perspective, the various demographic variables should be
measured for 1996. On the other hand, only the state in which the respondent
resided in 1997 is known, not the state in which he or she resided in 1996, and
cultural behavior should be like the cultural behavior of those who live in close
proximity. From this perspective, it seems reasonable to use 1997 data. As the
analysis of these other variables involves only the calculation of correlation
coefficients, order is more important than absolute value, so the difference in
basing the calculations on one year rather than the other is likely to be slight.
16 This result is repeated in many of the research monographs commissioned
by the National Endowment for the Arts and based on the various SPPA stud-
ies. See, for example, J. Mark Davidson Schuster, The Audience for American
Art Museums, National Endowment for the Arts, Research Division Report #23
(Cabin John, Maryland: Seven Locks Press, 1991). Consult NEA's web site for
a list of publications: http://arts.endow.gov/pub/ResearchReports.html .
17 Once again, this result can be found in any of the research monographs
commissioned by the National Endowment for the Arts and based on the vari-
ous SPPA studies. Consult: http://arts.endow.gov/pub/ResearchReports.html .
18 The SPPA question concerning race asked each respondent to select one of
five racial categories: "Hispanic," "White, but not of Hispanic origin," "Black,
but not of Hispanic origin," "American Indian or Alaskan Native," or " "Asian
1 76 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
or Pacific Islander."
19 A metropolitan area consists of the county in which a central city is
located, plus any adjacent counties with close ties to this core county. To qual-
ity as a metropolitan area, the area must contain either: (1) a city with a
minimum population of 50,000 or (2) a Census Bureau-defined Urbanized Area
and a total metropolitan area population of at least 100,000 (75,000 in New
England).
20 This question has been most directly addressed in Schuster, "Correlates of
State Arts Support: The Geographic Distribution of Organizations, Artists, and
Participation." The question of determinants of state arts funding is also taken
up by Richard I. Hofferbert and John K. Urice, "Small-Scale Policy: The Federal
Stimulus versus Competing Explanations for State Funding for the Arts,"
American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 29, 1985, pp. 308-329; Dick Netzer,
"Cultural Policy in an Era of Budgetary Stringency and Fiscal Decentralization:
The U. S. Experience," in Ruth Towse and Abdul Khakee, eds. Cultural
Economics (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1992); and Dore Abrams, Farra Bracht,
and Martha Prinz, "Determinants of State Government Funding of the Arts in
the United States," unpublished paper presented at the Ninth International
Conference on Cultural Economics, Boston, Massachusetts, May 9, 1996.
21 Eventually, data from the 1997 Census of Service Industries will become
available, and they would clearly be preferable in the current analysis.
Unfortunately, they were not yet available at the necessary level of disaggrega-
tion while the current monograph was being written. For a further description
of the use of the 1992 Census of Service Industries to document the geographic
distribution of performing arts organizations see "The Performing Arts Spread
Out: Geography of Performing Arts Organizations, 1992," Research Note #63,
Research Division, Office of Policy Research and Analysis, National
Endowment for the Arts, Washington, D.C., March 1998.
22 In the case of correlating participation in jazz with the density of nonprofit
other music groups and artists, the correlation coefficient switches from a neg-
ative number with a higher absolute value to a positive number with a lower
absolute value. In one sense, this means that density per square mile is a weaker
predictor, but it is not in the expected direction, which can be interpreted as
another form of a "stronger" predictor.
23 The form of these questions, which may be important to the interpretation
of the responses, was the following:
"Now I am going to read a list of events that some people like
to attend. If you could go to any of these events as often as
you wanted, which ones would you go to more often than you
Notes I 177
do now? How about...
Jazz music performances
Classical music performances [etc.]"
24 Both the 1997 and the 1992 SPPA surveys asked respondents to report an
exact frequency. Earlier versions of SPPA had asked respondents to indicate the
ranges within which their frequency of attendance fell. This offered a much less
precise way of moving back and forth between an analysis based on visitors and
one based on visits than is offered by the more recent versions.
Even so, there is considerable debate among survey researchers as to how
reliable these responses are as estimates of frequency of attendance. Do respon-
dents remember more recent attendance more clearly than attendance some
time ago and base their estimates over the whole period on the most recent
period? Or do respondents attribute behavior that occurred long ago to the pre-
vious twelve months? These debates, while of interest in estimating the overall
volume of visits, are of less interest in the current analysis as the demographic pro-
files of audiences rely on relative proportions within each demographic category
rather than the absolute number. If one feels comfortable with assuming that the
factors that lead to bias in an individual's estimates of the frequency of her or her
attendance are distributed in the same way across the demographic categories
under consideration, then this bias will not affect the current analysis.
There is a second factor that may be of somewhat greater concern in the cur-
rent analysis. Some respondents to the SPPA have reported what might be
interpreted as unusually high frequencies of attendance to various art forms.
One respondent, for example, reports having gone to 156 live dance perform-
ances in the previous twelve months; another reports having gone to an art
museum or gallery 400 times. How to handle these high frequencies occasioned
quite a bit of e-mail discussion among the researchers writing monographs
based on the 1997 SPPA data. Some suggested simply deleting cases that
reported frequencies over some arbitrary level. Others suggested investigating
the individual respondent more fully to see if one could establish the reason-
ableness of that frequency based on some other information reported by the
respondent. One suggested taking the logarithm or natural logarithm of all of
the frequencies, calculating the weighted mean log frequency for all cases in a
given demographic group, and then multiplying the total of the weights for
these cases by the anti-log of the mean. This would have normalized the distri-
bution and reduced the impact of extreme cases. Yet another researcher pointed
out that it was quite possible that the survey had picked up a professional in one
or another of these art forms who did, in fact, have such a high frequency of
1 78 I The Geography of Participation in the Arts and Culture
attendance. In the end, we ran a few analyses omitting cases with unusually high
frequencies of attendance and convinced ourselves that they did not have suffi-
cient effect on the final demographic profiles to justify either deleting or
handling them in one of the other proposed ways.
In the course of these e-mail conversations, Alan Brown of Audience Insight
pointed out another interesting mathematical attribute of the respondent
reported frequencies: when the frequency exceeds 5 or 6 times per year, the fre-
quencies that respondents report cluster around time increments (e.g. 12, 24,
52) or multiples of five, reflecting the mental models that respondents use to
estimate these frequencies.
25 The choice of a categorization scheme for the education variable also occa-
sioned a considerable amount of e-mail. The variable included in the SPPA
questionnaire actually had thirteen categories, a level of detailed not necessary
in the current analysis and not justified because of the small sample sizes that
would result in so many of these categories. Among the monograph authors
there are three conceptual models as to how to aggregate this variable. One
would maintain all of the detail of the original variable, building it into any
analysis through an appropriate number of dummy variables. Another would
look at similarities in participation rates across values of the education variable
and group together those adjacent categories whose participation rates are more
or less similar. The third would try to achieve some economy of presentation
when finally presenting crosstabulations and other analyses to the audience of
the monograph. This latter approach would require a small number of easily
understandable and communicable categories.
In this monograph, the third approach was adopted and implemented
with the following scheme:
Category 1 includes those who list for their highest grade/year of
school 7 th grade or less, 8 th grade, 9 th to 11 th grade, 12 th
grade but no diploma = Less Than High School.
Category 2 includes those who list for their highest grade/year of
school a high school diploma or the equivalent = High School
Graduate.
Category 3 includes those who list for their highest grade/year of
school a vocational or technical program after high school, some
college but no degree, or an associate's degree = Some College.
Category 4 includes those who list for their highest grade/year of
school a bachelor's degree or attendance at graduate or profes-
Notes 179
sional school without a degree = Bachelor's Degree.
Category 5 includes those who list for their highest grade/year of
school a master's degree, a doctorate, or a professional degree
(medicine, dentistry, law) = Graduate Degree.
Others have adopted this approach as well, but have used slightly different
categories. This means, of course, that the various categorization schemes are
not consistent across the various SPPA monographs, complicating the compar-
ative interpretation of their results.
180
Bibliography
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Government Funding of the Arts in the United States." Unpublished
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181
About the Author
J. Mark Schuster is Professor of Urban Cultural Policy in the Department of
Urban Studies and Planning at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts. Professor Schuster is a public policy analyst who
specializes in the analysis of government policies and programs with respect to
the arts, culture, and urban design. He is the author of numerous books, arti-
cles, and reports including: Preserving the Built Heritage: Tools for
Implementation (University Press of New England) [with John de Monchaux
and Charles Riley], Patrons Despite Themselves: Taxpayers and Arts Policy
(New York University Press) [with Michael O'Hare and Alan Feld], Supporting
the Arts: An International Comparative Study (National Endowment for the
Arts), Who's to Pay for the Arts? The International Search for Models of Arts
Support (American Council for the Arts) [with Milton Cummings], and The
Audience for American Art Museums (Seven Locks Press). He is currently the
Director of the Northeast Mayors' Institute on City Design.
Professor Schuster has served as a consultant to the Arts Council of Great
Britain, the National Endowment for the Arts, the National Capital Planning
Commission, the Canada Council, Communications Canada, the British
American Arts Association, the London Arts Board, the British Museum, the
Council of Europe, National Public Radio, American Council for the Arts, Arts
International, the Massachusetts Council on the Arts and Humanities, and the
Massachusetts Commission to Study Racial and Ethnic Bias in the Courts,
among others. He has spoken at numerous international conferences on sub-
jects ranging from the use of matching grants, tax incentives, and dedicated
state lotteries to fund the arts to the economic and political justifications for
government support for the arts and the role of the arts in urban development.
Professor Schuster is Joint Editor of the Journal of Cultural Economics and a
member of the editorial boards of the journal of Planning Education and
Research and the International Journal of Cultural Policy. He also is the chair-
man of the International Alliance of First Night Celebrations.