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THE   GEOGRA 

OF 

PLANTS 


BY 


M.    E.    HARDY,    D.  Sc. 


OXFORD 
AT   THE   CLARENDON 
1920 


PRESS      ,(  ;;  '*'  ';'  ■■ 
■J    I       I 


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OXFORD   UNIVERSITY   PRESS 

LONDON  EDINBURGH  GLASGOW  NEW  YOEK 

TOKONTO      MELBOURNE      CAPE   TOWN      BOMBAY 

HUMPHREY   MILFORD 

PUBLISHER    TO    THE    UNIVERSITY 


PREFACE 

In  the  preface  to  Dr.  Marcel  Hardy's  Introduction  to 
Plant  Geography,  Professor  Herbertson  wrote,  '  it  will 
be  followed  by  a  more  advanced  book '.  This  ■  more 
advanced  book '  is  the  volume  now  published. 

Many  ousm  have  contributed  to  delay  its  appearance  : 
the  death  of  Professor  Herbertson ;  the  departure  of  the 
author  to  South  America ;  the  War  and  its  aftermath, 
which  have  rendered  so  extremely  difficult  everything 
connected  with  the  publication  of  books:  but  the  proofs 
have  been  fully  revised,  and  many  new  photographs 
have  been  inserted. 

It  may  be  taken  as  in  some  sort  an  expansion  of 
Part  III  of  the  earlier  work,  since  the  slight '  survey  of 
the  continents  '  given  there  has  served  as  the  plan  for 
the  new  book,  and  has  been  expanded  into  a  full  dis- 
cussion of  the  conditions  in  which  plants  flourish,  and 
their  distribution  in  the  great  geographical  divisions 
of  the  earth.  An  index  of  the  plants  mentioned  is 
appended,  with  the  scientific  or  popular  name,  as  the 
case  may  be  :  where  the  author  has  used  a  precise  name, 
the  exact  equivalent  is  given  ;  where  a  genus  only  is 
indicated,  the  corresponding  generic  term  is  set  down, 
unless  some  particular  species  is  peculiarly  characteristic 


iv  PREFACE 

of  the  region  described,  when  the  full  name  of  that 
species  is  added. 

Thanks  are  most  gratefully  offered  to  the  Belgian 
Government,  Professor  A.  W.  W.  Brown,  Col.  Coachman, 
Mrs.  Cross,  Miss  Czaplicka,  Mrs.  Doyne,  Sir  S.  Eardley 
Wilmot,  Mrs.  Edwards,  Captain  C.  T.  Ffoulkes,  Sir  H.  H. 
Johnston,  M.  J.  Lngarde,  Mr.  W.  Lloyd,  Mr.  H.  M.  Loucas. 
Mr.  C.  W.  Mathers,  Messrs.  Seeley,  Service  &  Co.,  the 
Controller  of  H.M.  Ordnance  Survey,  Profeaw  A. 
Donaldson  Smith,  Sir  Aurel  Stein,  Mr.  M.  S.  Thompson, 
Sir  Everard  Im  Thurn,  Mrs.  Traill,  Messrs  Underwood 
and  Underwood,  the  Visual  Instruction  Committee, 
Mrs.  Watkins,  Mr.  C.  M.  Woodward  for  the  loan  of 
photographs  from  which  the  illustrations  have  been 
ma/le,  and  to  Miss  MacMunn  for  most  kindly  reading 
through  the  final  proof. 

Miss  Kirkaldy  very  kindly  made  herself  responsible 
for  seeing  the  book  through  the  press. 

Oxford,  1920. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

ASIA.  .    • 1 

Tundra -West  Siberia -Eastern  Siberia— Amuria,  Korea, 
Sakhalin,  Hokkaido  (Yezo)  -  Kamchatka  -Indo-China— 
Japan— Eastern  Margin  of  the  Great  Central  Plateau- 
Manchuria — Northern  China-  Central  China— Malay  Archi- 
pelago -  India  —  The  Indus  Desert  —  Iran  —  Mesopotamia 
Asia  Minor  —  Turan  —  Turkestan  Highlands  —  Kirghiz 
Steppe -Siberian  Highlands  -Mongolia— Tibet  andPamirs- 
Tsaidam. 

CHAPTER  II 

NORTH  AMERICA 75 

Tundra  Region -The  Great  Canadian  Forest -Great  Lake 
Region  — Appalachian  Region— West  of  the  Appalachians 
—Southern  States  -Texas  Great  Staked  Plain —The  Grass 
Belt— The  Western  Mountains— Intermont  Plateaus  of  the 
Pacific— California — The  American  Deserts — Lower  Cali- 
fornia and  Northern  Sonora — The  Mexican  Plateau — 
Atlantic  Lowlands  of  Mexico  and  Southern  Mexico  — 
Florida  and  the  West  Indies. 

CHAPTER  HI 

SOUTH  AMERICA 124 

Central  America  — Orinoco  Llanos-  Guiana  Highlands — 
Guiana  Lowlands— The  Amazon  Basin —Flood  Forests  —  Caa- 
guazu  — Brazilian  Coast  Forest  Belt  — East  Brazilian  High- 
lands—Northern   Portion -Southern    Brazil    Highlands— 


vi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Matto  Grosso  and  West  Goyaz- Bolivian  Llanos— Chaco— 
Alto  Parana-Paraguay—  Paraguay  and  Lower  Parana 
Marshes — Western  Argentine  Wastes  —  The  Pampa  — 
Uruguay  and  Entre  Rios — Patagonia  Semi-desert— South 
Patagonia  —  Fuego  — The  Andes  —  Eastern  Andes  ;  The 
Montana — Argentine  subtropical  Andes — Dry  Argentine 
Cordillera— Western  Andes — Peruvian  Andes— Atacama — 
Central  Chile— South  Chilian  Rain-forests  — Extreme  South 
and  Fuego — Punas. 


CHAPTER  IV 

AUSTRALIA 171 

Northern  Point  of  the  Tableland— Thornwood— Tropical 
Savana  —  Scrubland  —  The  Brigalow  Scrub  —  The  Mallee 
Scrub— The  Mulga  Scrub— Great  Central  Desert— Murray- 
Darling  Valley  and  South  Australia— Mediterranean  Por- 
tions of  Southern  Australia— Savana  Woods  — South-eastern 
Temperate  Rain-forest— Northern  Portion  of  the  Eastern 
Highlands— Tasmania— New  Guinea— New  Caledonia — New 
Zealand — Pacific  Islands. 


CHAPTER  V 

AFRICA 195 

Mediterranean  Africa— The  Atlas  Intermont  Plateaus— The 
African  Islands— Sahara— Sudan  Semi-Desert— Sudanese 
Savana — Futa-Jallon— Egyptian  Sudan  —  Abyssinia —Abys- 
sino-Eritrean  Foot-hills  —Yemen—  Somaliland— LightForests 
and  Parks  of  Tropical  Africa — West  African  Coast :  Guinea 
— West  African  Plateaus — The  Congo  Basin— Angola — East 
African  Mountain  Region-  The  Zambezi  basin  and  Unyam- 
wezi — Gazaland  and  Mozambique— Boschveld— Hoogeveld 
—  Drakenberg — Kalahari  — Damara  Desert — Karroo  Region 
— The  Karroos-  Southern  Belt  of  South  Africa— Knysna 
Forest — KafFraria — Madagascar. 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

CHAPTER   VI 

EUROPE 250 

The  Arctic  Region  — Arctic-Alpine  Tundras  and  Fjelds— 
Northern  Europe  —  Russian  Steppe  —  Hungary  —  Balkan 
Peninsula  — Caucasia — Mediterranean — Illyrian  Karst — Po 
Valley — Central  Europe— Western  Europe — Atlantic  Fringe 
— Britain. 

CHAPTER   VII 
CONCLUSION 302 

GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 308 

INDEX  OF  TLANT  NAMES  ...  ...  315 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Physical  Features  'of  Asia 3 

2.  Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  Asia     .         .  .  .4 

3.  Seasonal  Distribution  of  Rainfall  in  Asia            ...  5 

4.  Mean  Temperature  of  Asia  in  January  reduced  to  sea-level  6 

5.  Mean  Temperature  of  Asia  in  July  reduced  to  sea-level     .  7 

6.  Vegetation  of  Asia 8 

7.  Siberian  Tundra  (Photo  :  Miss  Czaplicka)  ....  9 

8.  The  Sundarbans  (Photo  :  Sir  S.  Eardley  Wilmot)      .         .  20 

9.  A  Chinese  Rice-field  (Photo  :  Underwood  and  Underwood)  22 

10.  The  Manchurian  Steppe  and  its  Camps  (Photo  :  Prof.  A. 

Donaldson  Smith) 24 

11.  Undergrowth  of  Evergreen  Equatorial  Forest  in  Solomon 

Islands  (Photo :  C.  M.  Woodward)  .         .        .        .33 

12.  A  River  Scene  in  Burma  (Photo  :  Sir  S.  Eardley  Wilmot)      37 

13.  The  Himalayas,  from  Darjiling  (Photo  :  Visual  Instruction 

Committee)     .........     40 

14.  An  Oasis  in  the  Desert  —Iran      .         .....     46 

15.  The  Jubailah  Creek — Mesopotamia    .         .         .         .         .52 

16.  The  Top  of  the  Last  Pass  (Photo:  Sir  A.  Stein)  .         .     71 

17.  Dal  Lake,  Kashmir  (Photo :  Sir  A.  Stein)  ....     74 

18.  Physical  Features  of  North  America 76 

19.  Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  North  America  .         .         .         .77 

20.  Seasonal  Distribution  of  Rainfall  in  North  America  .         .     78 

21.  22.  Mean  Temperature  of  North  America  in  January  and 

July  reduced  to  sea-level 79 

23.  Vegetation  of  North  America 80 

24.  Spruce  Forest  on   a  river  flat— Canada  (Photo:   C.  W. 

Mathers) 82 

25.  The  Canadian  Prairie  (Photo:  C.  W.  Mathers)  .         .        .     96 

26.  The  prairie  passing  into  a  brush  of  summer-green  bushes 

and  small  birches 99 

27.  Pine  Forest  bordering  meadow,  Rocky  Mountains  (Photo : 

A.  W.  W.  Brown)  . 101 


x  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

28.  View  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  showing  pines  and  Douglas 

firs  (Photo  :  A.  W.  W.  Brown) 103 

29.  Big  trees  in  the  Coastal  Forests  of  British  Columbia  .  105 

30.  Aspen  Forest  in  Colorado  (Photo  :  A.  W.  W.  Brown)         .  106 

31.  Sage-brush,  Colorado  (Photo:  A.  W.  W.  Brown)        .        .  109 

32.  A  typical  timbered  canon  in  the  Colorado  region  (Photo  : 

A.  W.  W.Brown) .         .111 

33.  Dry  cereus   scrub   on  steep  slopes  of  a  gorge — Mexico 

(Photo  :  A.  W.  W.  Brown) 115 

34.  Taxodium  trees  —  Sacromonte  Amecameca  (Mexico)  (Photo : 

A.  W.W.Brown) 118 

35.  Dry  scrub  and  cereus-trees  on  arid  slopes— Tuland  valley, 

Mexico  (Photo:  A.  W.W.  Brown)  .         .         .         .121 

36.  In  a  Florida  Swamp  (Photo  :  Underwood  and  Underwood)  122 

37.  Undergrowth  of  a  tidal '  bayou'  in  intertropical  country  .  126 

38.  Physical  Features  of  South  America 128 

39.  40.  Mean  Temperature  of  South  America  in  January  and 

July  reduced  to  sea-level 129 

41.  Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  South  America   ....  129 

42.  Seasonal  Distribution  of  Rainfall  in  South  America  .         .  129 

43.  Vegetation  of  South  America 130 

44.  Tangle  of  Mangrove  roots   at  low  tide — British  Guiana 

(Photo  :  Sir  E.  Im  Thurn) 134 

45.  Swamp  Forest  with  roots  of  trees  sticking  out  above  flood 

level 137 

46.  Forest  cutting- Eastern  Brazil  (Photo  :  A.  W.  W.  Brown)  139 

47.  Araucaria  imbricata  (Chile  pine) 144 

48.  Brazilian  Savana,  Matto  Grosso 146 

49.  Paraguayan  Forest  near  Guayra  Falls        .        .         .        .150 

50.  Campos  in  North  Paraguay 151 

51.  Subtropical  Rain  Forest,  Paraguay 152 

52.  Palm  Grove  in  Corrientes,  Argentina  (Photo  :  A.  W.  W. 

Brown) 153 

53.  Chanar   and  dry   cereus   scrub,    W.    Argentina   (Photo : 

A.  W.  W.  Brown) 156 

54.  Cactus  on  the  dry  slopes  of  the  Andes  (Photo  :  Underwood 

and  Underwood) 167 

55.  A  Eucalyptus-clad  gorge  in  the  mountains — N.E.  Australia  172 

56.  Physical  features  of  Australia 173 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

FIG.  PAGE 

57.  Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  Australia 174 

58.  Savana  landscape  with  nucleus  of  a  settlement         .        .175 

59.  Seasonal  Distribution  of  Rainfall  in  Australia    .         .         .  176 

60.  61.  Mean  Temperature  of  Australia  in  January  and  July 

reduced  to  sea-level 177 

62.  Vegetation  of  Australia 177 

63.  A  station  in  the  Savana  Country,  N.  Australia    .         .         .  181 

64.  Savana  landscape  in  E.  Australia 183 

65.  Gum-tree  or  Eucalyptus  Forest  in  Australia       .         .         .  184 

66.  Eucalyptus  Forest  cleared  for  wheat  harvest  — S.  Australia  186 

67.  Savana  plain  and  timbered  slopes  -  E.  Australia       .         .  187 

68.  Tree-ferns  in  a  gully,  Blue  Mountains,  S.E.  Australia        .  190 

69.  Kauri  Logs  and  Forest,  N.  Zealand 192 

70.  Pineapple  Plantation 194 

71.  Physical  Features  of  Africa 196 

72.  Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  Africa 197 

73.  Seasonal  Distribution  of  Rainfall  in  Africa         .         .         .  197 

74.  Mean  Temperature  of  Africa  in  January  and  July  reduced 

to  sea-level 197 

75.  Vegetation  of  Africa 198 

76.  Gorge  in  Mountains  of  Algeria  (Photo:  A.  W.  W.  Brown)  200 

77.  Atlas  Cedars— Algeria  (Photo  :  A.  W.  W.  Brown)      .        .  201 

78.  Reg  Desert— Sinai 206 

79.  Semi-desert— Nigeria  (Photo  :  Capt.  C.  Ffoulkes)      .         .  209 

80.  Open  Brush  -  Nigeria  (Photo  :  Capt.  C.  Ffoulkes)      .        .  210 

81.  High  Savana  Brush- Nigeria  (Photo:  Capt.  C.  Ffoulkes)    212 

82.  In  the  drier  Scrubland  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan  .         .         .  215 

83.  Floating  Blocks  of  Sudd  (Photo:  M.  S.  Thompson)    .        .  216 

84.  The  Desert  near  Rogel  (Photo  :  M.  S.  Thompson)      .        .217 

85.  Coffee  Plantation— British  East  Africa       .        .         .         .218 

86.  Somaliland :    Characteristic   Stony   and   Thorn    Country 

(Photo  :  Sir  H.  H.  Johnston) 222 

87.  Forest  Vegetation,  River  Limbe,  Nigeria  ....  225 

88.  Tropical  Forest  in  the  Congo  State  (Belgian  Government)  229 

89.  The  King  of  the  African  Savana,  Baobab  Tree  .         .        .232 

90.  Railway  cutting  in  a  Tropical  Forest— S.E.  Africa     .        .  233 

91.  Settlers  in  Bush  Country,  Zambezi 237 

92.  The  Karroo  (Mrs.  A.  J.  Edwards) 243 

93.  Silver  Trees 245 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

94.  Traveller's  Trees 249 

95.  Physical  Features  of  Europe 251 

96.  Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  Europe 252 

97.  Regions  of  Europe  receiving  more  or  less  than  6*  of  rain- 

fall during  summer  3  months 253 

98.  Regions  of  Europe  receiving  more  or  less  than  6"  of  rain- 

fall during  winter  3  months 253 

99.  100.  Mean  Temperature  of  Europe  in  January  and  July 

reduced  to  sea-level 254 

101.  Vegetation  of  Europe 255 

102.  Clump  of  Cork  Oaks  in  S   France  (Photo  :  J.  Lagarde)  .  256 

103.  Pinus  pinea,  S.  France  (Photo:  J.  Lagarde)     .         .         .260 

104.  Snow-bound  Tundra  (Photo  :  Miss  Czaplicka)  .         .         .  262 

105.  View  in  Southern  Norway — typical   northern   forest  of 

Europe .         .266 

106.  Bilberry  Moor  . 269 

107.  Characteristic  Vegetation  -  Serbia 275 

108.  Olive  Grove— S.  France  (Photo:  J.  Lagarde)  .        .         .279 

109.  Live  Oak  Garique  on  limestone — S.  of  France  (Photo: 

J.  Lagarde) 281 

110.  A  barren  limestone  plain,  or  carso  -  S.  of  France  (Photo  : 

J.  Lagarde) 285 

111.  Limestone  slopes  on  the  Adriatic  (Photo:  A.  W.W.  Brown)  286 

112  Arundel  Beeches  (Photo  :  A  W.  W.  Brown)    .         .         .292 

113  Pine  Wood-Surrey  (Photo  :  A.  W.  W   Brown)       .         .  295 

114  Forest  clearing  planted  with  rye,  bordered  with  elms 

(Photo :  A  W  W  Brown)      .                  .         .       '  .         .298 
115.  Turf-cutting  on  an  Irish  bog 300 


CHAPTER   I 
ASIA 

The  stupendous  size  and  compact  shape  of  this  greatest 

of  continents  are  features  which  by  themselves  are  bound 
to  oxercise  the  strongest  control  on  its  vegetation  by 
determining  the  climate.  The  centre  of  this  vast  body 
of. land  is  .so  far  removed  from  the  regulating  influences 
of  large  Bheetsof  water  that  it  must,  of  necessity,  be  dry , 
extreme  in  climate,  and  barren;  ami  life,  whether  vege- 
table, animal,  or  human,  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
Asia  is  a  land  of  extremes.  Broadly  speaking,  life  is  dis- 
tributed, starting  l'n>m  a  dead  centre,  in  concentric  belts 
of  increasing  density.  In  this  very  general  arrangement, 
however,  the  fact  of  its  excentric  symmetry  with  re- 
gard to  the  Equator  introduces  a  first  and  fundamental 
irregularity. 

The  northern  shores  penetrate  far  into  the  polar 
circle,  while  the  southern  coast  is  bathed  by  tropical  seas. 
All  other  things  being  equal,  such  a  difference  in  the 
amount  of  atmospheric  heat  is  bound  to  be  expressed  by 
a  difference  in  the  amount  and  the  character  of  life  on 
the  two  sides.  The  exaggeration  of  summer  heat  and 
winter  cold  of  the  atmosphere  over  the  far  inland  parts 
initiates  corresponding  movements  of  attraction  and  re- 
pulsion of  the  surrounding  masses  of  air,  or,  in  other 
words,  large  cyclones  and  anticyclones  which  have  been 
termed  monsoons  :  the  rhythmic  alternation  of  these 
forms  the  pulse  of  that  vast  body.  As  may  be  expected, 
the  inflowing  summer  winds  are,  on  the  whole,  moist 

1159-1  B 


2  ASIA 

and  beneficial,  while  the  outflowing  winter  winds  are 
dry  and  harmful. 

Again,  according  to  their  origin,  the  inflowing  winds 
produce  unequal  effects.  Those  called  in  from  the 
warm  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans  are  naturally  laden 
with  moisture  which,  on  cooling,  is  condensed  over  the 
southern  and  eastern  margins  of  the  continent,  thus 
inducing  vigorous  plant  life.  The  air  from  the  north 
and  east,  on  the  other  hand,  easily  saturated  at  low 
temperatures,  becomes  gradually  warmer  and  drier  as 
it  rushes  inland,  yielding  but  scant  moisture  to  the  low- 
lying  plains  and  plateaus.  A  hardy  but  not  luxuriant 
type  of  vegetation  is  the  expression  of  such  climatic 
conditions. 

Another  inequality  arises  from  the  situation  of  the 
neighbouring  continents  of  Europe  and  Africa,  which 
screen  off  any  moisture  from  the  western  quarters,  while 
the  more  favoured  east  lies  open  to  the  beneficial 
influences  of  the  oceans.  Thus  the  arid  centre  extends 
westward  up  to  the  uncertain  borders  of  the  adjacent 
land  masses. 

These  broad  features  of  the  distribution  of  life  on  the 
surface  of  Asia,  by  the  accident  of  shape,  size,  and 
position,  are  further  emphasized  by  the  nature  of  the 
relief.  The  central  portions  are  raised  thousands  of  feet 
above  sea-level  in  vast  plateaus  which  are  fringed  by 
an  unbroken  rim  of  still  loftier  mountain  ranges.  On 
that  account,  the  excessive  heating  of  the  interior 
exaggerates  the  landward  influx  of  air  in  summer 
while  the  intense  cooling  in  winter  adds  impetus  to  the 
outward  flowing  winds.  The  limits  of  the  barren  in- 
terior are  drawn  more  sharply  by  the  screen  of  high 
mountains  surrounding  them.  At  the  same  time,  the 
lofty  ranges,  such  as  those  which  cross  the   continent 


ASIA  3 

from  the  Caspian  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  drain  the  winds 
of  their  last  traces  of  moisture. 

This  moisture,  deposited  as  spring  rain  or,  in  large 
proportion,  as  winter  snow,  causes  a  fairly  continuous 
line  of  highland  oases,  the  more  marvellous  in  contrast 


Fig.  1.     Physical  Features  of  Asia. 

with  the  surrounding  lowland  deserts.  At  the  same 
time,  the  snow-fed  streams,  before  losing  themselves 
among  the  sands  of  the  plains,  fertilize  a  stretch  of 
country  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  ;  and  of  this  alluvial 
belt,  even  before  the  dawn  of  history,  advantage  was 
taken   by  man.     The  influence  of  these  lofty   Asiatic 

b  2 


4  ASIA 

chains  is  thus  seen  to  be  double,  as  being  expressed  in 
abundant  summer  pastures  on  the  upper  slopes,  and  in 
gardens  and  winter  pastures  on  the  lower  slopes  and  the 
adjacent  belt.  Correspondingly  there  originates  a  double 
influence  on  man  and  animals  in  quest  of  food :  lirst, 
a  yearly  migration  of  populations  between  the  lowlands 


Fig.  2.     Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  Asia. 

and  the  highlands,  between  the  drought  and  the  snow  : 
second,  larger  movements  of  nations  along  the  fertile 
piedmont  belts,  which  naturally  became  the  highways 
of  history,  as  peoples  were  forced  by  various  causes 
to  migrate,  and  trekked  between  the  deserts  on  one  hand 
and  the  mountain  wildernesses  on  the  other. 


ASIA 


In  brief,  then,  the  distribution  of  plant  life  in  Asia, 
which,  at  a  first  glance,  appears  to  be  in  widening  belts 
of  increasing  density,  has  to  be  further  analysed,  the 
north  being  poorer  than  the  south  and  the  west  than 
the  east.  The  south-eastern  quarter  is  the  centre  of 
radiation  of  plant  life  for  the  whole  continent.     Of  the 

OVER  6INS.0F RAIN 
FALLS  IN 
SRRING 

SUMMER 
AUTUMN 
WINTER 
*LLSCAU}MS 


Fia.  3.     Seasonal  Distribution  of  Rainfall  in  Asia. 

two  western  quarters,  the  northern,  having  more  water 
and  less  heat  than  the  southern,  is  also  more  luxuriant. 

Tundra.  Along  the  Arctic  Ocean,  Asia  possesses  an 
enormous  development  of  coast-line  involving  about  one- 
third  of  the  parallel  of  70°  N.  This  coast-line  lies,  on 
the  whole,  much  nearer  the  pole  than  the  corresponding 


6 


ASIA 


shores  of  the  mainland  of  North  America :  one  would 
therefore  expect  to  see  a  correspondingly  greater  ex- 
tension inland  of  the  cold  treeless  desert  called  the 
tundra.  As  a  fact,  however,  it  is  not  so  ;  the  barren 
grounds  of  North  America  reach  much  farther  south, 
especially  towards  the  extreme  east  and  west,  and  when 


lb, 

<#A-' 

yJ\      **^*^^~€rf 

L 

S              G2> 

<        ^ 

% 

JANUARY 

Fig.  4.     Mean  Temperature  of  Asia  in  January  reduced  to  Sea-level. 

the  coast-line  advances  poleward  or  retreats  southward, 
the  accompanying  belt  of  tundra  follows  the  same  oscilla- 
tions. This  broad  fringe  covers  a  low-lying  undulated 
land,  interrupted  by  no  high  hills,  but  indented  by  wide 
estuaries  and  marshy  deltas. 

Two  main  forms  of  tundra  are  recognized,  the  moss 


TUNDRA  7 

tundra  and  the  lichen  tundra.  The  moss  tundra  is  the 
1  noistcr  kind,  and  is  formed  of  peat-hills  and  puddles. 
The  peat-hills  are  enormous  spongy  cushions,  built  up  by 
the  slow  accumulations  of  gradually  decomposing  mosses : 
they  are  frozen  inside,  and  have  a  velvety  covering  of 


Fig.  5.     Mean  Temperature  in  July  reduced  to  Sea  level. 


straight-stemmed  mosses,  among  which  a  few  dwarf 
flowering  plants  are  sometimes  scattered,  and  in  between 
the  mounds  wind  the  marshy  tracts  or  puddles,  often 
grown  over  with  peat-moss. 

The  lichen  tundra  has  a  drier  soil,  but  requires  an 
abundance  of  rainfall,  drizzles,  mists,  and  atmospheric 


ASIA 


moisture,  and,  when  it  is   overgrown  with  low  shrubs, 
may  become  a  heath. 

Among  the  most  curious  features  of  these  arctic  land- 
scapes rank  the  '  polygonal  floors,'  or  floors  of  hardened 


Tundra  &  Lofty  Mountain  EH3,  Taiga  orPine  Forest  TTTI,  Steppe  f^531 
Cool  DeeiduousF.  1=1,  Mediterranean  WMM,  S»mmerRainE  MM 
Monsoon  fo  Equatorial  F.MMI,Savana^^^i, Scrub C3HD ,Dese rt 


Fig.  6.     Vegetation  of  Asia. 

mud  with  cracks  arranged  in  polygonal  patterns.  Out 
of  these  slits  the  lines  of  tiny  plants  arise  in  quaint 
devices  not  unlike  fancy  box  edging. 

The  monotony  and    desolation  of   the  landscape  are 


TUNDRA  9 

broken  now  and  then  by  veritable  gardens  of  gorgeous 
flowers  which  colonize  the  warm  and  well-drained 
slopes  exposed  squarely  to  the  rays  of  the  low  sun  of 
summer.  The  unusual  brilliancy  of  colour  in  the 
blossoms  as  well  as  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  small 
Herbs  in  arctic  and  alpine  regions  is  associated  with  the 
presence  in  the  plant-body  of  certain  substances  protec- 
tive against  exposure. 


Fig.  7.    Siberian  Tundra. 

The  development  of  peat  in  the  marshes  of  the  Siberian 
tundra,  being  dependent  on  the  moisture  of  the  air  and 
the  length  of  the  growing  season,  is  not  so  important  as 
might  be  thought  at  first.  Heather  or  ling  plays  but 
an  inconspicuous  part,  and  our  common  peat-moss  is  of 
restricted  occurrence. 

There  is  little  resource  for  the  human  being  in  such 


10  ASIA 

regions.  A  few  berries  are  all  that  man  can  gather, 
and  cultivation  is  out  of  the  question.  Hunting  and- 
fishing  are  the  primary  occupations,  but  a  most  useful 
asset  is  found  in  the  reindeer,  whose  every  part  and 
product  becomes  precious,  while  it  supports  itself  on  what 
lichens  and  mosses  the  tundra  can  supply.  Man,  there- 
fore, is  obliged  to  follow  his  wild  herds,  which  he  could 
not  feed  in  a  permanent  and  circumscribed  place  of 
abode. 

The  tundra  extends  to  the  higher  lands  or  plateaus 
which  stretch  southward,  such  as  those  of  Siverma, 
Yangkan,  Verkhoyansk,  Kolyma,  and  Anadyr,  which 
recall  the  fjelds  of  Scandinavia. 

West  Siberia.  Between  the  Urals  and  the  Yenissei, 
north  of  the  fifty-fifth  parallel,  the  land  is  very  low  ami 
flat,  rising  less  than  100  feet  in  about  600  miles.  It  is 
regularly  flooded  by  the  large  rivers  Ob  and  Irtish  wad 
their  tributaries,  which  have  built  high  banks  along  their 
courses  and  thus  stopped  the  natural  drainage  of  the 
surface  waters,  so  that  it  is  covered  by  vast  and  im- 
passable swamps,  which  remain  frozen  for  six  months 
of  the  year. 

The  climate  is  uniformly  cold  and  damp,  though  the 
rainfall  remains  under  twenty  inches ;  mists  and  togs  are 
frequent,  and  snow  lies  on  the  ground  till  late  in  spring. 
Such  a  region  is  naturally  the  battle-ground  between 
the  swamp  vegetation  and  the  forest. 

The  tundra  which  surrounds  the  vast  estuaries  of  the 
Ob  and  Tas  gradually  passes  into  morasses  of  a  more  tem- 
perate type,  not  unlike  those  of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  and 
consisting  of  peat-mosses.  These  freely  alternate  with 
swamps  of  reeds,  rushes,  and  sedges,  especially  towards 
the  south.  The  forest  is  restricted  to  the  best-drained 
rising  grounds — generally  gentle  swellings,  and  the  banks 


WEST  SIBERIA  11 

thrown  up  by  the  rivers — and  is  thus  constantly  inter- 
sected by  innumerable  marshy  pastures,  reedy  moors, 
and  peat-bogs.  The  vegetation  is  a  mosaic  of  forests, 
meadows,  and  swamps. 

These  conditions  of  climate  and  soil  are  only  suitable 
for  conifers  and  a  few  hardy  representatives  of  the  broad- 
leaved  trees,  such  as  aspens  and  birches,  willows,  and 
alders.  Siberian  larches  and  spruces  are  the  main  con- 
stituents of  these  forests,  the  latter  predominating  on 
wet  soils,  and  making  dark,  dense  forests  with  little 
undergrowth.  The  lighter  kinds  of  forest  afford  a 
shelter  for  northern  types  of  plants,  such  as  androm<</<<. 
several  species  of  small  rhododendrons,  &c,  a  few  herbs 
cli idly  of  the  marsh-dwelling  types,  mosses,  and  ferns. 

This  vast  extent  of  wooded  marshes  offers  serious 
obstacles  to  travelling,  and  can  best  be  crossed  in  winter, 
when  it  is  all  frozen  and  under  snow.  The  dampness  of 
the  climate  makes  it  unpleasant,  more  especially  on 
account  of  the  swarms  of  mosquitoes,  which  are  an 
unmixed  nuisance.  The  freezing  of  the  waterways  and 
seas  to  the  north  renders  the  marketing  of  the  timber 
costly  and  difficult.  It  is  only,  therefore,  during  winter 
that  a  few  tribes  of  Ostiaks  lriMjuent  this  locality  to  find 
in  it  a  shelter  against  the  terrible  icy  gales  which  sweep 
across  the  tundra,  and  to  trap  the  fur-bearing  animals 
when  their  coat  is  at  its  best.  The  timber  as  yet  remains 
untouched,  except  on  the  southern  margin. 

The  human  population,  therefore,  remains  confined 
to  a  lew  settlements  along  the  main  rivers,  living  largely 
on  fish,  getting  the  timber  from  the  forests  on  the  banks 
and  resorting  to  a  local  kind  of  agriculture,  which  is, 
however,  necessarily  hampered  by  late  frosts  and  icy 
mists.  The  backwoods  and  swamps  are  hardly  ever 
visited  by  man. 


12  ASIA 

Towards  the  west,  the  foot-hills  and  terraces  along 
the  Urals  rise  comparatively  quickly,  and  the  vegetation 
at  once  assumes  a  more  varied  aspect,  including  pines 
and  firs,  larches  and  spruces,  luxuriant  meadows  and 
other  hill-pastures. 

Eastern  Siberia.  The  country  between  the  Ob-Yenis- 
sei  divide  and  the  Lena  is  fairl}r  uniform.  It  is  a  low- 
plateau,  above  which  tower  tabular  volcanic  heights. 
East  of  the  Lena,  however,  the  plateau  rises  gradually 
amid  a  somewhat  broken  landscape  towards  the  crescent- 
shaped  edge  of  the  Stanovoi. 

Compared  with  western  Siberia,  the  eastern  region 
is  well  drained,  and  possesses  a  drier  and  more  ex- 
treme climate :  indeed,  the  coldest  winters  and  the 
hottest  summers  known  on  earth  are  to  be  found  there, 
the  range  between  the  averages  of  the  two  seasons 
being  120°  F. 

The  tundra,  which  covers  the  broad  margin  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  sends  spurs  farther  south,  along  tin-  mosl 
important  ridges,  similar  to  the  fjelds  of  Scandinavia  : 
but  the  formation  of  swamps  and  peat-bogs  is  limited 
here  by  reason  of  the  extreme  climate,  the  scanty 
rainfall,  and  the  good  drainage,  and  thus  the  vegetation 
is  essentially  one  of  forests  of  conifers. 

Beech  and  oak  could  not  live  here,  so  the  different 
species  of  conifers  share  the  ground  among  themselves. 
The  Scots  and  the  arolla  pine  prefer  the  dry,  sunny  slopes 
and  the  lighter  soils.  The  larch  forms,  on  the  cooler 
slopes  and  in  the  hollows,  a  light  cover,  which  favours 
the  development  of  a  dense,  often  impenetrable,  under- 
growth of  shrubs  and  herbs.  The  spruce  occurs  mainly 
in  moist  situations,  where  it  forms  a  dark,  heavy  canopy, 
under  which  the  ground  remains  almost  plantless, 
covered    with    a    thick    mat    of    needles    and    mosses. 


EASTERN  SIBERIA  13 

Siberian  firs  and  stone  (arolla)  pines  are  also  found 
in  the  east. 

The  lower  vegetation  differs  very  little  from  that  of 
northern  and  central  Europe,  indeed,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  Bpecies  of  bushes  and  herbs  arc  common  to 
Europe  and  Siberia.  One  would  find  bramble  and  wild 
rose,  whortle-  and  other  berry  bushes,  even  aconites, 
monkshoods,  geraniums,  and  stately  umbeUiferae  in  the 
pastures  and  meadows,  l>ut  the  ling  is  absent. 

Despite  the  prevalence  of  forests,  however,  tree- 
growth  is  not  Luxuriant.  Siberian  forests  are  stunted, 
and  the  trees,  hung  and  padded  with  mosses  and  lichens, 
reach  no  groat  height  or  thickness,  hut  bear  the 
imprint  of  the  inimical  conditions  of  the  climate. 
They    are    also     confined     t<>    relatively    low     altitudes. 

Thus,  on  the  Lena,  by  64  V  they  stop  below  700  feet. 
North  of  that  latitude,  the  forest  growth  becomes 
increasingly  scattered  and  dwarfed,  pastures  and 
meadows,  moors,  and  stretches  of  tundra  filling  the 
intervening  spaces  This  is  a  condition  similar  to  that 
in  the  backwoods  of  the  northern  Canadian  forest,  to 
which  this  east  Siberian  taiga  corresponds  exactly. 

'Thanks  to  the  hot  summer,  coupled  with  a  moderate 
rainfall,  northern  agriculture  is  possible  in  eastern 
Siberia,  Dairy-farming  and  stock-breeding  find  there 
an  excellent  field;  and  grain  crops  are  capable  of  a  great 
development. 

Amuria — Korea— Sakhalin— Hokkaido (Yezo).  This  is 
on  the  whole,  a  mountainous  region  lying  to  the  north  of 
the  Ilchuri-Alin  and  the  Little  Khingan,  and  including 
the  basin  of  the  Ussuri  and  the  upper  basin  of  the 
Sungari  It  consists  mainly  of  a  series  of  ranges  and 
valleys  parallel  with  the  coast-line,  and  contains  the 
broad  valleys  of  the  lower  and  middle  Amur. 


14  ASIA 

The  climate  may  be  described  as  cool  tempt  rate, 
although  winters  are  very  hard  and  protracted.  The 
rivers,  especially  in  the  northern  part,  are  ice-bound  for 
four  or  five  months  in  the  year ;  but  the  region,  on  the 
whole,  enjoys  the  benefit  of  the  summer  monsoon,  which 
gives  it  a  fair  rain-supply.  The  conditions  are  temperate 
enough  to  permit  of  the  occurrence  of  broad-leaved,  de- 
ciduous forests  of  a  central  and  north-European  type. 
This  is  essentially  a  timber  country,  and  the  lower  forest- 
belt  is  similar  to  our  oak  and  beech  zones.  It  consists 
of  mixed  forests,  including  the  Mongolian  oak,  Man- 
churian  kinds  of  walnut,  hazel-nut,  barberry,  and  vine, 
pines,  maples,  elms,  lime-trees,  and  rowans:  the  Man- 
churian  shrub  dimorphanthus  is  freely  grown  in  our 
gardens.  This  broad-leaved  vegetation  is,  however,  re- 
stricted to  valleys,  lower  slopes,  and  foot-hills.  In  the 
mountains,  the  resinous  forests  naturally  predominate,  but 
they  are  also  of  a  mixed  type,  including  larches,  cedars, 
pines,  and  tsugas,  with  birches  and  aspens,  and  giving 
the  usual  aspect  of  northern  temperate  mountains.  In 
the  broad  valleys,  the  Amur  and  its  tributaries  flow  amid 
luxuriant  pastures  of  rich  grass  and  tall  herbs,  among 
which  umbellifers  arc  most  remarkable. 

In  spite  of  its  hard  winters,  Amuria  is  a  fertile  land, 
replete  with  possibilities.  Cattle-breeding,  dairying,  and 
mixed  farming  certainly  find  there  as  promising  a  field 
as  in  eastern  Canada,  with  which  this  region  has  much 
in  common :  all  northern  cereals  and  green  crops 
accommodate  themselves  to  this  climate.  In  Amuria 
proper  the  timber  is  well  preserved,  but  in  lower 
Manchuria,  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sungari  hills  and 
mountains  have  been  largely  deforested  by  the  Chinese 
settlers,  with  the  usual  disastrous  consequences. 

Though  in  latitude  it  corresponds  to  central  Europe, 


AMURIi     KOREA— SAKHALIN— HOKKAIDO  15 

Sakhalin  has  the  same  extreme  climate  with  severe  and 
prolonged  winters,  a  fact  due  to  the  cold  sea-current 
which  bathes  its  Bhores,  and  to  the  continental  north- 
west winds  The  island  is  thrown  into  a  succession  of 
longitudinal  valleys  and  ridges,  and  is  entirely  wooded, 
except  for  the  floor  of  the  valleys  and  the  naked  ridges. 
Here  again,  owing  to  the  cold,  damp,  foggy  atmosphere 
and  had  natural  drainage,  the  floor  of  the  valleys  is 
swampy,  and  peaty  bogs  of  great  depth  recall  the  high 
moors  of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  indeed,  the  bleak  coast- 
belt  seems  to  be  an  outlier  of  the  subarctic  tundra. 

The  Pacific  slopes  show  the  influence  of  the  cold  sea- 
currents  and  winds  in  their  mixed  coniferous  forests  of 
larches,  pines,  and  spruces.  Numbers  of  dead  trees  are 
left  standing,  and  the  litter  of  dead  branches,  together 
with  the  dense  bangle  <>i"  1  .rambles,  roses,  and  shrubs, 
make  these  forests  almost  impenetrable. 

As  a  contrast,  at  a  moderate  elevation,  the  interior 
slopes,  especially  on  the  south-west,  shelter  a  temperate 
vegetation  of  a  mild  character  with  broad-leaved  forest©, 
including  walnuts,  elms,  maples,  vines,  yews,  and  even 
1. ambus  six  feet  high,  with  tine  hydrangeas  and  shrubby 
bilberries,  recalling  the  vegetation  of  Japan.  Similarly 
a  verdant  park-landscape,  recalling  that  of  Amuria  even 
in  its  bogs,  lies  along  the  margins  of  the  rivers  of  the 
inland  valleys,  Sakhalin  proves  thus  to  be  a  land  of 
contrasts  in  its  vegetation  as  well  as  in  its  climate. 

It  may  remain  chiefly  a  timber  country,  but  it  is 
possible  that  a  good  drainage  may  remove  the  blanket 
of  peat  from  the  valleys,  and  open  them  at  least  to 
grazing  and  dairying  industries. 

Yezo,  the  northern  island  of  Japan,  shares  in  some 
measure  the  conditions  of  south  Sakhalin  and  the 
adjacent  mainland,  and  is  also  densely  wooded. 


16  ASIA 

Okhotsk  Region.  Beyond  the  edge  of  the  east 
Siberian  plateaus,  which  extend  almost  to  the  eastern 
coast-line,  the  land  sinks  rapidly  down  to  a  narrow 
coastal  shelf,  and  is  carved  into  a  series  of  parallel 
ridges,  between  which  run  short  torrential  streams. 

This  region  naturally  lies  under  the  moderating 
influence  of  the  neighbouring  seas,  and  the  moist  and 
mild  winds  thereof;  so  that  the  rainfall  is  higher  here 
than  inland.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  sheltered  from 
the  cold  blasts  from  the  interior  by  the  edge  of  the 
Stanovoi.  There  is,  in  some  measure,  an  approximation 
to  the  climate  of  southern  Alaska,  and  the  vegetation 
includes  some  of  the  types  of  plants  of  the  American 
continent. 

From  the  ice-fields  and  lichen  moors  of  the  edge  of 
the  plateau  one  descends  into  a  belt  of  el  tin  woods, 
formed  by  a  dwarf  variety  of  our  European  stone-pi  tie. 
Lower  down,  the  slopes  are  clad  with  prosperous  and 
dense  forests  of  mixed  conifers,  among  which  American 
species  are  to  be  found ;  besides  the  dahurica  larch  there 
occur  two  kinds  of  spruces  and  one  of  tsuga  fij- ;  but 
conditions  are  still  too  hard  for  broad-leaved  trees. 
Only  birches  and  alders,  poplars  and  willows,  are  to 
be  found  along  the  river  courses;  in  the  undergrowth 
the  Kamchatka  rhododendron  forms  dense  bushes. 

The  lower  valleys  and  the  coastal  shelf,  lying  most  of 
the  time  under  the  belts  of  cold  air  and  mists  which 
settle  down  from  the  neighbouring  heights,  expand  into 
dreary,  quasi-arctic  swamps,  in  the  middle  of  which,  along 
the  rivers,  run  ribbons  of  rich  green  pastures. 

"Kamchatka.  More  desolate  still  is  Kamchatka,  which 
occupies,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  Eurasia,  a  position 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  British  Isles,  on  the  west 
between  the  50th  and  60th  north  parallels. 


KAMCHATKA  17 

Kamchatka,  however,  is  swept  by  icy  winds  from 
every  part  of  the  north— especially  by  the  north-east 
gales.  Its  coast  is  bathed  by  the  cold  sea-currents  from 
Bering  Straits,  and  these  give  it  a  climate  correspond- 
ing to  that  of  Lapland,  which  it  resembles  in  its  vegeta- 
tion. Parallel  longitudinal  ridges,  from  which  arise  very 
short  torrents,  form  the  core  of  the  peninsula. 

The  characteristic  vegetation  is  represented  by  elfin 
and  stunted  woods.  Impenetrable  brushes  of  gnarled 
alders  and  cedars  clothe  most  of  the  slopes,  and  pass 
Upwards  to  dwarf  elfin  bushes.  Between  this  and  the 
naked  ridges  Btretch  lagged  carpets  of  alpine  meadows. 
Birch  woods,  sometimes  very  dense,  sometimes  sparse, 
rise  on  the  foot  slopes  and  clothe  the  gentle  rises  between 
the  lower  \  alleys.  It  is  only  along  the  streams  in  the 
sheltered  valleys  that  a  really  pleasant  vegetation  is 
found.  There  extend  prosperous  meadows,  with  patches 
of  tall  nmbellifers,  with  groves  of  poplars,  birches,  and 
alders  and  shrubberies  of  rhododendrons.  This  open 
natural  park  is,  however,  skirted  by  swamps,  which 
unite  to  form  the  barren,  treeless  moors  of  the  coast. 
Wild  sheep  are  to  be  found  here,  as  in  Alaska  and 
Columbia.  This  inhospitable  land,  infested  in  summer 
with  mosquitoes,  and  lying  under  snow  for  nearly  two 
thirds  of  the  year,  is  suited  for  little  else  than  sheep 
and  cattle  of  the  hardiest  type.  Agriculture  is,  indeed, 
impossible. 

Indo-China.  The  lofty  parallel  ridges,  separated  by 
steep  and  narrow  gorges,  which  form  the  approach  to 
south-eastern  Tibet,  diverge,  fan-like,  in  three  distinct 
chains  :  the  eastern  chain  of  Annam,  the  central  Malay 
chain,  which  extends  near  the  Equator,  and  the  western- 
most or  Arakan  chain :  they  include  the  plains  of  Siam 
and  Burma.     Just  south  of  the  tropic,  their  convergence 

1159.1  C 


18  ASIA 

builds  up  an  uninterrupted  and  massive  system  of  parallel 
folds  extending  from  Assam  to  Yun-nan. 

The  entire  region,  except  the  Malay  Peninsula,  lies 
within  the  monsoon  area,  and  is,  therefore,  characterize"  1 
by  the  annual  rhythm  of  the  dry  and  the  wet  seasons. 
The  rainfall  is  abundant  and  the  temperature  typically 
tropical.  It  is  therefore  to  be  expected  that  vegetation, 
while  exhibiting  tropical  luxuriance,  should  reflect  tin- 
well-marked  monsoon  rhythm  :  this,  however,  is  per- 
fectly expressed  only  in  part  of  the  lowlands  of  Siam 
and  Burma,  The  landscapes  which  bear  the  stamp  of  the 
monsoon  are  here  :  (1)  the  savana,  corresponding  with 
that  of  the  Sudan  and  South  America.  It  is  best  repre- 
sented on  the  low  hinterland  plateaus  of  Siam  and  La 
and  toa  less  degree  in  Burma:  (2)  the  drier  and  lighter 
tropical  forests  which  shed  their  leaves  in  the  dry  season. 
Teak  is,  in  eastern  Asia,  the  typical  tree  of  such  forest  b  : 
(3)  the  jungle,  a  dry  and  tall  deciduous  scrub,  some 
thirty  feet  in  height,  which  represents  here  the'caatinga ' 
of  Brazil.  Besides  these,  and  forming  transitions  between 
the  teak  forest,  the  jungle,  and  the  savana,  occur  count- 
less varieties  of  light  tropical  woods,  either  evergreen  or 
deciduous,  continuous  or  distributed  in  more  or  less 
extensive  patches.  In  fact,  a  great  portion  of  what  is 
called  jungle  in  Indo-China  would  be  termed  savana. 
bush-savana,  tree-savana  in  the  Sudan  or  Brazil. 

The  distribution  of  these  monsoon  formations  seems 
to  depend  largely  on  local  circumstances  of  soil  and 
relief.  The  teak  forests  ar<-  best  represented  in  the 
upper  inland  plains  and  foot-hills  of  the  Irawadi,  as 
well  as  on  the  marginal  foot-hills  of  the  middle  Mekong. 
Savanas  and  jungles  are  representative  of  lower  Burma 
and  the  low  plateau  of  Siam,  but  their  development  is 
limited  both  on  the  seaward  and  on  the  highland  side 


!\  DO-CHIN  A  19 

by  conditions  of  soil  and  climate.  In  Indo  <  hina  indeed 
two  main  landscapes  strike  the  eye  of  the  traveller:  the 
ragged  mass  of  wooded  mountains  through  which  swift 
and  mighty  streams  have  carved  theii  deep  channels, 
and  the  low  swamp-  rapidly  encroaching  on  the  sea  by 
means  of  the  colossal  deposits  which  are  spread  broad- 
by  the  riven  when  in  flood.  All  the  big  rivers, 
Si-kiang,  Song-ho,  Mekong,  Bfenam,  Sal  win,  and  [rawadi, 
thus  create  vast  belts  of  half-emerged  swamps,  covered 
by  an  inextricable  network  of  Blnggish,  muddy,  and  ever- 
changing  tidal  waterway-,  like  the  MindarLans  of  the 
Ganges.  On  these  shaky  mild-  have  Spmng  into  exis- 
tence  low.  gloomy,  impenetrable  tangles  of  evergreen 

swamp    forests,   Corresponding  to   the   varolii    or    itrapu 

of  the  Amazon,  with  their  canopy  almost  resting  on  the 
water  during  the  monsoon  period.    An  excess  of  ground- 
water here  counterbalances  the  effect  of  the  dry  season. 
A  great    pari    of   the    land   thus   conquered   l»y  the 

shallow   seas,    i-    however   being    reclaimed    by   man   and 

enclosed    by    lev.  6   it    has    tilile    to    develop    itsOWIl 

rotation.  Bice  fields  (or 'paddy '-fields)  are  planted  on 
the  undried  silt,  and  rivers  are  bordered  by  arecs  and 
other  palms,  bambu-thickets  and  groves  of  banana- 
trees.  The  luxuriance  of  these  'paddy-lands1  is  un- 
bounded :  areCS  and  coco-nut  palms,  manjack  fruit, 
tamarind,  orange  and  lemon,  bread-fruit,  and  cinnamon 
trees  yield  profuse  crops.  Besides  rice,  the  land,  divided 
as  a  chess-board,  gives  pineapple,  tobacco,  indigo,  cotton, 
and  all  the  variety  <>f  tropical  produce.  The  wsste-land 
remains  in  the  state  of  undrained,  impassable  reed- 
swamps,  where  there  is  an  extraordinary  abundance  of 
game. 

The  mountains  of  the  interior  hardly  know  a  period 
entirely  devoid  of  rainfall,  and  are  therefore  clad  with 


Fig.  8.     Tlie  Sundarbans. 


INDO-CHINA  21 

evergreen  rain-forests.  They  otter,  in  their  fastnesses, 
a  veritable  jumble  of  sharp  ridges,  precipitous  slopes,  and 
deep  gullies,  hidden  beneath  dense  and  tall  forests,  whose 
distribution  is  regulated  by  altitude.  Thus  the  secluded 
valleys  support  on  their  lower  slopes  regular  equatorial 
selvas,  in  the  clearings  of  which  equatorial  agriculture  is 
practised.  The  greater  portion  of  the  mountains,  how- 
ever, is  under  rain-forests  of  the  sub-tropical  type,  which 
may  be  characterized  by  tea  and  camellia,  though  on  the 
upper  slopes,  oaks  and  pines  are  to  be  found  in  abun- 
dance, and  mark  temperate,  even  northern,  conditions. 
In  the  Shan  states,  the  plateaus  of  3,000  to  5,000  feet 
in  elevation,  crossed  by  still  higher  ridges,  display  rich 
grassy  expanses.  Buffalo,  rhinoceros,  boar,  tiger,  deer, 
jungle-fowl,  peacock,  egrets,  and  snipe  are  still  found  in 
abundance  in  this  broken  and  wild  region.  Thus,  on  the 
sea  side,  the  excessive  ground  moisture,  and  in  the  high- 
lands, the  atmospheric  humidity,  restrict  the  true  mon- 
soon type  of  vegetation  to  the  plains  of  Siam  and  Burma. 
It  is  even  possible  that  the  practice  of  grass-burning, 
common  to  all  savana  lands,  has  favoured  the  extension 
of  the  jungle. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  this 
south-east  corner  of  Asia  in  the  economic  development  of 
the  world.  Here,  indeed,  is  said  to  be  the  original  home 
of  rice,  banana,  and  sugar-cane,  three  of  the  most  uni- 
versally essential  articles  of  diet :  our  common  lemon  and 
orange  are  found  wild :  similarly,  the  melon  and  cucumber 
are  among  the  indigenous  plants  of  this  region.  Spices 
such  as  pepper,  ginger,  cinnamon,  and  cardamom,  gums 
as  betel,  &c,  rubber-plants  as  many  species  of  ticus, 
gutta-percha  plants,  tea-trees,  camphor-wood  trees,  and 
the  valuable  teak-tree,  are  all  natives  here;  but  the 
enumeration  of  all  the  economic  products  would  be  too 
long. 


22 


ASIA 


It  is  hardly  surprising,  therefore,  that  civilizations  of 
a  high  order  have  advanced,  in  the  past,  in  the  inhabit- 
able parts  of  the  country — Cambodia,  Siam,  and  Burma. 
The  paddy-lands  of  the  deltas,  despite  their  insalubrity, 
are  scarcely  less  densely  peopled  than  the  rich  lands  of 
central  and  northern  China.  In  the  highlands,  except 
for  the  limited  agriculture  practised  at  the  bottom  of  the 


Fig.  9.     A  Chinese  Kice-field. 

valleys,  the  hunter  is  still  master  of  the  slopes  and  of 
their  forests. 

Japan.  The  southern  portion  of  Japan  belongs  to 
the  same  region  as  central  China,  whilst  the  northern 
part,  or  Nippon,  belongs  to  the  region  of  eastern  Korea, 
and  Hokkaido  shares  in  a  large  measure  the  characteristics 
of  Amuria. 

On  the  whole,  the  main  island  consists  of  a  core  of 


JAPAN  23 

highlands  or  Alps,  having  a  coastal  plain  or  hill  land  of 
varying  breadth. 

Eastern  Margin  of  the  Great  Central  Plateau.     The 

plateaus  of  Mongolia  and  Tibet  are  limited  on  the  east 
by  the  Great  Khingan  and  the  mountainous  margin  of 
eastern  Tibet.  The  winds,  which  are  sucked  inland 
from  the  Pacific  by  the  excessive  heating  of  the  interior 
in  Bummer, deposit  much  of  their  moisture  on  the  eastern 
slope:  but  before  reaching  it,  they  water  abundantly  the 
hilly  lands  of  China.  The  whole  of  this  marginal  region 
is  benefited  by  the  wet  monsoons,  and  is  fertile.  That 
the  strength  and  beneficial  effect  of  the  monsoons  gradu- 
ally decrease  from  south  to  north  is  partly  shown  by  the 
fact  that  th.'  Tibetan  margin,  which  is  abundantly 
watered,  is  ploughed  by  mighty  rivers,  whereas  the 
Khingan  escarpments,  receiving  only  a  meagre  rainfall, 
are  not  deeply  eroded.  In  winter  the  air  is  forced  out- 
wards from  the  Cold  interior,  and  north-westerly  winds, 
which  are  very  cold  and  dry,  sweep  over  the  marginal 
lands.  The  broad  belt  <>i'  lower  lands,  which  extends 
from  10'  N.  to  50°  N.,  passes  gradually  from  equatorial  to 
nearly  polar  conditions.  Equatorial  conditions  persist 
along  the  deltas  and  marshes  of  the  coast  as  far  as  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer.  Sub-tropical  nature  advances  as  far 
as  the  mouth  of  the  Yang-tse,  while  the  warm  temperate 
climate  reaches  to  southern  Korea. 

Manchuria  is  sharply  limited  on  all  sides  but  one  by 
mountains :  the  Khingan  scarps  on  the  west  and  north, 
the  Sikhota  Alin  and  Korean  Highlands  on  the  east  and 
south.  The  vast  rolling  plain  thus  defined,  lying  at 
500  feet  above  sea-level,  is  too  low  to  condense  a  due 
proportion  of  the  moisture  of  the  Pacific  winds  on  their 
way  from  Korea  to  the  Khingans.  It  is  too  far  north 
to  profit  much  by  the  monsoons,  but  in  winter  is  swept 


24 


ASIA 


by  icy  blasts  from  the  north.  It  has .  therefore  an 
extreme  climate,  with  dry  and  intense  cold  in  winter 
and  sweltering  heat  in  summer.  Spring  and  summer 
rains  are  sometimes  abundant  and  render  the  plain  im- 


Fig.  10.     The  Manchurian  Steppe  and  its  Camps. 

passable.  Indeed,  in  many  respects,  Manchuria  deserves 
the  name  of  Eastern  Gobi,  which  is  often  applied  to 
it ;  but  it  also  offers  some  analogies  in  respect  of  its 
situation,  climate  and  vegetation,  with  the  low  plain  of 


MANCHURIA  25 

the  lower  Columbia  on  the  Canadian  border.  Like 
the  lower  Columbia!]  district,  it  possesses  a  naturally 
fertile  Boil  ;  and  water,  though  absent  from  the  surface, 
may  be  found  generally  at  a  depth  of  a  few  feet.  Partly 
on  account  of  its  scanty  rainfall,  which  does  not  exceed 
20  inches  yearly,  it  has  remained  a  treeless  steppe.  It 
possesses  a  few  centres  of  aridity,  which  may  even  be 
represented  by  sand-deserts,  and  around  these  vegeta- 
tion is  disposed  in  widening  concentric  beltsof  increasing 
fertility.  The  typical  Manchurian  steppe  resembles  the 
buffalo-grass  plains,  offering  a  low  and  fairly  continuous 
level  of  ^\vy  grasses,  interspersed,  however,  with  various 
herbs,  undershrubs,  and  bulbs,  which  flame  into  beautiful 
colours  in  spring.  It  is  doubtful,  whether  climate  and 
soil  alone  could  account  altogether  for  the  absence  of 
trees  and  shrubs  in  this  region,  but  apart  from  destruc- 
tion by  the  nomads,  no  other  reason  is  forthcoming. 
There  are,  indeed,  travellers  who  believe  that  once  the 
.Mongols  cease  burning  the  steppe  and  begin  to  plough. 
trees  will  flourish  everywhere,  and  already  in  the  north- 
west corner  a  sort  of  park  steppe  with  small  round  trees 
may  be  seen. 

Despite  its  extreme  climate,  Manchuria  has  attracted 
large  numbers  of  Chinese  agricultural  settlers,  who  are 
endeavouring  to  turn  the  country  into  a  rich  wheat  and 
cereal  land  and  export  the  crops  into  Russia  in  large 
quantities.  Hemp,  opium  poppy,  and  tobacco  are  also 
grown  successfully,  and  large  portions  of  the  plain  form 
rich  agricultural  districts. 

East  of  the  Sungari  the  land  rises,  gently  at  first, 
in  parallel  folds,  towards  the  Sikhota  Alin  highlands. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  these  hills  were  once  clad  with 
timber  similar  to  that  of  the  Usuri  basin,  but,  as  usual, 
deforestation  has  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  Chinese 


26  ASIA 

settlers,  and  the  mixed  forests  of  conifers  and  hard- wood 
trees  are  now  enormously  reduced,  and  restricted  to 
some  of  the  valleys:  destructive  floods  also  have  arisen, 
and  the  hills  have  been  stripped  of  their  soil.  Gradually, 
towards  the  east,  with  more  abundant  rains  and  a  some- 
what less  extreme  climate,  forest-clad  slopes  of  a  European 
type,  and  fertile  valleys  like  that  of  the  Usuri,  appear, 
and  form  a  transition  to  the  Amur-Usuri  region.  The 
natural  wealth,  both  mineral  and  agricultural,  render 
this  district  an  important  asset  in  the  development  of 
eastern  Asia. 

The  Gobi-Manchuria  barrier, the  Great  Khingan  escarp- 
ment, being  slightly  higher,  succeeds  in  wringing  more 
moisture  out  of  the  south-easterly  winds.  The  Khingan 
slopes  are  naturally  well  wooded,  conifers  being  still  the 
outstanding  feature  in  forests  of  a  European  type.  Much 
of  the  timber,  however,  lias  given  way  to  cultivation  and 
to  pastures.  As  might  be  expected,  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  chain  are  richer  than  those  facing  the  Gobi. 

Northern  China.  Manchuria  is  separated  from  ( Ihina 
proper,  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Liaotung,  by  a  broken  high- 
land of  moderate  height,  compressed  between  the  Khin- 
gans  and  the  sea. 

In  China,  agriculture,  continued  for  long  centuries,  has 
altered  the  natural  appearance  of  the  land  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  primitive  aspect  of  the  vegetation  can 
only  be  reconstructed  with  extreme  difficulty.  Despite 
the  severity  of  the  winters,  a  fertile  soil,  an  abundant 
rainfall,  and  an  absence  of  protracted  droughts  make 
northern  China  support  an  abundant  plant  life,  which 
naturally  would  be  a  dense  forest  growth.  It  is  possible 
to  see  from  what  is  actually  left  that  this  forest  once 
existed  and  was  of  a  northern,  summer-green,  broad- 
leaved  type  mixed  with  conifers,  and  so  analogous  to  our 


NORTHERN  CHINA  27 

European  type.  This  was  to  be  expected  From  a  region 
with  a  severe  and  dry  winter.  When  it  is  considered, 
however,  that  northern  China  lies  in  the  latitudes  of 
southern  Spain  and  the  Mediterranean, and  is  not  a  high 
plateau,  the  importance  of  the  severe  winter  as  a  con- 
trol ling  influence  upon  the  kind  of  vegetation  is  ,-it  once 
realized. 

Lured  at  one  time  of  year,  and  by  a  combination  of 
very  Favourable  influences,  into  a  growth  of  abnormal 
luxuriance,  vegetation  is  at  another  time  compelled  to 
adjust  itself  to  the  eliminating  conditions  of  a  very  try- 
ing season:  a  strong  rhythm,  even  more  marked  here 
than  in  the  coastal  plains  of  eastern  North  America.  It 
is,  therefore,  natural  that  plant  life  in  northern  China, 
unable  through  the  winter  limitations  to  assume  a  sub- 
tropical aspect,  should  exhibit  the  northern  cool, temperate 
type  in  its  highest  activity.  The  vegetation  of  northern 
China  represents  the  supreme  expression  of  the  cool, 
temperate,  rammer-green,  broad-leaf,  arborescent  type, 
and  is  to  be  compared  with  that  of  the  southern  Appala- 
chians and  the  Atlantic  coast-plains  of  North  America. 

That  the  controlling  feature  of  the  climate  upon  vege- 
tation is  the  severe  cold  weather  is  still  further  shown 
by  a  comparison  with  the  parts  of  Japan  in  the  same 
latitudes,  which  have  a  milder  winter  by  reason  of  their 
outlying  situation,  and  are  free  from  the  cold  and  dry 
northern  winds  from  the  desert.  In  southern  Japan 
we  find  the  sub-tropical  evergreen  vegetation  fully 
developed ;  and,  though  of  the  broad-leaved,  summer- 
green  kind,  the  plant  life  of  northern  China  has  distinct 
relationship  with  more  southern  floras.  The  principal 
trees  are  no  longer  oaks  and  beeches  and  others  familiar 
to  us,  but  species  of  paulownia,  catalpa,  ailanthus,  gle- 
ditschia,  sophora,   and  the  paper- tree  or    broussonetia 


28  ASIA 

a  good  many  of  which,  by  reason  of  their  hardiness,  have 
been  acclimatized  in  Europe  and  are  becoming  familiar 
features  of  our  parks  and  gardens.  Further  inland, 
however,  one  sees  that  the  flora  of  Amuria,  similar  to 
that  of  Europe  in  many  respects,  has  been  carried  along 
the  range  of  the  Khingans  south  to  the  Tsin-ling-shan : 
there  oaks,  hazels,  birches,  and  conifers  are  to  be  found. 

In  the  east  of  northern  China  is  an  undulating  lowland, 
the  Yellow  Basin,  covered  with  enormously  thick  layers 
of  a  fine,  porous,  and  extremely  rich  soil  of  a  yellow 
colour,  the  incomparable  '  yellow  earth  '  or  loess  which  is 
deeply  furrowed  by  rivers  and  roads.  No  soil  more 
suitable  for  the  growth  of  cereal  crops  is  found  any- 
where, and  it  vies  with  the  '  black  earth '  of  Russia  in 
fertility.  Further  down  the  valley,  arms  of  the  river 
flow  above  the  general  level  of  the  land  across  the 
alluvial  plains,  and  are  partially  and  with  difficulty  kept 
within  bounds  by  means  of  levees,  hence  periodical 
floods  cover  the  region,  often  with  the  most  disastrous 
results. 

Both  the  yellow  belt  and  the  delta  are  utilized  for 
agricultural  purposes  to  the  fullest  extent,  and  conse- 
quently support  a  dense  population.  Barley,  millet, 
wheat,  maize,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  hemp  are  abundantly 
cultivated,  and  yield  admirable  crops.  As  might  be  ex- 
pected, the  loess  belt,  naturally  rising  above  water-level 
and  consequently  cultivated  more  easily,  was  also  settled 
and  utilized  before  the  flood  portion,  which  offers  greater 
difficulties. 

The  hill-land  of  Shan-tung  has  been  entirely  de- 
forested and  opened  to  agriculture.  The  hill-land  west 
of  the  Gulf  of  Liaotung  is  a  beautiful  park,  with  rich 
meadows  and  patches  of  coniferous  woods. 

In  a  sense,  the  Chinese  nation  was  cradled  in  the 


NORTHERN  CHINA  29 

Yellow  Valley.  There  it  is  that  the  Chinaman  developed 
his  wonderful  skill  as  an  agriculturist,  unsurpassed  by 
any,  and  got  those  qualities  of  thrift,  endurance,  forti- 
tude, and  perseverance  which  are  his  characteristics. 

Central  China.  In  comparison  with  northern  China, 
a  more  equable  and  milder  climate,  with  a  more  abundant 
tain  fall,  ranging  from  40  to  GO  inches  yearly,  and  regu- 
larly distributed  over  spring,  summer  and  autumn, 
together  with  an  immunity  from  the  cold  and  dry  blasts 
from  central  Asia,  are  the  principal  features  of  the  large 
portion  of  China  which  stretches  from  the  Tsinling 
shan  ami  (he  hills  north  of  the  Lower  Yangtse  to  the 
mountainous  region  of  Tongking  and  Yun-nan. 

The  Tsinling  range  establishes  an  effective  and  sharp 
barrier  between  the  Mongolian  type  of  climate  and 
mild  and  rainy  central  China.  The  steep  northern 
slopes  of  the  Tsinling.  owing  largely  to  deforestation, 
are  mostly  covered  with  a  scattered  bush,  in  which  one 
discovers  the  Mongolian  representatives  of  oaks,  birches, 
and  conifers,  and  even  pauloivnia  and  catalpa.  Woods 
are  mostly  restricted  to  the  upper  valleys,  and  the 
slopes  facing  south  are  much  more  abundantly  watered 
and  considerably  milder.  They  display  already  the  chief 
characteristics  of  a  moist  sub-tropical  climate  with  dwarf 
palms,  large  ferns,  bambus,  and  an  approach  to  temperate 
rain -forests.  Towards  the  east,  however,  the  distinction 
between  the  two  regions  of  northern  and  central  China 
is  not  so  sharply  drawn  along  the  low  divide  between 
the  Hwang-ho  and  the  Yangtse  basins. 

In  respect  of  its  climate,  central  China  lies  under  very 
much  the  same  conditions  as  the  southernmost  Atlantic 
States  of  North  America,  though  here  the  monsoon  is 
the  great  factor  of  plant-life.  Everything  points  to  its 
having  been  originally  a  region  of  extensive  rain- forests 


30  ASIA 

of  a  sub-tropical,  mostly  evergreen  character,  abundantly 
mixed  with  conifers  and  summer- green  trees ;  but  it  is 
difficult,  at  the  present  stage  of  intensive  agriculture, 
dating  back  so  many  centuries,  to  reconstruct  exactly 
the  original  distribution  of  the  different  kinds  of 
forests  and  pastures.  The  growing  period  extends  over 
the  larger  part  of  the  year,  and  is  hardly  interrupted 
by  a  short  and  temperate  period  of  rest. 

Bananas  and  similar  plants,  as  well  as  the  tall  tropical 
palms,  are  absent,  but  hardy  species  of  palms,  bambus, 
and  ferns,  even  small  lianas  and  epiphytes,  and  such 
trees  as  camphor- wood,  camellias,  especially  tea- trees  and 
liquidambars,  are  well  represented.  This  is  best  seen  in 
the  mountains  in  the  west,  which  display  in  their  forests 
a  magnificent  profusion.  Conifers  of  a  southern  type, 
such  as  gingko  and  cypresses  (and  even  pines),  mark  the 
temperate  nature  of  the  climate,  of  which  one  is  further 
reminded  by  the  presence  of  winter-bare  trees,  such  as 
chestnuts  and  maples.  In  short,  it  is  legitimate  to  picture 
the  primitive  vegetation  of  central  China  as  resembling 
that  of  the  Alto  Parana  and  Paraguay  regions  of  South 
America.  Within  such  an  immense  area,  however,  strong 
variations  are  certain  to  arise  between  the  north  and  south, 
the  far  interior  and  the  coast  districts, between  the  Alps  of 
Hupe,  the  low  valley  of  the  Yangtse,  and  the  hill-land 
of  Hunan  and  Kiangsi. 

The  fact  that  central  China  is  the  meeting-ground  of 
the  northern  and  sub- tropical  floras  produces  a  bewilder- 
ing wealth  of  plant-life,  hardly  surpassed  in  any  other 
region  of  the  world.  Separate  mention  should  be  made 
of  the  western  part,  which  includes  Yunnan,  Kwei- 
chou,  and  western  Sechwan.  Proceeding  westward,  the 
land  becomes  extremely  broken.  Increasingly  loftier 
mountains  attract  an  almost  excessive  rainfall,  and  the 


CENTRAL  CHINA  31 

profusion  of  nature  simply  knows  no  bounds,  whilst  the 
rapid  and  vast  changes  of  elevation  create  an  immense 
variety.  From  the  lowlands  and  the  hill-lands,  with 
their  mixture  of  pines  and  palms,  of  camphor  and  other 
lauraceous  trees,  camellias  and  tea,  and  the  hanging 
vines  of  the  wistaria,  one  passes  upwards  into  the  diffi- 
cult and  as  yet  little  explored  mountain  region.  In  its 
forests,  vegetation  simply  runs  riot.  Amid  the  remark- 
able and  unsurpassed  diversity  of  precious  timber  species, 
the  gorgeous  wealth  of  rhododendrons  and  azaleas,  mag- 
nolias and  bambus,  fuchsias,  roses  and  chrysanthemums, 
and  the  countless  beautifully  blossomed  plants  generally 
known  to  our  gardeners  as  japonica,  are  found  here  in 
their  native  haunts.  A  belt  of  temperate,  summer-green 
forests,  including  well-known  trees,  such  as  oaks  and 
alders  and  hazels,  is  followed  further  up  by  dense 
forests  of  stately  conifers.  The  alpine  zone,  with  a  large 
variety  of  primroses  and  gentians,  of  ranunculus  and 
anemones,  Ear  surpassing  the  beauty  of  our  own  alpine 
meadows,  extends  to  the  line  of  eternal  snows. 

As  regards  agriculture,  the  range  of  produce  is  no  less 
striking:  rice  and  cotton,  mull  jerries  and  tea,  poppies 
and  beans,  wheat,  maize,  pulses,  onions,  indigo,  sugar, 
hemp,  and  tobacco,  furnish  profuse  crops  under  the 
skilled  and  patient  labour  of  the  Chinese.  In  brief,  it  is 
hard  to  rind  any  portion  of  the  earth,  including  Europe, 
where  the  diversity  and  abundance  of  fruits  and  other 
produce  are  greater  than  in  central  China.  For  thousands 
of  years  the  natives  have  been  an  essentially  agricultural 
population  and  have  carried  their  methods  of  cultivation 
to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  Especially  worthy  of 
notice  are  the  valley  of  the  Yangtse,  those  of  Hunan 
and  Kwang-si,  and  the  terraced  region  of  Sechwan. 

Agriculture   has  always  remained    the  primary  and 


32  ASIA 

almost  exclusive  occupation  of  the  Chinese,  other  indus- 
tries being  subsidiary  to  it  and  ranking  far  behind  it 
in  importance.  No  nation  has  made  more  of,  and  so 
thoroughly  appropriated,  the  soil :  nowhere  has  rural 
life  and  organization  been  stronger :  in  a  way,  the  chief 
of  the  state  is  but  a  glorified  peasant.  In  no  large 
natural  region  can  the  influence  of  agriculture,  and 
through  it,  of  the  geographic  environment,  on  the  mode 
of  life,  institutions,  organization,  morals,  religion,  arts, 
and  poetry,  be  traced  so  clearly  as  in  China. 

Malay  Archipelago.  By  their  situation  within  the 
equatorial  belt,  the  islands  of  south-eastern  Asia  : 
Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  the  Celebes,  and  the  Philippines, 
to  which  may  be  added  the  Malay  Peninsula:  enjoy  an 
equable  equatorial  climate,  with  an  abundant  rainfall 
distributed  regularly  throughout  the  year.  We  may, 
therefore,  expect  to  find  here  all  the  profusion  of  tropical 
nature.  The  equatorial  selva  is  indeed  the  rule  here. 
Only  minor  climatic  variations,  along  with  the  nature  of 
the  relief  and  soil,  determine  departures  from  this  highest 
and  heaviest  type  of  vegetation.  All  these  islands 
possess  a  skeleton  of  mountains,  either  in  long  barrier- 
ranges,  as  in  Sumatra  and  Java,  or  in  centres  from 
which  chains  radiate,  as  in  Borneo.  In  Sumatra  and 
Java,  those  ranges  are  high  and  continuous  enough 
to  drain  the  bulk  of  the  southern  monsoon,  and  thus 
render  the  northern  slopes  comparatively  dry.  West 
Java  is  also  moister  than  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
island,  and  consequently  the  alternation  of  dry  and  wet 
periods  tells  more  on  the  vegetation.  This  contrast  can 
be  traced  throughout  the  different  belts  of  altitude 
from  the  sea-shore  to  the  tops  of  the  mountain  screens. 
Thus,  in  the  west  and  south,  the  lower  slopes  are  clad 
with  a  heavy  growth  of  luxuriant  selva :   in  the  east 


MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO 


33 


and  north  the  forest  type  is  much  poorer  and  lighter, 
tending  towards  the  Leaf-shedding  type  of  the  teak  or 
'  djati ',  with  which  it  is  abundantly  intermixed.     The 


Fid.  11.     Undergrowth  of  Evergreen  Equatorial  Forest 
in  Solomon  Islands. 


succeeding  belt  on  the  moister  side  consists  of  ever- 
green, temperate  rain-forests,  not  unlike  those  of 
south    Chili     and,    corresponding    to    the     cloud-belt, 


34  ASIA 

characteristically  overgrown  with  hanging  mosses.  On 
the  drier  side,  the  middle  zone  is  constituted  by  a  park 
landscape  of  grasslands  interspersed  with  woods.  Their 
dominant  tree  is  a  casuarina,  locally  called  '  tjemoro ', 
whose  leafless  and  shadeless  twigs  have  the  appearance  of 
our  humble  horsetail.  The  ground  vegetation  consists  of 
small  bushes  with  a  leathery  foliage,  suggesting  the  poor 
ground  brush  of  a  thin  pine  forest.  Approaching  the 
tops  of  the  mountains,  the  trees  and  even  the  elfin  scrub 
disappear  to  make  way  for  the  meagre  grass -lands. 

The  well-watered  plains,  which  are  fully  developed 
only  on  the  northern  side,  are  the  seat  of  an  active  agri- 
culture, in  which  tobacco  and  coffee  predominate. 

Intermont  plateaus  intervene  frequently  between  the 
southern  scarps  and  the  opposite  slopes :  they  are 
covered  with  poor  pastures. 

Borneo,  as  a  whole,  is  surrounded  by  wide  coastal 
plains,  most  of  which,  on  the  Asiatic  side,  are  covered 
with  fields  and  fallow-lands.  The  central  highlands 
are  densely  wooded  and,  as  far  as  has  been  ascertained, 
include  a  lower  zone  of  equatorial  selva  and  a  middle 
belt  of  temperate  rain-forest  carried  far  into  the  upper 
valleys.  Above  7,000  feet  the  ridges  are  covered  with 
coniferous  woodlands  passing  to  elfin  woods,  and,  at 
higher  levels,  to  elfin  scrub  and  alpine  brush. 

The  narrow  plateaus  which  form  the  backbone  of  the 
Celebes  display  typical  savanas. 

It  is  a  striking  fact  that  the  alpine  vegetation  of  dwarf 
shrubs  and  cushion-plants,  with  their  tiny,  leathery,  or 
wool-clad  leaves,  strong  roots,  and  gorgeous  display 
of  flowers,  which  are  usually  associated  with  ice  and 
snow,  should  be  found  here  characteristically  represented 
at  comparatively  low  levels,  under  the  Equator,  and 
entirely  free  from  snow.     It  is  equally  remarkable  that 


MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO  35 

the  upper  limit  of  forest-growth  is  very  low  as  compared 
with  the  corresponding  levels  amid  the  continental 
ranges  of  the  equatorial  belt.  The  same  phenomena  are 
still  more  forcibly  exhibited  in  the  lower  South  Sea 
Islands.  They  all  tend  to  show  that  the  strength  and 
dryness  of  the  winds  are  the  real  influences  which  limit 
tree-growth  and  shape  the  alpine  vegetation  on  the 
mountains,  as  they  do  in  the  polar  regions. 

To  the  enormous  and  varied  resources  of  their  islands, 
the  Malays  have  greatly  added  by  sea  trade  in  the 
past.  The  wealth  of  these  populations  at  once  agricul- 
tural and  sea-faring  was  very  considerable,  and  their 
influence  spread  all  over  the  eastern  seas.  To  this  day  the 
Malayan  islands  are  among  the  most  densely  populated. 
Mysterious  ruins  of  truly  magnificent  cities  testify  to 
the  high  measure  of  civilization  reached  by  those  people 
long  before  the  advent  of  Europeans. 

India  may  be  said  to  be  entirely  governed  by  the 
monsoon,  whose  effects  are  largely  controlled  by  the 
relief  of  the  surface :  thus  the  area  beyond  its  influence 
in  the  north-west  is  extremely  arid,  and  the  plain 
of  the  Ganges  which  lies  open  to  the  south-east  monsoon 
is  fairly  well-watered  on  the  whole;  but  the  winds 
gradually  spend  their  moisture  on  the  wTay  westward. 
Approached  from  the  south-west,  the  semi-arid  table- 
land of  the  Deccan  is  robbed  of  a  large  portion  of  its 
water  by  the  screen  of  the  western  Ghats,  which  thus 
separates  it  from  the  luxuriant  Malabar  coast.  The 
southern  part  of  the  plateau,  however,  merely  from  its 
geographical  position,  enjoys  a  longer  wet  season  than 
the  northern  half  and  is  correspondingly  more  fertile. 
In  the  Himalayas,  the  eastern  half  is  abundantly  watered, 
while  the  north-western  part  only  receives  a  scanty 
balance  of  the  moisture. 

D  2 


36  ASIA 

The  strong  rhythm  of  the  two  seasons  is  thus  felt 
throughout  the  whole  of  India ;  but  on  the  outskirts  of 
the  area,  along  the  Malabar  coast,  in  the  north-eastern 
Himalayas,  Assam,  and  western  Burma,  the  period  of 
drought  is  so  short  as  to  be  practically  without  in- 
fluence. Consequently  these  regions  are  the  seat  of 
evergreen  wet  forests.  Throughout  the  rest  of  India 
the  ground  is  sharply  contested  between  tree-growth  and 
scrub  ;  but  where  tree-growth  is  possible,  it  bears  the 
stamp  of  the  seasonal  contrast  and  foliage  is  shed  during 
the  dry  period.  The  winter  colds  are  unimportant  as 
a  factor  in  vegetation,  except  among  the  mountains. 
Central  India  is  not,  therefore,  a  region  of  continuous 
and  dense  forests,  but  offers  a  varied  landscape  whose 
type  oscillates  bei  ween  (  ropical  deciduOUS  woodlands  and 
the  poor  acacia  scrub. 

The  Ganges  valley  has  been  cultivated  bo  long  and  so 
intensively  that  its  original  state  can  only  be  guessed  at ; 
at  present  it  is  weU-nigh  treeless.  Its  fertility  conies 
from  its  alluvial  soil  and  from  the  abundant  water-supply 
afforded  by  its  rivers,  the  Ganges  and  its  tributaries,  which 
are  utilized  for  irrigation.  Rice,  wheat,  opium,  indigo, 
and,  in  some  parts,  cotton,  are  the  staple  crops  which 
now  support  a  large  population;  but  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  it  was  formerly  a  savana  interspersed  with  various 
kinds  of  rain-green  woodlands. 

The  combined  delta  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra 
presents  an  aspect  similar  to  that  of  the  Burmese  and 
Indo-Chinese  deltas.  The  lower  swampy  alluvium,  cove  re.  1 
by  an  impenetrable  mixture  of  evergreen  jungle  and 
mangrove,  have  hitherto  proved  too  strong  for  human 
powers,  and  have  challenged  human  enterprise  much  as 
the  corresponding  swamps  of  the  Mekong. 

The  vast  table-land  of  the  Deccan,  difficult  of  access 


38  ASIA 

and  seamed  by  deep  gorges,  is  less  than  3,000  feet  high. 
It  may  be  divided,  broadly,  into  a  north  west  drier  part 
and  a  south-eastern  portion  where  the  rainless  period  only 
extends  over  two  or  three  months  ;  but  the  driest  area 
stretches  in  a  belt  at  the  foot  of  the  western  Ghats. 
Much  of  the  original  character  is  still  preserved  in  the 
mixed  woodlands  of  teak  and  other  deciduous  trees,  which 
however,  do  not  form  a  continuous  cover,  but  are  inter- 
mingled with  large  expanses  of  semi-arid  scrub.  Though 
the  Deccan  is  said  to  be  destitute  of  true  'caatinga '  forma- 
tion similar  to  what  exists  in  South  America,  Africa, 
Australia,  and  Siani,  it  is  evident  that  some  of  its  deci- 
duous jungles  and  woodlands,  depending  upon  analogous 
climatic  conditions  and  offering  the  same  vegetative 
characters,  ma y  be  classed  under  that  type.  The  gorges, 
which  the  rivers  have  cut  for  themselves  below  the  level 
of  the  plateau,  are  densely  wooded.  A  large  portion  of 
the  dense  and  tall,  drought-bare  scrub  is  only  new 
growth  consequent  upon  the  destruction  of  forests,  which 
is  natural  in  a  country  with  a  comparatively  dense  popu- 
lation. Among  the  economic  resources  of  the  woodlands 
are  teak,  sandal- wood  and  cedrela,  the  bastard  cedar, 
whilst  cotton  is  extensively  grown. 

The  escarpment  known  as  the  eastern  Ghats  leads  one 
from  the  central  plateau  to  the  low  and  narrowT  coastal  plain 
of  Coromandel.  This  is  a  dry  and  hot,  sandy  tract,  mostly 
covered  with  thickets  of  thorny  evergreen  shrubs,  equiva- 
lent to  the  'restinga'  formation  of  the  Brazilian  shores. 
The  evergreen  jungle,  however,  gives  way,  at. the  deltas 
of  the  main  rivers,  to  fertile  tracts  which  are  suggestive 
of  oases. 

The  west  coast  feels,  to  a  much  less  degree,  the 
seasonal  monsoon  rhythm  and  the  influence  of  the  dry 
season.    The  drought  lasts  less  than  two  months  and  the 


INDIA  39 

atmospheric  humidity  continues  to  remain  high.  Of 
I »<>ii insular  Indi.i,  this  stretch  of  coast-land,  at  most  fifty 
miles  broad  and  rising  in  abrupt  scarps  at  the  back,  is 
the  only  one  which  admits  of  high  tropical  rain-forests. 
These  forests,  albeit  they  do  not  attain  the  luxuriance  of 
the  selvas  of  south  Sumatra,  display  a  great  exuberance 
and  all  the  essential  features  of  the  typical  rain-forest. 
The  hot  and  wet  legion  of  Malabar  is  continued  into 
south-western  Ceylon,  where  the  character  and  profusion 
of  the  equatorial  belt  are  further  emphasized,  and  the 
coco-nut   palm  forests  are  famous. 

In  the  north-east  of  India,  the  mountain  forests  of  the 
A rak an- Assan i  system,  as  well  as  those  of  the  south- 
eastern  Himalayas,  exliil.it  a  wet  evergreen,  but  distinctly 
sul>-tropieal,  type,  with  a  great  wealth  of  forms.  The 
admixture  of  leaf-shedding  vegetation  is  fairly  Btrong, 
and  trees  of  a  more  familiar  aspect,  oaks,  pines,  and 
magnolias,  are  abundantly  represented.  Here  tea  is  as 
profusely  grown  as  in  southern  <  Ihina.  The  north-eastern 
mountainous  region  of  India,  which  is  also  the  region  of 
heaviest  rainfall  in  lie-  world,  is  most  appropriately  com- 
pared with  the  middle  belt  of  the  Montana  at  the  head 
waters  of  the  Amazon. 

A  cross-section  cut  through  the  south  eastern  portion 
of  the  Himalayas  would  show  a  lower  tropical  belt, 
about  twenty  miles  broad,  rising  from  the  plains  to 
1,000  feet,  of  loose  forests  (chiefly  of  sal-tree)  and  rich, 
swampy  jungles  and  grasslands,  with  enormous  bambus 
and  tall  palms. 

The  sub-tropical  belt,  which  reaches  an  altitude  of 
6,500  feet,presents  the  wet,  evergreen  aspect,  but  includes 
trees  of  a  familiar  type,  such  as  pines  and  live  oaks, 
celtis,  olive-trees,  sumacs,  and  others. 

A  temperate  zone  of  non- coniferous,  largely  deciduous 


INDIA  41 

forest- growth,  succeeded  by  a  zone  of  conifers  and 
rhododendrons,  stretches  up  to  11,500  feet  The  alpine 
zone  of  pastures  and  shrubberies,  of  screes  and  herb 
coverings,  ascends  to  16,000  feet. 

On  the  north-west,  the  Himalayan  vegetation, 
especially  in  the  lower  reaches,  loses  more  and  more 
its  sub- tropical  character  and  profusion.  In  the 
Indus  district  the  climate  is  decidedly  dry,  and  the 
vegetation  assumes  increasingly,  at  least  at  the  lower 
and  middle  elevations,  a  somewhat  mediterranean  aspect 
with  stout,  evergreen,  round-headed,  hard-leaved  trees, 
walnuts,  oaks,  pines,  firs,  and  deodars.  Many  of  the 
slopes  are  either  completely  denuded  or  thinly  dotted 
with  a  loose  evergreen  scrub  equivalent  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean 'garigue'.  The  woods  are  loose,  often  scattered, 
with  hardly  any  undergrowth  or  ground  vegetation. 
This  district  is  extremely  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of 
maize  and  wheat. 

The  Indus  Desert  is  really  part  of  the  vast  system  of 
tropical  deserts  of  the  Old  World  and  the  easternmost 
corner  of  the  arid  belt  of  the  Sahara- Arabia-Persia  series. 
The  bulk  of  the  monsoon  from  the  Arabian  seas  is 
deflected  towards  the  east  by  the  Vindhyas,  leaving  but 
an  unimportant  part  for  the  plain  of  the  Indus.  Thus 
the  rainfall  which  is  always  irregular  hardly  rises  above 
ten  inches  yearly.  The  centre  of  this  area  is  formed  by 
the  hot  desert  of  Thar,  a  low  and  monotonous  plain,  one 
of  the  dreariest  places  on  earth.  It  is  approached  through 
concentric  belts  of  increasing  barrenness  :  a  main  zone 
may  be  distinguished,  extending  on  the  west  to  the  foot 
of  the  Baluchistan  highlands,  and  on  the  north  to  the 
foot  of  the  Himalayas.  This  zone  may  be  compared 
with  the  Somali  '  nyika',  and  is  covered  with  a  scattered 
and  herbaceous  vegetation,  with  a  thin  dotting  of  thorny 


42  ASIA 

shrubs,  most  of  which  venture  to  assume  their  scanty 
foliage  only  during  the  short  rainy  period.  Among 
them  may  be  recognized  familiar  denizens  of  the  African 
semi-deserts,  e.g.  the  Arabian  acacia  and  the  tamarix, 
and  along  the  margins  of  the  dry  river-beds,  fig-trees  and 
Euphrates  poplars.  Oases,  with  palms,  are  to  be  found 
in  fair  abundance ;  but  the  life  of  this  area  is  due, 
and  restricted,  to  the  Indus  and  its  tributaries,  fed  by 
melting  snows  of  the  Himalayas,  and  dry  most  of  the 
year.  By  means  of  auxiliary  canals  and  irrigation 
ditches,  the  productive  surface  has  been  extended  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  rivers,  and  wheat  can  be  grown  with  suc- 
cess. In  short,  a  parallel  may  be  drawn  between  this 
Indus  belt  and  Mesopotamia ;  but  here  the  importance  of 
the  Himalayan  snows  is  such  that  the  network  of  rivers 
and  canals  allows  of  a  fairly  dense  human  settlement. 

From  prehistoric  times,  the  immense  wealth  and  in- 
finite resources  of  India  have  attracted  invaders,  con- 
querors, immigrants,  adventurers,  and  travellers,  by  land 
and  sea,  from  all  points  of  the  compass.  In  the  Deccan, 
the  eastern  slopes  and  plateaus  came  to  be  densely 
peopled,  whereas  the  slopes  of  the  western  Ghats,  with 
their  dark  forests,  remained  comparatively  uninhabited. 
Geographical  changes  have  also  occurred  which  have 
moved  the  centres  of  population.  There  was  a  time 
when  the  Indus  was  a  more  powerful  stream  than  it 
now  is,  and  fertilized  a  much  vaster  area  of  its  valley. 
Even  the  Thar  desert  is  strewn  with  ruins  of  forests, 
canals,  and  cities,  testifying  to  its  former  importance. 

Iran  is  a  natural  region  formed  by  a  vast  plateau, 
defended  on  all  sides  by  a  continuous  rim  of  mountains  : 
on  the  north  by  the  chain  of  the  Elburz  Khorassan 
merging  into  the  Hindu  Kush ;  on  the  east  by  the 
broken  Baluchistan  highlands;    on  the  south  and  west 


IRAN  43 

by  the  great  barrier  of  Zagros,  rising  precipitously  from 
the  narrow  coastal  shelf  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Its  central  situation  in  the  midst  of  arid  lands,  and 
its  girdle  of  lofty  mountains  mark  it,  from  the  first,  as 
a  very  dry  territory,  whilst  its  elevation,  which,  in  the 
south-west,  is  considerable,  and  its  extra-tropical  position, 
make  it  a  land  of  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  Except  in 
the  north-west,  the  yearly  rainfall  remains  under  ten 
inches  and  is  very  unreliable.  The  worst  feature  is 
the  icy  northern  blast  which  sweeps  unchecked  across  the 
eastern  plains.  Here  again,  therefore,  the  life  of  the 
country  depends  largely  on  the  snows  of  the  marginal 
mountains,  and  of  the  two  chains  which  cross  the  plateau. 
These  feed  meagre  streams,  which  dry  up  and  lose  them- 
selves at  no  great  distance  from  the  foot-hills. 

Under  such  circumstances,  forest-growth  is  out  of 
question ;  even  large  tracts  of  continuous  grassland  are 
scarce.  Loose  colonies  of  plants  form  the  essential  feature, 
and  these  are  necessarily  confined  to  isolated  localities 
of  limited  extent,  conditioned  solely  by  the  nature  of 
the  relief  and  the  soil.  The  dry  winds  keep  the  vegeta- 
tion low  :  trees  require  the  shelter  of  the  mountains, 
but  low  shrubs,  scattered  and  deciduous,  able  to  tap 
the  deep-seated  ground-water,  are  best  adapted  to  these 
conditions,  and  with  them  an  ephemeral  flora,  which 
bursts  forth  with  the  occasional  showery  spells  and  then 
dies.  Perhaps  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  Persian 
vegetation  is  the  extraordinary  wealth  of  thorns  and 
prickles :  about  five  hundred  thorny  plants  have  been 
counted  here,  including  small  trees,  shrubs,  under-shrubs, 
and  perennials. 

An  important  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the 
broad  valley  of  Shiraz-Isfahan,  which  rises  like  a  vast 
hummock  between  the  southern  chain  of  Iran  and  the 


44  ASIA 

interior  chain  of  Kerman  and  Yezd,  attaining  an  eleva- 
tion of  over  4,500  feet;  and  the  plains  of  Khorassan, 
Kuhistan,  Registan,  and  northern  Baluchistan  which  lie 
to  the  north  and  east.  The  valley  stretches  in  a  south- 
east to  north-west  direction  and  penetrates  into  the  mour- 
tains  of  Armenia.  It  is  very  cold  at  night,  and  sometimes 
covered  with  snow  in  winter.  In  the  centre,  broad  sur- 
faces are  thinly  dotted  with  tufts  of  dry.  short  grass, 
and  with  stunted,  leafless  thorn- bushes.  In  places  the 
growth  of  dwarf  herbs  becomes  almost  continuous  and 
forms  a  meagre  steppe.  During  the  rainy  spells,  how- 
ever, the"  landscape  is  strangely  enlivened  by  a  carpet  of 
low  herbs  with  gorgeous  flowers  which  burst  forth  from 
the  barren  soil  as  though  by  magic.  This  ephemeral 
flora  of  annuals  is  quite  European  in  its  composition  and 
appearance. 

The  influence  of  the  mountain  streams  does  not  extend 
far  in  the  plains.  These  streams  are  absorbed  by  the 
sands  and  evaporated  at  no  great  distance  from  the  foot- 
hills; but  before  losing  themselves,  they  create  a  fertile 
belt  of  terraces,  alluvial  fans,  flats  and  marshes  where 
life  is  concentrated.  In  consequence,  towns  are  always 
found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mountains.  In  past  ages 
the  natives  developed  great  skill  in  the  search  for  water 
and  the  appropriation  of  the  ground  moisture,  and  the 
necessity  of  walling  in  the  gardens  against  the  winds 
was  early  recognized.  Orchards  have  been  planted  with 
most  of  our  European  fruit  and  other  deciduous  trees  : 
such  as  the  walnut,  apricot,  peach  and  almond,  plane, 
Euphrates  poplar,  &c.  The  gardens  are  renowned  for 
the  incomparable  beauty  of  their  roses,  but  the  tops 
of  the  trees  above  the  sheltering  walls  are  soon  killed 
by  the  dry  winds.  Such  vegetation  is  also  represented 
in  the  vallevs  of,  and  in  the  belt  around,  the  mountains 


IRAN  45 

of  Kerman  and  Khorassan,  whose  limestone  slopes  are 
generally  as  porous  and  barren  as  those  of  Zagros. 

Very  dill*  rent  is  the  appearance  of  the  desolate  plains 
which  lie  at  a  lower  level  east  of  Teheran  and  north-east 
of  the  Kerman  chain.  This  portion  of  Persia  is  much 
poorer  in  water  and  more  extreme  in  climate  than  the 
plateau  of  Shiraz-Isfahan  ;  in  fact,  it  corresponds  to 
the  arid  alfa  plateaus  of  north-west  Africa.  A  per- 
sistent and  strong  dry  wind  from  the  north  keeps  down 
all  tree-growth  and  is  the  specific  feature  of  the  climate 
Vast  expanses  of  sand  wastes  and  salt -tracts  are  well- 
nigh  devoid  of  vegetation  or  peopled  by  straggling 
colonies  of  Bait-bushes.  Other  areas  support  a  loose 
brush  of  tamarixes.  Broad  stretches  of  rubble,  especially 
in  the  eastern  part,  grow  only  solitary  bushes,  thorny, 
leafless,  and  stunted,  and  tufts  of  stiff,  wiry  grass. 

Life  is  confined  to  the  immediate  margins  of  the  rivers 
which  diverge  from  the  Hindu  Rush,  or,  again,  to  the 
valleys  of  that  belt  of  low  hills  which  separates  Kuhi- 
stan  from  Afghanistan.  In  the  middle  of  the  wide 
expanse  of  barren  gravel  lies  the  oasis  known  as  Seistan, 
a  very  rich  country  due  to  the  convergence  of  the  Hindu 
Kush  rivers  towards  the  lowest  point  of  the  relief  at  the 
foot  of  the  central  chain  of  hills.  Here  are  exhibited 
the  characteristics  of  the  northern  vegetations,  and  agri- 
culture is  of  a  northern  .type  ;  cereals  and  fruit-trees 
are  profusely  grown  under  shelter.  Seistan  was  known 
in  the  past  as  one  of  the  granaries  of  central  Asia,  but 
with  increasing  dryness,  its  limits  have  contracted  con- 
siderably. Swampy  tracts  between  the  affluent  rivers 
are  covered  with  jungles  of  tamarixes,  similar  to  those 
of  the  Tarim  desert. 

Farther  south,  the  sub-tropical  character  is  asserted 
clearly  in  the  oases,  which    like   those   of  Africa  and 


IRAN  47 

Arabia  are  graced  by  clumps  of  date-palms.  The  moun- 
tainous southern  portion  of  Baluchistan  and  Mekran 
continues  the  narrow  coastal  shelf  which  stretches  at  the 
foot  of  the  wall  of  Iran.  Outside  the  oases,  the  vegeta- 
tion is  limited  to  poor  and  scattered  scrubs  of  thorny, 
leafless  bushes,  among  which  the  acacias  are  now  charac- 
teristic. 

While  the  high  plateau  of  Shiraz  occasionally  affords 
a  meagre  fodder  to  passing  camels,  and  is  pleasantly 
diversified  by  oases,  the  desolate  plains  of  Khorassan 
are  unfit  for  anything.  The  valleys  of  Afghanistan 
radiating  from  the  Hindu  Kush  are  peopled  by  villages 
dispersed  along  the  bottoms  only:  the  slopes  are  singu- 
larly devoid  of  vegetation. 

In  the  chain  of  Zagros,  which  continues  the  Taurus 
and  forms  the  south-western  escarpment  of  Persia,  the 
climate  still  retains  a  mediterranean  character  but  to- 
wards the  east  becomes  increasingly  dry.  The  limestone 
rock,  by  its  sheer  slopes  and  the  porous  nature  of  its 
rubble,  adds  greatly  to  the  aridity  of  the  country.  In 
many  respects  the  Zagros  chain  strongly  recalls  the 
barren  region  of  the  Illyrian  Karst.  Most  of  the  steep 
slopes  are  entirely  denuded  ;  and  it  is  only  on  the  ter- 
races and  in  the  depths  of  the  secluded  longitudinal 
troughs,  sheltered  from  winds  and  favoured  by  local 
accumulations  of  ground-water,  that  vegetation  appears. 
The  live  oak  and  other  evergreen,  hard-leaved  trees  and 
shrubs  give  it  a  decidedly  mediterranean  stamp.  Loose 
formations  of  low  shrubs  fringe  the  valleys  on  the  gentle 
lower  slopes ;  at  times  there  is  enough  water  to  allow 
the  trees  to  close  in  and  even  to  crowd  as  light  woods. 
Frequently,  indeed,  these  secluded  troughs  and  terraces 
reveal  a  veritable  luxuriance  in  their  fruitful  orchards 
of  olive,   apricot,    apple,    peach,   almond,   pomegranate, 


48  ASIA 

walnut,  and  other  trees.  Cereals,  especially  wheat  and 
maize,  are  grown  with  the  best  results.  Cypresses  and 
plane-trees  add  to  the  unexpected  beauty  of  the  moun- 
tain oases.  In  addition,  meadows  are  often  found  in 
these  remote  hollows ;  they  are  sufficient  to  support 
the  herds  of  the  nomads  in  their  yearly  migrations  from 
the  winter  grazing  grounds  of  the  lowland  to  the  summer 
mountain  pastures :  but,  as  a  rule,  the  limestone  rock, 
with  its  fissures  and  its  stony  wastes,  is  too  dry  for 
continuous  swards  of  grass.  This  mediterranean  karst 
vegetation,  concealed  on  the  terraces  and  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Zagros  margin,  stops  at  the  Straits  of  Ormuz. 

Briefly,  then,  the  roughly  triangular  plateau  of  Iran 
defined  by  the  Elburz  and  Khorassan  chains  in  the  north, 
the  Zagros-Mekran-Baluchistan  ranges  in  the  south,  and 
the  Baluchistan  mountains  in  the  east,  falls  into  quite 
typical  regions;  the  lofty  valley  of  Isfahan-Shiraz,  the 
lower  and  drier  salt  depressionsof  Khorassan- Afghan  is t  a  1 1 
to  the  north-east,  the  dry  and  rocky  semi-tropical  hilly 
tract  of  Baluchistan  in  the  south-east,  the  karst-like 
range  of  the  Zagros  on  the  south-west,  and  the  desert 
coastal  shelf  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Local  names  connote 
some  of  the  distinct  types  of  regional  vegetation  :  thus 
1  dschaengael ' — whence  the  name  jungle  has  arisen — 
clearly  designates  loose  scrub-land  and  also  scattered 
wood  :  '  saerhadd '  connotes  the  elevated  summer-pas- 
tures. 

Agriculture  in  Persia  is  necessarily  restricted  to  very 
few  and  limited  localities,  the  largest  cultivated  area 
being  found  in  the  trough  of  Seistan.  The  main  wealth 
lies  in  fruit-trees,  many  of  which  are  undoubtedly  indi- 
genous. Several  plants  of  economic  value  are  found 
wild,  such  as  the  pomegranate,  the  fig-tree,  and  the 
white  mulberry ;   the  mountain  pastures  support  sheep, 


IRAN  49 

which  give  valuable  wool:  hence  two  important  indus- 
tries are  those  of  silk  and  wool  rugs.  Here,  again,  the 
alternate  availability  of  lowland  and  highland  pastures 
drives  the  shepherd  regularly  from  one  to  the  other,  and 
causes  nomadism. 

Of  the  northern  chain  of  Iran  and  the  declivities 
which  face  Turan,  mention  has  been  made  already. 
Towards  the  Caspian,  the  rain-bearing  winds  become 
more  generous,  and  that  part  of  the  Elburz  which  lies 
along  the  southern  margin  of  the  Caspian  is  fairly  abun- 
dantly watered  :  hence  the  sharp  line  drawn  between 
the  northern  and  southern  slopes  of  the  chain;  while 
the  Persian  side  is  arid,  the  Caspian  side  is  well-wooded. 
The  tree-growth  is  decidedly  of  northern  temperate, 
winter-bare  type,  with  a  rich  variety  of  species,  and 
here  occurs  the  easternmost  limit  of  our  common  beech. 
The  plane-tree,  the  walnut,  the  ash,  the  hornbeam,  several 
kinds  of  oaks,  maples,  and  poplars,  and,  in  addition,  the 
stately  zelkova,  compose  the  forests,  which,  to  our  eyes, 
would  thus  have  quite  a  familiar  aspect.  A  character- 
istic shrub  is  the  box,  which  forms  almost  exclusive 
scrub  at  higher  levels  in  the  centre  of  the  range.  The 
winter  appearance  of  the  Caspian  forests,  with  bare  trees, 
and  snow  lying  on  the  ground,  differs  very  little  from 
that  of  the  mountain-forests  of  central  and  eastern 
Europe  ;  the  ground  vegetation  in  summer  reveals  plants 
equally  familiar  to  us :  in  short,  the  southern  margin  of 
the  Caspian  is  in  striking  contrast  with  its  drier  sur- 
roundings. 

Iran  is  in  the  belt  of  lands  which  have  been 
gradually  drying  up.  Life  has  always  been  more  con- 
centrated in  the  elevated  plain  of  Shiraz  and  Isfahan, 
and  in  the  north-west  corner  towards  Armenia.  The 
Iranians  were  early  devoted  to  agriculture,  which  they 


50  ASIA 

indeed  raised  to  a  sort  of  religion:  they  were  among 
the  first  users,  if  they  have  not  been,  as  they  claim,  the 
actual  inventors,  of  the  plough  and  of  the  windmill :  their 
skill  in  discovering  and  utilizing  water  was  famous. 
The  empires  which  successively  arose  and  declined  there 
exercised  their  influence  far  eastward  on  China  and 
India,  westward  on  Europe,  and  made  the  most  valuable 
contributions  to  civilization. 

Mesopotamia.  Under  this  term  is  here  included  the 
region  which  extends  along  the  foot  of  the  Zagros  from 
the  Straits  of  Ormuz  to  the  highlands  of  the  Euphrates  : 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  escarpment  of  the  Syrian 
desert,  it  includes  the  middle  and  lower  valleys  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  The  climate  may  be  bed 
compared  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  with  accen- 
tuated heat  and  drought;  the  winter  is  comparatively 
milder,  but  not  so  rainy  as  in  the  Mediterranean ;  the 
summers  are  dry  and  scorching. 

The  great  feature  of  this  region,  however,  is  the  back- 
ground of  limestone  highlands,  which  prove  to  be  the 
source  of  its  fertility.  The  relatively  abundant  water, 
which  falls  on  the  northern  and  north-eastern  moun- 
tains, sinks  rapidly  to  a  lower  level,  and  feeds  the  two 
main  rivers,  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  It  further  washes 
down  from  the  mountains  a  rich  calcareous  silt,  wdiich 
is  deposited  in  the  plain,  and  renders  its  soil  extremely 
fertile,  while,  at  the  same  time,  these  alluvia  are  periodi- 
cally flooded  by  the  water  from  the  melting  snow.  Vast 
marshes  are  thus  created  on  the  level  tracts,  but  the 
ground-water  is  never  very  deep. 

All  these  circumstances  compensate  for  the  dryness 
of  the  climate  :  the  rainfall  which  remains  under  ten 
inches,  is  irregular  and  limited  to  the  winter  months. 
In  these  plains,  vegetation   naturally  depends    on  the 


MESOPOTAMIA  51 

amount,  of  water  in  ami  on  the  soil,  more  than  on 
the  atmospheric  humidity:  the  topography  ami  the  soil 
entirely  control  the  character  of  the  natural  vegetation. 

Where,  for  geological  and  topographical  reasons,  the 
level  of  the  ground-water  is  deep,  the  vegetation,  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  climate,  is  extremely  scanty,  low, 
and  stunted,  even  of  a  desert  type,  consisting  of  a  very 
thin  dotting  of  bare,  thorny,  gnarled  bushes,  intermixed 
with  tufts  of  dry,  still'  grass  :  indeed,  the  aspect  is  then  to 
be  compared  either  with  that  of  the  barren  Atlas  plateaus 
or  with  that  of  the  rubble  of  Baluchistan.  This  dreary 
landscape  is  only  brightened  in  winter  and  spring,  when 
showers  determine  the  germination  of  the  millions  of 
seeds  lying  dormant  in  the  sand,  thus  suddenly  called  to 
extremely  active  and  short  life.  The  Garnish-  is  indeed 
the  land  of  '  ephemeral'  plants,  which  impart  to  the  land- 
scape an  indescribable  beauty.  Large  tracts,  however, 
keep  their  fertility  for  a  longer  time,  owing  to  the  reten- 
tiveness  of  the  soil  and  to  the  presence  of  water  near 
the  surface.  In  this  case,  vast  meadows  are  created 
which  also  benefit  by  the  snow-fed  floods  of  spring,  and 
pass  into  steppes  on  the  higher  ground  as  do  those  of 
upper  Mesopotamia. 

Of  the  tracts  depending  entirely  on  ground-water, 
the  date-palm  is  the  characteristic  tree :  it  marks  the 
irrigated  ground  and  the  banks  of  rivers  and  canals. 
Its  growth  is  encouraged  by  the  natives  on  account  of 
its  valuable  products;  every  part  of  it  becomes  useful. 
Under  its  shade  are  found  admirably  cultivated  gardens 
and  fields  where  fruit-trees,  from  coffee  and  vine  to 
peach,  almond,  and  fig,  are  grown;  wheat  and  maize, 
millet,  tobacco,  rice,  cotton,  and  hemp  also  yield  profuse 
crops. 

The  ranges  of  hills  which  rise  isolated  in  upper  Meso- 

e  2 


52  ASIA 

potamia  exhibit  a  marked  mediterranean  character : 
live  oaks  and  fig-trees  are  to  be  found  everywhere, 
but  man  has  reduced  most  of  the  original  woods  which 
clad  their  slopes  to  the  condition  of  the  evergreen 
scrub  known  in  the  Mediterranean  as  '  maquis '  and 
1  gari'gues '. 

Upper  Mesopotamia  deserves  a  special  mention  here. 
On    account    of    its    hilly   nature,   it    lies    in    a    zone 


Fig.  15.     The  Jubailah  Creek — Mesopotamia. 
Date-palms  on  the  left. 

of  more  abundant  rainfall  not  exceeding  20  inches 
yearly,  and  mainly  limited  to  winter.  5  This  hinterland 
is  indeed  entirely  mediterranean  in  respect  of  its  climate 
and  vegetation.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Armenian  Taurus,  and  sinks,  on  the  south,  to  the  level 
of  the  lowland  by  an  escarpment  giving  the  impression 
of  hills. 

This  piedmont  terrace,  the  centre  of  which  is  Diar- 
bekir,  was  originally  the  land  of  the  live  oak  and  the 


MESOPOTAMIA  53 

fig-tree,  but  is  now  laid  under  fields  of  maize,  wheat, 
tobacco,  and  rice,  fruit  orchards,  olive-  and  vineyards. 
It  is  continued  on  the  south-east  by  the  foot-hills  and 
foot-terraces  of  the  Zagros  chain. 

The  part  of  the  Garmsir  which  forms  the  shelf  of 
Zagros  to  the  Persian  Gulf  is  arid  and  scorching.  The 
vicinity  of  the  mountains,  however,  determines  the 
formation  of  numerous  water  points,  which  are  so  many 
date-palm  oases,  each  a  nucleus  for  a  village. 

The  past  fertility  of  Mesopotamia,  with  its  '  garden  of 
Eden',  was  due  to  the  utilization  of  the  waters  of  the 
twin  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates  by  means  of  irrigation 
canals  and  ditches,  and  to  careful  drainage,  which  formed 
one  of  the  most  admirable  engineering  works  the  world 
has  ever  seen.  On  these  were  founded  the  powerful  civi- 
lizations which  succeeded  each  other  in  the  course  of 
centuries,  with  their  countless  cities  and  their  all-impor- 
tant influence  upon  the  history  of  mankind.  It  is  now 
proposed  to  restore  the  irrigation  systems  and  thus  to 
open  a  new  future  to  Mesopotamia. 

Asia  Minor  is  a  vast  and  irregular  plateau,  with  an 
average  height  of  over  3,000  feet,  and  encircled  by  moun- 
tains. In  the  west,  it  opens  by  broad  valleys  to  the 
Mediterranean ;  on  the  east,  it  is  bounded  by  the  com- 
plicated mountainous  region  of  Armenia.  The  mountain - 
chains  which  cross  the  plateau,  like  the  other  features  of 
the  relief  and  the  bounding  walls  on  the  north  and  south, 
are  directed  mainly  east  and  west.  The  mountain-rims 
on  the  north,  west,  and  south  deprive  the  centre  of  Ana- 
tolia of  most  of  the  climatic  advantages  which  would 
accrue  from  its  position  in  the  midst  of  the  great  inland 
seas.  Bereft  of  rains  and  of  the  regulating  influence 
of  large  sheets  of  water,  the  high  plateau  is  arid  and 
extreme  in  its  climate.     Its  irregular  rainfall  is  limited 


54  ASIA 

to  less  than  ten  inches,  the  bulk  of  which  falls  in  winter, 
partly  in  the  form  of  snow.  On  account  of  this  and  of 
the  altitude,  the  atmospheric  moisture  is  extremely  low. 
The  main  portion  of  the  plateau  is  treeless  and  barren. 
Even  for  large  compact  masses  of  shrub-lands  and  for 
permanent  and  continuous  expanses  of  grass  these  con- 
ditions are  too  severe  ;  and  centres  of  aridity  are  formed 
by  salt  marshes  and  sand  wastes. 

Anatolia,  therefore,  is  not  fit  for  any  other  vegetation 
than  a  ragged  covering  of  scattered  brush  and  shrubby 
perennials.  The  inland  ranges  are  barren  :  an  abundance 
of  thorny  plants  (shrubs,  under-shrubs,  and  creepers), 
a  development  of  a  woolly  covering  on  the  leaves  of 
the  lower  plants,  and  a  general  dusty-grey  aspect  of 
the  whole  plant-world,  are  characteristic  features  of  the 
landscape  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year;  but,  during 
the  irregular  spells  of  rainfall,  the  growth  of  the  rain 
flora  is  quite  as  vigorous  as  in  Persia. 

Up  the  slopes  of  the  inland  mountains,  some  of  which 
attain  a  great  elevation,  the  poor  scrub  and  ragged  carpet 
of  low,  woolly  perennials  of  the  plateau  pass  gradually 
to  similar  wastes,  in  which  the  alpine  character  of  the 
scattered  plants,  and  the  disappearance  even  of  the 
isolated  shrubs,  constitutes  the  only  difference. 

While  this  description  is  true  of  the  central  plains, 
the  general  aspect  gradually  changes  towards  the  west, 
where  the  country  becomes  more  broken.  The  very 
scattered  brush  closes  into  a  loose  garigue  or  a  continuous 
maquis,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  soil.  In  short,  the 
landscape  gradually  assumes  the  mediterranean  appear- 
ance of  evergreen  shrub-  and  wood-lands.  Now  the  live 
oak,  the  olive,  the  orange-tree  and  laurel,  the  fig-tree 
and,  westward,  on  the  upper  hills,  even  pines,  occur  in 
increasing   abundance.      The  rainfall   has  increased    to 


ASIA  MINOR  55 

such  an  extent  that  the  cultivation  of  wheat  is  rendered 
possible  in  the  valleys. 

The  southern  margin  pf  Anatolia  displays  the  same 
mediterranean  character.  Along  the  Taurus,  evergreen 
woodlands,  often  reduced  to  the  condition  of  maquis  and 
garigues,  are  the  dominant  feature:  but  cypress,  cedar, 
and  black  pine,  together  with  the  Cilician  fir  and 
junipers,  the  remains  of  a  once  more  luxuriant  forest,  are 
abundantly  intermixed  in  the  broad  and  hard-leaved 
woods;  they  even  constitute  independent  patches  in  the 
fastnesses  of  the  mountains.  The  upper  slopes  with  their 
alpine  herbage  afford  summer  pastures  for  cattle. 

The  aspect  of  the  northern  slopes,  facing  the  Black 
Sea,  which  may  he  called  Pontus  or  Pontis,  is  different. 
In  every  respect  the  climate  and  the  vegetation  of  these 
slopes  are  identical  with  those  of  the  South-Caspian 
1  .airier  of  Persia.  Sufficiently  watered,  yet  experiencing 
distinctly  the  rhythm  of  hot  and  cold  seasons,  the  forests 
are  bare  in  winter,  and  their  appearance  and  composition 
is  similar  to  the  central  European  woodlands.  How- 
ever, the  plane-tree,  the  horse-chestnut,  pterocarya,  wild 
walnut,  and  many  others,  exemplify  the  much  greater 
variety  of  the  trees,  and  the  conditions,  milder  than  in 
Europe,  which  prevail  there.  To  find  a  vegetation  exactly 
equivalent  to  that  of  western  Europe,  one  has  to  climb 
up  to  a  middle  zone  characterized  by  the  oak.  Further 
up  again,  a  subalpine  shrub  belt  is  formed  by  rhodo- 
dendrons and  bilberries,  and  leads  to  alpine  pastures. 

The  highlands  which  rise  to  the  east  of  Anatolia,  and 
penetrate  far  into  Persia  under  the  name  of  Armenia, 
are  not  so  well  provided  with  water  as  the  Pontic  slopes. 
Their  vegetation  presents  a  transition  stage  between  the 
mediterranean  and  the  northern  types.  Originally  well- 
wooded,  but  formed  often  of  limestone,  they  have  been 


56  ASIA 

deforested  largely  by  incessant  streams  of  immigration. 
Their  lower  slopes  are  pretty  bare,  only  supporting  the 
scattered  maquis,  but  the  upper  slopes  often  shelter  coni- 
ferous forests. 

The  country  is  rich  in  the  valleys,  where  orchards  and 
gardens  are  found  in  abundance.  In  addition,  the  upper 
valleys  afford  excellent  summer  pastures  with  all  the 
glory  of  our  alpine  swards,  where  the  shepherds,  and 
part  even  of  the  agricultural  population,  migrate  in 
the  hot  weather.  Although  it  is  probable  that  climatic 
changes  have  taken  place  in  this  region,  the  bulk  of  Asia 
Minor,  by  reason  of  its  aridity,  could  never  become  the 
centre  of  an  indigenous  civilization,  and  of  great  empires, 
like  the  valleys  of  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt.  By  contrast, 
the  fertile  but  hilly  coast  fringes  permitted  the  develop- 
ment of  small  separate  nationalities,  subsisting  partly  on 
mediterranean  agriculture,  partly  on  sea-trade.  Each  of 
these  in  turn  rose  to  some  degree  of  prosperity,  and  exer- 
cised a  real  influence  in  history :  each  of  them  also 
naturally  expanded  towards  the  hinterland,  across  the 
mountains,  and  brought  under  their  sway  the  adjacent 
portions  of  the  arid  territories  with  their  itinerant  tribes. 
Apart  from  the  frequent  passage  of  migrating  nations, 
the  history  of  hilly  Armenia  is,  in  the  main,  a  tale  of 
endless  struggles  between  the  settled  agriculturists  of 
the  lower  terraces  and  plains,  and  the  wild  shepherds  of 
the  upper  valleys. 

Turan  extends  from  the  Kirghiz  steppe  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Khorassan,  and  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Pamirs 
and  the  Tian  Shan.  It  is  formed  by  the  bottom  of  a 
dried-up  sea,  a  vestige  of  which  remains  as  the  Aral. 
A  low  plateau,  the  Ust-Urt,  separates  it  from  the 
Caspian. 

By  reason  of  its  feeble  altitude  as  well  as  of  its  central 


TURAN  57 

position,  Turan  receives  rain  from  none  of  the  surround- 
ing areas.  The  winds  from  the  north,  which  deposit  their 
scanty  moisture  on  the  southern  and  eastern  mountain 
ranges,  sweep  past  the  depression  without  any  benefit  to 
it.  Its  climate  is  therefore  truly  desert  and  extreme, 
open  to  excessive  variations  from  the  hottest  summer  to 
the  coldest  winter,  from  scorching  winds  to  icy  gales. 
In  this  respect,  it  differs  from  the  sub-tropical  deserts. 
Turan  owes  what  fertility  it  may  possess  to  its  two 
large  rivers  the  Amu  and  the  Syr. 

Vast  territories  are  left  entirely  plantless,  indeed  life- 
less. They  are  impassable  stretches  of  moving,  heaving 
sands,  and  where  these  are  relatively  settled,  vegetation 
has  succeeded  in  gaining  a  foothold .  It  consists  of  a  brush, 
now  scattered,  now  in  thickets  of  sand-shrubs  and  small 
bushy  trees,  the  whole  aspect  of  which  recalls  tree-heaths 
or  brooms,  the  trees  possessing  tiny  leaves  or  none.  The 
lust  representative  of  this  flora  is  the  saxaul,  fifteen 
to  twenty  feet  in  height  and  less  than  a  foot  thick,  whose 
grey  trunk,  curved  and  twisted,  resolving  itself  into 
numerous  scaly,  thin,  short-segmented  twigs,  makes  it 
resemble  a  besom.  It  stores  water  in  its  bark,  where- 
in also  the  green  matter  which  represents  the  absent 
leaves  is  hidden  :  other  trees  have  the  appearance  of  the 
tamarix.  This  brush  effectually  binds  the  sand,  and 
advantage  is  taken  of  the  fact  to  resist  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  shifting  dunes  by  means  of  extensive 
plantations. 

No  less  formidable  than  these  '  red  and  black  deserts  ' 
are  the  vast  level  wastes  of  saline  clayey  soils,  sparsely 
dotted  with  dwarf  bunches  of  mostly  leafless  plants. 
The  vegetation  consists  of  salt-bushes,  dusty-grey  worm- 
wood, spreading  besoms  of  bare,  broom-like  under-shrubs, 
or  crawling  and  thorny   stragglers.     Such   also  is    the 


58  ASIA 

dreary  landscape  of  the  tracts  bordering  on  the  Caspian 
and  covering  most  of  the  low  Ust-Urt  plateau  between 
that  sea  and  the  Aral,  where,  however,  conditions  are  made 
worse  by  the  unfavourable  nature  of  the  soil,  which, 
besides  being  salt  and  destitute  of  moisture,  often  con- 
tains poisonous  substances. 

Through  the  deserts  of  Turan,  the  Amu,  and  the  Syr 
Darias  stretch  two  thin  lines  of  oases.  The  other  riven 
lose  themselves  in  the  sands,  after  breaking  up  into 
fertile  swamps. 

Along  the  southern  and  eastern  margins  of  Turan 
extends  a  belt  of  terraces,  foot-hills,  and  alluvial  tracts, 
whose  naturally  fertile  soil  derives  moisture  not  only 
from  the  vicinity  of  the  highlands,  but  also  from  their 
snow-fed  rivers:  in  fact,  this  belt  owes  its  existence 
wholly  to  the  mountain  streams.  It  is  lined  with  little 
oases  along  the  foot  of  the  Khorassan  ranges  and  ex- 
pands in  the  valleys  of  the  Heri-Rud,  Murghab,  Amu. 
Zerafshan,  Syr,  and  Chu.  A  good  soil  and  a  sufficiency 
of  water,  notwithstanding  the  extreme  but  not  hostile 
climate,  put  those  rich  valleys  in  striking  contrast  with 
the  forbidding  solitudes  of  Turan  proper.  The  land  of 
Fergana  bears  comparison  with  the  plains  of  Lombardy, 
and  the  upper  valley  of  the  Amu  is  still  broader  and 
richer.  In  the  past,  these  border-lands  were  prosperous 
and  each  drop  of  water  was  carefully  appropriated ;  each 
of  the  valleys  mentioned  was  a  centre  of  civilization. 
Powerful  empires  in  Fergana,  Sogdiana,  Bactria,  and 
Wergian,  with  splendid  cities  such  as  Kria,  furthest 
Alexandria,  Samarkand,  Bactra  (modern  Balkh),  Merv, 
and  Herat  have  left  imposing  ruins ;  but  the  increasing 
dryness  of  the  climate,  coupled  with  invasions  of  the 
nomad  shepherds  from  the  desert,  gradually  extended 
the  limits  of  Turan.     To  this  day,  however,  portions  of 


TURAN  59 

the  large  valleys  display  luxuriant  orchards,  where  most 
of  the  mediterranean  produce  and  fruits  are  grown: 
mulberry,  apricot,  plum,  almond,  apple,  as  well  as  grapes, 
melons,  maize,  rice,  wheat, and  cotton  ;  and  tall,  columnar 
poplars  are  everywhere  in  evidence.  In  respect  of  its 
agriculture,  therefore,  this  belt  is  related  to  the  mediter- 
ranean regions,  of  whose  climate  it  presents  a  drier  and 
more  extreme  variety.  This  comparison  would  be  still 
more  justifiable  at  the  time  of  the  greater  extension  of 
the  inland  seas. 

The  winter  and  spring  rains  provide  temporary  grazing 
grounds  for  cattle  sheep,  camels,  and  ponies,  which 
migrate  in  summer  to  the  snow-free  and  luscious  moun- 
tain pastures.  Here  again,  as  all  over  central  Asia, 
the  annual  rhythm  of  migration  from  lowlands  to  high- 
lands and  back  is  strongly  marked. 

Turkestan  Highlands:  Tian  Shan,  Alai,  Badakshan. 
Compared  with  the  surrounding  lowlands,  the  Tian  Shan 
highlands  appear  as  a  delightful  oasis,  both  on  account 
of  their  varied  scenery  and  of  their  verdant  vegetation. 
They  drain  the  north  and  westerly  winds  of  what  mois- 
ture they  may  possess,  which  usually  amounts,  however, to 
less  than  20  inches  yearly.  The  atmosphere  is  generally 
clearer  than  in  the  Siberian  highlands.  Owing  to  the 
northern  and  western  origin  of  the  moisture-bringing 
winds,  the  southern  and  eastern  districts  are  drier  and 
poorer  than  those  of  the  north  and  west,  and  over  the 
entire  area,  northern  and  western  slopes  are  the  richer 
and  moister. 

With  the  rains,  snows,  and  mists,  tree-growth  is 
possible  here  at  altitudes  exceeding  5,000  feet  and  up  to 
9,000  feet ;  but  it  is  exclusively  coniferous.  Poplars  are 
seen  only  in  the  depths  of  the  river- valleys,  and  walnuts 
and  other  fruit-trees  grow  exclusively  in  gardens.     The 


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60  ASIA 

forests,  which  consist  of  spruce  and  a  kind  of  Sabine 
juniper,  are  seldom  dense,  but  towards  the  east  and  south 
they  become  decidedly  diffuse  and  often  fail  completely. 
They  are  generally  not  continuous,  but  are  interrupted 
by  pastures,  and  largely  restricted  to  the  valleys.  There 
is  a  fundamental  difference  between  the  short  and  dry 
swards  of  the  steppes  and  the  long,  close,  and  lush 
meadows  that  extend  below,  through,  and  above  the 
timber-belt,  and  often  replace  it  entirely :  the  latter 
partake  of  the  luxuriant  character  of  our  meadows. 
They  are  beset  with  a  number  of  tall  herbs  and  shrubs. 
such  as  the  rose  and  barberry,  wild  geraniums  and 
poppies,  peonies  and  gentians,  blue  bells,  wild  onions,  &c. ; 
there  is  quite  a  wealth  of  garden-plants,  which  grow 
wild,  such  as  asparagus,  candytuft,  chrysanthemum, 
columbine,  heliotrope,  pansies,  rhubarb,  peony,  phox, 
tulips,  and  crocus. 

The  alpine  meadows,  which  extend  beyond  the  belt  of 
junipers,  display  an  exuberant  beauty  equal  to  the  best 
flower-tracts  of  our  Alps;  but  there  are  no  swamps  or 
bogs,  no  heather  and  bilberry  moors,  no  rhododendrons. 
Below  this  elevated  garden,  however,  the  valleys  dis- 
play only  drier  steppes,  which  gradually  pass  downwards 
to  dusty,  scattered  brushes,  and,  sometimes,  to  entirely 
plantless  gorges.  On  the  Mongolian  side,  the  steppes 
ascend  much  higher  than  on  the  west,  and  are  often 
replaced  immediately  by  alpine  pastures  without  the 
intervention  of  a  tree-belt. 

In  some  respects,  then,  the  Tian  Shan  recalls  the 
elevated  natural  parks  at  the  head-waters  of  the 
Colorado,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  provides  summer 
pastures  for  the  cattle  and  sheep,  and  quarters  for 
the  shepherds,  of  the  plains.  The  portion  which  pene- 
trates far  into  the  Mongolian  desert  is  naturally  very 


TURKESTAN  HIGHLANDS  61 

much  poorer,  and  grows  quite  arid  towards  its  eastern 
extremity. 

Kirghiz  Steppe.  From  north  to  south,  east  of  the 
Ural-Caspian  line,  there  is  a  gradual  impoverishment 
of  plant  life  from  the  wet  Siberian  taiga  to  the  sandy 
deserts  of  Turan.  The  wooded  swamps  of  Siberia  give 
place  to  a  flat  or  rolling  country,  where  the  marshes 
are  reduced  to  hundreds  of  small  lakelets  in  the  troughs 
and  hollows,  and  the  climate  is  neither  so  rainy  and  cold 
as  that  of  the  taiga,  nor  so  dry  and  hot  as  that  of  Turan. 
This  is  the  region  of  steppes. 

The  line  between  the  forest  and  the  grass-land  is  not 
hard  and  fast.  Over  a  belt  200  to  300  miles  wide,  the 
transition  is  made  by  a  park  landscape,  in  which  birches 
arc  scattered  over  the  prairie  in  groves,  groups,  and 
sometimes  in  woods.  The  innumerable  marshes  are 
marked  by  fringes  of  giant  cow-parsnips,  day-lilies, 
willows,  and  poplars.  Meadows  and  herb-mats  are 
interspersed  in  the  steppe.  Trees  disappear  gradually 
towards  the  south ;  the  steppe  assumes  a  typical,  dry 
aspect  with  its  low  covering  of  wiry  grasses,  in  the 
interstices  of  which  the  soil  may  be  seen.  Henceforth, 
it  is  a  heaving  ocean  of  grass,  the  appearance  of  which 
changes  wholly  from  season  to  season :  verdant  and 
flowery  in  spring,  brown  and  parched  in  late  summer, 
dusty  grey  with  woolly  wormwood  in  autumn  and 
winter.  It  sometimes  conceals  rich  black  earth  and 
loess,  which  forms  a  heavy  and  retentive  soil. 

The  climate,  though  not  so  hostile  as  that  of  Turan, 
has  an  irregular  rainfall  oscillating  between  10  and 
20  inches  distributed  over  spring  and  summer,  with 
droughts  recurring  every  few  years.  Generally  about 
two-thirds  of  the  year  are  very  dry,  and  excessive  alike 
in  cold  and  heat.     (The   combination  of   this  type  of 


62  ASIA 

climate  and  fine  soils,  all  over  the  world,  results  in  a 
similar  absence  of  trees  and  bushes,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  dry  grass-land  known  as  steppe  or  prairie, 
of  which  an  abundance  of  bulbs  and  tubers  is  a  feature.) 
Saline  wastes  grow  more  numerous  southwards.  They 
soon  spread  over  vast  areas  towards  the  Aral  region, 
and  are  accompanied  by  the  usual  thin  covering  of  salt 
bushes  and  tamarisks.  In  the  middle  of  the  steppe, 
the  hilly  district  of  Akmolinsk  produces  a  recurrence 
of  fertility  which  has  gained  for  it  the  name  of  '  little 
Switzerland  \ 

The  limited  grazing  capacity  of  any  given  area 
induces  the  natives,  who  depend  for  their  living  almost 
exclusively  on  their  cattle,  ponies,  and  sheep,  to  migrate 
frequently  as  their  pasture-grounds  become  exhausted, 
and  thus  to  lead  a  wandering  existence :  in  summer, 
when  the  steppe  is  dried  up,  those  who  are  not  far  from 
the  mountains,  journey  thither. 

The  remarkable  fertility  of  the  black  earth  and  loess, 
however,  now  fully  recognized,  has  lead  to  the  opening  of 
the  steppe  for  agricultural  purposes,  wherever  water  is 
available  and  irrigation  possible.  A  large  portion  of 
this  region  may  become,  in  course  of  time,  a  wheat 
district  as  rich  as  that  of  Nebraska,  California,  and  the 
Red  River,  the  Plate,  or  Australia,  or,  nearer  at  hand, 
the  Russian  steppe. 

On  the  south-east,  the  Kirghiz  steppe  is  continued  into 
that  of  northern  Sungaria  and  northern  Mongolia.  This 
long  grass  belt,  stretching  between  the  desert  on  one 
hand  and  the  mountains  and  forests  on  the  other,  was 
one  of  the  natural  highways  whereby  the  nomadic 
populations  of  wild  shepherds  from  further  Asia  slowly 
reached  Europe,  driving  their  herds  before  them. 

Siberian  Highlands.     A  broad  and  complex  system  of 


SIBERIAN  HIGHLANDS  63 

highlands  of  moderate  elevation,  which  includes  the 
Altai  and  Sayan  chains  and  the  Trans-Baikal  highlands 
with  the  Vitini  and  Aldan  plateaus,  separates  Mongolia 
and  Amuria  tram  eastern  Siberia. 

As  may  be  expected  from  its  continental  situation,  it 
is  a  region  of  severe  climatic  extremes  and  reduced 
atmospheric  moisture.  The  rainfall  derived  from  the 
northern  and  eastern  quarters  occurs  chiefly  in  summer, 
but  there  is  a  heavy  snowfall  in  winter.  The  moderate 
height  of  the  mountains,  sufficient  to  condense  a  large 
proportion  of  the  vapour  of  the  winds,  allows  some  of 
it  to  penetrate  further  south  than  would  such  a  lofty 
1  (airier  as  the  Kuenlun. 

As  each  successive  ridge  athwart  the  southward  track 
of  the  winds  levies  its  toll  of  moisture,  the  lower  limits 
of  rains  and  clouds  are  gradually  raised  from  ridge  to 
ridge,  with  the  result  that  the  southernmost  valleys 
remain  dry.  Correspondingly,  the  levels  of  fairly 
luxuriant  vegetation  recede  farther  and  farther  up, 
going  towards  Mongolia ;  and  for  the  same  reason,  the 
southern  slopes  are  drier  than  those  facing  north.  Thus, 
whilst  the  Siberian  slopes  are  abundantly  wooded  and 
linked  uninterruptedly  with  the  Siberian  taiga,  the 
Mongolian  valleys  display  their  forest  belts  only  on  their 
upper  slopes. 

Conifers  are  the  only  trees  that  can  constitute  forests 
among  the  Siberian  highlands  under  such  extreme  con- 
ditions :  birches  and  aspen,  which  accompany  the  rivers, 
are  of  little  importance  as  forest-trees,  and  mostly  to  be 
found  at  lower  levels,  though  on  the  sunny  southern 
slopes  of  Trans-Baikalia  the  birch  may  reach  an  eleva- 
tion of  4,600  feet.  Between  the  Siberian  taiga  and  the 
highland  forests  there  is  this  difference,  that  the  latter 
do  not  exhibit  the  stunted,  even  dwarf  aspect,  which 


64  ASIA 

characterizes  tree-growth  on  the  East-Siberian  plateaus  j 
on  the  other  hand,  especially  on  the  southern  slopes,  they 
are  seldom  dense  and  close:  they  have  that  scattered 
appearance  which  characterizes  the  forests  on  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  Sierra  Nevada.  The  undergrowth,  which 
is  mostly  grassy,  is  far  from  being  thick  and  impassable 
as  in  Sakhalin. 

Scots  pines,  with  a  mingling  of  birches  and  aspen, 
come  next  to  the  steppe  vegetation  on  the  western  and 
southern  slopes.  Farther  up,  larches  predominate,  but 
often  mix  with,  or  give  way  to,  Siberian  firs  and  spruces. 
Many  humbler  plants,  with  which  we  are  familiar,  occur 
here  :  there  is  an  abundance  of  aconites,  peonies,  willow- 
herbs,  geraniums,  cow-parsnips,  bright-flowered  ground- 
sels, &c,  in  the  meadows  and  pastures  that  frequently 
interrupt  the  clear  forests.  Some  of  the  vivid  flowers 
of  the  steppes  are  found  far  up  the  wooded  slopes. 
Stone-pines  form  the  upper  tree-limit  at  altitudes 
varying  from  4,000  feet  on  the  northern  slopes  to 
5,000  feet  on  the  southern  slopes.  They  penetrate  in 
groves  and  clusters  among  the  upper  hill-pastures,  where 
such  shrubs  as  rhododendrons  and  such  flowering  herbs 
as  globe-flowers,  columbines,  anemones,  violets  and  gen- 
tians, poppies  and  saxifrages,  remind  one  of  the  Alpine 
meadows  of  Europe.  The  pastures  of  the  Siberian  high- 
lands, in  contrast  with  the  dry  and  short  swards  of  the 
steppes  lower  down,  seem  like  hay  meadows. 

Thus  there  seem  to  exist,  in  these  highlands,  two 
aspects  or  landscapes  gradually  merging  into  one 
another  :  the  northern  or  Siberian,  more  densely  wooded, 
and  connected  with  the  Siberian  tai'ga.  This  is  typically 
exhibited  among  the  Baikal  highlands :  the  other,  the 
Mongolian  or  southern  aspect,  may  be  seen  characteristi- 
cally displayed  south  of  Baikal,  in  the  districts  of  the 


SIBERIAN  HIGHLANDS  65 

Orkhon  and  Tola.  It  consists  of  an  admixture  of  pastures 
and  scattered  woods. 

Approaching  Amuria,  some  of  the  broad-leaved, 
summer-green  trees  of  the  latter  region,  such  as  the 
walnut,  now  begin  to  appear,  while  denizens  of  the 
northern  tundras  and  mountains  penetrate  far  south 
along  the  naked  ridges  of  the  Jablonoi.  The  plateaus  of 
Vitim  and  Aldan,  which  slant  from  the  edge  of  the 
Jablonoi  towards  Baikal,  are  of  the  nature  of  park- 
like, subalpine  pastures  and  moors,  comparable  with  the 
plateaus  of  British  Columbia. 

The  importance  of  the  Siberian  highlands,  especially 
of  the  southern  slopes,  is  great  in  the  life  of  the  Mon- 
golian tribes,  for  the  upper  slopes  provide  excellent 
summer  pastures  at  a  time  when  the  adjacent  steppes 
are  scorched  and  dry.  Populations  leave  the  burnt 
steppes  every  summer  and  betake  themselves  and  their 
lie  ids  to  the  fresh  and  luxuriant  grazing-grounds  of  the 
mountains,  and  this  is  the  easier  on  account  of  the 
scattered  nature  of  the  forest  belt.  On  the  northern 
side,  the  colder  climate  and  the  darker  forests  remain 
serious  obstacles  for  the  herdsmen.  Hence  the  tide  of 
nomadism,  which  rises  every  year  from  the  scorched 
plains  on  the  south  up  the  southern  mountains,  is 
arrested  by  the  forests  more  than  by  the  mountains 
themselves.  There  is  no  apparent  reason  why  some  kind 
of  agriculture  should  not  be  practised  locally  along  the 
rivers.  Wherever  water  is  available,  the  soil  offers 
a  generous  reward  to  human  efforts,  but  this  is  true  only 
of  the  valleys,  for  the  upper  slopes  are  too  cold  for  pro- 
fitable cultivation. 

Mongolia.  That  vast  inland  basin,  which  stretches 
from  the  Khingans  to  the  Tian  Shan  and  Pamirs,  and 
from    the    Siberian   highlands  to  the    Altyn   Tagh,   is 

l '59.1  F 


66  ASIA 

considered  here  as  one  geographical  unit.  Mongolia  forms 
the  largest  unbroken  portion  of  it.  Towards  the  west, 
the  great  ranges  of  the  Tian  Shan  and  the  Altai  divide 
it  into  the  separate  basins  of  the  Tarim,  Sungaria,  and 
Kobdo. 

Completely  enclosed  by  mountains,  the  central  plateau 
is  practically  shut  off  from  outside  influences.  Rainless 
for  the  most  part,  it  undergoes  without  mitigation  the 
alternations  of  intense  cooling  and  heating,  and  is  swept, 
according  to  the  season,  by  icy  or  scorching  winds,  neither 
of  which  bring  rain.  What  water  may  be  found  within 
the  basin  is  mostly  due  to  the  snows  of  the  surrounding 
rim  of  mountains. 

The  Han-hai  is  not  an  absolute  desert  over  its  entire 
area,  but  rather  develops  around  certain  centres  of 
greatest  aridity,  the  most  important  of  which  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Gobi  or  Shamo.  in  the  Takhla  Makan,  and 
in  Sungaria. 

Such  centres  take  the  form  of  stony  wastes  or  of  seas 
of  moving  sand-dunes  alternating  with  salt  tracts  of 
various  extent:  they  are  well  nigh  plantless.  In  the 
desert  of  Kami,  says  an  explorer :  '  Siliceous  soil,  sand, 
stones,  with  scattered  blocks  of  loess,  here  and  there  the 
bones  of  a  dead  camel  or  horse,  were  all  that  met  the 
eye.  Not  a  tree,  not  a  shrub,  neither  bird  nor  beast,  not 
even  a  lizard,  gave  life  to  this  dismal  waste.  The  ground 
was  burning  hot ;  even  night  brought  no  relief.  Terrible 
storms  whirled  clouds  of  sand  along  .  .  .' 

Around  those  forbidding  areas,  in  belts  that  meet  each 
other  to  cover  the  largest  portion  of  the  plateaus,  extend 
semi-desert  wastes  of  rubble,  gravel,  and  coarse-grained 
sands,  where  scattered  tufts  of  dried-up  grass,  one  foot 
high,  intermingle  with  Gompositae.  Predominant  among 
them  is  the  sage-like  artemisia  or  wormwood,  which  also 


MONGOLIA  67 

characterizes  the  semi-deserts  of  Nevada,  Colorado,  and 
Arizona  in  western  North  America,  as  well  as  the  circum- 
desert  belts  of  northern  Africa.  Depressions  and  dry 
river-beds,  where  some  ground  water  remains  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  are  marked  by  a  taller  and 
thicker  growth  of  grass  ;  a  species  that  attains  large 
proportions  in  favourable  situations  is  the  kamish. 
There  are  very  few  of  those  strange  succulent,  bulbous, 
or  tuberous  water- storing  plant- forms  of  the  American 
and  African  deserts:  tree  and  bush  vegetation  is 
represented  by  solitary  small  trees  or  occasional 
thickets  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  or  in  the  dry  bed  of 
a  temporary  river,  where  rhubarb  may  also  be  found 
wild.  These  trees  are  held  in  great  veneration  by  the 
natives.  The  usual  flora  of  small  plants,  which  may 
lie  for  years  in  the  seed- stage  and  burst  into  an 
ephemeral  life  only  after  the  casual  rains,  is  not  lacking 
in  Mongolia  ;  in  season,  one-flowered  tulips  occasionally 
adorn  the  ground  with  fragrant  and  beautiful  carpets. 

The  true  steppe  constitutes  another  belt  outside  those 
just  described.  It  extends  in  a  narrow  strip  along  the  foot 
of  the  mountains  carpeting  their  foot-hills  and  penetra- 
ting deep  into  their  valleys.  All  but  dry  and  apparently 
dead  in  summer,  it  displays  a  beautiful  mat  of  blooms  in 
spring.  In  this  region,  the  oases  are  usually  disposed  in  a 
string  along  the  marginal  mountain-chains ;  they  develop 
where  the  snow-fed  rivers  dry  up  or  disappear  in  the 
sand  shortly  after  leaving  the  hills.  To  the  north  of 
the  desert,  their  vegetation  is  distinctly  of  the  northern 
type.  They  are  recognized  in  the  distance  by  screens 
of  gaunt  poplars  and  willows,  elms  and  ashes,  all  summer- 
green  trees  with  which  we  are  familiar ;  and  such 
shrubs  as  dog-rose,  bramble,  raspberry,  and  honeysuckle 
would   remind   us  of   home  vegetation,  while   the   tall 

F  2 


68  ASIA 

reeds  which  mark  the  water-points  are  identical  with 
those  of  our  own  country.  On  the  southern  side  of  the 
Han-hai,  at  the  foot  of  the  Nan-shan,  plant  life  has  some 
distinct  mediterranean  features,  both  in  the  natural  and 
the  cultivated  vegetation. 

Apart  from  these  concentric  belts  the  various  regions 
of  the  Han-hai  possess  an  individuality  of  their  own. 
The  Tarim  basin  is  related  in  some  degree  to  the  low- 
lying  deserts  of  Turan  as  regards  its  flora.  The  nucleus 
of  it  is  the  deadly  sea  of  shifting  sands  of  the  Takhla 
Makan,  while  its  margin  is  formed  by  a  ring  of  swamps, 
which  mark  the  places  where  rivers  lose  themselves. 
Extensive  brushes,  ranging  from  dense  tangles  to  scat- 
tered heaths,  constitute  a  cheerless  vegetation;  and  busby 
poplars  resembling  straggling  birch-bushes,  small  trees 
such  as  tamarixes  and  saxauls,  gnarled  and  stunted, 
either  leafless  or  with  heath-like  scales,  alternate  with 
reeds,  rushes,  and  coarse  grass.  This  jungle  also  fringes 
the  uncertain  course  of  the  rivers,  and  is  tenanted  by 
deer  and  tiger,  but  serves  for  winter  grazing  grounds. 

The  alluvial  tracts  of  the  rivers  make  a  chain  of  oases 
round  the  desert  outside  the  ring  of  marshes  :  groves  of 
tall  poplars  and  willows  occur  at  intervals  and  shelter 
the  villages,  around  which  cultivation  of  cereals  and 
fruit-trees  of  a  mediterranean  type  is  carried  on.  This 
forms  the  inner  route  of  the  caravans,  continued  along 
the  Nan-shan  and  the  Tsin-ling-shan,  to  the  Yellow 
River. 

Beyond  a  belt  of  porous  and  arid  gravel  downs,  one 
reaches  a  broken  line  of  loess  terraces,  which  are  more 
or  less  planted  with  maize  and  fruit  trees,  and  support 
agricultural  villages,  joined  by  a  second  caravan  route. 
Ultimately  among  the  mountains,  the  heads  of  the 
valleys,  thanks  to  fair  summer  rains,  provide  abundant 


MONGOLIA  69 

pastures,  when  the  lowland  grazing  grounds  are  dried 
up.  Hence  they  are  tenanted  in  summer,  and  the 
temporary  villages  at  the  foot  of  the  grazing  slopes 
are  connected  by  an  outer  route.  Wild  sheep  and  ibexes, 
hares,  wolves,  and  bears  are  found  here. 

A  similar  disposition  is  seen  in  the  southern  part  of 
Sungaria,  beyond  the  barrier  of  the  Tian  Shan.  The  desert 
nucleus  is  not  so  extensive  as  in  the  Takhla-Makan. 
Quasi-desert  wormwood-brush-wastes  cover  a  large 
portion  of  northern  Sungaria,  and  gradually  merge  into 
the  steppe  which  clothes  the  foothills  and  lower  valleys 
of  the  Altai  range  :  thence  the  steppe  skirts  the  southern 
margin  of  the  Siberian  highlands,  penetrating  deep  into 
the  valleys  and  up  to  the  belt  of  luxuriant  mountain 
pastures  or,  eventually,  rising  to  meet  the  forests. 

The  secluded  Kobdo  basin  is  an  outlier  of  the  Mongo- 
lian steppe  far  among  the  highlands.  Its  landscape  is 
much  more  prosperous  than  that  of  Sungaria,  containing 
only  a  few  arid  centres  of  limited  extent,  while  its  grassy 
downs  are  interspersed  with  some  luxuriant  meadows. 
Tree- growth  remains  confined  to  the  river  margins  and 
to  the  oases,  or  again  is  relegated  far  up  the  mountain 
slopes.  This  is  a  rich  cattle  country,  where  ponies, 
camels,  and  sheep  find  abundant  maintenance  during 
the  winter  months.  The  character  of  the  oases  is  now 
decidedly  northern. 

The  foot-hills  and  marginal  belt  of  northern  Mongolia 
display  a  landscape  similar  to  that  of  Kobdo.  On  the 
north-eastern  and  eastern  margins,  along  the  Khingans, 
the  summer  rains  spread  to  some  distance  from  the 
mountains,  correspondingly  widening  the  belt  of  steppes. 
Between  the  latter  and  the  desert  area  lying  to  the 
west,  the  larger  portion  of  the  Gobi  falls  into  the  zone  of 
scattered    grass  and   wormwood-brush,    which   in   late 


70  ASIA 

summer  and  winter  is  as  bad  as  the  true  plantless 
desert.  This  is  also  the  case  with  the  Ordos  plateau, 
which  lies  inside  the  loop  of  the  Hwang-ho. 

The  alternate  availability  of  summer  pastures  in  the 
mountains  and  winter  pastures  in  the  lowlands  has 
determined  the  nomadism  of  the  Mongolians,  along 
the  whole  margin  of  the  plateau.  This  nomadism  is 
mitigated  by  the  fact  of  a  double  chain  of  oases,  where 
permanent  cultivation  is  possible,  an  inner  line  of  swamps, 
and  the  line  of  loess  terraces,  which  are  often  transformed 
into  fertile  orchards  and  corn-fields. 

On  the  two  sides  of  the  desert  the  character  of  the 
natural  and  the  cultivated  vegetation  is  different:  on  the 
northern  side  it  is  frankly  northern,  on  the  south  it  is 
mediterranean.  Thus  the  lower  valleys,  south  of  the 
Tarim,  display  rich  orchards  of  apricots,  mulberries, 
melons,  grapes,  pumpkins,  walnuts ;  and  fields  of  maize, 
similar  to  those  of  Fergana  and  the  upper  Amu.  This 
is  the  more  readily  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  present 
desert  is  the  bed  of  a  former  inland  sea  whose  last  and 
feeble  vestiges  are  found  in  such  erratic  and  vanishing 
sheets  of  water  as  the  Lob-nor,  the  Ebi-nor,  the  Bag- 
rach-kul,  and  others.  Long  after  the  disappearance  of 
the  sea,  a  more  generous  climate  prevailed  over  the 
broad  plains  strewn  with  large  lakes.  Water  was  more 
abundant  than  it  is  now,  and  large  rivers  wound  far  into 
the  plain/while  agriculture  supported  comparatively  dense 
populations :  important  cities  also  were  engaged  in  active 
trades.  The  gradual  drying  up  continuing,  forced  the 
cities  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  mountains,  burying  the 
old  ones  in  the  sand,  The  lofty  chains  increasingly 
grudged  their  scanty  waters*  to  the  plains,  and  the  popu- 
lations had  to  depart  with  their  herds,  to  follow  the 
broad  belts  of  steppes  between  the  snows  and  the  deserts, 


MONGOLIA  71 

pouring    westward    into    Europe     and    eastward    into 
China. 

Tibet  and  Pamirs-Tsaidam.  Enclosed  and  traversed 
by  the  loftiest  and  most  formidable  mountains  of  the 
world,  Tibet  consists  of  a  succession  of  parallel  valleys 
choked  with  the  glacial  wastes  of  their  dividing  ranges 
up  to  an  elevation  of  15,000  feet  above  sea-level,  thus 


Fig.  16.     '  The  Top  of  the  Last  Pass'. 

forming  a  series  of  wide,  flat  plateaus,  separated  by  long 
ridges.  The  mountain-chains  converge  towards  the 
west  and  lead  through  a  row  of  stupendous  gullies,  still 
partly  occupied  by  glaciers,  to  another  region  of  broad 
and  level  floors  or  '  Pamirs '  of  the  same  origin  as 
those  of  Tibet,  to  which,  therefore,  the  name  may  be 
conveniently  extended.  Towards  the  east  the  Chinese 
rivers,    fed   by   the    monsoon    rainfall,    have    cut    for 


72  ASIA 

themselves  gigantic  chasms  and  eaten  their  way  into  the 
heart  of  the  plateau,  partly  clearing  away  the  glacial 
wastes. 

Tibet  is  not  entirely  rainless,  but  receives  a  large  pro- 
portion of  its  scanty  water  in  the  form  of  snow.  The 
north-western  half  of  its  area  appears  to  be  drier  than 
the  southern  and  eastern  portions.  It  is  open,  by  reason 
of  its  altitude,  to  an  excessive  evaporation  and  radiation. 
The  climate  is  extremely  cold,  but  relieved  in  summer  by 
some  warm  days,  though  terrific  snow-gales  sweep  across 
its  surface  in  winter.  The  soil,  which  consists  mostly  of 
glacial  and  alluvial  rubble,  shingle  and  gravel,  naturally 
adds  by  its  excessive  porosity  to  the  climatic  dryness  ; 
only  the  fine  silts  and  clays  along  the  rivers  and  around 
the  lakes  possess  a  natural  fertility.  Tibet  may  be 
described,  on  the  whole,  as  a  cold  desert. 

Over  vast  expanses  the  rubble  and  gravel  may  be  entirely 
plantless.  The  finer  soils  support  a  thin  sprinkling  of 
tufted  grasses  and  a  few  other  rosette  herbs,  but  trees  and 
shrubs  are  absent.  The  bands  of  alluvia  along  the  rivers 
often  permit  of  the  development  of  short  pastures,  and 
even  mats  of  dwarf  grasses  of  an  arctic-alpine  type. 
Special  or  strange  plant-forms  are  rare,  and  there  does 
not  appear  to  be  the  wealth  of  tuberous  and  bulbous 
forms  which  characterize  the  South- American  punas: 
even  the  large  cushion  plants  do  not  seem  to  be  recorded 
as  striking  features.  Keed  and  rush-swamps  also  occur 
near  the  rivers  and  lakes,  but  peat-bogs  are  not 
reported.  Most  plants  are  dwarf  and  crawling,  or  in 
spread  rosettes,  and  forms  above  one  foot  in  height  are 
rare.  Not  all  parts  of  Tibet,  however,  are  equally  barren : 
going  eastward,the  fertility  increases  and  grazing  grounds 
are  better.  At  the  head- waters  of  the  various  Chinese 
rivers,  the  alpine  meadows  are  extensive  and  generous; 


TIBET  AND  PAMIRS-TSAIDAM  73 

those  of  the  shores  of  the  Kuku-nor  are  particularly 
beautiful,  and  wild  and  tame  yaks,  wild  and  tame  sheep, 
wild  asses,  antelopes,  and  other  animals,  find  here  ample 
food. 

Towards  the  south,  the  more  sheltered  plains  occasion- 
ally support  orchards  of  fruit-trees,  and  cultivation  be- 
comes possible  around  Lhasa.  This  is  due  to  its  situation 
and  lower  altitude,  as  well  as  to  an  increase  in  rainfall 
and  to  more  moderate  winds.  The  north-western  portion 
is  the  driest,  and  is  almost  entirely  destitute  of  plant-life  : 
the  intervening  ranges  are  bare  and  largely  covered  with 
snow  and  ice. 

The  Pamirs  proper,  though  perhaps  not  so  bleak  as 
north-western  Tibet,  display  a  similar  vegetation.  In 
summer,  the  herds  of  the  Kirgkiz  nomads  graze  the 
pastures  of  the  alluvial  tracts,  but  beyond  these  meadows 
the  porous  glacial  bottoms  offer  nothing  but  a  rugged 
carpet  of  dry,  coarse  grass-tufts  or  crawling  bushes. 

Forests  of  conifers  penetrate  very  far  up  the  deep  and 
narrow  valleys  of  Kashmir  and  Ladakh,  which  are 
drained  by  the  Indus.  Beyond  the  forest  limits,  which 
here  oscillate  about  12,000  feet,  trees  continue  to  within 
a  short  distance  of  the  glaciers  themselves.  They  are 
poplars,  willows,  and  other  low,  small-leaved,  summer- 
green  trees,  which  generally  herald  the  approach  of 
villages  and  are,  indeed,  mostly  planted,  though  clusters 
of  them  may  yet  be  found  among  rich  meadows  at  the 
bottom  of  alluvial  sections  of  the  valleys,  where  they 
form  delightful  park-landscapes.  Other  meagre  shrubs, 
resembling  brambles  and  brooms,  now  and  then  close  into 
a  loose  scrub,  while  the  crawling  and  spreading  juniper 
may  be  strewn  over  the  bare  lower  slopes.  Long  tracts  of 
these  valleys  have  their  flanks  entirely  denuded;  bare 
platforms,  shelves  of  rubble  and  waste,  or  naked  gorges 


TIBET  AND  PAMIRS-TSAIDAM  75 

and  some  have  floors  of  loose  and  dry  pastures  of  tuft- 
grass.  Meagre  crops  of  barley  and  vegetables  are  raised 
almost  up  to  the  foot  of  the  glaciers  on  their  alluvial 
fans ;  terraces  are  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation. 
These  valleys  are  well  sheltered,  and  perhaps  unusually 
mild,  considering  the  altitude  ;  yet  because  they  receive 
only  a  very  scanty  rainfall  and  depend  exclusively  on 
their  ice-fed  rivers,  vegetation  is  limited  to  the  floors,  the 
more  so  still  on  account  of  the  steepness  of  the  slopes. 

Tsaidam,  in  the  north-east  corner  of  Tibet,  is  inter- 
mediate in  elevation  between  it  and  the  Gobi.  It  is 
a  secluded  and  desolate  waste  of  salt  swamps  and  loose 
brushes  of  tuft-grass,  intermixed  with  lifeless  deserts, 
but,  though  treeless,  it  does  not  completely  exclude 
scrub  vegetation :  a  few  shrubs,  such  as  tamarisks, 
charmiks  (lycium),  with  their  edible  berries,  nitrarias 
and  buckthorns  sometimes  twenty  feet  high,  ascend  to 
altitudes  of  9:000  and  10,000  feet. 

Being  absorbed  entirely  in  the  bitter  struggle  against 
nature,  the  Tibetans,  who  have  remained  primarily 
shepherds,  have  received  civilizing  influences  from  the 
surrounding  countries  without  contributing  anything  of 
importance  to  the  progress  of  mankind. 


CHAPTER    II 

NORTH   AMERICA 

Two  large  bodies  of  land  like  North  America  and 
Eurasia,  placed  in  similar  situations  and  possessing 
broadly  similar  relations  to  air  and  sea  currents,  are 
bound  to  show  a  great  similarity  in  the  main  features 
of  the  distribution  of  climate,  and  of  life  r  an  increase 


76 


NORTH  AMERICA 


of  the  intensity  and  total  amount  of  plant-life  from 
north  to  south,  from  centre  to  margins,  with  a  maximum 
in  the  south  and  east :  a  western  fringe  more  equable 


Fig.  18.     Physical  Features  of  North  America. 

and  moderate  in  climate  than  the  central  and  eastern 
portions  at  the  warm  and  cool  temperate  latitudes. 
North  America,  however,  is  a  smaller  continent,  and  its 
relief  is  not  'drawn  on  the  gigantic  scale  of  that  of  Asia, 


NORTH  AMERICA 


77 


hence  the  contrasts  in  the  distribution  and  forms  of  life 
are  less  emphatic  and  sharp. 

The  main  features  of  the  relief  of  North  America  are 


Fig.  19.     Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  North  America. 

directed  from  north  to  south  ;  while  in  Asia  they  run 
broadly  from  east  to  west,  and  grass  and  desert  belts 
also  stretch  in  a  meridianal  direction  in  the  western 
continent. 


78 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Whereas  in  Europe  the  absence  of  high  altitudes 
allows  the  moisture  of  the  westerly  winds  to  spread  far 
into  the  continent,  in  western  North  America  the  inter- 
position of  a  multiple  barrier  of  lofty  mountains  keeps 
that  moisture  for  a  narrow  fringe  and  leaves  the  interior 
quite  arid.  On  the  east,  the  Appalachians  correspond 
in   some    measure   with    the    Chinese    Alps,   but   being 


Fig.  20.     Seasonal  Distribution  of  Rainfall  in  North  America. 


much  lower  they  are  not  so  effective  a  barrier  in 
keeping  the  rains  out  of  the  middle  of  the  continent. 
The  free  communication  that  exists  between  the  polar 
seas  and  the  Atlantic,  in  contrast  with  the  narrow  gates 
of  the  Bering  Sea,  is  also  probably  an  important  factor 
in  reducing  the  temperature  over  the  north-eastern 
portions  of  the  New  World,  and  carrying  far  south  the 


NORTH  AMERICA 


79 


limits  of  the  cold  deserts  and  of  the  northern  coniferous 
belt. 

Tundra  Region.  The  polar  margin  of  the  North 
American  vegetation  is  characterized  as  in  other  con- 
tinents  by  the  treeless  tundra.  From  west  to  east  of 
the  continent  the  isotherms  are  driven  gradually  further 
south,  and  the  northern  belts  of  vegetation  are  correspond- 
ingly lowered  in  latitude  on  the  Atlantic  side.  Thus 
the  northern  limit  of  trees  which,  on  the  Mackenzie, 


Fig.  21.  Mean  Temperature  of 
North  America  in  January  reduced 
to  sea-level 


Fig  22.  Mean  Temperature  of 
North  America  in  July  reduced 
to  sea-level. 


runs  near  the  Arctic  coast,  not  far  from  70°  N.,  is  driven 
south  to  about  55°  N.  in  Labrador.  This  line  marks 
also  the  southern  limit  of  what  is  really  treeless  tundra. 
In  Alaska  the  tundra  occupies  a  narrow  strip  of  coast 
along  the  Bering  Sea :  on  the  northern  coast  it  covers 
the  polar  slopes  of  the  northernmost  branch  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains:  from  the  Mackenzie  River  eastward,  its 
southern  limit  strikes  inland  across  the  lake  region  to 
reach  Hudson  Bay  at  Fort  Churchill.      It  extends,  as 


80 


NORTE  AMERICA 


a  coastal  fringe,  to  the  Arctic  islands,  and  reaches  a  great 
development  in  western  Greenland. 

The  specific  feature  of  the  American  tundra,  as  com- 
pared  with    those   of   Siberia   and    Greenland,   is   the 


Fig.  23.     Vegetation  of  North  America. 


wealth  and  extent  of  its  lichen  carpets ;  the  cold  desert 
seems  to  be  drier  here  than  in  Europe  and  Asia. 
Though  the  ling  heath  is  entirely  absent  from  America, 


TUNDRA  REGION  81 

other  species  of  the  heather  family  are  numerous,  and 
in  the  tundra  or  barrens  their  dwarf  bushes  are  pre- 
ponderating; among  them  occur  evergreen  rhododendron, 
kalmia,  ledum,  bearberries,  and  other  bushes  of  a 
similar  character,  clad  with  lichens.  The  well-known 
bloom-mats  carpeting  the  southern  slopes  of  many  of 
the  hills  and  knolls,  like  islands  or  oases  of  beauty,  are 
said  to  reach  their  best  development  in  Alaska.  The 
most  brilliant  representative  of  their  flora,  i.e.  the 
dodecatheon  primrose,  has  found  favour  in  our  gardens, 
together  with  a  handsome  willow-bush  which  grows 
along  the  rivers,  the  arctic  poppy,  saxifrages,  gentians, 
&c.  Further  north,  the  tundras  of  the  high  Arctic 
islands  become  poorer  and  poorer  in  vegetation. 

The  lichens  of  the  '  Great  Barrens '  support  a  fairly 
abundant  animal  population,  the  furs  and  feathers  of 
which  are  sought  after  by  Eskimos,  Indians,  and  back- 
woodsmen, who  repair  at  intervals  to  the  trading  posts 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  the  only  centres  of  barter 
of  these  bleak  regions. 

The  thick  clouds  of  mosquitoes,  which  tenant  the 
tundra  and  prove  such  an  unmixed  nuisance  to  man, 
fulfil  an  important  role  in  the  economy  of  the  animal 
world,  in  providing  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  food 
for  the  innumerable  legions  of  migrant  birds,  which 
are  attracted  from  parts  as  remote  as  the  southernmost 
extremity  of  South  America. 

The  Great  Canadian  Forest.  Hudsonian  Forest.  In 
Canada  the  transition  from  cold  moors  to  temperate 
conditions  is  very  gradual,  for  between  the  actual  tundra 
and  the  dense  forest  extends  a  wide  belt  of  mixed  type 
called  the  ' scattered  forest '.  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
northern  limit  of  the  regular  Canadian  taiga  should 
follow  the  latitude  of  the  southern  limit  of  that  of  west 


82 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Siberia ;  the  reason  perhaps  being  the  proximity  of  the 
great  ice  sheet  which  covers  the  highlands  of  Greenland, 
or  even  ultimately  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  circum- 
polar  cap.  The  sub-arctic  forest  deserves  indeed  to  be 
termed  scattered.  Over  vast  expanses,  trees  are  dotted 
singly  or  in  clusters,  seldom  in  close  formation ;  the 
rivers,  however,  are  fringed  on  either  side  by  regular 


• 


Fig  24      Spruce  forest  on  a  river  flat—  Canada.     Pine-clad  slopes 
and  tree  limit. 

marginal  forests  which  follow  them,  as  on  the  Mac- 
kenzie River,  almost  to  their  mouths.  The  species  of 
conifers  may  vary  from  east  to  west,  but  the  general 
conditions,  aspect,  and  mode  of  life  are  very  similar 
throughout. 

The  soil  of  the  north  Canadian  forest  is  all  of  glacial 
origin:  sand,  clay,  or  gravel     The  irregular  surface  is 


THE  GREAT  CANADIAN  FOREST  83 

dotted  with  innumerable  lakes  of  all  sizes,  is  often 
largely  marshy,  and  as  a  rule  the  ground  is  poor  and  cold. 
Moors,  .swamps,  and  meadows  are  freely  mixed  with 
the  forests.  If  heath  and  heather  are  unknown,  a  large 
number  of  plants  allied  to  our  whortleberries,  cranberries, 
crowberries,  and  bearberries,  and  of  Ihe  same  vegetative 
type,  replace  them.  The  sweet  gale  or  bog-myrtle,  the 
aromatic  winter-green  and  the  huckleberry  also  occur. 

The  Canadian  forest  spans  the  whole  continent  from 
the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic,  and  is  largely  composed  of 
conifers.  The  balsam  fir,  the  white,  black,  and  red 
spruces,  the  tamarack,  and  several  species  of  pines 
are  the  most  widespread.  Leafy  trees  are  dispersed 
among  them,  and  in  many  instances  form  independent 
groups.  Balsam  poplar,  aspen,  paper-birch,  &c,  in  the 
extreme  north-west,  constitute  stunted,  young-looking 
woods  almost  up  to  the  tree-line.  The  scattered  type 
of  north  Canadian  forest  extends  over  the  central  plateau 
of  Alaska,  between  the  branches  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  almost  reaches  the  Bering  Sea.  Here  again  the 
dense  spruce  forest  is  found  only  on  the  large  alluvial 
'  fiats '  along  the  Yukon  and  its  main  tributaries. 

It  is  difficult  to  over-estimate  the  importance  of  this 
northern  advance-guard  of  the  tree  vegetation.  It  pro- 
vides a  supply  of  timber  which,  if  carefully  treated,  may 
last  indefinitely,  as  it  is  always  renewing  itself.  It  is 
also  teeming  with  animal  life.  The  agricultural  possi- 
bilities of  the  region  are  certainly  limited,  but  for 
pastoral  industries  of  a  northern  type  it  is  scarcely 
touched  at  present:  timber  and  game  are  the  only 
products  which  have  been  extensively  worked  so  far. 
Life  has  hitherto  been,  as  in  the  tundra,  mostly  nomadic 
and  primitive,  and  fur-hunters,  trappers,  and  lumbermen 
have  constituted  the  majority  of  the  population. 

G  2 


84  NORTH  AMERICA 

Like  the  tundra,  this  forest  appears  to  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  economy  of  the  animal  world,  being  the 
summer  resort  of  many  migrant  species  from  the  south, 
and  the  winter  refuge  of  many  others  from  the  far  north. 
Its  destruction  might  therefore  mean  serious  trouble  for 
vast  numbers  of  useful  birds  and  mammals,  and  involve 
the  disappearance  of  many  helpful  animal  workers. 
Man  is  only  beginning  to  realize  the  cost  of  recklessly 
interfering  with  the  established  economy  of  nature.  He 
has  often  acted  in  ignorance,  or  disregard,  of  the  inter- 
relations between  the  various  sections  of  the  plant  and 
animal  world,  with  serious  losses  in  life,  time,  and  energy 
for  himself. 

Great  Lake  Region,  or  South  Canadian  Forest. 
In  the  eastern  half  of  North  America,  the  climates 
change  much  more  rapidly  from  north  to  south  than  in 
the  west.  The  belts  of  vegetation  are  narrower  and 
follow  one  another  in  more  rapid  succession ;  thus  the 
forests  which  extend  east  of  Winnipeg  across  the  Great 
Lakes  and  New  England  are  of  a  richer  type  than  those 
of  the  Hudsonian  region.  Although  more  extreme  than 
that  of  western  Europe,  and  resembling  that  of  Amuria, 
the  climate  allows  a  variety  of  species  of  plants  to  take 
advantage  of  all  the  modifications  of  soil  and  other 
conditions ;  hence,  while  this  region  is  primarily  one  of 
conifers,  it  is  distinguished  by  a  large  proportion  of 
summer- green,  broad-leaf  forests.  On  sand,  pine-forests 
predominate  with  the  Weymouth  pine,  the  pitch  pine, 
and  others ;  hemlock-spruce  forms  dark  and  damp 
clumps,  and  on  marshy  grounds  tamarack  and  cedar 
swamps  are  developed.  Broad-leaf,  summer-green  forests 
prefer  richer  and  deeper  soils,  and  either  combine  in  pure 
growths  or  are  found  interspersed  among  the  conifers. 
Eight  species  of  oak,  one  of  chestnut,  six  of  birch,  two 


GREAT  LAKE  REGION  85 

of  beech,  two  of  hornbeam,  two  of  walnut,  and  four  of 
hickory  (allied  to  the  walnut),  are  common  forest  trees, 
in  addition  to  several  kinds  of  maple,  plane,  ash,  and 
lime.  The  white  elm  is  the  tallest  and  strongest  of  all 
Canadian  trees,  barring  the  Weymouth  and  other  pines. 
This  gives  a  wealth  of  timber  quite  unknown  to  western 
Europe.  The  lumber  industry  is  well  developed,  perhaps 
too  well  for  the  proper  preservation  of  the  forests, 
whose  existence  is  now  seriously  threatened  by  the  axe 
and  the  paper-pulp  mill,  which  enjoy  the  advantage  of 
unlimited  water-power.  Another  activity  is  fur-hunting, 
which  has  its  great  market  centre  in  Montreal.  The 
poorer  soil  and  the  more  rainy  climate  of  eastern  Canada 
do  not  allow  that  region  to  compete  in  the  growth  of 
cereals  with  the  more  generous  and  sunny  West.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  favours  the  development  of  good 
pastures,  and  consequently  of  mixed  and  dairy  farming, 
and  the  cultivation  of  fruit  of  a  northern  and  temperate 
type.  The  summer-green  forests  in  southern  Canada 
and  New  England  are  remarkable  for  the  extraordinary 
brilliancy  of  their  autumn  colours,  the  sugar  maple 
being  quite  exceptional  in  that  respect ;  and  the  humbler 
vegetation,  while  much  richer  than  that  of  our  country, 
is  very  similar  in  aspect  and  in  mode  of  life. 

Appalachian  Region.  South  of  the  great  coniferous 
belt  is  a  vast  region,  the  core  of  which  is  formed  by  the 
mountain  system  of  the  Appalachians.  It  is,  or  was, 
almost  entirely  forest-clad,  and  the  type  of  its  forests  is 
the  summer-green,  broad-leaf  variety,  with  an  admixture 
of  conifers. 

An  abundant  rainfall  all  the  year  round,  moderate 
winds  and  temperature,  and  a  soil  on  the  whole  fairly 
rich,  offer  conditions  which  are  admirably  suited  to  a 
heavy  tree-growth  of  the  most  luxuriant  mild-temperate 


86  NORTH  AMERICA 

kind.  At  the  same  time,  the  great  diversity  of  the  relief 
and  of  the  soil  permits  of  a  large  variety  in  the  form 
of  the  forests  and  their  components.  As  a  rule  the 
broad- leaf  type  is  found  on  the  richer  soils,  and  largely 
predominates  west  of  the  Appalachians.  Pine  and  other 
coniferous  forests  are  found  in  greater  proportion  in  the 
east  and  on  porous  sandy  soils. 

The  circum-Appalachian  region  offers  an  admirable  col- 
lection of  broad-leaf  and  summer-green  trees  and  shrubs 
requiring  a  relatively  moist  climate.  Indeed,  the  wealth 
and  variety  of  these  forests  almost  challenge  comparison 
with  the  rich  flora  and  luxuriant  vegetation  of  eastern 
Asia,  in  a  similar  climatic  situation,  and  surpass  any- 
thing seen  even  in  south-eastern  Europe.  When,  in  past 
ages,  the  polar  ice  invaded  the  now  temperate  latitudes, 
the  vegetation  of  eastern  North  America  and  Asia  found 
shelter  in  the  southern  extensions  of  those  continents. 
On  the  retreat  of  the  ice,  the  new  plant  population  of 
the  lands  thus  laid  bare  was  mostly  recruited  from  these 
rich  southern  floras.  In  Europe  and  western  Asia  the 
earlier  flora  was  stopped  in  its  retreat  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  mountain  barriers  running  east  to  west 
and  destroyed :  the  plant  population  which  arose  after- 
wards was  mostly  drawn  from  the  east. 

The  catalogue  of  trees  of  the  temperate  type  in  eastern 
North  America  includes  many  species  of  oak,  walnut, 
hickory,  chestnut,  birch,  alder,  hazel-nut,  hornbeam, 
willow,  poplar,  elm,  magnolia,  tulip-tree,  maclura, 
laurel,  sassafras,  plane,  maple,  ash,  robinia  (our  common 
acacia),  horse-chestnut,  and  allied  trees.  Conifers  are 
represented  chiefly  by  pines.  Among  the  countless 
shrubs  of  the  undergrowth,  numerous  species  of 
rhododendron  and  magnolia  are  the  most  remarkable, 
with    kalmia,  and   several   shrubs   allied  to  it   and  to 


APPALACHIAN  REGION  87 

the  rhododendron.  Our  common  Virginia  creeper  has  its 
true  home  there,  and  the  autumnal  beauty  of  its  foliage 
may  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  gorgeous  colours  of 
autumn  in  the  Great  Lake  district. 

This  vast  region  is  so  varied  that  it  naturally  falls 
into  large  divisions  or  provinces,  each  with  a  character 
and  a  plant-world  of  its  own.  The  wide  terrace  which 
extends  at  the  rear  of  the  lower  coastal  plain  up  to  the 
foothills  of  the  central  Appalachians  shows  a  transition 
between  the  lake  region  and  the  more  luxuriant  south, 
as  far  as  vegetation  is  concerned.  It  possesses,  amid  the 
deciduous  forests,  a  large  admixture  of  patches  and 
clumps  of  conifers,  the  Weymouth  pine  and  the  red 
spruce  being  the  chief  of  these.  On  the  whole,  the 
vegetation  of  this  belt  is  similar  to  that  of  central 
Europe. 

On  the  seaward  side,  this  terrace  is  followed  east  of 
the  line  New  York- Washington  by  a  lower  and  much 
indented  coastal  shelf,  whose  dry,  sandy-gravelly  soil 
can  only  support  pine-forests  and  a  meagre  flora.  These 
constitute  the  so-called  '  Pine-Barrens  '. 

The  Appalachian  range,  in  its  central  and  southern 
portions,  was  once  almost  entirely  timber-clad,  and  still 
retains  magnificent  vestiges  of  its  former  wealth.  In  the 
central  portion  the  forests  are  mixed:  among  other 
conifers,  the  Weymouth  pine  attains  there  heights  of 
100  to  150  feet.  Magnolias,  rhododendrons,  kalmias, 
and  other  shrubs  form  a  dense  and  beautiful  under- 
growth, sometimes  overtopped  by  the  tall  pines,  some- 
times by  the  deciduous  trees.  Above  the  limits  of  the 
broad-leaf  forests,  the  black  spruce  and  Fraser  fir  pre- 
dominate. The  higher  ridges  and  peaks  are  covered  with 
subalpine  heaths,  composed  of  tall  scrub  and  grassy 
glades. 


88  NORTH  AMERICA 

Proceeding  down  the  valleys  of  the  southern  Appa- 
lachians in  a  south-eastern  direction,  a  regular  series 
of  belts  parallel  to  the  mountains  and  the  coast  is 
crossed :  the  sandy  and  gravelly  foot-hills,  a  broad 
terrace  resting  on  hard  rock,  and  the  alluvial  coast  plain 
or  Eastern  Valley.  In  each,  the  temperature  becomes 
milder  and  more  regular,  the  rainfall  less  abundant, 
and  the  soil  more  fertile.  Correspondingly  the  ratio  of 
conifers  decreases  and  that  of  the  broad-leaf  evergreens 
increases,  while  the  dominant  type  of  vegetation  re- 
mains the  leaf-shedding  forest,  with  a  greater  variety  of 
species  but,  perhaps,  a  less  luxuriant  growth  than  in  the 
mountains.  The  sequence  of  belts  down  to  the  sea-coast 
is  broken  by  the  interposition  of  a  long  strip  of  pine 
forest  which  runs  parallel  to  the  coast-line  and  round 
the  extremity  of  the  Appalachians,  across  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi,  far  into  Texas.  This  pine  belt  exactly 
coincides  with,  and  is  due  to,  the  development  of  rolling 
downs,  sandy  and  porous.  Beyond  it  commence  the  low 
mud  flats  of  the  shore  intersected  with  marshes  and 
lagoons,  where  the  evergreen  vegetation  of  the  south  is 
in  evidence,  and  the  transition  to  the  vegetation  of  Flo- 
rida and  the  southern  states  is  so  gradual  as  to  be 
imperceptible. 

The  Atlantic  lowlands,  and — to  a  large  extent  also — 
the  mountains,  have  been  cleared  of  their  timber;  the 
former,  to  make  room  for  cultivation  and  industry,  the 
latter  simply  to  obtain  the  wood.  The  consequences 
attending  the  destruction  of  the  mountain-forests  have 
been,  as  usual,  very  serious  :  destructive  floods,  the  ruin 
of  the  slopes,  &c. :  and  protective  measures  have  had  to 
be  resorted  to.  In  the  lowlands,  agriculture,  especially 
the  growing  of  cereals,  has  no  longer  the  importance  it 
used   to  possess  when  the  West  was  yet  uncultivated. 


APPALACHIAN  REGION  89 

Mixed  farming  for  local  needs  is  still  practised,  but  the 
interest  of  this  region  now  lies  in  other  directions. 

South  of  Washington,  in  the  rich  Eastern  Valley,  the 
country  is  less  industrialized;  though  cultivated  fields 
of  a  southern  type,  with  tobacco,  cotton,  and  the  fruits 
of  warmer  climates,  have  superseded  the  luxuriant 
summer-green  forests.  Free  from  the  competition  of  the 
wheat-  and  maize-growing  West,  agriculture  plays  a  more 
important  part  than  in  the  north.  The  sandy  pine-belt 
yields  only  lumber  and  wood  products. 

West  of  the  Appalachians.  The  country  west  of  the 
Appalachians  is  formed  by  the  Alleghany  and  Cumber- 
land plateaus,  continued  westward  by  the  lower  and 
undulating  plateaus  of  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee. 
Here  the  climate  is  not  so  mild  as  ill  the  east ;  winters 
are  colder,  summers  warmer,  and  the  rain  does  not  fall 
so  regularly  throughout  the  year.  In  spite  of  such 
minor  differences,  comparable  with  those  which  exist 
between  the  rainy  belt  of  western  Europe  and  the  more 
extreme  central  portion,  the  climate  is  primarily  favour- 
able to  the  growth  of  the  so-called  '  hardwood'  or  broad- 
leaf,  non-coniferous  forest  type.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and 
the  whole  country  was  a  fairly  continuous  forest  prior 
to  the  dense  settlement  of  man. 

Rivers  are  screened  by  dark  and  marshy  woods,  and 
luxuriant  meadows  cover  the  heavier  bottom-lands.  On 
higher  ground  rise  forests  comprising  many  kinds  of 
oak,  hickory,  and  a  rich  variety  of  leaf-shedding  trees : 
the  ridges  of  the  hills  naturally  bear  lighter  forests. 
The  vegetation,  on  the  whole,  is  very  much  like,  but  not 
so  luxuriant  and  diversified  as,  that  across  the  Appa- 
lachians; it  constitutes  really  a  step  towards  the  drier 
conditions  of  the  west.  Here  is  the  true  home  of  the 
common    '  acacia '    (more   accurately   robinia,    or    false 


90  NORTH  AMERICA 

acacia)  and  other  similar  leguminous  trees,  such  as 
gleditschia  and  gymnocladus. 

On  the  dry  limestone  heights  of  Tennessee  there  are 
forests  of  tall  junipers,  producing  that  excellent  red 
wood  which  serves  for  pencils.  The  so-called  'cedar- 
glades'  continue  down  to  Alabama,  and  forests  of  this  tree 
are  also  found  in  Florida.  Gradually,  however,  as  one 
goes  south,  the  number  of  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs 
increases.  Mixed  forests  of  summer- green  and  evergreen 
components  now  mark  a  step  towards  the  sub-tropical 
vegetation  of  the  southernmost  States,  and  evergreen 
magnolias  become  abundant. 

The  low  and  broad  alluvial  plain  of  the  Mississippi 
valley,  across  which  the  mighty  river  has  thrown  vast 
swamps,  with  a  dense  network  of  sluggish,  meandering 
arms  called  '  bayous ',  is  particularly  well  irrigated  and 
fertile.  It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  forests  which 
cover  it  either  from  the  sub-tropical  rain-forests  or  from 
the  summer-green  type  of  the  plateaus ;  the  Mississippi 
valley  offers  all  transitions  from  one  to  the  other  with 
a  tendency  towards  the  luxuriance  of  the  south.  A  long 
way  up  the  river,  the  bayou  country  favours  the  ex- 
tension of  the  rain-forests  into  the  cooler  regions. 
Beyond  the  plain  of  the  Mississippi,  according  with  a 
gradual  decrease  of  rainfall,  the  higher  plains  of  Arkansas 
and  eastern  Texas  possess  lighter  and  poorer  woodlands, 
which  herald  the  approach  of  the  western  prairies. 

The  vast  region  which  extends  from  the  Appalachians 
to  the  prairies  is  one  of  the  largest  granaries  of  the 
world.  Agriculture,  in  spite  of  the  intrusion  of  other 
industries,  continues  to  play  an  important  part  in  the 
life  of  the  country ;  owing  to  the  wealth  of  water-  and 
rail-ways,  it  is  afforded  an  almost  unlimited  scope. 
Wheat  in  the  north,  maize  south   of   the  forty-second 


WEST  OF  THE  APPALACHIANS  91 

parallel,  are  grown  in  enormous  quantities,  and 
tobacco  still  remains  a  staple  product  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee.  South  of  the  thirty-seventh  parallel,  con- 
ditions are  suitable  for  the  growth  of  cotton,  which, 
from  Texas  to  the  Atlantic,  becomes  the  chief  crop; 
indeed,  the  southern  States  are  the  most  important 
cotton  producers  in  the  world,  for  it  requires  a  well- 
watered  soil,  though  otherwise  adapted  to  somewhat  dry 
climatic  conditions.  Sugar-cane  has  long  been  grown 
in  the  southern  States,  but  there  is  a  tendency  towards 
Limiting  it  to  the  warmer  climate  of  the  West  Indies, 
Mexico,  and  inter-tropical  regions.  This  rich  agricultural 
centre  of  the  States  has  long  been  the  mainstay  of  the 
wealth  of  the  country,  and  must  remain  so,  in  spite  of 
the  invasion  of  industry.  Its  importance  is  so  far- 
reaching  that  the  condition  of  its  crops  is  anxiously 
watched  year  by  year  in  other  countries  which  depend 
on  it  for  the  raw  materials  of  many  of  their 
manufactures. 

For  a  long  time,  also,  the  American  forests  of  those 
parts  have  supplied  the  world  with  valuable  timber, 
but  on  account  both  of  their  rapid  disappearance  and 
of  the  growing  consumption  at  home,  they  are  no  longer 
able  to  do  so  to  the  same  extent  as  formerly. 

Southern  States.  The  Atlantic  shelf  up  to  Cape 
Hatteras,  and  the  northern  shores  of  the  Mexican  Sea, 
enjoy  a  warm  and  rainy  climate,  whose  expression  in 
the  plant-world  is  the  evergreen  rain-forest  of  a  tem- 
perate type ;  but  the  variety  of  conditions  of  the  soil 
induces  a  corresponding  diversity  in  the  flora  and 
curtails  the  area  belonging  to  the  rain-forest  proper. 
On  the  northern  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  nearest  to 
the  beach,  comes  a  strip  of  sandy  downs  tenanted  by 
swamp-pines  and  sabal  palmettos.     Behind  this  curtain 


92  NORTH  AMERICA 

extends  a  belt  of  swamps  and  moorland,  frequently 
flooded,  and  covered  with  reeds  and  sedges.  It  is  the 
abode  of  the  tall  swamp-  or  bald-cypresses  which  lose 
their  needles  in  winter.  The  terraces  and  hummocks 
between  and  beyond  the  marshes  are  clad  with  evergreen 
temperate  forests,  in  which  the  incense-tree  or  liquidam- 
bar,  the  evergreen  or  Virginia  oak,  predominate,  often 
draped  entirely  with  the  lichen-like  epiphyte  tillandsia. 
Evergreen  magnolias,  rhododendrons  and  other  shrubs 
of  the  same  family  are  in  evidence  in  the  undergrowth, 
where  tall  cane  thickets  give  a  touch  of  the  Tropics. 
Mixed  forests  of  pines  and  oaks  follow  on  the  higher 
and  rolling  slopes  which  lead  up  to  the  tableland  of 
limestone,  which  unfolds  a  park  landscape  of  prairies, 
scrub,  and  forests  of  a  hard-leaf  evergreen  character 
and  where  the  'cedar-glades'  of  Tennessee  recur. 
Further  inland  the  plateau  is  interrupted  by  the  great 
pine-belt  which  extends  over  sands  and  sandy  loams  far 
into  Carolina.  This  vegetation  is  carried  also  into 
Texas,  while  the  belt  of  coast-swamps  nearly  reaches 
the  delta  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Where  the  nature  of  the 
ground  allows  it,  the  southern  States  have  a  prosperous 
agriculture  of  a  sub-tropical  type,  cotton,  sugar-cane, 
and  tobacco*  being  the  staple  crops,  worked  by  means  of 
negro  labour. 

Texas.  Westward  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  beyond 
the  dense  cane-  and  cypress- swamps  and  damp  coast- 
meadows,  there  is  a  gradual  ascent  to  a  plateau  rising 
by  successive  broad  terraces  to  a  height  of  about 
4,000  feet.  The  lower  terraces  are  naturally  much 
eroded  and  form  a  belt  of  rolling  land,  which  is  mainly 
composed  of  light,  sandy  loams  and  clays.  This  region 
has  a  distinct  season  of  heavy  rains  of  about  ten  weeks' 
duration,  the  rest  of  the  year  being  nearly  dry. 


TEXAS  93 

The  landscape  is  that  of  a  very  open  park  dotted  with 
light  trees,  such  as  the  acacia- like  mesquite,  walnuts,  and 
others,  either  single  or  in  sparse  groves,  resembling  open 
oak -copses.  The  grass  grows  taller  than  that  of  the 
more  northern  prairies,  and  is  also  more  diversified. 
Limestone  hills,  naturally  drier,  are  covered  with  a 
scrub  of  thorny  shrubs,  which  shed  their  leaves  during 
the  period  of  drought.  The  mesquite  and  allied  species, 
various  kinds  of  acacias  and  other  Leguminosae,  with 
a  light  foliage  and  stunted  growth,  compose  this  scrub 
or  '  chaparral ',  which  farther  west  becomes  such  a  special 
feature  of  the  landscape. 

At  last  the  great  Staked  Plain,  or  Llano  Estacado,  is 
reached.  It  is  an  almost  level  and  typically  semi-arid 
short  grass  country,  with  a  fine  loose  soil.  Here  new  types 
from  the  hot  and  dry  regions  give  a  peculiar  stamp  to 
the  vegetation :  they  are  the  well-known  yuccas,  agaves, 
cacti,  cerei,  opuntias,  and  other  fleshy  or  '  succulent ' 
plants,  many  of  which  yield  fibres.  These  plains  are 
rich  in  bulbs  and  tubers,  and  most  plants  have  deep, 
swollen  roots.  Extensive  salt  clay  tracts  are  strewn 
over  the  surface  of  the  Llano,  all  marked  by  strands,  and 
open  colonies  of  the  usual  succulent  salt-bushes. 

Towards  the  Rio  Grande,  the  character  of  the  vegeta- 
tion becomes  still  drier.  Grass  grows  scarce,  and  is  only 
represented  by  dense  bunches  of  stiff  straw.  On  the 
naked,  stony  soil  of  the  rolling  downs  a  scattered  brush 
appears,  almost  entirely  composed  of  the  prickly  bunches 
of  the  yuccas,  sotol,  agaves,  &c,  studded  with  giant  cerei 
and  tree  opuntias.  This  is  the  margin  of  the  desert 
of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  which  extends  beyond  the 
Rio  Grande  over  into  Mexico.  The  valley  of  the  latter 
river,  now  contracting  into  a  canon  clad  with  scrub,  now 
expanding  into  a  rich  alluvial  and   agricultural  plain, 


94  NORTH  AMERICA 

now  thrown  into  broken  ground,  much  eroded,  with 
ruined  tables  or  '  mesas '  left  standing,  offers  a  large 
variety  of  landscape.  The  flat  tops  of  the  dry  mesas 
have  but  a  poor,  semi-desert  brush  of  leafless  shrubs, 
cacti,  bushy  composites,  and  scanty  bunch-grass. 

The  Llano  Estacado  and  the  transition  zone  of  Texas 
can  be  largely  used  for  cattle-breeding ;  part  of  Texas 
is  indeed  a  country  of  ranches,  where  cattle  are  left  to 
roam  and  find  their  own  food  over  vast  areas.  Alono-  the 
rivers  one  comes  across  agricultural  strips,  but  in  the 
arid  sotol  districts  little  can  be  done  apart  from  the 
slow  cultivation  of  fibre-plants.  Cotton  is  naturally 
confined  to  alluvial  tracts  where  irrigation  is  possible ; 
yet  these  tracts  cover  a  sufficient  surface  to  constitute 
one  of  the  main  assets  of  Texas  and  north-east  Mexico. 
The  water-melon  and  other  fruits  are  also  cultivated 
extensively. 

The  Grass  Belt.  Broadly  speaking,  west  of  the  100° 
meridian,  up  to  the  long  Rocky  chains,  stretches  a  vast 
region  with  a  type  of  vegetation  different  from  that 
already  described;  it  consists  of  flat  or  rolling  plains, 
rising  westward  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  The  most 
important  feature  of  its  climate  is  dryness,  due  to  its 
central  position  in  the  great  body  of  land  and  its  con- 
sequent distance  from  the  sources  of  moisture,  the  seas. 
The  rainfall  hardly  rises  above  a  yearly  average  of 
20  inches,  and  is  most  abundant  at  the  growing  season. 
Summers  are  scorching  and  winters  very  hard  in  the 
north  and  centre. 

The  conditions  of  the  vegetation  throughout  the  great 
grass-belt  are  very  uniform.  Over  large  territories  the 
endless  table-like  plains  stretch,  only  furrowed  by  sunk 
and  invisible  valleys.  '  No  trees,  no  shrubs,  no  tall 
herbs ' ;  but  dull  green  close  swards  of  buffalo-grass  or 


THE  GRASS  BELT  95 

grama-grass,  two  or  three  inches  high,  among  which 
dwarf  herbs  are  scattered.  These  grasses  are  very  low 
and  dry-looking,  with  narrow,  rolled-in,  wire-like  leaves; 
by  means  of  their  runners,  they  make  a  dense,  velvety 
carpet  upon  the  thick  felt  mat  of  their  tangled  roots. 
The  power  of  the  soil  to  retain  moisture  naturally 
exercises  a  great  influence  where  water  is  so  scarce, 
and  the  composition  of  the  sward  varies  accordingly. 
Buffalo-grass  is  rominent,  often  exclusively  present,  on 
clay  or  sandy  grounds,  whilst  grama-grass  and  prairie 
grass  are  more  abundant  on  loams. 

Now  and  then  the  flat  plain  heaves  up  into  rolling 
wolds,  or  even  into  undulations.  The  ridges  then  pre- 
serve the  dry  steppe  aspect,  but  the  troughs  assume  an 
appearance  more  or  less  approaching  that  of  our  pastures. 
On  porous  soils,  prickly  plants,  small  species  of  opuntias 
or  prickly  pears,  and  cerei  are  in  evidence.  Towards 
the  eastern  margins,  plants  grow  taller,  flowers  are  more 
abundant,  and  the  prairie  gradually  passes  to  the  meadows 
of  the  east.  On  the  poorest  and  most  permeable  territories, 
like  those  on  the  north  of  the  Platte  River,  the  prairie 
approximates  to  the  true  desert  and  forms  what  is  known 
as  the  '  Bad-Lands ' :  arid  tracts,  hilly,  creviced,  and 
broken,  on  the  loose  soil  of  which  frequently  '  not  a  speck 
of  green  is  visible '.  Where  vegetation  appears,  it  is 
composed  now  of  dwarf  cacti  and  prickly  pears,  now  of 
small,  fleshy-leaved,  thorny  bushes  one  or  two  feet  high  ; 
further  on  of  patches  of  woolly,  greyish  eurotia  (Com- 
l^ositae).  Another  variety  of  the  prairie  landscape  is 
found  on  the  sand-hills  which  extend  in  a  broken  belt 
over  parts  of  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Texas : 
these  rolling  downs  are  covered  with  a  sparse  crop  of 
bunch-grasses.  As  the  great  plains  slowly  rise  to  meet 
the  foot-hills  of   the   Rocky  Mountains  they  undulate 


THE  GRASS  BELT  97 

more  and  more  heavily.  The  grama  now  becomes  the 
typical  grass ;  wormwood  bushes  mingle  with  it  and 
finally  replace  it  to  form  a  pure  '  sage-brush '  on  the 
foot-hills. 

The  sunk  valleys  which  break  the  flat  or  rolling  sur- 
face of  the  prairies  provide  the  eastern  forest  vegetation 
with  paths  along  which  it  reaches  to  the  heart  of  the 
grass- country.  Fringing  woods  accompany  the  rivers 
a  very  long  way  up,  composed  of  the  usual  kinds  of 
broad-leaf  deciduous  trees :  oaks,  elms,  lime-trees,  wal- 
nuts, and  hickories,  with  the  robinia-like  trees  gymno- 
cladus,  gleditschia,  and  a  few  others. 

Towards  Texas  the  vegetation  is  gradually  enriched 
by  the  appearance  of  southern  plants,  which  already 
impress  upon  the  Llano  Estacado  a  stamp  quite  different 
from  that  of  the  central  and  northern  prairies ;  indeed, 
it  belongs  to  a  distinct  region.  On  the  east  the  great 
treeless  plains  are  not  sharply  defined  from  the  forest 
lands  of  the  Mississippi ;  it  is  only  gradually  that  the 
forests  of  the  central  region  become  poorer,  thinner,  and 
more  stunted.  Islands  of  trees,  then  of  bushes,  lost  amid 
the  sea  of  grass,  give  the  landscape  the  features  of  a 
park,  and  constitute  a  belt  of  so-called  '  bush  prairie ' 
round  the  treeless  area.  The  park  prairie  extends  into 
Iowa,  approaching  the  Great  Lakes,  as  a  sort  of  bay 
into  the  forest  region.  The  banks  of  streams,  the 
moister  hollows,  the  slopes  and  foots  of  the  rises,  and 
other  favourable  localities  still  retain  clumps  and  patches 
of  deciduous  trees  throughout  this  intermediate  belt. 
The  most  extensive  of  these  tree-islands  is  thrown 
athwart  the  middle  course  of  the  Red,  Canadian,  and 
Arkansas  rivers ;  it  is  known  as  the  '  Cross  Timbers ', 
and  covers  most  of  the  Indian  territory. 

The  Great  Prairie  is  the  replica  of  the  Great  Russian 


98  NORTH  AMERICA 

and  Asiatic  steppes,  and  is  due  to  similar  causes.  Until 
recently  its  substantial  buffalo  and  grama  grasses  sup- 
ported large  herds  of  bison  and  numerous  other  animals. 
These  are  now  replaced  by  half -domesticated  cattle, 
tended  by  mounted  herdsmen  known  as  cow-boys.  If, 
however,  the  prairies  are  thus  almost  exclusively 
pastoral,  irrigation  has  been  the  means  of  rendering 
available  part  of  their  naturally  fertile  soil  for  agricul- 
tural purposes,  as  the  demand  for  cereals  has  increased. 
This  is  especially  the  case  for  the  generous  lands  of 
Canada  bordering  on  the  Great  Northern  forest,  south 
and  west  of  Winnipeg.  There  is  a  striking  parallel 
between  the  lines  of  modern  development  of  the  great 
temperate  grass  areas  of  the  world :  the  Russian  steppe, 
the  Argentine  pampa,  the  African  veld,  and  the  American 
prairie :  they  are  becoming  the  main  granaries  of  the 
world.  The  American  prairie,  however,  enjoys  the 
superiority  of  greater  water-power  and  easier  communi- 
cations. 

The  Western  Mountains.  The  winds  from  the  Pacific 
are  the  mainsprings  of  life  in  western  North  America. 
On  their  moisture  and  distribution  in  relation  to  the 
features  of  the  relief  depend  the  manifold  changes  in 
the  vegetation.  Moisture  decreases  from  the  coast  to 
the  inland  mountains,  and,  on  the  whole,  also  from  north 
to  south.  The  windward  are  moister  than  the  leeward 
slopes ;  again,  low-lying  areas  are  drier  than  the  ridges, 
and  moisture  increases  with  altitude  up  to  a  belt  of 
greatest  rainfall,  above  which  it  diminishes  rapidly. 
The  plains  lying  between  the  mountain  ranges  are 
naturally  arid  as  compared  with  the  neighbouring 
slopes.  For  all  these  reasons,  western  North  America 
may  be  described  broadly  as  a  succession  of  three  parallel 
wooded  chains  separated  by  arid  troughs  and  plateaus. 


THE  WESTERN  MOUNTAINS 


99 


Of  the  three  main  ranges,  the  Coast  and  the  Cascade 
chains  may  be  grouped  together  as  representing  a  moister 
system ;  while  the  Rocky  Mountains,  separated  from 
these  by  a  series  of  broad  plateaus,  form  a  much  drier 
eistern  wing.  Only  at  one  point  in  the  Columbia- 
Frazer  district,  thanks  to  the  gap  in  the  western  barrier 


Fig.  26.     The  prairie  passing  into  a  brush  of  summer-green  bushes 
and  small  birches — Wheat  zone,  Western  Canada. 

through  which  the  river  Frazer  flows,  does  the  inland 
chain  share  some  of  the  moisture  and  luxuriance  of  the 
coast-ranges. 

The  forests  of  Pacific  North  America  are  almost  ex- 
clusively composed  of  conifers.  Why  this  should  be  so 
is  not  satisfactorily  explained  yet.  It  is  quite  certain 
that   many   of  the   varied  climates  and  soils,  as  they 

H  2 


100  NORTH  AMERICA 

stand  at  the  present  time,  are  eminently  suitable  for  at 
least  an  abundant  admixture  of  broad-leaf  summer- 
green  forests,  and  that  similar  circumstances,  at  the 
other  end  of  South  America,  in  southern  Chile,  in  New 
Zealand,  and  in  Europe,  favour  the  development  of  such 
broad-leaf  trees.  It  is  therefore  likely  that  the  cause  of 
the  exclusive  predominance  of  conifers  here  will  be  found 
mainly  in  the  geological  history  of  the  country. 

The  northern  half  of  the  coast-ranges  enjoys  a  rather 
moist  and  temperate  climate ;  even  the  seaward  slopes 
of  the  southern  Alaskan  range  have  a  comparatively 
mild  winter.  Hence  the  coniferous  forests  in  these 
regions,  south  to  latitude  43°,  display  a  luxuriance  un- 
surpassed in  any  part  of  the  world.  The  predominant 
forms,  spruces,  firs,  douglasias,  tsugas,  possess  heavy 
crowns;  the  lighter  pine  form  is  subordinate.  Towards 
the  mouths  of  the  Columbia  and  Frazer  these  forestfl 
reach  their  maximum  of  wealth  and  density  on  the 
seaward  slopes:  heavy  crops  of  gigantic  trees,  and  a 
ground  encumbered  with  a  tangle  of  dead  wood,  padded 
with  thick  layers  of  mould,  and  carpeted  with  mosses 
and  ferns. 

Though  the  variety  of  tree-forms  decreases  as  one 
goes  towards  Alaska,  the  seaward  slopes  of  the  Pacific 
coast  mountains  continue  to  enjoy  a  mild  and  humid 
climate  up  to  Cook's  Inlet.  They  display,  in  contrast 
to  the  central  Alaskan  plateau  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain chain  on  the  north  of  it,  the  same  luxuriant  type  of 
hemlock-spruce  and  cedar  forests ;  South  Alaska  indeed 
presents  the  appearance  of  a  beautiful  mountain  park 
pleasantly  diversified  by  rich,  flowery  meadows.  Above 
1,200  feet  the  park  landscape  changes  to  sub-alpine 
pastures  dotted  with  groves  of  alders  and  willows ;  and 
a  treeless  belt  of  alpine  grasses  reaches  to  the  snow- 


THE  WESTERN  MOUNTAINS 


101 


line.  In  point  of  structure  and  vegetation  the  Columbian- 
Alaskan  coast,  with  its  ever-moist  climate,  strikingly 
recalls  that  of  southern  Chile  and, nearer  to  us,  of  Norway. 


L*!»* 


Fig   27.     Pino  forest  bordering  meadow.     High  plateau 
in  the  Kooky  Mountains. 


These  forests  abound  in  large  animals,  among  which 
wild  sheep  are  to  be  found.  Naturally  the  chief  in- 
dustries  are   concerned    with    timber ;    but  the    rivers, 


102  NORTH  AMERICA 

teeming  with  fish,  are  another  source  of  wealth.  In 
short,  this  northern  Pacific  coast  affords  a  picture  of 
what  the  west  coasts  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  were  like 
previous  to  their  complete  ruin  by  man,  with  this  differ- 
ence, that  the  species  of  trees  in  our  countries  were  not 
so  varied.  The  numerous  islands  are  similarly  clothed 
with  conifers. 

The  eastern  or  landward  slopes  are  decidedly  drier. 
In  Alaska  the  timber-growth  on  the  northern  slopes 
of  the  coast-range  is  much  more  scattered  and  loose,  and 
belongs  to  the  *  scattering '  belt  of  the  North  Canadian 
forest. 

Further  south,  the  difference  between  the  sea-  and 
land-slopes  is  marked  by  the  abundance  of  the  pine- 
type  on  the  inland  side,  and  the  thinner,  shorter, 
and  poorer  forest-growth.  An  increasingly  meagre  and 
smaller  kind  of  forest  is  carried  along  the  coast-range 
proper  down  to  San  Francisco  :  the  Californian  portion 
which  follows  on  the  south  is  no  longer  timbered  ;  thin 
woodland  patches  of  some  extent  can  only  be  seen 
occasionally.  The  predominant  vegetation  is  now  the 
1  chaparral '  or  scrub  ;  yet  in  northern  California  the 
Californian  red-wood,  with  the  Monterey  cypress,  form 
stately  forests  with  a  dense  undergrowth  of  hard-leaf 
evergreens. 

Behind  the  coast-range,  and  still  able,  thanks  to  their 
superior  elevation,  to  condense  a  fair  amount  of  moisture 
from  the  sea-winds,  the  southern  Cascades  offer  in  a 
lighter  form  the  same  vegetation,  in  which  douglasias, 
tsugas,  and  spruces  are  conspicuous.  The  sugar-pine 
attains  here  the  largest  proportions,  and  several  kinds 
of  silver-firs  are  found  on  the  upper  slopes.  The  eastern 
slopes  are  again  poorer,  for  the  forest  growth  becomes 
patchy  and  scattered,  with  hardly  any   cover  on   the 


THE  WESTERN  MOUNTAINS 


103 


naked  ground.  Pines  now  preponderate,  and  among 
them  the  yellow  pine,  the  most  valuable  and  widespread 
timber  of  the  west.  Here,  again,  the  southern  portions 
are  notably  drier  and  more  barren  than  the  northern. 

South  of  Mount  Shasta  moisture  is  still  scantier,  and, 
henceforth,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  westward  slopes 
are  invaded  by  a  number  of  species  which  heretofore 


Fig   28.     View  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  showing  pines 
and  Douglas  firs. 


were  confined  to  the  eastern  side.  The  high  forest, 
which  rises  above  a  belt  of  chaparral,  consists  of  much 
the  same  trees  as  that  of  the  Cascades,  in  addition  to 
southern  species.  The  chief  ornament  of  the  southern 
Sierra  Nevada  is  the  broken  patchy  belt  of  Big-Trees, 
of  which  a  few  thousands  are  still  left,  now  protected 
against  destruction. 


104  NORTH  AMERICA 

The  forests  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains afford  but  a  ragged  mantle :  in  the  Alaskan  region 
the  thin  groves  of  spruce  are  limited  to  the  secluded 
southern  valleys :  in  British  Columbia  the  stunted  form 
of  the  Murray  pine  predominates  in  thin  woodlands  ;  but 
on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Columbia  River  the  moist 
winds  penetrate  farther  inland,  and  with  them,  some  of 
the  western  types,  the  Douglas  and  the  yellow  pine 
among  them,  extend  to  the  Pacific  slopes  of  the  Rockies. 

Further  south  the  mountains  assume  a  decidedly  park- 
like appearance,  with  forests  in  patches,  or  large  copses 
on  the  naked  slopes.  They  are  clear  and  open,  without 
undergrowth,  and  confine  themselves  more  and  more  to 
the  canons  and  the  higher  altitudes.  Towards  the  head- 
waters of  the  Colorado  River,  and  south  of  them,  sufficient 
moisture  from  clouds,  rains  and  snow  is  restricted  to 
a  belt  of  2,000  or  3,000  feet  at  an  elevation  of  9,000  to 
10,000  feet,  giving  thin  forests  on  the  upper  slopes  which, 
with  the  pastures  of  the  lofty  plateaus,  form  here 
a  veritable  park  region  of  some  luxuriance,  far  above  the 
adjacent  arid  lands. 

Probably  because  it  remains  too  low,  the  Wasatch 
branch  of  the  eastern  mountain  system  is  still  more 
barren,  and  displays  only  a  stunted  and  loose  type  of 
woodland  on  its  rocky  slopes.  The  close  forests  of  the 
north,  favoured  not  so  much  by  rainfall  as  by  the  layers 
of  snow  which  soak  the  ground  in  winter,  do  not  recur 
until  the  edge  of  the  Colorado  plateau,  the  higher  mesas 
such  as  the  Mogollon,  or  the  higher  peaks  such  as  the 
San  Francisco,  are  reached.  Here,  above  a  belt  of  dwarf- 
pine  and  juniper  or  pinon  rises,  from  8,500  to  12,000  feet, 
the  high  forest  which  is  arranged,  in  order  of  increasing 
altitudes  and  precipitations,  into  the  three  zones  of  pine, 
fir,  and  spruce. 


Fig.  29.     Big  trees  in  the  Coastal  Forests  of  British  Columbia.     The  size  of  the 
people  gives  some  idea  of  the  gigantic  size  of  the  trees. 


106  NORTH  AMERICA 

The  western  ranges  have  furnished,  for  a  long  time, 
an  abundant  supply  of  timber,  the  yellow  pine  and 
the  Douglas  or  red  fir  being  considered  the  most  valu- 
able. The  Canadian  portion  has  been  little  touched  so 
far,  except  by  forest  fires ;  but  in  the  United  States  the 
axe  and  the  fires  have  wrought  immense  harm  to  the 
forests,  and  entire  districts  have  been  laid  bare.    This  is 


Fig.  30.     Aspen  forest  in  Colorado. 

the  more  serious  as  one  goes  further  south,  where 
drought  does  not  "allow  the  vegetation  to  recover  so 
rapidly  as  in  the  moister  north,  and  whole  chains  have 
been  denuded  down  almost  to  the  rock,  with  disastrous 
results.  In  other  parts,  especially  in  California,  where 
mines  have  exhausted  the  surrounding  districts,  the 
useless  chaparral-scrub  has  extended  considerably  over 
former  timber  areas.     Now,  however,  a  large  number  of 


THE  WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  107 

forest  reserves  have  been  created  with  a  view  not  only 
to  protecting  the  mountains  themselves  and  the  adjacent 
lowlands,  but  to  preventing  the  further  extension  of 
reckless  and  harmful  lumbering. 

Intermont  Plateaus  of  the  Pacific.  Between  the 
Pacific  coast-systems  of  mountains  and  the  Rocky  Chain 
there  stretches  a  succession  of  broad  plateaus  of  varying 
height  and  character.  All  of  these,  screened  from  the 
Pacific  winds  by  the  mountain  barriers,  are  naturally 
drier  than  the  adjacent  slopes.  North  of  the  Columbia 
River  they  bear  a  park-like  aspect,  south  of  it  they  are 
treeless  and  arid.  The  Yukon  plateau,  the  northern- 
most, has  that  scattered  tree-growth  which  is  character- 
istic of  the  northern  belt  of  the  Canadian  forest.  The 
meagre  grass-land,  varied  by  meadows  and  swamps,  is 
studded,  over  large  areas,  with  isolated  spruce  trees. 
Connected  and  denser  forests  cover  only  the  margins  of 
the  Yukon  and  its  main  tributaries  and  their  alluvial 
flats.  With  the  aspen  or  cottonwood,  the  spruce  pene- 
trates into  the  valleys  of  the  mountain-chains  on  both 
sides  of  the  plain.  Lying  at  a  greater  elevation  and 
fissured  by  deep  valleys,  the  Columbian  plateau  presents 
flat  grassy  tops  of  a  sub-alpine  type,  dotted,  like  the 
Rocky  margin,  with  small  Murray  pines.  The  deep 
canons  alone  are  well  wooded,  and  enable  the  coast-forest 
to  penetrate  far  inland. 

The  Frazer-Columbia  district  has  been  already  men- 
tioned as  being  happily  situated  for  favouring  the  inroads 
of  the  western  vegetation.  On  the  south  it  is  bordered 
by  a  hilly  belt  of  broad-leaf,  winter-bare  woodland, 
consisting  mostly  of  aspen,  and  dying  out  towards  the 
Columbia  River.  The  Columbia  plateau  affords  good 
grazing-grounds,  while  the  forests  of  its  valleys  are  well 
stocked  with  timber :  game  and  fish  are  plentiful,  and  the 


108  NORTH  AMERICA 

salmon- packing  industry  is  very  active.  The  lower 
Frazer  and  Columbia  valleys  are  extensively  cultivated 
for  wheat. 

East  of  the  Cascades,  and  closed  in  on  all  sides  by 
mountains,  the  plain  of  the  lower  Columbia  River, 
situated  at  a  low  level,  is  treeless,  smooth,  and  grassy, 
and  recalls  the  Great  Prairies:  it  is  well  irrigated  by 
a  number  of  large  rivers,  and  occupies  the  fertile  bed 
of  a  former  lake.  Such  conditions  offer  quite  ex- 
ceptional opportunities  for  agriculture,  and  especially 
for  wheat-growing.  In  easy  communication  with  the 
Pacific  ports,  the  Columbia  plain  is  one  of  the  most 
natural  and  best-defined  wheat  areas  that  can  be  found 
anywhere.  All  around  its  margins  the  foot-slopes  of 
the  mountains  are  covered  with  woodlands  of  cotton- 
wood  and  other  winter-bare  trees,  while  in  the  rear  rise 
the  pine-clad  upper  hills. 

Beyond  the  Blue  Mountains,  which  limit  this  plain  on 
the  south,  is  a  much  more  arid  region  in  southern 
Oregon  and  Idaho,  and  here  begins  the  great  semi-desert, 
which  stretches  far  into  Mexico,  and  from  the  Sierra 
Nevada  to  the  Rocky  chain.  Its  general  level — above 
3,000  feet — and  its  rainlessness  render  the  climate 
extreme  and  arid.  The  northern  part  is  largely  covered 
with  lava  sheets,  which  have  dammed  up  a  number  of 
lakes  and  thus  caused  marshes.  At  the  foot  of  the 
Cascades  lies  a  park  landscape  of  meadows  and  wet 
moors,  girdled  with  forests  of  aspen,  above  which  rise 
pine- clad  slopes,  while  the  broken  basalt  tables  remain 
barren.  Farther  east,  dreary  plains  follow  with  thin 
brushes  of '  sage ',  a  name  which  includes  several  kinds 
of  bushy,  hoary,  and  stunted  artemisias  or  wormwood, 
and  similar  plants,  with  small,  grey,  woolly  leaves.  The 
sage-brush  constitutes  the  background  of  the  vegetation 


INTERMONT  PLATEAUS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  109 

over  the  whole  tract   down   to   the  Mohave  and  Gila 
deserts. 

The  Great  Basin  of  Nevada  differs  in  aspect  from  that  of 
Oregon-Idaho,  for  countless  short,  parallel,  rocky  ridges 
and  bluffs,  all  running  in  a  general  north- south  direction, 
arise  abruptly  from  its  floor.  Though  rains  be  scarce, 
the  waters  of  the  casual  showers  collect  in  the  troughs 


Fig.  31.     S;»ge-bi-ush     Colorado. 

of  the  irregular  surface,  which  they  line  with  clay  and 
convert  into  evaporating  pans,  many  of  them  covered 
with  layers  of  alkaline  efflorescence  and  absolutely  barren: 
successive  belts  of  succulent  salt- bushes,  rushes,  grasses, 
and  shrubs  surround  them.  Outside  the  saline  flats,  and 
covering  alike  the  valley  plains,  the  gentle  inclines  of  the 
mesas,  the  rounded  foot-hills,  and  the  lower  mountain 
slopes,   the    very    uniform    vegetation    consists    almost 


110  NORTH  AMERICA 

exclusively  of  the  sage-brush,  growing  about  three  feet 
high,  in  a  loose  formation  which  is  never  an  obstacle  to 
the  rider.  With  it  may  occur,  according  to  the  situation, 
a  few  similar  bushes,  with  whitish,  small,  strong-scented 
leaves.  This  permanent  vegetation  is  brightened,  after 
showers,  by  the  sudden  outburst  of  a  flora  of  dwarf 
annuals  which  disappears  as  quickly  as  it  comes.  Other 
biennial  and  perennial  herbs  likewise  wither  and  dis- 
appear from  the  surface  in  July. 

The  steep  western  slopes  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains  are 
destitute  of  trees,  dry  and  naked.  From  this  chain  to  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  on  the  rocky  slopes  of  all  the  ranges,  is 
found,  at  an  elevation  of  5,000  to  7,000  feet,  a  thin 
sprinkling  of  western  junipers  and  stunted,  single-leaved 
pines,  some  ten  to  fifteen  feet  in  height,  and  of  low,  compact 
habit.  Only  on  the  principal  ranges,  above  6,000  feet, 
can  the  mountain  mahogany  be  met,  clinging  to  the 
rocky  ledges  and  on  the  dry  inclines.  The  canons  are 
lined  with  a  ragged  brush  of  pines,  firs,  and  junipers. 
Where  the  ground  water  accumulates,  however,  the 
desert  is  graced  by  delightful  oases,  marked  by  the 
characteristic  aspen,  willow,  poplar,  and  other  leaf -shed- 
ding trees  of  a  northern  type. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  vegetation  of  the  Great  Basin 
corresponds  closely  with  that  of  the  Algerian  plateau  in 
north-west  Africa ;  it  may  also  be  compared  with  a  large 
portion  of  the  plateau  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  Colorado  plateau  included  between  the  Wasatch 
and  the  Rocky  chains  extends  south  to  the  line  of  the 
Mogollon  Mountains,  when  it  sinks  abruptly  along  a  much 
broken  bluff  down  to  the  sweltering  desert  of  Gila.  It  is 
a  high  tableland,  cut  up  by  deep  and  precipitous  canons 
into  large  flat-topped  blocks  or  mesas,  arid  and  treeless, 
with  a  scanty  plant-mantle  of  bunch-grass  and  grama- 


INTERMONT  PLATEAUS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  111 

grass,  interspersed  with  colonies  of  low  cacti.  The  canons 
vary  greatly  as  regards  vegetation  ;  some  of  them  have 
naked  walls  with  nothing  but  crooked   pines    sticking 


l.      Fig.  32.     A  typical  timbered  canon  in  the 
Colorado  Region. 

occasionally  out  of  crevices ;  others  are  clothed  with 
luxuriant  and  regular  pine-forests,  including  the  yellow 
pine  and  the  douglas  or  red  fir. 

A  few  valleys,  like  those  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  San- 


112  NORTH  AMERICA 

Luis,  are  broad  enough  to  permit  of  the  development  of 
rolling,  sandy,  or  gravelly  wastes  at  the  bottom,  when 
artemisias  and  other  sage-brush  plants  regularly  recur. 
Agriculture  is  not  altogether  excluded  from  those  tracts, 
if  means  be  taken  of  preventing  the  surface  evaporation 
of  the  soil,  and  of  thoroughly  utilizing  the  ground 
moisture :  on  these  principles  is  based  the  system  called 
'  dry  farming '  or  dry-land  farming,  which  has  succeeded 
in  wresting  good  maize  crops  out  of  what  looked  like 
mere  sand  wastes.  Above  the  general  level  of  the 
plateau  rise  a  few  mountain  ranges  which  are  able  to 
catch  the  rain  and  the  snow,  and  consequently  are  as 
a  rule  well  wooded.  Some  of  them  unexpectedly  reveal 
delightful  Alpine  corners  with  prosperous  forests  of 
conifers  and  aspen,  luxuriant  meadows,  marshes,  and 
pastures,  in  the  midst  of  the  general  aridity. 

California.  If  the  Great  Basin,  in  respect  of  its  vege- 
tation, recalls  the  Algerian  plateau.  California  gives  a 
striking  replica  of  the  Mediterranean  landscape,  and 
more  especially  of  the  Algerian  tell.  The  Californian 
valley  extends  from  the  coast-range  to  the  Sierra  Nevada 
in  continuation  of  the  trough  that  separates  the  main- 
land of  British  Columbia  from  the  coast  islands,  and  is, 
in  turn,  continued  southward  as  the  Gulf  of  California. 
Lying  in  a  hollow,  and  deprived  of  most  of  the  moisture 
of  the  Pacific  winds,  it  enjoys  a  moderate  rainfall  during 
the  winter,  and  a  pleasant  warm  temperate  climate. 
The  floor  of  the  valley,  which  is,  in  places,  naturally 
well  watered,  displays  a  park  landscape  in  which  the 
hard-leaf  and  evergreen  vegetation  is  prominent.  Dry 
grass  steppes  claim  a  large  portion  of  its  area,  but  ever- 
green oaks  with  small  leathery  leaves,  the  Californian 
laurel,  cypresses,  and  a  large  number  of  evergreen  shrubs, 
correspond  to  the  similar  plants  of  the  Mediterranean. 


CALIFORNIA  113 

This  parallel  is  still  further  exemplified  in  the  '  chaparral', 
which  is  an  exact  replica  of  the  European  maquis,  as 
far  as  the  growth  and  mode  of  life  of  the  plants  are 
concerned,  though  the  species  may  differ.  The  chaparral, 
with  its  impenetrable  thickets  of  evergreen  shrubs  with 
leathery,  prickly  leaves,  and  thorny  bushes,  dwarf  oaks, 
and  others,  is  a  feature  of  California  :  it  extends  along 
the  sea-coast  in  a  belt  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  ranges 
on  either  side  of  the  valley,  and  is  characteristic  of  the 
foot-hills  of  almost  all  the  ranges  in  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico.  It  is  also  a  predominant  and  ever-present  feature 
in  north-western  Mexico  and  lower  California,  and  much 
of  it  is  doubtless  due  to  the  destruction  of  forests.  The 
similarity  between  the  two  warm  temperate  regions  of 
Europe  and  America  is  continued  in  the  forests  of  conifers, 
the  composition,  habit,  and  undergrowth  of  which  corre- 
spond, point  for  point,  with  similar  forests  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

Quite  naturally,  California  has  borrowed  its  agriculture 
from  the  Old  World :  olive-  and  vineyards,  orchards  of 
peach-,  orange-,  and  lemon-trees ;  mulberry-trees  for 
silk- worms,  &c,  have  been  adopted  and,  by  means  of  new 
cultural  methods,  developed  rapidly  in  the  hope  of 
soon  equalling  the  European  produce.  Those  strenuous 
efforts  have  been  attended  already  with  some  measure 
of  success.  The  harder  kinds  of  wheat  are  also  grown 
extensively,  along  with  maize  and  lucerne  or  alfalfa,  on 
the  tracts  of  dry  grass,  where  ground  water  is  available. 

The  American  Deserts.  The  Great  Basin  gradually 
passes,  on  the  south,  to  the  Mohave  desert  which  extends 
beyond  the  Colorado,  at  the  foot  of  the  Arizona  plateau, 
under  the  name  of  the  Gila  desert :  a  complete  drought, 
a  fierce  heat,  and  an  extremely  dry  and  clear  atmosphere 
are  the  features  of   this  region.      Compared  with  the 

11691  i  t 


114  NORTH  AMERICA 

African  and  Asiatic  deserts,  the  American  desert  is  re- 
markable for  the  extraordinary  development  of  those 
fleshy,  thorny,  leafless,  or  apparently  leafless,  plants 
called  succulents.  Nowhere  in  the  world  is  there  such 
a  combination  of  w7eird,  ungainly,  menacing  shapes: 
giant  candelabra  cerei  of  most  diverse  varieties,  ma- 
millarias,  opuntias,  yuccas,  agaves,  dasilyrions,  nolinas, 
&c.  Hardly  less  strange  are  the  leafless  brushes  of  the 
creosote-bush  (larrea)  and  the  ocotillo  (fouquiera)  and 
the  formidable  spines  of  several  thorn-bushes  belonging 
to  the  acacia  and  mimosa  type.  A  good  many  plants 
wich  strong  underground  stems  only  show  themselves 
after  the  occasional  showers.  This  water-storing  vege- 
tation provides  the  rare  native  or  traveller  with  a 
beverage  w7hich,  such  as  it  is,  is  often  most  necessary. 

Proceeding  eastward,  one  has  to  cross  a  mountainous 
tract  which  is  the  northern  spur  of  the  western  Sierra 
Madre  :  here  the  prickly  chaparral  resumes  a  prominent 
position  in  the  landscape,  and  pine  forests  crown  the 
summits  and  upper  slopes.  Not  a  few  valleys  collect 
the  underground  waters  and  develop  good  pastures,  while 
some  harbour  delightful  oases. 

Being  destitute  of  large  mammals,  the  American 
desert  does  not  even  afford  a  good  hunting-ground,  and 
the  population  is  now  dispersed  in  little  communities 
along  the  eastern  margin  and  the  few  large  rivers.  Yet, 
at  one  time,  in  more  than  one  cafion,  and  on  the  out- 
skirts of  the  plain,  the  Papagos  Indians  were  able  to 
evolve  a  fairly  advanced  system  of  agriculture  based  on 
extensive  works  of  irrigation.  These  works  reveal  the 
past  existence  of  a  highly  organized  agricultural  com- 
munity, of  a  centre  of  culture  which  has  possibly 
disappeared  in  the  ever-present  struggles  between  the 
nomads  and  the  house  builders. 


LOWER  CALIFORNIA 


115 


Lower  California  and  Northern  Sonora.  Lower 
California  is  the  southern  spur  of  the  coast-range 
and  possibly  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  while  the  plain 
of  Sonora  continues  the  Colorado  desert  to  the 
south. 

In   point    of    aridity,   the    northern    portion    of    the 


Fig.  33.     Dry  Cereus  scrub  on  steep  slopes  of  a  gorge, — 
Mexico. 

peninsula  and  of  the  Sonoran  coastal  shelf  compete 
with  the  Mohave- Gila  region  ;  it  is  another  land  of 
thirst.  The  Pacific  coast,  barren  and  torrid,  shelters 
a  few  strips  of  scattered  chaparral  in  the  troughs  of 
the  valleys,  and  occasionally  tolerates  short  fringes  of 
mangrove-bushes  on  the  tidal  marshes ;  everywhere  the 

I  2 


116  NORTH  AMERICA 

climatic  aridity  is  enhanced  by  the  porous  nature  of  the 
lava  which  covers  most  of  the  surface  of  the  peninsula  : 
but  a  material  change  intervenes  towards  the  point 
of  lower  California,  due  to  a  combination  of  granite  soil 
and  irregular  monsoon  rains.  In  favourable  places, 
wellnigh  all  tropical  fruits,  mango,  papaw.  banana,  &c, 
can  be  successfully  grown  ;  and  on  the  longitudinal 
ridges  of  the  peninsula  are  scattered  coniferous  woods. 
This  region  is  practically  uninhabited. 

The  western  coastal  shelf  of  the  mainland  of  Mexico 
becomes  increasingly  fertile  towards  the  south.  Numerous 
mountain  torrents  water  the  naturally  generous  soil ; 
but  while  the  mountains  in  the  rear  receive  the  benefit 
of  the  monsoons,  the  plains  are  too  low  to  condense  the 
moisture,  and  they  remain  half  arid  outside  the  narrow 
margins  of  the  rivers.  It  is  a  land  of  ragged,  dry 
pastures  dotted  with  cacti  and  candelabra-cerei,  and 
of  prickly  jungles  or  chaparral — mostly  composed  of 
acacias.  The  sweltering  marshes  and  lagoons  which  the 
rivers  create  along  the  Pacific  coast  support  extensive 
palm-forests.  At  present  thinly  peopled,  the  western 
lowland  of  Mexico,  if  due  advantage  be  taken  of  the 
facilities  of  irrigation,  is  favourably  situated  for  semi- 
tropical  and  tropical  agriculture. 

Ascending  the  Sierra  Madre,  one  leaves  behind  the 
well-defined  belts  of  vegetation  which  correspond  to  an 
increase  of  rainfall  and  mists,  and  to  a  lowering  of 
temperature.  The  valleys  become  abundantly  wooded 
and  display  a  luxuriance  only  second  to  that  of  the 
tropical  rain-forests,  while  the  ridges  remain  semi-arid. 
Further  up,  the  landscape  turns  more  and  more  to  a 
mountain  park,  extremely  diversified,  where  pastures 
alternate  with  extensive  forests  of  pines,  firs,  and  ever- 
green oaks.     By  reason  of  the  variety  of  climates  from 


LOWER  CALIFORNIA  117 

the  coast  to  the  summits,  it  may  be  said  that  all  the 
agricultural  produce  of  the  earth  can  be  grown  in  one 
or  the  other  of  these  belts  of  vegetation ;  from  rice, 
cotton,  sugar-cane,  oil-,  and  coco-palms  through  coffee 
and  maize  to  wheat,  oats,  and  potatoes.  The  most 
important  products,  however,  are  coffee  and  maize,  while 
cattle-breeding  is  rapidly  increasing.  Timber  is  actively 
exploited  in  some  parts  of  the  Sierra  Madre. 

The  Mexican  Plateau — Anahuac.  From  the  Rio 
Grande  southwards,  the  Mexican  plateau  rises  and  con- 
tracts gradually,  bordered  on  both  sides  by  a  jagged 
rim  of  high  mountains  and  broken  by  numberless  short 
ranges.  Extremely  dry  in  the  north,  it  enjoys  towards 
the  south  a  well-marked  and  fairly  regular  summer 
rainfall.  Lower  and  broader,  the  hot  plains  of  the  north 
still  belong  to  the  margin  of  tropical  semi-deserts. 
They  stand  intermediate  between  the  arid  lands  beyond 
the  Rio  Grande  and  those  of  the  Gila,  and  seem  to  com- 
bine the  features  of  both  ;  cacti,  agaves,  and  mesquites 
are  still  predominant.  Vast,  dreary  areas  are  covered  witli 
a  modified  sage-brush  of  low,  woody,  greyish  bushes, 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  rubber  bush  or 
guayule.  The  inland  drainage  has  developed  broad 
alkaline  swamps  or  bolsons  accompanied,  as  usual,  by 
salt -bushes  and  salt-pastures.  Thanks,  however,  to  the 
mountains,  water-sources  are  numerous,  and  suffice  to 
supply  the  extensive  cattle-ranches  and  the  industrial 
towns. 

The  relief  becomes  more  varied  and  the  rainfall  more 
regular  and  abundant  towards  the  south  and,  accord- 
ingly, the  aspect  of  the  vegetation  is  more  diversified. 
This  portion  of  the  plateau,  which  rises  to  6,000  and 
7,000  feet  above  sea-level,  has  mild  but  dry  winters 
and  warm  and  moderately  rainy  summers.     With  this 


118 


NORTH  AMERICA 


climate,  tree-growth  requires  a  well- watered  soil:  but 
such  conditions  are  seldom  fulfilled,  the  soil  being 
mostly  porous  and  the  inland  rivers  remaining  dry 
during  the   greater   part   of   the   year,  or   running   in 


Fig.  34.     Taxodium  trees — Sacromonte, 
Ameeameca  (Mexico). 

very  deep  canons,  whose  lowest  parts  are  frequently 
transformed  into  lagoons  or  swamps  with  no  outlet. 
The  hill  ranges,  once  wooded  to  a  large  extent,  are  now 
mostly  bare.  Over  the  plains  stretch  vast  steppes  of 
scattered  wiry  bunch-grasses,  which  are  hardly  relieved 


THE  MEXICAN  PLATEAU  119 

by  occasional  groves  of  low  trees.  The  countless 
lava  sheets,  which  are  strewn  over  the  plateau,  are 
marked  by  thickets  of  thorny  cacti,  yuccas,  agaves, 
opuntias,  and  acacia  bushes.  In  the  moister  valleys, 
which  are  not  infrequent,  pastures  become  quite 
luxuriant ;  woodlands  and  groves  of  tall  trees,  deciduous 
and  evergreen  alike,  thrive  and  increase;  and  maize 
and  wheat  are  extensively  cultivated.  A  notable  feature 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  plateau  is  the  cultivation  of  the 
agave  whose  fermented  juice  is  a  popular  drink;  other 
agaves  are  also  grown  for  their  fibres.  The  rural  in- 
dustries of  the  Mexican  plateau  depend  almost  exclusively 
on  the  capacity  of  the  soil  for  retaining  the  moisture, 
and  on  the  underground  water-supply.  Fertile  agri- 
cultural valleys  are  not  lacking,  but  over  the  larger  part 
of  the  high  plain  only  a  modified  kind  of  nomadic  life, 
viz.  cattle-ranching,  is  possible  ;  irrigation,  however,  will 
in  course  of  time  open  up  vast  territories. 

Of  the  temperate  conditions  and  immense  resources 
of  the  plateau  of  Anahuac,  its  ancient  inhabitants, 
the  Nahua,  took  full  advantage :  pastoral  industries 
were  unknown  for  lack  of  cattle,  but  they  practised 
an  intensive  form  of  agriculture  and  gardening,  superior 
to  what  was  known  in  Europe  at  the  same  period  of 
history ;  vestiges  of  it  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the  '  Valley 
of  Mexico '.  The  scientific  works  of  irrigation,  drainage, 
and  water-supply  which  these  populations  carried  out 
brought  large  areas  under  prosperous  settlement  and 
cultivation,  so  that  when  the  European  Conquistadores, 
who  had  not  reached  the  same  level  of  culture,  wiped 
out  the  native  civilization,  they  were  unable  to  equal  or 
replace  those  gigantic  works. 

Atlantic  Lowlands  of  Mexico  and  Southern  Mexico. 
The  Atlantic  or  Gulf  slopes  of  the  plateau  are  more 


120  NORTH  AMERICA 

abundantly  watered  than  the  western  Sierra  Mad  re,,  and 
possess  a  still  wider  range  of  climate,  vegetation,  and 
•agricultural  possibilities.  Fairly  dry  in  the  north,  the 
eastern  Sierra  gradually  enters  into  the  moist  tropical 
region,  where  the  succession  of  vegetations  from  top  to 
foot  of  the  mountains  is  broadly  as  follows :  on  the 
upper  slopes,  which  are  largely  of  volcanic  origin,  there 
are  imposing  forests  of  conifers :  in  the  temperate  belt 
or  '  tierra  templada '  which  receives  the  maximum  of 
atmospheric  moisture,  the  magnificent  broad-leaf  ever- 
green rain-forests  of  the  valleys  alternate  with  the  tall 
coniferous  forests  of  the  ridges :  further  down,  in  the 
lower  valleys,  the  rain-forest  possesses  all  the  profusion 
and  features  of  the  equatorial  selva.  Yet  the  rainfall  has 
decreased,  and  outside  the  alluvial  and  well- watered 
portions,  conditions  are  dry  enough  to  favour  the  growth 
of  those  deciduous,  low  thornwoods  and  jungles  which, 
in  Brazil,  are  described  as  'caatingas':  the  broad  coastal 
plain  or  '  tierra  caliente '  is  divided  between  the  jungle 
and  the  grass  savanas,  on  account  of  its  reduced  rainfall, 
but  wherever  the  moisture  of  the  soil  compensates  for  the 
dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  the  equatorial  forest  regains 
all  its  power.  In  Tabasco  and  Campeachy,  mahogany, 
cedar,  dyewoods,  Mexican  rubber,  cacao,  and  vanilla  are 
among  the  indigenous  forest  products.  At  this  southern 
extremity  of  the  plain,  the  rainy  season,  which  was  so 
short  in  the  north,  has  lengthened  so  as  to  cover  eight 
to  nine  months  of  the  year  and  render  the  climate 
regularly  hot  and  moist.  This  condition  is  reflected  in 
the  vigour  of  the  dark  forests  which  cover  the  plain 
and  the  hills. 

Thanks  to  the  breach  in  the  line  of  high  plateaus 
which  is  known  as  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  and  to 
the  wide  opening  of  the  Chiapas  valley,  the  Atlantic 


ATLANTIC  LOWLANDS  OF  MEXICO       121 

winds  penetrate  to  the  heart  of  the  South  Mexican  mass 
of  mountains,  the  features  of  whose  vegetation  repeat,  on 
the  whole,  those  just  described :  only  the  low  plateau  or 
plain  of  Yucatan  owes  more  to  the  porous  nature  of  its 
limestone  than  to  its  climate  and  displays  a  large  develop- 
ment of  savana  and  jungle,  while  the  hilly  interior  is 


Fjg.  35.  Dry  scrub  and  cereus-trees  on  arid  slopes.  A  small  alluvial 
cone,  the  abundant  vegetation  of  which  supports  a  group  of  huts — 
Tuland  valley,  Mexico. 

abundantly  wooded  up  to  the  heath-  or  brush-clad  table 
tops.  The  inland  and  Pacific  valleys  are,  by  contrast, 
very  hot  and  dry,  assuming  frequently  the  character  of 
semi-deserts,  with  a  scant  vesture  of  acacia-scrubs  or 
wastes  of  cacti  and  succulents. 

The  civilizations — high  enough  according  to  all  avail- 
able record-:— that  preceded,  and  disappeared  before,  the 


Fig.  36.     In  a  Florida  Swamp. 


ATLANTIC  LOWLANDS  OF  MEXICO       123 

invasions  of  Europeans,  were  primarily  agricultural ; 
though  the  Zapotecs  and  Mayas  amongst  others  have 
lei't  stupendous  ruins  in  southern  Mexico. 

Florida  and  the  West  Indies.  The  southern  shores 
of  Florida  with  its  Keys,  and  the  low  archipelago  of  the 
Bahamas,  are  bathed  in  the  balmy  and  moist  atmosphere 
created  by  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  Under 
the  influence  of  those  favourable  conditions,  the  flora  of 
the  warm  temperate  regions  is  stimulated  to  a  supreme 
effort  of  vigour  and  beauty ;  but  the  admixture  of  the 
more  profuse  plant  types  from  the  south  is  too  limited 
to  admit  of  the  variety  and  luxuriance  of  truly  tropical 
vegetation,  to  many  features  of  which  the  plant-life  of 
Florida  closely  approximates.  Palms,  lianas,  and  epi- 
phytes, while  indeed  pleasantly  common,  do  not  reach  the 
lavish  diversity  and  splendour  of  form  of  the  inter- 
tropical world.  This  difference  seems  due  to  the  isolation 
of  the  country,  the  state  of  sea-  and  air-currents,  and 
to  its  geological  history,  more  than  to  restrictions  of 
the  climate. 

Tropical  conditions  are  fully  attained  across  the 
channel,  in  Cuba,  Hispaniola  (Hayti),  Jamaica,  and  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  which,  on  the  east,  span  the  gap  between 
the  two  Americas.  These  islands  are  so  situated  as  to 
receive  the  benefit  of  the  trade-winds.  The  screen  of 
mountains  which  forms  the  core  of  the  Antilles  is  high 
enough  to  intercept  the  atmospheric  moisture  and  leave 
the  leeward  slopes  fairly  dry;  hence  a  marked  dis- 
tinction between  the  two  sides,  which  is  particularly 
noticeable  in  the  larger  islands.  Leaving  aside  minor 
differences  mainly  in  the  flowering  plants,  the  features 
of  the  vegetation  of  the  West  Indies  so  closely  approach 
those  of  the  mainland  of  Central  America  as  to  admit  of 
a  common  description.   Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry 


124  NORTH  AMERICA 

of  the  islands  to-day,  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  the 
aboriginal  Cebunaya  populations  (related  to  the  Mayas) 
which  have  vanished  before  the  Europeans. 


CHAPTER   III 
SOUTH    AMERICA 

General.  The  wealth  and  variety  of  forms  of  plant- 
life  in  South  America,  offered  perhaps  by  no  other  con- 
tinent, are  due  alike  to  its  situation,  its  extension  in 
latitude,  to  the  height  and  disposition  of  its  relief,  and 
to  its  geological  history.  The  greater  extent  of  its 
area  lies  between  the  Tropics  within  the  belts  of 
equatorial  rains  and  trade-winds.  The  effect  of  the 
constant  equatorial  heat  and  moisture  is  enhanced  by 
the  development  of  a  huge  alluvial  plain  which  they 
have  helped  to  create;  hence  the  Amazon  selva  has  no 
equal  in  the  world. 

Under  the  latitudes  of  the  trade-winds,  high  marginal 
rims  prevent  the  penetration  of  the  moisture  very  far 
inland,  a  fact  which  favours  the  extension  of  broad 
savanas.  Outside  the  Tropics,  the  lofty  range  of  the 
Andes  has  the  same  effect  on  the  westerly  winds  as  the 
triple  barrier  of  mountains  has  in  North  America  ;  hence 
a  similar  arrangement  in  the  distribution  of  the  large 
masses  of  vegetation,  though  the  Patagonian  semi-desert 
finds  no  equivalent  in  the  northern  continent. 

Central  America.  The  whole  land,  including  Central 
America  up  to  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  and  reaching 
south  to  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  eastward  through  northern 
Venezuela  to  Trinidad,  along  the  slopes  of  the  Andes  and 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  125 

their  prolongation  eastward,  may  be  regarded  as  forming 
a  natural  region  of  tropical  mountains. 

Varied  as  its  landscape,  climate,  and  vegetation  are  in 
detail,  this  region  presents  a  fairly  uniform  character  : 
mountain  ranges  or  sierras  stretch  parallel  to  the  Pacific 
coast-line,  with  occasional  branches  running  east  and 
west  and  an  eastern  spur  forming  the  coast-ranges  of 
northern  Venezuela.  Between  the  steep  sierras,  deep 
and  sometimes  broad  valleys  open  into  low  sweltering 
plains.  The  coast-line  on  the  Atlantic  presents  a  flat 
and  marshy  tract  of  lowland  as  in  Honduras,  Cam- 
peachy,  or  Maracaibo;  or  a  narrow  belt  leading  to 
rapidly  rising  slopes,  as  in  Venezuela;  or,  again,  a  broad, 
flat,  rooky  shelf  as  in  Yucatan.  Many  of  the  mountain- 
tops  expand  into  plateaus  at  10,000  to  14,000  feet  of 
elevation,  and  are  known  in  Colombia  as  'paramos'. 
The  climate  is  naturally  varied  owing  to  differences  in 
altitude  and  falls  into  a  western  or  Pacific  drier  portion, 
depending  chiefly  for  its  moisture  on  local  monsoons, 
and  an  eastern  more  rainy  portion,  largely  under  the 
control  of  the  Atlantic  trade-winds.  The  year  is  divided 
into  a  rainy  season,  which  lasts,  according  to  locality 
from  six  to  nine  months  or  more,  and  a  dry  and  burning 
hot  weather.  In  the  south,  there  are  two  dry  and  two 
wet  periods. 

On  the  Atlantic  side  the  coastal  plains  are  covered 
with  a  succession  of  savanas,  where  light  clumps  of 
acacias  and  other  short,  fine-leaf  trees,  or  isolated  tall 
ceibas  and  groves  of  palms  stand  conspicuous.  They  are 
fringed  seaward  by  arid  dunes,  either  bare  or  covered 
with  dense,  low  evergreen  scrub,  and  are  inter- 
rupted by  alluvial  tracts  of  heavy  tropical  rain-forests, 
chiefly  known  for  their  mahogany,  rubber,  cacao, 
vanilla,  dyewoods,  and  palms.     The  wealth    in  paling,**} 

■■■*   •     . 


126 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


however,  is  not  so  great  here  as  in  other  tropical  regions. 
The  low,  marshy  forests  are  frequently  fringed  with 
shallow  lagoons,  mangrove,  or  brackish,  swamps,  which 
are  belted  with  swamp  forests,  or  hidden  by  tall  and 
thick  hedges  of  grass  and  reeds. 


Fig.  37.     Undergrowth  of  a  tidal  '  bayou '  in  intertropical  country. 

In  many  places  the  forest  has  been  cut  down  or  burnt 
when  a  kind  of  savana  takes  its  place,  or  plantations 
have  developed,  including  sugar-cane,  coco-palm,  cacao, 
and  rubber,  along  with  bananas,  pineapple,  cotton,  maize 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  127 

and  tobacco,  papaw,  mango,  &c. :  rice  is,  on  the  whole, 
seldom  grown.  This  kind  of  vegetation  may  be  carried 
to  elevations  of  2,500  to  3,000  feet. 

The  slope  of  the  hills,  especially  where  the  gradient  is 
very  steep,  is  covered  with  sparse  forests  of  evergreen 
oak  and  strawberry-tree  (arbutus),  or  other  short,  stout 
trees,  resembling  in  many  ways  the  Mediterranean  oak 
woods.  Farther  up,  the  tropical  pines  make  their 
appearance,  and  constitute  a  zone  of  tall,  gloomy  forests 
with  little  undergrowth.  At  about  3,000  feet  the  rain- 
forest changes  its  character,  and  tree  ferns,  small 
palms,  and  bambus  become  conspicuous  in  the  under- 
wood, whereas  epiphytes,  lianas  and  climbers  decrease 
in  size,  if  not  in  diversity  and  number.  Higher  again 
this  warm  rain-forest  gives  way  to  another  less  profuse 
and  lower  variety,  in  which  the  number  of  leaf -shedding 
trees  increases  until  they  are  in  turn  replaced  by  pine 
forests  on  the  drier  ridges. 

The  high  wind-swept  plateaus  are  either  lightly 
covered  with  thin  and  stunted  pine  woods,  as  in  the 
north  of  this  region,  or,  at  greater  elevations,  merely 
clad  with  a  heath-brush,  suggesting  a  bilberry  heath. 
The  sierras  which  rise  above  the  timber  line  are  capped 
by  an  alpine  zone.  Of  the  Colombian  paramos,  the 
lowest  may  present  the  appearance  of  an  open  bush- 
prairie,  while  the  highest  display  a  truly  alpine  carpet 
of  stunted  heath,  wool-clad  plants,  low  tussocks  of  stiff 
grass,  or  cushion  plants  scattered  over  the  bare  floor. 
Among  these,  in  groups  or  solitary,  stand  the  curious 
■  frailezones ',  with  stout,  shaggy  bodies,  and  woolly 
heads. 

In  all  this  region,  the  inland  valleys  are,  as  a  rule, 
much  drier  than  the  Atlantic  slopes,  except  where  they 
are   open    to    the   north    and    north-east    winds.      The 


128 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


contrast  between  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  coasts  is 
generally  striking ;  instead  of  luxuriant  forests,  the 
inland  slopes  display  only  varieties  of  dry  vegetation. 


Fig.  38.     Physical  Features  of  South  America. 


Thin,  grey  patches  of  leafless  and  thorny  scrubs,  vast 
wastes  of  cacti,  prickly  pear,  agaves,  and  prickly  acacias, 
alternate  with  light  evergreen  woods.     Higher  up  begin 


Fig.  39.  Mean  Temperature  of  South  America  in  January  reduced  to  sea-level. 

Fig.  40.  Mean  Temperature  of  South  America  in  July  reduced  "to  sea-level. 

Fig.  41.  Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  South  America. 

Fig.  42.  Seasonal  Distribution  of  Rainfall  in  South  America. 


Fig.  43.    Vegetation  of  South  America. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  131 

more  regular  forests  of  mixed  pines,  oaks,  and  evergreen, 
hard-leaf  trees  and  shrubs,  strikingly  like  mediter- 
ranean woodlands.  The  South  American  species  which, 
in  the  south,  replace  the  flora  of  the  northern  continent, 
retain  the  same  forms  of  growth  and  leave  the  general 
aspect  of  the  vegetation  unchanged. 

In  Colombia  and  Ecuador,  the  equatorial  regimen  of 
rainfall  being  more  strongly  felt,  the  Andean  valleys 
enjoy  a  richer  vegetation  of  high  forests,  grassland,  and 
tall  jungles.  The  branch  of  the  Andes  which  strikes  off 
to  the  east  through  northern  Venezuela  is  generally 
much  drier  in  point  of  climate  ;  and  here  lighter  tropical 
forests  alternate  frequently  with  barren  cactus  scrubs  and 
grassy  savanas.  Much  of  the  forests  of  those  Venezuelan 
Cordilleras  has  been  destroyed  and  replaced  by  dreary 
scrub  slopes.  The  northern  sides  of  the  coast  ridges  are 
still  partly  covered  with  stately  trees,  due  to  the 
moisture  of  the  trade  winds,  the  influence  of  which, 
however,  grows  weaker  as  range  succeeds  range  towards 
the  interior.  The  troughs  of  the  valleys  are  lined  with 
savanas  and  occasional  savana-woods.  The  ancient 
native  populations  of  these  tropical  mountain-lands 
were,  as  in  southern  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies,  mostly 
devoted  to  agriculture.  Among  those  which  had  attained 
a  fair  measure  of  culture  before  the  invasions  of  Euro- 
peans may  be  mentioned  the  Pipil-Quichue  of  the  Gua- 
temalan valleys  and  the  Muysca  or  Chibcha  of  the 
Colombian  plateaus,  skilled  also  in  arts  and  crafts, 
though  their  civilizations  have  now  been  wiped  out. 

Orinoco  Llanos.  Between  the  Venezuelan  Cordilleras 
and  the  Guiana  highlands  lies  an  open  lowland  which 
extends  from  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  to  the  Cassiquiare 
and  the  upper  Apure.  To  the  north  of  the  Orinoco 
there  is  a  low  mesa  which  passes  southwards  to  a  level 

K  2 


132  SOUTH  AMERICA 

plain,  studded  in  places  with  granite  hills  and  hillocks, 
crossed  by  broad  rivers,  bestrewn  with  swamps,  and 
periodically  flooded.  The  climate  is  uniformly  hot  and 
sweltering,  with  a  dry  and  a  wet  season,  and  a  fair 
atmospheric  humidity.  Dew  is  abundant;  rain,  the 
yearly  average  of  which  remains  under  sixty  inches, 
is  not  entirely  lacking  at  any  time  of  the  year,  but  is 
irregular,  and  severe  droughts  are  not  unknown.  The 
vegetation  is  that  of  a  vast  savana  chequered  by  the 
fringes  of  river-forests.  Tall  tufts  of  grasses,  paspalum 
and  panicum,  mingled  with  tuberous  and  perennial  herbs 
and  evergreen  shrubs  form  the  bulk  of  it,  though 
columnar  palms  are  interspersed  in  places,  and  isolated 
clumps  of  short,  gnarled  trees  become  conspicuous  land- 
marks. On  the  llanos  innumerable  herds  of  wild  cattle, 
deer,  antelopes,  &c,  are  swarming.  Marshes,  overgrown 
with  tall  sedges,  and  conspicuous  in  the  distance  thanks 
to  the  groves  of  mauritia  palms  which  fringe  them,  are 
frequent,  and  provide  good  pastures  in  times  of  drought. 
The  granite  hills  which  stand  above  the  plain  are  clad 
with  tropical  forests. 

The  mesas,  the  southern  foot  of  which  is  followed  l»y 
the  Orinoco  in  its  lower  and  middle  course,  are  of  a  more 
rolling  character  and  more  park-like  in  aspect.  The 
depressions  are  generally  occupied  by  light  woods,  and 
the  type  of  country  closely  resembles  the  Guiana  savanas 
or  llanos,  south  of  the  Guiana  Highlands.  The  Orinoco 
llanos  are  admirably  adapted  for  grazing  purposes,  but 
entirely  undeveloped.  Why,  considering  the  compara- 
tively high  atmospheric  humidity  and  the  fair  amount 
of  rainfall,  the  country  should  not  be  covered  by  some 
light  kind  of  woodland  is  not  satisfactorily  explained 
yet,  though  perhaps  the  practice  of  grass-burning  and 
the  heavy  grazing  may  partly  account  for  it. 


GUIANA  HIGHLANDS  133 

Guiana  Highlands.  These  constitute  a  northern  out- 
lier of  the  Brazilian  highlands,  of  which  they  reproduce 
the  main  features :  successions  of  broad  terraces  broken 
by  sunk  valleys  and  rising  in  step?,  with  remnants  of 
mesas  forming  ridges  or  plateaus.  Some  of  the  mesas 
reach  elevations  of  from  6,000  to  11,000  feet. 

The  Guiana  tableland  is  isolated  and  open  both  to 
Atlantic  and  equatorial  winds;  it  has  therefore  more 
rain  and  is  cooler  than  the  surrounding  plains.  The 
northern  and  eastern  lower  terraces  are  clad  with 
dense  rain-forests,  while  the  valleys  share  the  savana 
character  of  the  lowlands,  of  which  they  are  the  con- 
tinuation. On  the  slopes,  half-way  up,  rise  open  woods 
of  evergreen  trees  with  a  hard,  leathery  foliage,  recalling 
our  ilexes  and  laurels.  To  these,  with  increasing  eleva- 
tion and  rainfall,  denser  forests  of  a  warm  temperate 
type  succeed,  to  give  way  in  turn,  farther  up,  to  an  open 
park  landscape  of  fresh  green  swards  and  clumps  of 
low,  stunted  trees.  The  higher  tables  are  treeless  steppes. 
In  respect  of  structure  and  vegetation,  the  Guiana  table- 
lands recall  the  Uganda  plateau,  with  the  advantage  of 
a  more  abundant  rainfall. 

A  belt  of  rolling  savanas  fringes  the  tableland  on 
the  south  and  west,  and  separates  it  from  the  Amazon 
selva.  The  aspect  of  those  '  campos '  differs  somewhat 
from  that  of  the  Orinoco  llanos.  They  are  rolling  wolds, 
treeless,  and  covered  with  large  tufts  of  tall  grass, 
panicum  and  paspalum,  which  are  sometimes  broad- 
leaved  and  four  to  six  feet  high.  These  grasses  become 
shorter  on  the  back  of  the  ridges,  and  are  abundantly 
interspersed  with  bulbous  and  tuberous  plants,  and 
thorny  bushes.  The  troughs,  dales,  and  hollows,  often 
marshy  or  damp,  form  islands  or  belts  of  thin  low  woods, 
where  palms  are  a  conspicuous  feature,  the  round  patches 


134  SOUTH  AMERICA 

in  the  hollows  being  locally  called  '  capoes '.  The  trees 
are  mostly  bushy  and  deciduous,  often,  however,  with 
hard  much  divided  leaves,  or  thorns  and  prickles,  rhopala 
and  sivartzia  being  the  best  known. 

Though  the  rainfall  appears  to  be  low  in  the  Guiana 
savanas,  night-dew  is  always  abundant,  accounting  for 


Fig.  44.     Tangle  of  Mangrove  roots  at  low  tide 
British  Guiana. 

the  grassy  character  of  this  belt,  which  passes,  almost  on 
all  sides,  into  the  tropical  selvas.  Such  campos  are  but 
sparsely  peopled,  and  hardly  tilled  except  for  local  crops 
of  maize,  cacao,  sugar-cane,  and  manioc. 

To  the  south,  the  undulations  gradually  disappear, 
and  the  park  landscape  becomes  more  and  more  crowded 
till  the  tall  and  gloomy  Amazon  selva  is  reached. 


GUIANA  LOWLANDS  135 

Guiana  Lowlands.  The  Atlantic  slopes  of  the  Guianas 
and  their  foot-hills  are  under  the  influence  of  the  equa- 
torial rainfall  and  enjoy  a  double  wet  season,  while  there 
is  never  complete  drought.  For  this  reason  they  are 
densely  clad  with  heavy  forests,  only  interrupted  by 
occasional  clearings  of  savanas  on  the  watersheds  of  their 
short  streams.  The  low  coast-belt  with  its  shallow 
coastal  shelf  is  one  of  lagoons  and  luxuriant  mangrove 
swamps,  teeming  with  animal  life,  extremely  unhealthy, 
girt  in  by  brakes  of  tall  reeds,  sedges  and  grass,  or  over- 
hung with  low,  swampy  forests  and  jungles.  This  belt 
may  extend  ten  or  twenty  miles  inland,  and  is  succeeded 
by  the  tall  rain-forest,  itself  a  northern  spur  of  the 
Amazon  selva,  from  which  it  does  not  differ  in  any 
material  point.  Cocoa,  rubber,  palms,  spices,  and  sugar- 
cane are  the  chief  products  of  the  Guiana  lowlands. 
The  Demerara  district  is  an  important  sugar  centre, 
while  the  rubber  and  the  gum  (balata)  of  the  Guianas 
are  valuable. 

The  Amazon  Basin.  This  most  extensive  of  alluvial 
plains  is  famous  for  its  wealth  of  equatorial  rain-forests, 
of  which  it  offers  the  most  perfect  type.  Its  flat  surface 
is  hardly  varied  by  the  scattered  undulations  or  low 
hills,  while  the  land  is  regularly  flooded  by  the  mighty 
river,  sometimes  for  twenty  miles  or  more  on  both  sides, 
and  is  thus  transformed  into  an  inland  sea.  Of  the 
climate  little  need  be  said :  an  equable  high  temperature 
throughout  the  year  and  day — about  80°  F.,  a  regular 
and  plentiful  rainfall,  with  two  seasons  of  heaviest  pre- 
cipitation, give  the  very  conditions  for  a  maximum  and 
uninterrupted  growth ;  but  it  may  be  added  that  the 
mighty  network  of  the  trunk  river  and  its  innumerable 
tributaries  is  more  efficient  for  irrigation  than  for 
drainage.    There  is  no  combination  of  physical  conditions 


136  SOUTH  AMERICA 

in  the  whole  world  more  favourable  to  vegetation  than 
that  which  the  Amazon  plain  provides,  and  we  may 
regard  its  luxuriance  as  the  supreme  effort  of  plant-life 
at  this  period  of  the  world's  development.  This  is 
expressed  in  the  indescribable  wealth  of  tree  growth, 
in  the  forest  "par  excellence,  called  by  Humboldt  'hylea', 
and  by  the  Portuguese  the  '  selva '. 

The  vegetation,  monotonous  though  it  appears  to  the 
traveller,  has  been  divided  into  a  number  of  charac- 
teristic formations  or  associations. 

Flood  Forests.  The  banks  of  the  streams,  periodical ly 
flooded  and  having  an  excess  of  water,  are  characterized 
by  a  peculiar  type  of  forest  called  the  'igapu'  or 
'caa-gapu'  (the  rebalsa  of  the  Spaniards),  extending 
as  a  broad  fringe  bordering  on  the  rivers.  It  finds 
an  exact  replica  in  the  flood-forests  of  the  lowlands 
of  the  Mekong  (Siam)  and  in  the  sundarbans  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Ganges  From  the  slimy,  hardly  solid 
mud  has  sprung  a  rank  and  dense  growth  of  tall 
trees  overgrown  with  a  continuous  drapery  of  lianas, 
thus  forming  an  unbroken  dark  canopy,  a  green  wall 
impenetrable  from  outside.  It  forms  a  gloomy,  stifling, 
musty,  shady,  damp  vault,  supported  by  innumerable 
pillars,  and  choked  with  a  perfect  tangle  of  climbers 
inside.  The  plants,  simply  gorged  with  water,  but 
feebly  rooted  in  the  mud,  support  each  other,  tied 
together  by  the  lianas.  This  igapii  is  remarkable  for  its 
wealth  in  palms  and  its  poverty  in  flowers,  and  is 
particularly  well  developed  on-  the  innumerable  sluggish 
side  canals  or  'igarapis'  that  intersect  it.  When  the 
rivers  are  in  spate  its  canopy  simply  rests  on  the  water. 
It  is  the  home  of  the  Para  rubber-tree  (Hevea  brazi- 
liensis  or  seringeira),  the  tapping  of  which  gives  em- 
ployment to  a  roaming,  half -wild,  and  scattered  population 


FLOOD  FORESTS 


137 


of  Meztisos.  The  igapu  differs  in  character  according  as 
it  borders  on  so-called  white  or  black  rivers,  and  is 
sometimes  replaced  by  miriti-palm   forests   (mauritia). 


Fig.  45.   Swamp  forest  with  roots  of  trees  sticking  out  above  flood  level. 


Caa-guazu.  Beyond  the  limits  of  the  flood-forests, 
the  typical  selva  or  ete  or  '  caa-guazu '  extends  on  firmer 
ground.  It  is  taller  than  the  former,  and  the  trees  reach 
a  larger  size  and  have  a  more  solid  structure.     It  is  also 


138  SOUTH  AMERICA 

more  flowery,  poorer  in  palms,  but  richer  in  tree  lianas 
and  broad -leaf  epiphytes ;  the  foliage  of  the  tall  trees 
is  smaller  and  harder.  The  best- known  constituent  is 
the  para-  (Brazil)  nut  tree  (bertholletia  or  castanha), 
and  where  it  becomes  abundant,  the  forest  takes  the 
name  of  ■  castanhal  \  Here  again  cacao-trees  grow  wild 
in  the  undergrowth.  The  tall  primaeval  forest  is  often 
burned  down  to  allow  of  temporary  plantations  of  sugar- 
cane, maize,  or  mandioca,  and  in  its  place  soon  rises 
a  dense,  ungainly  brush,  made  of  all  the  undergrowth 
plants  and  shrubs.  Until  the  forest  proper  has  been 
restored  this  brush  is  called  the  '  caapuera '  or  '  capoeira '. 
The  caa-guazu  is  as  yet  little  known,  thanks  to  its 
forbidding  nature.  It  is  to  all  appearances  but  sparsely 
inhabited,  most  of  the  settlements  being  along  the  rivers, 
for  waterways  are  the  sole  means  of  communication. 
Only  wild  tribes  of  Indians  wander  amid  the  fastnesses 
of  the  overwhelming  forest,  at  perpetual  war  with  the 
intruder,  and  living  a  lazy,  primitive  life,  much  like  that 
of  the  dwarfs  of  the  African  selva.  On  the  west,  the 
selva  merges  into  the  '  montana  '  hill-forests  of  the  Andes. 

On  the  low  and  slowly  rising  watersheds  between  the 
large  tributaries,  the  backwoods  of  the  Great  Forest  are 
thinner,  lighter,  and  lower,  a  condition  approaching  that 
of  the  backwoods  of  Central  Africa.  This  appears  to 
be  the  case  also  with  the  unexplored  low  tablelands  ex- 
tending from  the  Madeira  to  the  Tocantins,  where  large 
campos  or  parklands  are  believed  to  stretch  between 
the  wooded  valleys. 

Thus  vegetation  seems  to  be  arranged  in  broad  belts 
from  the  rivers:  the  igapii,the  caa-guazu, the  lighter  forest 
or  woodland,  and  the  campo.  In  the  forest,  the  collec- 
tion of  rubber  and  castanha  occupies  several  thousands 
of  natives. 


BRAZILIAN  COAST  FOREST  BELT 


139 


Brazilian  Coast  Forest  Belt.  The  Brazilian  high- 
lands, rising  gradually  towards  their  eastern  margin, 
have  their  edge  much  indented  by  short,  deep  valleys : 
this   ragged   edge  is    known   as    the   coastal    range   or 


Fig.  46.     Forest  cutting— Eastern  Brazil. 

Sierra  do  Mar,  and  in  places  a  second  and  inner  line  of 
bluffs  appears,  making  a  double  range.  The  coastal 
shelf,  which  extends  between  the  sea  and  the  slopes, 
varies  greatly  in  breadth,  and  sometimes  disappears 
completely. 


140  SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  broken  ledges  and  bluffs  of  the  tableland  lie 
fully  open  to  Atlantic  winds,  of  a  monsoon  type  in  the 
north,  but  trade  winds  in  the  south.  The  proximity  of 
the  sea,  the  modifying  influence  of  the  moisture,  which 
is  fairly  regular  throughout  the  year,  give  the  coast 
sierra  a  hot  and  equable  climate  with  an  abundance 
and  constancy  of  rainfall.  Hence  the  forest  which 
clothes  its  seaward  slopes  and  the  coastal  strip  extends 
almost  uninterruptedly  from  Pernambuco  to  Porto  Alegre. 
It  preserves  a  tropical  luxuriance  far  to  the  south  of  the 
Tropics,  and  passes  slowly  to  an  impoverished  type  to- 
wards its  southern  limit.  It  bears  in  the  main  the 
stamp  of  the  Amazon  flora,  but  is  somewhat  reduced, 
both  in  size  and  variety.  Palms  play  a  prominent  part 
in  its  composition,  but  lianas  and  epiphytes  are  less 
varied  and  less  strongly  developed.  The  transition  from 
the  purely  equatorial  to  the  attenuated  tropical  type  is 
so  very  gradual  that  no  line  can  be  drawn  anywhere. 
The  coastal  forest-belt  of  Brazil  finds  an  equivalent  in 
many  respects  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  African  table- 
land in  a  similar  situation,  but  the  African  coastal  forest- 
belt  is  poorer,  drier,  and  more  broken :  an  exact  replica 
will  be  found  in  East  Madagascar.  The  lower  zone 
of  the  hill-barrier,  the  richest  in  luxuriant  palms,  is 
known  for  its  Brazil-  and  jacaranda- woods ;  the  tem- 
perate zone  is  marked  by  tree-ferns,  ahophila  and  others. 

Through  the  breaches  in  the  edge  of  the  plateau  the 
forest  is  sometimes  carried  far  inland  and  mixes  with 
the  flora  of  the  campo ;  south  of  the  Tropics  the  upper 
belt  contains  araucarias.  A  portion  of  the  coastal 
forest-belt  is  now  being  used  for  tropical  agriculture, 
but  the  encroachments  are  so  far  limited,  and  the  forest 
still  largely  preserves  its  character  of  '  matto  virgem  ' 
or  virgin  forest  (igapi'i). 


EAST-BRAZILIAN  HIGHLANDS  141 

East- Brazilian  Highlands.  The  Amazon  luxuriance 
of  plant  life  gradually  diminishes  over  the  coastal 
lowlands,  to  die  out  towards  Maranhao.  To  the  east  of 
this,  and  down  to  Uruguay,  stretches  a  vast  and  dry 
tableland,  covered  with  a  more  varied  vegetation,  which 
may  be  divided  into  a  northern  part  as  far  as  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn  and  a  subtropical  part  farther  south. 

Northern  Portion.  The  vast  tableland  is  very  much 
broken  by  swift  rivers  running  in  deep  valleys  well 
below  the  general  level.  It  is  carved  into  a  distinctly 
hilly  landscape  in  the  north-east,  while  it  assumes  a 
smoother  and  more  rolling  surface  to  the  south-west. 
The  climate  is  of  a  dry  and  hot  description,  with  a 
well-marked  rainy  season  lasting  from  three  to  five 
months.  The  variations  of  temperature,  both  seasonal 
and  daily,  are  great,  ranging  from  60°  to  100°  F.,  and 
increasing  still  farther  inland.  The  rainfall  varies  from 
20  to  60  inches,  and  shows  great  yearly  irregularities. 

In  consequence,  the  character  of  the  vegetation  is 
alike  drier,  poorer,  and  more  varied  than  in  the  Amazon 
basin.  It  ranges  from  the  half-desert  through  the 
savana  to  the  light  type  of  tropical  forest.  Chief 
among  the  features  of  the  hilly  north-eastern  corner  of 
Brazil,  which  may  be  called  the  '  sertao '  or  half-desert, 
come  the  dreary  white  woods  or  '  caatingas  \  These  are 
bare  and  tangled  jungles  of  low  thorny  tree-bushes, 
interspersed  with  umbrella-shaped  spondias  and  zizy- 
phus,  with  swollen,  water- storing  bombax,  and  prickly 
candelabra  cerei,  opuntias,  and  cacti,  covered  in  places 
with  epiphytic  bromelias,  tillandsias,  and  orchids.  The 
woods  are  green  and  flowery  for  four  to  five  months,  but 
look  as  if  dead  for  the  remainder  of  the  year.  The 
lower  bush,  on  rocky  wastes,  is  even  drearier  and 
thinner,    with    gnarled    and    stunted    prickly    acacias, 


142  SOUTH  AMERICA 

cerei,  and  rigid  agaves  and  bromelia  plants,  pre- 
dominating:  this  is  the  'carrasco'. 

The  sertao  proper,  thinly  bestrewn  with  prickly  bushes 
and  aloe-like  plants,  is  the  next  and  most  barren  term 
of  those  forbidding  vegetations ;  where  all  grades  of  tran- 
sition-forms abound,  though  grass-lands,  which  pre- 
dominate farther  west  and  south,  are  here  scarce  and 
of  a  limited  extent.  Diverse  palms  mark  these  aspects 
of  the  landscape:  attalea  characterizes  the  caatinga: 
the  waxy  carnauba  palm  forms  oases  round  shallow 
marshes,  and  gives  its  name  to  the  province  of  Ceara : 
buriti  palms  form  stately  groves  in  some  places,  and 
cocos  coronata  again  distinguishes  the  southern  sertoes. 
Both  carrascos  and  caatingas  are  difficult  to  bring  under 
cultivation,  and  the  country  is  thinly  peopled. 

Towards  the  south  and  west,  in  Goyaz  and  Matto 
Grosso,  the  sertao  passes  slowly  into  regular  campos  or 
grass-lands.  The  campos  here  recall  the  typical  rolling 
savanas  :  tall,  dull  green,  hairy  grass -tufts,  showing 
between  them  the  red  or  white  soil,  with  various  shrubs, 
dwarf -palms,  and  liliaceous  plants,  form  the  background 
of  the  landscape.  The  treeless  savana  is  called  '  campo 
vero ' ;  but  liliaceous  trees  resembling  yuccas  may 
occur,  in  which  case  the  campos  are  called  open  or 
*  abertos ' :  if  the  savanas  are  strewn  with  clumps  of 
low  trees,  they  are  '  serrados '.  The  trees  are  short  and 
stunted,  with  a  divided  foliage,  sometimes  deciduous, 
sometimes  with  small  leathery  leaves.  The  campos  in 
the  hollows  present  frequently  circular  islands  of  ever- 
green trees  called  'capoes',  or  regular,  leaf-shedding, 
light  woods,  taller  and  denser,  4  to  7  metres  high,  with 
an  undergrowth  of  cerei,  acacias,  and  prickly  carpet- 
forming  bromelias.  The  course  of  the  rivers  is  marked 
by  high  and  thick  hedges  of  river  woods,  some  of  which 


NORTHERN  PORTION  143 

recall  the  luxuriant  selvas.  A  conspicuous  feature  of 
the  landscape  is  formed  by  the  'chapadas'  or  flat, 
elevated,  grassy  tablelands,  which  may  either  be  dotted 
with  trees,  or  constitute  a  regular  parkscape  of  grass 
and  woods. 

Cattle  and  horse  breeding,  with  the  cultivation  of 
maize,  mandioca,  and  beans,  and  other  tropical  produce 
for  home  consumption,  are  the  main  occupations  of  the 
sparse  and  widely  scattered  population. 

Southern  Brazil  Highlands.  In  the  upper  basin  of 
the  Rio  San  Francisco,  and  farther  south,  the  tableland 
rises  by  steps. to  altitudes  of  3,000  and  4,000  feet,  with 
occasional  higher  ridges,  thrown  into  mountains  on  the 
eastern  margin.  These  upper  highlands  have  a  more 
extreme  climate  than  those  just  described.  While  the 
maxima  of  temperature  keep  very  much  to  what  they 
were  in  the  equatorial  parts,  the  minima  descend  very 
low  indeed.  Snow  and  frost  are  not  unknown  ;  and 
the  seasonal  and  daily  alternations  of  heat  and  cold  are 
strongly  marked.  The  rainfall  is  somewhat  higher  than 
in  the  northern  region  of  the  highlands,  and  varies  from 
50  to  60  inches.  Rain  occurs  chiefly  in  summer,  while 
the  winter  may  be  very  dry. 

Under  such  conditions,  the  tropical  savana  and  the 
dry  bush  aspect  of  the  northern  region  give  way  to  a 
more  temperate  type  of  vegetation.  Already  in  Minas 
Geraes,  the  savana  differs  strongly  from  the  sertao 
aspect.  Here  the  grass  is  short.  The  campos  resemble 
treeless  steppes,  or  they  are  interrupted  by  carrascos, 
bushy  tracts,  expanses  of  perennial  herbs,  and  groves  of 
coconut-palms.  The  slopes  of  the  valleys  may  be  strewn 
with  a  low  brush,  while  the  troughs  shelter  subtropical 
forests. 

The  most  conspicuous  feature,  however,  is  the  appear- 


144 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


ance  of  the  araucaria  near  the  source  of  the  San 
Francisco.  The  umbrella-shaped  araucaria  brasiliensis, 
which  appears  at  high  altitudes  in  the  coastal  ranges, 
gradually  extends  inland  south-westward,  to  become 
a  feature  of  the  plateau  and  form  light  forests  much 
interrupted   by   campos.     These  forests   display   either 


Fig.  47.     Araucaria  imbricata  (Chile  pine). 


a  sward  of  short  grass,  or  a  thick  undergrowth  of 
evergreen  shrubs,  chief  among  which  comes  the  yerba 
mate'  or  Paraguayan  tea.  The  araucaria  descends  to 
lower  altitudes  as  the  latitude  increases. 

In  the  southern  states  of  Brazil,  the  country  west  of 
the  coast-range  slopes  inland  by  a  succession  of  broad 


SOUTHERN  BRAZIL  HIGHLANDS         145 

terraces,  the  upper  ones  of  which,  nearer  the  sierra,  are 
treeless  grass-lands,  whereas  the  lower  inland  terraces 
are  clad  with  stately  forests  of  araucaria  and  yerba 
mate'  to  the  brink  of  the  highlands.  To  this  region 
also  belongs  the  hilly  territory  of  Misiones,  a  spur  of 
the  wooded  highlands  protruding  into  the  grassy  campos 
of  the  lower  Parana. 

On  the  higher  ridges,  the  climate  is  cold  enough  to 
favour  a  truly  alpine  vegetation  :  short  close  swards, 
dwarf  bushes,  and  cushion-plants.  Owing  to  the  rise 
of  the  highlands  and  consequently  the  more  temperate 
climate,  the  dry  tropical  vegetation  of  the  northern 
highlands  has  novv  changed  to  a  decidedly  subtropical, 
indeed  temperate  type.  These  conditions  have  en- 
couraged the  settlement  of  numerous  European  colonies, 
the  chief  occupation  being  cattle-raising  and  mining; 
cultivation,  however,  is  not  wanting.  Sao  Paulo  is  well 
known  for  its  coffee,  while  everywhere  manioc  is  grown 
for  home  consumption,  and  there  is  a  promising  field 
also  for  the  fruit  industry.  Wheat  has  been  grown  on 
the  higher  levels. 

The  savana  becomes  almost  exclusively  predominant 
on  the  watershed  plateau  between  the  Amazon  and  the 
Parana  basins. 

Matto  Grosso  and  West  Goyaz.  In  this  region,  the 
plateau,  on  the  low  divide  of  the  Amazon  and  Parana 
basins,  assumes  a  more  strictly  table-like  appearance : 
broad  valleys  are  sunk  deep  below  the  flat  level  of  the 
land.  There  is  more  rain,  due  perhaps  to  some  monsoon 
influence  from  the  Amazon.  The  country  has  been  little 
explored,  but  it  seems  to  continue  southward  the  campos 
of  the  backwoods  of  the  Amazon,  and  may  be  conceived, 
as  far  as  known,  as  a  typical  tropical  savana  of  the 
'chapada'    description.      The   deep    valleys   with   their 


146 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


steep  slopes  are  clad  with  luxuriant  selvas  of  the 
Amazon  type.  This  configuration  appears  to  be  con- 
tinued south-west  to  the  edge  of  the  plateau,  beyond 
which,  in  lower  Matto  Grosso,  the  plain  assumes  a  rolling 


Fig.  48.     Brazilian  Savana,  Matto  Grosso. 


character,  without  materially  changing  the  nature  of  its 
grass  carpet. 

The   country  is    scarcely  inhabited  but   for   warlike 
Indians,  and    for  obvious  reasons  most  of   the   human 


BOLIVIAN  LLANOS  147 

settlements  are  located  along  the  rivers:  there  is 
ground  for  thinking  that  it  will  become  a  rich  pastoral 
region. 

Bolivian  Llanos.  The  region  comprised  between 
the  upper  Madeira  and  the  Chaco,  the  Guapore  and 
the  Montana  of  the  Andes,  is  almost  unknown.  It 
consists,  probably,  of  extensive  llanos  intersected  by 
broad  rivers  and  vast  marshes,  with  a  predominance  of 
grassy  savanas  resembling  the  llanos  of  the  Orinoco, 
though  reedy  swamps,  groves  of  palms,  and  clumps  of 
forest  are  common.  In  the  province  of  Santa  Cruz, 
the  occurrence  of  hill  ranges  has  induced  the  growth 
of  dense  forests  of  a  thoroughly  tropical  nature.  The 
few  data  so  far  collected  about  these  savanas  authorize 
the  belief  that  here  lies  a  country  rich  alike  in  possibili- 
ties for  stock-raising  and  agriculture,  and  able  in  a 
distant  future  to  support  a  dense  population.  The 
grass-lands  are  continued  along  the  foot  of  the  Amazon 
plateau,  and  join  over  the  upper  Paraguay  River  with 
Matto  Grosso  and  Goyaz. 

Chaco.  The  broad  strip  of  country  which  extends  from 
the  swamps  of  the  Paraguay  River  to  the  Andes  consists 
of  flat  or,  in  places,  hardly  undulating  land,  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  floods  of  the  Paraguay.  Its  climate  is  dry 
and  hot,  but  the  uncertain  drainage  retains  in  the  soil 
in  many  parts  a  fair  amount  of  water,  and  gives  rise  to 
marshes.  The  nature  and  quantity  of  the  water  in  the  soil 
seems  here  to  control  entirely  the  distribution  and 
character  of  the  vegetation.  On  the  flat  portions,  just 
beyond  the  limits  of  floods,  extend  vast  tracts  of  thorn 
woodlands,  the  quebracho  tree  being  the  predominant 
feature,  with  its  gnarled,  twisted  form,  and  extremely 
light  crown  of  small,  hard,  finely  divided  leaves.  The 
undergrowth  is  a  dense  and   tall   brush   of   evergreen 

L  2 


148  SOUTH  AMERICA 

hard-leaved  shrubs,  while  grassy  glades  occupy  the 
intervening  lower  and  moister  ground.  The  almost 
imperceptibly  swelling  surface  is  thus  distributed  be- 
tween the  meadow-like,  somewhat  marshy  shallows  and 
the  dry  quebracho  woods,  which  then  appear  like 
islands  or  '  islas '  on  the  flats.  Thin  forests  of  waxy 
palms  grace  the  grass-lands  and  belt  the  forest :  the 
swamps  which  are  strewn  over  the  surface  disappear 
under  tall  wavy  reeds  and  sedges.  The  northern  Chaco 
is  said  to  contain  patches  of  moist  tropical  forests,  and 
gradually  merges  into  the  Bolivian  llanos.  The  great 
park  plain  is  interrupted  by  the  vast  and  impassable 
swamps  of  the  Pilcomayo  and  the  Bermejo. 

As  the  land  rises  towards  the  Andes  very  gently,  and 
with  increasingly  dry  climate  and  soil,  the  quebracho 
forest  gradually  thins  out,  becoming  lower  and  sometimes 
passing  into  a  thorny  scrub-land  of  various  small-leaf, 
prickly  bushes,  such  as  prosojris,  acacia,  mimosa,  cassia, 
chancer,  &c.  Even  this  thins  out  in  places,  and  leaves 
desolate  stony  wastes  dotted  with  single  scraggy  shrubs 
of  acacia,  atriplex,  and  scattered  cereus  and  cactus. 

In  Tucuman  and  farther  north  along  the  Andes,  the 
upper  plains  are  more  fertile,  owing  perhaps  to  increasing 
altitude  and,  consequently,  to  a  somewhat  more  liberal 
rainfall.  Dry  forests  of  quebracho  reappear  with  in- 
creased vigour,  and  other  forests  are  known  here  which 
are  almost  entirely  composed  of  cebil  acacias,  alternating 
with  a  dry  kind  of  narrow- leaf  grass-land,  and  making 
the  park  landscape  known  as  '  parque.'  This  links 
the  plains  with  the  luxuriant  forests  of  the  sierra. 
Quebracho  forests  are  now  being  developed  for  their 
hard  timber  and  bark,  whilst  the  grass-lands  are  used 
for  grazing. 

Horse  and  cattle  breeding  have  so  far  been  fittingly 


CHACO  149 

the  main  occupations  of  the  region,  but  the  existence 
of  the  dry  woodlands  is  an  indication  of  further  possi- 
bilities in  the  west.  Orchards  of  subtropical  and  medi- 
terranean fruit-trees  may  take  the  place  of  the  forests, 
and  indeed  have  already  done  so  to  a  certain  extent. 
Orange  orchards,  amongst  others,  find  here  very  favour- 
able conditions,  and  a  kind  of  mediterranean  agri- 
culture is  followed.  Sugar-cane  is  extensively  grown 
in  Tucuman. 

Alto  Parana- Paraguay.  The  land  which  is  limited 
by  the  lower  course  of  the  Rio  Paraguay  and  of  the  Alto 
Parand  differs  alike  from  the  Brazilian  highlands  and  the 
Chaco,  from  the  campos  of  Mat  to  G  rosso  and  the  campos 
and  swamps  of  Corrientes :  it  constitutes  a  natural  region. 

Covering  the  southern  lower  terraces  of  the  plateau 
of  Matto  Grosso,  and  sinking  abruptly  along  a  bluff 
down  to  the  alluvial  plain  of  the  Paraguay  River,  it  is 
on  the  whole  gently  undulating  and  seldom  rises  above 
1,000  feet  in  elevation. 

The  climate  is  equable,  though  hot  in  summer.  The 
rainfall,  fairly  well  distributed  throughout  the  year, 
ranges  from  50  inches  on  the  banks  of  the  Paraguay  to 
80  inches  on  the  Alto  Parana:  dew  is  very  abundant 
at  night,  and  the  seasonal  rhythm  is  well  marked.  This 
is  typically  a  moist  subtropical  region. 

It  is  correspondingly  covered  with  luxuriant  forests 
in  its  eastern  moister  half,  and  in  that  respect  may  be 
compared  with  the  middle  belt  of  the  eastern  Andes 
or,  farther  afield,  with  the  lower  belt  of  the  Chinese 
Alps.  Lianas,  epiphytes,  and  palms  of  great  variety 
and  large  size  show  above  a  particularly  dense  and 
tall  undergrowth.  Many  of  the  tall  trees  of  the  canopy 
shed  their  foliage  for  a  short  time  in  winter,  whilst  the 
undergrowth,   almost  a   forest  in    itself,   is  thoroughly 


150 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


evergreen.  Tree  ferns  are  always  present  in  the  gullies. 
On  the  more  porous  soils  the  forest  is  reduced  to  a  tall 
and  crowded  deciduous  jungle,  among  which  is  found 
the  verba-mate*,  somewhat  resembling  a  broad-leaved 
laurel. 

With  the  decrease  of  precipitation  towards  the  west, 
the  forest,  without  changing  its  density  and  character, 


Fig.  49.     Paraguayan  Forest  near  Guayra  Falls. 


remains  limited  to  the  rises  and  undulations.  Tall 
grassy  campos,  sometimes  studded  with  palms  or 
scattered  thickets,  intermingle  more  and  more  with  it, 
finally  predominating  on  the  lower  alluvial  levels  which 
gradually  lead  to  the  marginal  swamps  of  the  river  Para- 
guay. Each  of  the  numerous  rivers  throws  up  at  flood 
time  a  double  high  bank  clad  with  a  varied  and  thick 


ALTO  PARANA-PARAGUAY 


151 


jungle.  These  forests  yield  a  large  number  of  most 
valuable  kinds  of  timber,  while  the  verbal  jungles 
provide  employment  for  thousands  of  men  engaged  in 
the  collection  of  the  Paraguayan  tea.  No  country  is 
better  suited  to  rich  subtropical  crops  than  the  Parana 
portion  of  this  region  :  the  western  pastures  are  excellent, 
and  the  sparse  population  is  now  half  agricultural  and 
half  pastoral.      The  Conquistadores  found  there  a  great 


Fig.  50.    Campos  in  North  Paraguay. 

number  of  tribes,  some  of  whom  lived  entirely  on  the 
natural  products  of  the  forest  and  river,  though  others 
were  skilled  in  agricultural  pursuits. 

Paraguay  and  Lower  Parana  Marshes.  The  Para- 
guay River  and  its  powerful  tributaries,  the  Pilcomayo 
and  Bermejo,  run  through  vast  level  plains,  studded 
with  a  few  conical  knolls,  and  invaded  yearly  by  floods 
bringing  deposits  from  the  Andes  and  the  campos  of 
Matto  Grosso.     So  flat  is  the  basin  that  rivers  frequently 


152 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


shift  their  courses  and  intersect  the  country  with  disused 
channels  and  vast  swamps,  throwing  up  levees  on  their 


Fig.  51.     Subtropical  Rain  Forest,  Paraguay. 


way  and  damming  up  whole  territories.     Though  the 
climate  is  dry  and  warm,  with  the  exception  of  a  rainy 


PARAGUAY  AND  LOWER  PARANA  MARSHES    153 

season,  the  riparian  region  is  turned  into  a  huge  swamp 
similar  to  those  of  Central  Africa,  on  the  Nile  or  the 
Zambesi.  The  same  type  of  landscape  holds  farther 
south,  and  is  strongly  marked  on  the  lower  Parana ; 
thus  a  broad  strip  of  land  extending  along  the  upper 
course  of  the  Paraguay  down  to  the  Apa  River,  con- 
tinued in  the  Chaco  west  of  the  Paraguay  and  expanding 


Fig.  52. 


Palm  Grove  in  Corrientes, 
Argentina. 


into  Corrientes  and  Santa  Fe  down  to  La  Plata,  may  be 
detached  as  a  separate  region.  It  consists  of  vast  level, 
grassy  seas  or  pampas,  and  equally  vast  swamps. 

The  swamps  may  be  shallow,  '  banados '  or  deep, '  male- 
zales ',  sometimes  deepening  into  actual  lakes :  they  are 
overgrown  with  tall  reeds,  sedges,  and  broad-leaf  grasses, 
often  six  feet  high.     Along  the  uncertain  shores  of  the 


154  SOUTH  AMERICA 

lakes,  the  reed  vegetation  is  constantly  encroaching, 
building  floating  islands  of  intertwined  reeds,  natural 
rafts  called  sudd,  which  sometimes  support  trees  and  are 
torn  and  carried  away  in  times  of  flood.  Such  sudds, 
floating  down  lakes  and  rivers,  are  a  common  sight. 
Some  of  the  rivers,  even  the  Pilcomayo,  lose  themselves 
in  impassable  swamps,  where  the  firm  ground  and  the 
loose  muddy  floating  islands  are  hard  to  distinguish. 
When  the  ground  dries  up,  the  reeds  shrivel  and  dis- 
appear. A  short  grass,  followed  at  first  by  a  carpet 
of  low,  and  later  on  by  a  crop  of  tall,  herbs  and  bushes, 
springs  up,  affording  succulent  grazing  grounds  for  horses 
and  cattle,  but  sadly  infested  by  myriads  of  mosquitoes 
and  other  pests. 

The  river  banks  disappear  under  hedges  of  tall  canes, 
wavy  reeds,  and  bambus,  so  that  dikes  and  sand-banks 
thrown  up  by  the  waters  are,  in  many  cases,  the  only 
dry  roads.  These  are  soon  clothed  with  a  luxuriant 
covering  of  herbs,  thanks  to  the  seeds  carried  by  the 
streams  and  scattered  in  the  mud  and  sand.  Bushes 
and  trees  strike  and  grow  quickly  and  deck  the  levees 
with  impassable  low  jungles,  recalling  our  osier  beds. 
The  islands  thus  enclosed  by  the  dikes  become  wet 
meadows  or  grass  moors  strewn  with  '  bafiados  \  They 
may  be  locally  dotted  with  thin  copses  of  bushy  acacias, 
or  give  rise  to  palm  forests. 

Such  is  the  power  of  those  changeful  and  unsettled 
rivers  that  the  surface  of  the  country  is  in  constant 
process  of  transformation  by  the  periodical  flooding  of 
the  pampas  or  the  draining  of  marshes,  but  the  banks 
along  the  streams  may  be  firmly  held  together  by  the 
vegetation  and  even  become  permanently  wooded.  Ad- 
vantage is  taken  of  this  by  man  for  his  settlements, 
roads,  and   railways:  thus   it   happens  that  frequently 


PARAGUAY  AND  LOWER  PARANA  MARSHES  155 

the  banks  of  streams  only  are  inhabited,  while  the 
hinterland  is  impassable.  The  islands  of  really  firm 
ground,  above  the  level  of  the  floods,  and  yet  irrigated 
by  them,  may  also  become  centres  of  forest  growth. 
Tropical  in  the  north,  the  forest  belts  and  islands 
assume  a  decidedly  subtropical,  and  even  temperate, 
character  in  the  south.  As  might  be  expected,  the  chief 
industry  of  the  region  is  cattle  and  horse  breeding. 

Western  Argentine  Wastes.  West  of  the  latitude  of 
San  Luis,  the  landscape,  though  retaining  the  name  of 
pampa,  slowly  changes  for  the  worse.  The  rainfall  is 
well  below  20  inches  yearly,  and  there  is  a  prolonged 
dry  period ;  the  variations  of  temperature  are  therefore 
very  wide.  The  ground  also  becomes  somewhat  rougher 
and  more  varied.  Immense  levels  and  hollow  tracts  of 
marshy  or  salt  deserts — the  '  travesias'—  are  broken  by 
sandy  dunes — the '  medanos ' — some  of  which  are  shifting. 
An  outlier  of  the  Andes,  the  Sierra  de  Cordoba,  is  thrown 
athwart  the  track  to  the  Cordilleras,  and  more  or  less 
encloses  the  desolate  land  on  the  east.  Isolated  hills  or 
hillocks  here  and  there  break  the  rolling  or  level  surface. 

The  vast  plains  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  under  these 
latitudes,  gradually  pass  from  the  grassy  pampa  into 
a  vast  dreary  thorn  shrubland.  The  grass  grows  sparser 
and  sparser  westward,  where  low  compact  bushes, 
with  small,  hard,  divided  leaves  and  formidable  spines, 
are  spread  like  cushions  here  and  there  on  the  naked 
ground.  They  belong  to  the  typical  bush  of  West 
Argentina,  the  chanor,  somewhat  like  an  acacia, 
which  is  everywhere  conspicuous.  Shrubs  of  hard-leaf, 
prickly  verbena  and  of  retama,  tufts  of  dwarf  jprickly 
palms,  stand  solitary,  whilst  more  forbidding  leafless 
cacti,  cerei,  and  opuntias  stretch  the  ungainly  shapes  of 
their  bristling  limbs. 


156 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


There  are  oases  along  the  margins  of  the  rivers,  fed 
by  fresh  water,  which  afford  only  limited  fields  for 
a  mediterranean  agriculture. 

From  these  bushlands  one  rides  into  the  ;  esteros '  or 
'  salitrales ',  i.  e.  vast  salt-wastes,  where  the  bare  around 
is  shrouded  in  a  white  sheet  of  salt  powder,  or  may  be 
flooded  for  miles  round  in  times  of  rain.  Dotted  here 
and  there  are  shrubs,  high  or  low,  with  small,  fleshy, 


Fig.  53.     Chanar  and  dry  ceresu  scrub, 
W.  Argentina. 


grey  leaves  in  tufts,  growing  sparser  and  lower  with  an 
increasing  proportion  of  salt,  till  the  soil  remains  naked 
but  for  a  few  distant,  crawling  dwarf-bunches.  Plants 
of  these  parts  somewhat  resemble  those  of  our  own  salt- 
marshes,  and  have  a  similar  aspect  the  world  over: 
such  are  the  '  junin  '  wastes. 

At  the  limits   of   the    salitrales,  the    land   rises  into 


WESTERN  ARGENTINE  WASTES  157 

barren  dunes  or  niedanos,  some  of  them  shifting ;  and 
studded  with  tall  tufts  of  dry,  small-leaf  Compositae,  such 
as  baccharis.  They  grow  out  of  little  mounds,  between 
which  the  sand  has  been  washed  or  blown  away.  Mis- 
shapen opuntias  and  cerei  are  strewn  here  and  there 
among  besoms  of  stiff  grasses.  The  rivers,  many  of 
them  salt,  are  fringed  with  pampas-grass,  which  appears 
also  on  the  rare  brackish  or  fresh- water  marshes  or 
1  pantanos  '  and  in  the  hollows. 

The  little  rocky  sierras  and  isolated  hills,  like  the 
sicna  of  Cordoba,  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  redeeming 
Features,  for  their  stony  slopes  are  mostly  barren,  and 
vegetation  is  scarce.  Occasional  low  trees  become 
conspicuous  landmarks  amid  a  dry  scrub  of  schinus, 
larrea,  and  other  bushes,  recalling  the  chaparral  of 
California.  Even  the  scrub  frequently  thins  out  and 
scatters,  leaving  nothing  but  a  jumble  of  rocks. 

The  Fampa.  '  On  every  side  a  sea  of  grass,  grass  and 
more  grass  :  paja  y  cielo  (grass  and  sky),  as  the  natives 
of  the  country  style  their  favourite  landscape.  Nothing 
to  break  the  brown  eternity  of  the  pampa  but  here  and 
there  a  green  ombu,  shaped  like  an  umbrella,  or  an 
occasional  straggling  line  of  pampas-grass,  which  breaks 
the  edges  of  some  water- course,  and  by  comparison 
seems  as  tall  as  does  a  poplar  in  the  plains  of 
Lombardy.' 

This  describes  the  true  pampa,  extending  from  the 
Atlantic,  half-way  over  the  continent,  to  the  longitude 
of  San  Luis,  and  from  the  lower  Uruguay  south  to 
Rio  Colorado.  The  name  pampa  has,  however,  been 
extended  to  other  treeless,  flat  tracts  surrounding  the 
'  pampa  vera '. 

The  pampa  is  entirely  level,  or  slowly  and  gently 
undulating,  sometimes  swollen   into  low   mounds;    the 


158  SOUTH  AMERICA 

hollows,  mostly  shallow  and  devoid  of  outlet,  collect 
the  waters,  and  dot  the  surface  of  the  boundless  plain 
with  innumerable  marshes,  brackish  or  salt,  or  merely 
damp  troughs  ;  the  soil  is  a  stoneless,  fine  sand,  or  sandy 
and  powdery  loess;  the  rivers  are  often  saline,  and 
thanks  to  the  alternations  of  droughts  and  heavy  down- 
pours, the  soil  is  caked  hard  and  rendered  impervious. 
Winters  are  short  and  comparatively  mild,  though 
distinctly  felt ;  daily  ranges  of  temperature  are  stronger 
than  in  the  north,  and  nightly  dew  is  abundant. 

The  carpet  is  made  of  separate  dense  tufts  of  stiff* 
grasses,  not  in  a  close  mat,  but  showing  the  ground  in 
the  intervals.  According  to  the  nature  of  the  numerous 
grasses — melica,  stipa,  aristida,  andropogOD,  pappo- 
phorum,  panicum,  paspalum,  and  others— the  aspect 
varies  slightly.  Herbs,  mostly  evergreen  perennials 
with  small  leathery  leaves,  are  interspersed  among  the 
grasses  ;  bulbs  are  not  as  abundant  as  might  be  expect* ■«  1 , 
and  annuals  are  few.  Trees  are  excluded  but  for  occasional 
and  solitary  ombus  (phytolacca)  which  grow  near  the 
houses.  Rivers  flow  either  between  sandy  banks  or  tall 
hedges  of  gynerium,  pampas-grass  and  reeds,  forming 
what  is  called  '  pajonales '.  In  the  slightly  undulating 
pampa,  the  moister  hollows  or  shallow  canadas  are  lined 
with  a  softer  turf,  and  denser  swards  mixed  with 
various  low,  succulent  plants  and  flowers. 

The  changeful  albeit  monotonous  aspect  of  the  pampa 
has  been  thus  described :  '  Coal  black  in  spring  when 
the  old  grass  has  been  burned  ;  bright  bluish-green  when 
the  young  leaves  sprout ;  later  on  brownish-green,  the 
colour  of  the  mature  grass ;  finally — at  the  flowering 
time — when  the  silvery  white  spikes  overtop  the  grass, 
over  wide  tracts  it  seems  like  a  rolling,  waving  sea  of 
liquid  silver.' 


THE  PAMPA  159 

Swift  animals,  rheas,  hares,  and  now  horses  and 
even  cattle,  roam  over  the  pampa,  which  affords  them 
a  magnificent  pasturage.  After  the  wild  Indians,  the 
half-breed  Gauchos,  wonderful  horsemen,  took  possession 
of  the  ground,  mostly  as  horse-breeders.  Agriculture, 
however,  at  first  restricted  to  the  moister  and  more 
fertile  canadas,  has  gained  a  firm  foothold  in  the  east, 
and  is  extending  westward  in  limitless  fields  of  corn, 
maize,  flax,  and  alfalfa  where  the  wild  grasses  once 
stood,  so  that  the  eastern  provinces  especially  have  now 
become  one  of  the  important  granaries  of  the  world, 
competing  with  Australia,  Russia,  and  North  America. 

A  notable  fact  is  the  invasion  of  the  east  of  the 
country  by  European  and  more  especially  mediterranean 
weeds,  which  seem  to  push  back  the  native  herbs  and 
find  a  congenial  habitat :  the  invaders  are  mostly  thistles 
and  grasses.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  change  in  the 
pampa  is  the  sudden  outburst  of  woodlands :  the  rich 
black  soil  has  needed  only  ploughing  and  aerating  to 
ensure  the  rapid  growth  of  large  plantations  of  various 
kinds  of  trees  and  of  prosperous  orchards  of  peach, 
plum,  quince,  and  many  other  fruits,  on  what  were 
twenty  years  ago  treeless  solitudes.  The  native  Indians 
of  the  big  plains  were  primarily  nomad  hunters,  and 
knew  very  little  of  agriculture. 

Uruguay  and  Entre  Rios.  The  lower  course  of  the 
Parana  is  bordered  by  wide  flood  territories  in  process 
of  building  up,  and  presenting  much  the  same  appear- 
ance as  the  vast  swampy  country  to  the  north.  The 
region  between  the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay,  Entre 
Rios,  forms  a  low  tableland  built  up  by  deposits  brought 
from  inland,  but  already  in  process  of  erosion.  On 
that  account  it  assumes  a  slightly  rolling  appearance. 

With   a   warm,  temperate   climate,  this   region   also 


160  SOUTH  AMERICA 

receives  a  fair  amount  of  rain  throughout  the  year,  with 
a  marked  rainy  period.  The  landscape  is  essentially 
parklike  grass-land,  studded  with  groves  of  trees  or 
small  woodlands.  The  forest  islands  show  a  distinct 
mild-temperate  type  of  medium-sized  trees  with  small 
somewhat  leathery  leaves  and  dense  crowns,  and  a  thick 
undergrowth,  from  which  the  tropical  wealth  of  woody 
lianas  and  the  aerial  gardens  of  broad-leaf  epiphytes 
are  absent.  On  grounds  of  more  recent  formation,  still 
caked  and  hard,  are  developed  thin  woodlands  of  orchard- 
like aspect,  with  a  grass  carpet,  and  a  dotting  of  low, 
thorny  and  bushy  acacias,  fine-leaved  and  shadeless. 

More  rolling  and  slowly  rising  in  a  regular  swell 
towards  the  Brazilian  uplands,  Uruguay  offers  much  the 
same  natural  features  :  Entre  Rios  is  partly  agricultural, 
while  in  Uruguay,  the  more  rocky  land,  though  not 
unsuited,  in  many  places,  to  agriculture,  has  been  trans- 
formed, on  account  of  its  natural  pastures,  into  a  vast 
cattle-ranch.  With  the  increasing  immigration  of  Euro- 
peans,  however,  the  cultural  resources  are  developing, 
maize  and  wheat  being  the  staple  crops. 

Patagonia  semi-desert.  A  truly  dismal  picture  is 
that  of  the  Patagonian  semi-desert  which  stretches, 
south  of  the  Rio  Colorado,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Andes  : 
a  rolling  plain  of  shingle,  gravel,  and  sand,  bestrewn 
with  marshy  hollows,  cut  up  by  ravines  and  canons, 
broken  occasionally  by  short  and  low  ranges.  The  climate 
is  half  desert,  but  winter  colds  and  frosts  and  icy  winds 
are  prominent  features :  rain  falls  only  occasionally,  and 
then  in  downpours.  The  result  is  a  treeless,  open, 
even  scattered  growth  of  bushes,  mostly  Compositae, 
plantago,  verbena,  &c.  These  shrubs,  from  three  to  nine 
feet  in  height,  are  scrubby,  thorny,  and  woody,  with 
tiny,  grey,  leathery  leaves,  all  viscous  or  hairy.     Most 


PATAGONIA  SEMI-DESERT  161 

of  them,  half-dead  bundles  of  crowded  twigs  and  stems, 
look  like  bristling  besoms ;  some  resemble  heaths ;  others 
crawl,  or  spread  in  cushions:  grass  plays  here  but  an 
unimportant  part.  Thickets  of  these  woody  perennials 
alternate  irregularly  with  naked  tracts,  and  in  winter 
cast  their  scanty  foliage.  Here  again  countless  marshes, 
mostly  brackish  or  salt,  are  formed  in  the  hollows,  or 
by  the  rivers  losing  themselves  in  the  sand  and  gravel ; 
they  allow  of  the  usual  salt- bush  vegetation. 

Little  can  be  done  with  such  a  land,  and  it  lies 
mostly  unused  and  unusable :  settlements  may,  how- 
ever, be  found  along  the  coast,  or  along  the  few 
freshwater  rivers.  The  intervening  wastes  are  but 
travesias,  where  only  wild  Indians  manage  to  eke  out 
a  precarious  living,  mostly  by  hunting  and  fishing. 

South  Patagonia.  A  region  of  steppe  extends  to  the 
south  and  west  of  the  Patagonian  semi-desert,  beginning 
in  a  strip  along  the  Andes,  and  gradually  widening  to 
the  south-east  down  to  the  Atlantic,  covering  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  low  south  Patagonian  plateau  and  the 
north-east  corner  of  Fuegia. 

The  latitude  is  now  high,  and  the  narrow  point  of  the 
austral  continent  plunges  into  the  zone  of  raw  and 
moist  south-westerlies.  The  Andes  have  become  at  once 
lower  and  more  interrupted,  with,  as  a  result,  a  play  of 
oceanic  winds  over  the  land,  and  a  cool,  cloudy,  some- 
what moist  and  windy  climate,  where  winter  is  not 
extreme  The  ground  is  the  continuation  of  that  farther 
north :  a  low  plateau  or  high  plain,  undulating  and 
broken,  consisting  of  shingle,  rubble  and  gravel,  clay 
and  sand.  These  conditions  are  not  favourable  to  tree- 
growth  ;  the  country  may  be  described  as  a  vast 
treeless  moor,  offering  a  rough,  irregular  surface.  Tus- 
socks of  the   tussock-grass,  poa  Jlabellata,  build  huge, 

1159.1  m 


162  SOUTH  AMERICA 

well-packed  cushions  on  thick  root-stooks ;  bog-balsam 
strews  equally  large  and  crowded  bunches  or  mounds 
over  monotonous  heath  moors;  a  number  of  crawling 
or  low,  evergreen,  small-  and  hard-leaf  bushes  are  inter- 
mingled with  a  few  grasses. 

Rougher  still  and  more  broken,  rainy,  chilly,  and 
wind-swept,  is  the  group  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  with 
a  very  similar  vegetation,  though  with  quite  a  number 
of  plants  of  its  own,  and  one  or  two  bushes  in  sheltered 
valleys.  Here  again  the  winds  are  the  main  cause 
of  treelessness. 

South  Patagonia  is  suitable  for  sheep- farming,  though 
most  of  the  settlements  are  as  yet  confined  to  the  coast 
and  rivers. 

Fuegia.  The  foot-hills  and  piedmont  strip  along  the 
Andes,  extending  across  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  over 
the  plateaus  of  central  Fuegia,  east  of  the  mountains, 
are  more  favourably  situated  than  the  steppe  region 
just  described,  which  it  succeeds  to  the  west  and  south. 
More  sheltered,  perhaps,  yet  receiving  the  benefit  of  the 
western  rainfall  through  the  gaps  of  the  mountains, 
this  region  stands  intermediate  between  the  western 
timbered  highlands  and  the  drier  eastern  steppes.  It 
also  enjoys  a  milder  and  more  equable  temperature,  but 
has  a  strongly  marked  winter. 

It  is  a  park  landscape,  the  aspect  of  which  recalls, 
in  a  measure,  that  of  our  northern  countries,  with 
thickets,  woods,  and  even  forests  of  middle-sized,  summer- 
green  Antarctic  beeches,  an  undergrowth  of  shrubs  and 
ferns,  and  a  carpet  of  mosses  and  lichens.  The  inter- 
vening grass-land  is  somewhat  like  our  wild  pastures 
and  meadows.  In  point  of  climate  and  vegetation  it  is 
comparable  to  the  northern  part  of  our  own  island. 

The  Andes.     Ranging  through  65  degrees  of  latitude. 


THE  ANDES  163 

from  the  hottest  to  the  coldest,  and  from  the  most  arid 
to  the  dampest  regions,  the  cordillera  of  the  Andes 
practically  summarizes  the  vegetation  of  the  whole 
world ;  there  is  scarcely  a  form  of  plant  life  that  is 
not  represented  on  that  mightiest  of  mountain-ranges. 
A  powerful  barrier  athwart  the  path  of  the  winds, 
it  is  abundantly  watered,  now  on  one  side,  now  on  the 
other,  exhibiting  nearly  everywhere  the  opposite  extremes 
on  eastern  and  western  slopes.  Under  the  equator,  and 
farther  north,  the  benefit  of  the  rain-belt  extends  in 
fairly  equal  measure  to  both  sides,  so  that  the  northern 
range  as  far  south  as  Guayaquil  is  under  the  influence 
of  regular  and  sufficient  precipitations  and  shows  no 
striking  contrast.  Farther  south,  down  to  30°  S.,  the 
eastern  slopes  are  still  well  watered,  though  the  western 
side  experiences  extreme  drought ;  then  for  a  short 
interval  of  about  10  degrees  of  latitude,  under  warm 
temperate  conditions,  both  sides  are  about  equally  dry. 

In  the  southern  domain  of  the  westerlies,  however, 
the  Pacific  slopes  become  very  moist,  while  the  east 
remain  arid,  and  are  not  admitted  to  a  share,  limited 
though  it  be,  in  the  western  rains  before  reaching  48° 
to  50°  S. 

Eastern  Andes.  The  Montana.  This  name  may  be 
applied  to  the  vast  crescent  or  amphitheatre  of  slopes 
which  define  the  Amazon  valley  on  the  west  and  extend 
from  Venezuela  to  the  Argentine  border,  i.e.  to  the 
Tropics;  locally  it  is  restricted  to  the  Peruvian  and 
Bolivian  portions. 

The  Amazon  selva  rises  up  the  slopes,  almost  un- 
changed, to  4,000  feet  or  so,  under  the  same  conditions 
of  an  excessive  and  uniform  rainfall  and  heat.  It  is 
followed  higher  up  by  a  zone  of  rain-forest,  with  a 
cooler,  though  scarcely  less  rainy  climate,  and  exhibits 

M    2 


164  SOUTH  AMERICA 

smaller  palms  and  lianas,  tree-ferns,  and  bambus,  the 
features  of  the  subtropical  rain-forest  all  over  the 
world.  This  is  the  home  of  the  cinchona,  now  culti- 
vated in  similar  situations  in  tropical  Asia,  and  of 
the  wax-palms.  The  main  body  of  this  forest  retains 
its  character  up  to  7,500  feet,  when  it  stops.  Wax- 
palms  and  some  hardier  trees  go  on  and  up,  mingling 
with  deciduous  trees  to  9,000  or  10,000  feet.  In  the 
next  zone,  the  woodlands  display  low  trees  of  ■  rose 
of  the  Andes  ',  bejaria,  and  numerous  tall  shrubs  of  escal- 
Ionia,  drimys,  buddleia  (whose  vegetation  recalls  that 
of  the  larger  kinds  of  rhododendrons),  and  an  isolated 
conifer,  podocarpus.  This  woodland  zone  reaches  up  to 
10,500  or  11,000  feet.  The  upper  belt  includes  the 
paramos  and  higher  slopes,  treeless  and  reduced  to  a  brush 
of  bushes  and  grass,  with  carpets  of  dry,  woolly  alpine 
plants. 

Argentine  subtropical  Andes.  From  20°  to  25°  S., 
the  eastern  Andes  establish  a  transition  to  the  drier 
conditions  prevailing  farther  south.  A  cross-section  of 
these  slopes  offers  a  lower  or  basal  strip  of  forests  suc- 
ceeding to  the  park  landscape  already  mentioned,  with 
its  dry  and  interrupted  woodlands  which  begin  at  few 
miles  from  the  sierra.  As  might  be  expected,  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  mountains  are  moister  than  the  adjacent 
plains.  Stately  trees  with  dense  crowns,  including 
machoeriums,  laurels,  chestnuts,  and  broad-leaved  cedars, 
and  a  rich  undergrowth ,  compose  these  virgin  subtropical 
rain-forests.  They  are  extremely  valuable  for  their 
timber,  and  the  nature  of  the  climate,  highly  favourable 
for  all  subtropical  produce,  would  lend  itself  to  a 
prosperous  agriculture  were  it  not  for  the  difficulty  of 
communication. 

A   quite    temperate   zone   follows   above    3,000   feet, 


ARGENTINE  SUBTROPICAL  ANDES        165 

exhibiting  forests  of  the podocarpus,  along  with  Peruvian 
alders,  elders,  escallonias,  &c.  The  mountain  is  no  longer 
clad  with  an  uninterrupted  forest,  but  rather  displays  a 
park  landscape  where  woodlands  prefer  the  shelter  of 
valleys,  and  grass  and  bushlands  cloak  the  ridges.  With 
increasing  altitude  the  proportion  of  grass-land  rises,  and 
soon  comes  a  belt  of  pastures  with  grasses  three  feet 
high,  interspersed  with  clumps  or  isolated  specimens 
of  the  stout  and  gnarled  quenoa- trees,  barely  twenty 
feet  high,  which  are  hung  with  draperies  of  tillandsias. 
Above  12,000  feet  even  the  quenoa  ceases,  and  alpine 
pastures  develop  with  the  usual  aspect,  rich  in  flowers, 
until  the  snow-line  is  reached. 

Continuing  along  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes, 
there  follows  a  truly  arid  strip  extending  far  southward. 
This  district,  like  some  others,  has  known  prosperous 
times,  when  nearly  every  valley  had  its  lake  and  its  area 
of  cultivation,  and  supported  a  fairly  large  population 
with  a  comparatively  high  degree  of  civilization. 
Whether  by  natural  or  human  causes,  or  the  combination 
of  both,  this  state  of  things  ceased  to  be  soon  after  the 
invasion  of  Europeans. 

Dry  Argentine  Cordillera.  A  cross-section  of  these 
slopes  would  show  nowhere  forests  or  even  a  parklike 
landscape.  Succeeding  to  the  chanar  or  espinal  vegeta- 
tion comes  first,  on  the  lower  slopes  and  foot-hills,  a  belt 
of  scattered  scrub  or  chaparral,  a  dreary  rocky  landscape 
where  grass  is  scarce  and  parched.  This  subandine  belt, 
entirely  useless,  is  dotted  with  thickets  of  creosote  and 
low  acaceous  bushes,  but  farther  up,  the  bare  ridges 
are  seamed  with  gorges,  in  the  shelter  of  which  meagre 
woods  and  patches  of  the  leguminous  adesmia  shrubs, 
lefia  amarilla,  are  conspicuous  on  the  naked  slopes. 
Still  lower  and  more  scattered  bushes  occur  above  that 


166  SOUTH  AMERICA 

belt,  and  lead  up  to  an  alpine  zone  of  dwarf  crawling 
perennials,  only  scattered  on  shingles,  but  more  densely 
grouped  on  peaty  tracts.  This  landscape  continues  till 
the  extreme  south  of  Patagonia  is  reached,  when  another 
more  cheerful  aspect  replaces  it.  It  is  a  transition  from 
the  western  timbered  Andes  to  the  dry  steppes  of  the 
eastern  plain — a  park  landscape  where  the  trees  are 
deciduous.  This  dry  portion  of  the  Argentine  cordillera 
is  useless  to  man  :  it  is  condemned  to  remain  unused  and 
barren,  but  the  south  Patagonian  slopes  may  some  day 
lend  themselves  to  pastoral  industries. 

Western  Andes.  Of  the  equatorial  and  Colombian 
portions  a  brief  mention  has  already  been  made  (p.  131). 

Peruvian  Andes.  The  Peruvian  Andes  have  been 
divided  into  a  lower  belt,  the  '  cuesta '  or  coast,  and  an 
upper  belt,  the  'sierra',  or  mountain.  The  cuesta  is 
rainless  and  hot,  with  frequent  dew  and  mists  at  night, 
and  except  for  a  narrow,  sandy  coastal  strip,  it  is  waste, 
rocky,  and  hilly,  and  barely  supports  a  scattered  thorny 
brush  of  mesquites  and  acacias,  studded  with  cerei, 
opuntias,  and  cacti,  where  occasional  showers  give  rise 
to  an  ephemeral  crop  of  brightly  flowered  herbs.  The 
narrow,  extremely  arid  coastal  plain  is  crossed  by 
numerous  short,  snow -fed  mountain  streams,  the  lower 
valleys  of  which  run  as  parallel  oases,  each  a  small  Egypt 
between  the  intervening  wastes.  Each  valley  possesses 
its  little  town,  with  sometimes  a  port  at  its  mouth. 

Above  the  coast-belt  rises  the  cordillera  or  sierra 
belt  from  7,000  to  12,000  feet,  frequently  wrapped  in 
clouds,  and  for  that  reason  cooler  and  moister,  with  also 
a  somewhat  denser  covering  of  evergreen  shrubs  and 
shrubby  perennials.  To  this  zone  we  owe  some  of  our 
garden  plants,  amongst  them,  varieties  of  calceolarias, 
lupins,  clematis,  echeverias,  and  tobaccos.     It  gradually 


Fig.  54      Cactus  on  the  dry  slopes  or  the  Andes. 


168  SOUTH  AMERICA 

passes  to  the  alpine  belt  of  sparsely  clotted  dry,  dwarf 
plants. 

The  Peruvian  Andes  was  once  the  seat  of  a  powerful 
and  advanced  civilization  which  flourished  until  the 
Spanish  conquests  of  the  sixteenth  century;  now  im- 
pressive ruins  are  the  only  traces  to  be  found.  Agriculture, 
with  irrigation  and  manuring,  was  then  brought  to  a 
point  of  perfection  which  has  not  been  equalled  since 
in  that  region ;  but  large  areas  which  had  been  under 
cultivation  now  lie  desolate,  claimed  by  the  desert.  The 
prosperous  cities  which  lined  the  shore,  nestled  in  the 
valleys,  or  expanded  on  the  plateaus,  have  fallen  into 
ruins.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in  the  times  of  the  Incas, 
Quichuas  and  Aymaras,  before  the  advent  of  Europeans, 
the  belts  of  vegetation  and  cultivation  were  broader  on 
the  Pacific  slopes  than  they  are  now,  which  may  be  due 
either  to  better  climatic  conditions  or  to  artificial  irriga- 
tion, or  to  both. 

Atacama.  About  the  latitude  of  20°  S.,  the  rapid 
declivities  of  the  coastal  ranges  give  way  to  a  succession 
of  broad  terraces  broken  by  ranges  and  rising  in  steps 
towards  the  top  plateaus  of  Bolivia.  This  region  is 
practically  an  absolute  desert  the  soil  of  which  is 
impregnated  and  covered  with  alkalis,  perhaps  the 
barest  place  of  the  tropical  world.  Human  habitations 
are  entirely  confined  to  the  coast,  where  water  can  be 
had  by  boring,  and  a  few  straggling  trees  and  sage-bushes 
and  mesquites  are  occasionally  met  with.  From  terrace 
to  terrace,  and  up  the  naked  scarps,  the  desert  rises  to 
above  10,000  feet,  only  to  merge  into  the  scarcely  less 
dreary  inland  punas.  Yet  it  is  from  those  very  deserts 
that  one  of  the  most  valuable  fertilizers — nitrates — is 
extracted  and  shipped  to  the  whole  world. 

Central  Chile.     By  Caldera,  the  desert  proper  stops, 


CENTRAL  CHILE  169 

and  by  a  gradual  diminution  of  aridity  passes  to  more 
prosperous  landscapes. 

Situated  between  a  coastal  range  and  a  mountainous 
background,  the  central  valley  of  Chile  is  almost  an 
exact  replica  of  the  Sacramento  valley  of  California,  and, 
like  it,  frankly  mediterranean  in  character.  The  valley 
itself  has  a  grassy  floor  with  a  thorny  brush,  mostly  ever- 
green, of  mimosas,  colletias,  &c,  recalling  the  chaparral 
and  the  maquis.  It  is  now  being  thrown  open  to  the 
cultivation  of  mediterranean  produce,  thanks  to  irriga- 
tion. Farther  inland  the  slopes  are  clothed  with  a  taller 
woodland  of  hard-  and  small-leaf  shrubs  like  quillaja, 
mponaria,  sumac,  and  escallonia,  which  strikingly 
resemble  evergreen  oaks  and  other  mediterranean  ever- 
greens. Above  this  belt  of  woods  the  evergreen  beeches, 
corresponding  to  ilexes,  make  their  appearance  in  regular 
forests.  Araucarias  replace  the  pines  of  California ; 
tubers  and  bulbs  are  marked  features  of  the  vegetation. 

South  Chilian  Rain-forests.  A  little  to  the  north  of 
Valdivia,  by  36°  S.,  begins  the  forest-region  of  Chile, 
with  the  predominance  of  the  austral  moist,  westerly 
winds,  which  produce  an  equable,  very  rainy  climate, 
warm  temperate  in  the  north,  cool  in  the  south.  The 
whole  country  then  becomes  abundantly  timbered  up  to 
the  tree-line.  The  lower  belt  represents  a  true  temperate 
mixed  rain-forest,  dark  and  dense,  composed  of  several 
evergreen  small-  and  hard-leaf  beeches  mingled  with 
leaf-shedding  trees  of  the  same  genus,  a  wealth  of 
climbers  and  epiphytes,  bambus  and  tree-ferns,  and  of 
smaller  trees  like  the  magnolaceous  drimys  Winteri  and 
several  other  kinds,  among  which  are  conifers.  Above 
5,000  feet  the  forest  passes  to  the  shrub-woodland  of 
dwarf  deciduous  beeches.  This  belt  again  gives  way, 
at  about  6,000  feet,  to  a  bush- land  of   barberry,  cran- 


170  SOUTH  AMERICA 

berry,  escallonias,  and  other  shrubs.  The  upper  alpine  belt 
consists  of  perennial  herbs  scattered  on  gravel  and  rocks. 

Extreme  South  and  Fuegia.  The  forest  region  con- 
tinues uninterruptedly  down  to  the  extreme  point  of 
Fuegia,  on  the  western  slopes,  and  though  retaining  its 
evergreen  character  in  spite  of  the  high  latitude,  it 
becomes  poorer  and  poorer  both  in  size  and  variet}^. 
The  same  small-leaf  green  beeches  spread  to  the  farthest 
south  with  the  drimys  tree,  but  tree  ferns,  lianas, 
epiphytes,  and  bambus  disappear,  and  with  them  the 
warm-temperate  luxuriance.  Now  the  forests  are  dark 
and  damp,  somewhat  resembling  our  spruce  forests, 
and  under  their  heavy  canopy  there  is  only  a  thick  litter 
of  rotten  wood,  with  a  soaked  carpet  of  mosses  and 
liverworts,  some  ferns,  and  a  scanty  undergrowth.  Like 
the  preceding,  the  south  Chilian  region  remains  an 
important  timber  asset,  but  on  account  of  the  steep  and 
broken  nature  of  the  ground  cannot  be  put  to  other  uses. 

Punas.  The  higher  plateaus  that  stretch  between  the 
Cordilleras  of  the  Andes,  with  their  abrupt  and  extreme 
alternations  of  heat  and  cold,  their  scanty  rainfall,  and 
their  dry,  icy  winds,  receive  the  name  of  '  punas '.  They 
are  vast  wastes  of  rocks  and  salt,  the  worst  types  of 
which  are  absolutely  bare,  while  others  are  strewn  with 
the  '  ichu  '  feather-grass  in  dry,  bristling  tufts  :  bulbs, 
rosette-  and  cushion-plants,  and  alpine  bushes  are  also 
characteristic.  Some  punas  at  a  lower  level,  like  that 
of  Jujuy  in  Argentine,  are  treeless  grass- lands  of  a  dry, 
yet  more  prosperous  and  useful,  description. 

The  punas  are  very  thinly  inhabited,  for  vast  tracts  are 
wholly  desert.  They  cannot  be  utilized  for  agriculture, 
or  even  for  grazing  purposes  to  any  large  extent,  except 
in  some  sheltered  corners.  The  native  camel,  the  llama, 
alone  finds  a  scanty  food,  and  it  is  used  as  a  pack  animal. 


CHAPTER   IV 

AUSTRALIA 

Lying  across  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  the  vast  Austra- 
lian mass  of  land  is  primarily  divided  into  an  infra- 
tropical  and  an  extra- tropical  portion ;  but  this 
distinction  is  mostly  felt  along  the  margins  of  the 
continent,  and  the  desert  centre  varies  little  from  south 
to  north.  On  nearly  all  sides  the  margins  are  higher 
than  the  interior,  and,  forming  barriers  which  lie  athwart 
the  paths  of  the  winds  rushing  in  from  the  surrounding 
seas,  rob  them  of  most  of  their  moisture,  leaving  the 
centre  almost  rainless.  Broadly  speaking,  Australia 
may  be  described  as  a  desert  with  a  fringe  of  vegetation  ; 
but  whereas  in  the  northern  half  the  rainfall,  which  is 
of  the  monsoon  type  occurs  in  summer,  the  extra-tropical 
portion  depends  for  its  water  mainly  on  the  westerly 
storms  of  the  austral  seas  which,  in  winter,  reach  the 
two  southern  points  of  the  continent.  Only  the  middle 
of  the  east  coast  enjoys  the  benefit  of  the  south-eastern 
trade  winds.  Australia  does  not  reach  latitudes  high 
enough  to  experience  any  severe  cold.  The  snows  which 
occasionally  cover  the  loftier  parts  of  the  southern  high- 
lands are  never  of  long  duration. 

Northern  Point  of  the  Tableland.  The  northernmost 
point  of  the  continent  is  little  known  as  yet.  Along 
the  shores  of  the  warm  seas  it  enjoys  a  wet  period  of 
five  months'  duration  and  a  yearly  average  precipitation 
of  65  inches.  A  few  tracts  of  luxuriant  tropical  forests 
are  known,  but  it  is  uncertain  if  they  are  merely  of 


s 

< 


NORTHERN  POINT  OF  THE  TABLELAND    173 


local  occurrence.  The  prevailing  vegetation  is  of  a 
somewhat  dry  type,  rather  of  the  nature  of  a  light 
monsoon  forest  passing  to  the  thorn  wood.  Tropical 
plants  like  the  pandanus  and  a  number  of  palms  of  the 
Indo-Malayan  region  are  undoubtedly  present,  with  one 


feet       600        ,500       SODO 


Fig.  56.  Physical  features  of  Australia. 

or  two  large  tropical  species  of  leguminous  and  other 
trees ;   mangroves  are  frequent  along  the  coast. 

Except  for  a  few  settlements  of  white  men  dotted 
about  the  shore,  the  country  is  left  to  the  primitive 
Australians ;  but  it  is  destined  by  its  climate  and  soil 
to  enjoy  a  prosperous  future. 

The  adjacent  islands  are  fairly  well  wooded. 


174 


AUSTRALIA 


Thornwood.  In  the  rear  of  this  first  belt,  from  the 
south  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  to  Victoria  River  on 
the  west,  stretches  a  somewhat  hilly  zone  of  very  light 
tropical  woods  casting  their  foliage  during  the  dry 
period  and  resembling  the  caatinga  of  the  Brazilian 
sertao   or   the   rain-green    woods   of   the  East  African 


100 

100" 


ANNUAL 


too- 


3040'4^30 
4&*S«S40 


Fjg.  57.    Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  Australia,  in  inches. 

plateaus.  Acacias  play  here  quite  a  predominant  part, 
with  eucalypti  of  moderate  height,  melaleucas  and  the 
Australian  tea- trees. 

Tropical  Savana.  The  light  rain-green  woods  of  the 
north  thin  out  farther  inland ;  the  precipitations  also 
fall  below  an  annual  40  inches  and  display  great  fluctua- 
tions  from   year   to    year.      Then    comes    the   savana, 


176 


AUSTRALIA 


stretching  in  a  belt  from  Dampierland  to  the  north- 
eastern highlands,  alike  on  the  western  plateau  and  in 
the  central  lowlands,  over  the  large  levels  broken  by 
short  ranges  of  hills  of  the  former,  and  over  a  flat  or 
undulating  territory  farther  east. 

In  its  general   aspect,  the  savana  is  a  brush  of  tall 
tuft-grass,  dotted  with  groves  or  solitary  specimens  of 


fnnfcfhil, 

(lUrulilion) 

Cardnell 


jjonpwr 


CLIMATE  REGIONS 

with  Type  Stations 


Fig.  59.     Seasonal  distribution  of  Rainfall  in  Australia. 

low  shrubby  trees,  mostly  evergreen  like  eucalyptus, 
or  heath-like  (casuarinas),  or  again  with  thickets  of 
acacias.  The  most  important  trees  of  this  savana  are 
again  the  melaleucas  and  the  tea-trees.  As  in  Africa 
and  America,  the  bombax  tree  is  conspicuous.  This 
belt  is  frequently  interrupted  by  tracts  of  scrub,  and  in 


•cr 


JANUARY 


Figs.  GO  and  61.     Mean  Temperature  of  Australia  reduced  to  sea-level. 


HotWetForeA 

E  Summer  Rain  Forest  E3  Savana 
B^  Winter        •        •       E3  Scrub 
E3  Steppe  □  Desert 


Fig.  62.     Vegetation  of  Australia. 
N 


178  AUSTRALIA 

Queensland,  west  of  the  mountains,  it  is  especially  claimed 
by  the  Brigalow-scrub,  consisting  of  acacias.  Towards 
the  south,  the  savana  passes  gradually  into  desert 
through  a  belt  of  acacias,  by  the  disappearance  of  the 
grass  and  the  scattering  of  the  shrubs. 

Scrubland.  Between  the  wooded  areas  of  the  coastal 
margins  and  the  inland  desert  there  must,  of  necessity, 
extend  a  transition  belt,  where  the  rainfall  is  not 
abundant  enough  to  support  a  continuous  and  dense 
tree-growth,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  irregularity 
and  distribution  of  the  precipitation  are  not  favourable 
enough  for  the  development  of  large  grass  carpets. 
This  belt,  if  we  recall  what  occurs  on  other  continents, 
is  likely  to  be  characterized  by  a  scattered  vegetation  of 
evergreen  shrubs  with  a  scanty  admixture  of  grass. 

Three  main  types  of  scrub  have  been  distinguished, 
each  with  a  specific  appearance.  They  are  all  restricted 
to  belts  which  have  a  yearly  rainfall  of  under  30  inches. 
Of  the  three  main  types,  two,  viz.  the  '  Brigalow  '  and  the 
'Mallee'  scrub,  appear  to  require  at  least  15  inches  of 
yearly  precipitation,  whilst  the  third,  the  '  Mulga ',  in  its 
poorer  forms,  seems  to  be  able  to  stand  extremely  arid 
conditions,  and  therefore  penetrates  far  into  and  among 
the  true  deserts.  The  respective  relations  of  the  three 
types  with  their  physical  conditions  have  not  as  yet 
been  properly  worked  out,  though  the  Brigalow  scrub 
is  a  specific  characteristic  of  the  hot,  tropical  conditions 
of  northern  and  north-eastern  Australia,  while  the 
Mallee  characterizes  the  warm-temperate  climate  of  the 
southern  and  south-western  parts. 

The  Brigalow  Scrub  is  best  represented  in  Queensland 
behind  the  coastal  range  and  south  of  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria,  amid  climatic  conditions  which  recall  those 
of  the  drier  parts  of  the  Brazilian  sertao  and  the  portion 


THE  BRIGALOW  SCRUB  179 

of  the  Egyptian  Sudan  extending  at  the  foot  of  Abys- 
sinia. Accordingly,  its  appearance  and  mode  of  life 
offer  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  thorn-bushes  of 
those  regions. 

The  scrub  derives  its  name  from  its  chief  component, 
the  Brigalow  acacia,  a  shrub  or  small  tree  with  hard, 
grey,  sickle-shaped  leaves,  and  makes  a  true  acacia 
thornwood.  Apart  from  this,  which  is  very  intolerant 
of  other  trees,  there  are  two  trees  of  the  same  family, 
and  a  few  other  tall  shrubs,  the  most  characteristic 
of  which  is  the  sandal-wood  or  dog-wood.  The  smaller 
plants  and  woody  perennials  gather  round  the  centres 
formed  by  the  tall  shrubs,  and  often  make  up  impene- 
trable thickets.  Grass  is  very  scanty,  but  herbs  with 
bright  flowers— the  African  marigold  and  the  scarlet 
pimelea — relieve  with  their  gaudy  colours  the  prevailing 
shimmering  silvery-grey  tone. 

The  thornwood  becomes  more  scattered  towards  the 
dry  interior,  and  passes  into  an  acacia  semi-desert,  but 
towards  the  east,  and  on  moister  soils,  it  invades  the 
savana  and  passes  to  a  park-prairie  with  grass-glades. 
The  scrub  and  the  grass,  however,  never  intermingle. 
The  thorny  bush  advances  in  the  midst  of  the  swards 
with  an  unbroken,  impenetrable  front,  and,  untouched 
by  cattle  or  sheep,  slowly  claims  the  grass  expanses 
which  have  been  exhausted  by  excessive  grazing. 

The  Mallee  Scrub  belongs  to  the  half-arid  interior  of 
the  southern  and  south-western  portions  of  Australia,  in 
a  warm  temperate  climate.  The  impression  given  by 
a  Mallee  landscape  is  one  of  extreme  monotony:  'A 
boundless,  waving  sea  of  yellowish-brown  bushes.  In 
the  far  distance  is  the  blue  outline  of  an  isolated  hill  or 
a  granite  top.  Otherwise  the  uniform  dark-brown  circle 
of   the   horizon    remains   unbroken,  silent  and  motion- 

N  2 


180  AUSTRALIA 

less,  except  for  the  plaintive  cry  of  the  scrub  fowl  or 
the  rustle  of  the  dry  twigs  stirred  by  a  puff  of  wind.' 
This  scrub  is  composed,  in  the  main,  of  three  or  four 
bushy  forms  of  eucalyptus,  crowded  together.  Each 
shrub  consists  of  a  close  crop  or  bundle  of  long,  thin 
shoots,  of  the  height  of  a  man,  ending  in  bunches  of 
long  dull-green,  leathery  leaves.  A  small  conifer,  callUrie, 
occurs  occasionally  in  the  bush :  elsewhere,  the  strange 
melaleucas,  the  leafless  casuarinas,  and  a  few  others 
with  heath -like  or  vertical  leaves,  appear  where  the 
scrub  opens.  There  is  no  grass,  and  hardly  any  flowers 
on  the  bare,  yellow  or  rust-coloured  soil.  Seasons  may 
pass  without  altering  the  aspect  of  the  Mallee,  to  which 
no  exact  analogue  is  known  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

The  Mulga  appears  to  correspond  in  some  measure 
to  the  acacia  semi-desert  of  Africa;  but  its  aspect  is 
more  varied,  its  definition  more  vague  than  that  of 
either  the  Brigalow  or  the  Mallee.  The  name  is  probably 
applied  to  the  semi-desert  scrub  which  borders  on  the 
desert  and  penetrates  into  it.  Thus  the  western  margin 
of  the  great  plateau  with  a  rainfall  under  10  inches, 
the  eastern  foot  of  the  same  tableland  from  south  to 
north,  and  the  strip  of  higher  ground  with  hill-ranges 
that  separate  the  great  sandy  desert  on  the  north 
from  the  great  Victoria  desert  on  the  south  and  enclose 
many  tracts  of  pure  desert,  appear  to  answer  to  the 
description  of  the  Mulga  territory. 

Mulga  appears  to  be  made  up  of  a  scattered  scrub  of 
thorny  acacias,  with  a  ragged  carpet  of  grass.  Some- 
times it  is  said  to  crowd  into  dense  thickets ;  sometimes 
it  resembles  a  low  meagre  sward  studded  with  bush 
acacias :  in  this  form  it  is  the  equivalent  of  the  marginal 
vegetation  of  the  Sudanese  Sahara ;  sometimes  it  occurs 
as  oases  in  the  desert.     Among  the  good  fodder-grasses 


THE  MULGA 


181 


available  there  are  reckoned  several  species  of  those 
kinds  of  andropogon,  aristida,  stipa,  &c,  which  occur 
also  in  arid  parts  of  Africa  and  America:  others,  like 
the  kangaroo  grass  and  the  porcupine  grass,  are  restricted 
to  Australia.  The  typical  desert  grass  is  the  spinifex, 
whose  little  balls  of  long,  narrow,  hairy  leaves  are 
anchored  in  the  sand  by  means  of  a  network  of  long, 


i. 


^"^frY 


Fig.  63.    A  station  in  the  Savana  Country,  N.  Australia. 
Note  the  grass  trees. 

thin,  wiry  roots.     This  scrub  may  ultimately  be  reduced 
to  a  thin  carpet  of  flowering  herbs,  with  little  grass. 

The  large  alkali  tracts  of  the  central  lowlands,  as  in 
other  arid  countries,  are  covered  with  juicy  and  fleshy 
salt  bushes.  In  the  north  the  swamps  are  beset  by 
relatives  of  the  spinach,  the  rhagodia,  and,  miihlenbecJcia. 
These  salt  steppes  provide  a  good  feeding  for  sheep  and 
cattle. 


182  AUSTRALIA 

Some  forms  of  what  is  here  included  under  Mutea  are 
not  entirely  without  economic  use.  They  may  serve  as 
grazing  grounds  during  the  rainy  years,  but  the  fluc- 
tuations of  the  precipitation  render  their  pasturage 
precarious  and  temporary. 

Great  Central  Desert.  This  covers  the  largest  part 
of  the  western  tableland  and  portions  of  the  central 
lowland,  and  is  split  into  a  number  of  minor  areas  like 
the  Great  Sandy  Desert,  the  Gibson  Desert,  the  Victoria 
Desert,  and  others.  Beyond  the  fact  that  it  contains  no 
grass  other  than  solitary  tufts  of  triodia  and  spinifex 
and,  occasionally,  shrubs  of  acacia  and  casuarlna  which 
correspond  to  the  gum  acacias  and  the  tamarisks  of  the 
Sahara,  little  is  known  of  its  specific  vegetation.  It  has 
no  oases,  properly  speaking,  but  only  approximations  to 
them  in  the  shape  of  patches  of  Mulga.  However,  there 
is  a  '  Glen  of  Palms '  on  the  north  slope  of  Macdonnell 
Range. 

Murray-Darling  Valley  and  South  Australia.  At 
the  back  of  the  south-eastern  highlands  the  plains  are 
clothed  with  a  grass-land  of  a  warm  temperate  type, 
the  surface  of  which  is  sprinkled  over  with  trees  and 
shrubs — a  park  landscape  resembling  some  formations 
of  southern  Rhodesia  or  of  southern  Brazil  and 
Uruguay.  A  similar  park  grass -land  of  a  warm 
temperate  stamp  existed  at  one  time  along  the  coast 
of  South  Australia,  but  it  has  been  largely  transformed 
for  agricultural  purposes. 

Here  again  eucalyptus,  acacias,  mimosas,  and  other 
brightly  flowering  trees  and  shrubs  compose  the  higher 
vegetation,  while  among  the  short  grasses  are  inter- 
spersed a  large  number  of  beautiful  herbs,  which  burst 
into  flower  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season  in 
winter :    the   summer  is  parched  and  scorching.     One 


MURRAY-DARLING  VALLEY 


183 


encounters  here  an  approximation  to  the  condition  of 
the  mediterranean  climates  ;  and  this  is  increasingly  the 
case  as  one  travels  farther  south. 

These  lands  within  the  belts  of  20  inches  of  rain- 
fall should  form  excellent  wheat  and  maize  territories, 
but  a  large  part  of  them  also  affords  a  vast  scope  to 
pastoral  industries. 


Fig.  04.     Savana  landscape  in  East  Australia. 


Mediterranean  Portions  of  Southern  Australia.    The 

belt  of  westerly  storms  of  the  austral  ocean  advances 
northwards  in  winter  and  reaches  the  two  southern  ex- 
tensions of  Australia,  creating  a  climate  almost  exactly 
similar  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean.  Accordingly,  the 
vegetation  of  south-western  Australia  and  that  of  South 
Victoria  is  in  many  respects  a  replica  of  that  of  the 
Mediterranean,  of  central  Chile,  and  of  California.     Its 


184 


AUSTRALIA 


most   luxuriant   expression   is   found  along  the  south- 
western shore  of  Australia,  in  majestic  evergreen  forests 


Fig.  65.     Gum-tree  or  Eucalyptus  Forest  in  Australia. 

of  tall  eucalyptus,  with  an  abundant  undergrowth  of 
hard-leaved  shrubs,  but  practically  no  grass  carpet.  It 
is  extremely  rich  in  remarkable  shrubs  with  beautiful 


MEDITERRANEAN  PORTIONS  OF  AUSTRALIA  185 

flowers.  Here  is  the  home  of  these  gorgeous  shrubs — 
acacias,  mimosas,  proteas,  banksias,  and  heath-like 
Epacrldaceae — which  are  now  cultivated  along  the 
Mediterranean  and  provide  us  with  flowers  in  mid- 
winter. At  the  back  of  this  belt  the  rainfall  diminishes 
very  rapidly,  and  the  scrub,  mainly  of  the  Mallee  type, 
interspersed  with  grass-lands,  forms  an  intermediate 
zone  leading  to  the  inland  Mulga. 

Along  the  shores  of  the  Spencer  Gulf,  the  forest  form 
is  much  less  developed,  but  the  undergrowth  of  hard- 
leaved  shrubs  builds  extensive  scrub  which  exactly 
corresponds  to  the  Californian  chaparral  and  to  the  Medi- 
terranean and  South  African  maquis.  These  formations, 
which  are  sometimes  termed  sand-heaths,  are  frequently 
interrupted  by  tracts  of  Mallee. 

It  was  to  be  expected  that  there  should  be  a  free 
interchange  of  natural  products  between  countries  so 
similar  as  this  and  the  Mediterranean  and  California. 
From  Europe,  Australia  took  the  vine,  the  olive,  the 
orange,  and  indeed  most  of  its  fruit-trees,  while  it  sent 
back  eucalyptus,  acacia,  and  a  large  number  of  other 
shrubs  and  ornamental  perennials.  Quite  naturally, 
these  Australian  Rivieras  are  developing  along  the  same 
lines  as  the  Mediterranean  and  Californian,  with  which 
they  compete  as  regards  the  vine,  orange,  and  other 
fruits. 

Savana  Woods.  Perhaps  the  most  extensive  and  the 
most  useful  plant- formation  of  Australia,  as  it  is  also 
the  most  characteristic,  is  the  eucalyptus  savana. 

Africa  has  the  baobab,  the  ceiba,  and  the  borassus 
palm,  and  many  leaf-shedding  trees  in  its  savanas ; 
South  America  possesses  also  savana  woods  of  the 
deciduous  type;  but  Australia  possesses  in  the  euca- 
lyptus an  evergreen  timber-tree  of  the  greatest  beauty 


186  AUSTRALIA 

and  economic  value.  In  the  mediterranean  coastal  strip 
of  West  Australia  the  eucalyptus  forest  is,  properly 
speaking,  an  evergreen  woodland  overtopped  by  euca- 
lyptus trees ;  but  in  eastern  Australia,  over  most  of  the 
coastal  highlands  as  well  as  over  a  broad  margin  of 
plains  on  the  inland  side,  the  eucalyptus  is  intimately 
associated  with  the  grass-land.     It  stands  either  singly 


Fig.  66.     Eucalyptus  forest  cleared  for  wheat :  harvest  time — S.  Australi 

or  in  loose  forests :  when  single,  it  is  regularly  dotted 
over  the  grassy  plain  without  undergrowth,  and  casts 
hardly  any  shade  by  reason  of  the  vertical  drooping  of  its 
scythe-like  leaves :  when  it  occurs  in  regular  forests,  as 
in  the  mountains,  it  may  be  entirely  destitute  of  any 
undergrowth  other  than  grass,  or  possess  a  sort  of 
scrubby   underwood   of    evergreens.      The   forests   are 


188  AUSTRALIA 

always  loose,  and  extremely  clear,  and  the  trees  reach 
huge  dimensions,  rising  sometimes  to  300-400  feet, 
furnishing  an  excellent  timber.  The  strong  tap-root 
is  able  to  reach  the  ground-water  at  great  depths. 
They  may  be  truly  represented  as  the  most  useful  trees 
of  Australia. 

From  tropical  Queensland  to  New  South  Wales  the 
land  covered  by  savana  woods  is  extremely  favourable 
to  agriculture,  and  the  range  of  produce  that  can  be 
raised  with  success  is  enormous,  including  sugar-cane, 
cotton,  pine  apple,  mango,  and  other  equatorial  produce, 
as  well  as  mediterranean,  and  even  northern  crops  and 
fruits  in  the  south.  The  eucalyptus  savana  is  equally 
favourable  to  grazing  and  derived  industries.  The  belt 
characterized  by  it,  on  account  of  its  extent  and  fertility, 
may  be  said  to  be  the  greatest  agricultural  asset  of 
Australia. 

South-eastern  Temperate  Bain-forest.  The  seaward 
slopes  of  the  eastern  highlands,  south  of  the  tropics  to 
Cape  Moore,  receive  rain  fairly  regularly  throughout 
the  year,  and  enjoy  a  mild,  moist,  and  equable  climate, 
which  determines  the  development  of  temperate  rain- 
forests. This  hilly  coastal  strip  is  soon  followed  inland 
by  the  mountain  ranges. 

The  Australian  temperate  rain-forest  has  a  physiog- 
nomy of  its  own,  distinct  from  that  of  any  other  in  the 
world.  This  is  due  again  to  the  presence  of  the  colossal 
gum-trees,  300-400  feet  high,  which  compose  an  irregular 
and  light  canopy,  far  above  the  lower  tier.  The  latter* 
which  resembles  the  rain-forest  proper,  is  characterized 
by  an  abundance  of  graceful  tree-ferns,  the  cyatheas, 
alsophilas,  dicksonias,  and  todeas,  of  arboreal  com- 
rpositae,  acacias,  arid  proteaceae,  together  with  large 
climbing  ferns  and  grasses,  while  the  undergrowth  is 


SOUTH-EASTERN  TEMPERATE  RAIN-FOREST  189 

crowded  with  ferns.  In  the  valleys,  the  second  tier 
consists  almost  exclusively  of  those  tree-  and  herb-ferns 
which  have  given  the  name  to  the  famous  fern-gullies  of 
south-eastern  Australia. 

The  orange  and  vine,  and  cereals,  chiefly  maize,  are 
grown,  and  dairy  farming,  and  many  other  such  indus- 
tries, give  an  unlimited  scope  to  the  agriculture  of  this 
wealthy  territory. 

Northern  Portion  of  the  Eastern  Highlands.  Within 
the  tropics,  the  eastern  part  of  the  Queensland  highlands 
receives  the  benefit  of  the  south-east  trades  and  of  the 
summer  monsoon,  but  it  is  only  along  narrow  and 
short  strips  here  and  there  that  the  rainfall  is  sufficient 
to  support  the  true  selva  or  rain- forest.  The  general 
vegetation  is  of  that  lighter  type  of  tropical  forest  called 
'jungle  '  in  India  and  '  bush '  in  Australia.  The  euca- 
lypti, acacias,  and  banksias  play  here  quite  a  secondary 
part  in  the  vegetation :  they  are  replaced  by  true 
tropical  species  allied  to  those  of  the  Indo-  Malayan  flora  ; 
among  them  is  found  a  stinging- tree  or  tree-nettle. 
Near  the  tropic  appear  several  kinds  of  araucarias,  one 
of  which  gives  an  edible  nut.  As  may  be  expected,  all 
tropical  produce  can  be  freely  grown  here. 

Tasmania  consists  of  a  high  tableland  about  3,000  feet 
in  elevation,  rising  and  falling  in  step-like  terraces,  and 
surrounded  by  a  broken  and  difficult  hill-land.  The 
whole  island  is  fairly  well  watered,  especially  in  the 
west,  and  its  climate  is  mild.  The  central  plateau  is 
a  grass- land  of  park-like  aspect,  while  the  mountain 
girdle  is  clad  with  forests  similar  to  those  of  south- 
eastern Australia,  where  the  giant  eucalypti  and  the 
tree-ferns  are  most  conspicuous.  In  the  west  and  south, 
evergreen  beeches  and  conifers,  mostly  peculiar  to  the 
island,  impart   to   the  forests  the  appearance  of   those 


«&* 


Fig.  68.     Tree-ferns  in  a  gully,  Blue  Mountains,  S.E.  Australia. 


TASMANIA  191 

of  southern  Chile  and  southern  New  Zealand.  The 
central  grassy  plateau  is  naturally  mainly  pastoral, 
while  agriculture  finds  very  favourable  conditions  in 
the  valleys,  and  lumbering  on  the  slopes. 

New  Guinea  is  completely  equatorial  in  its  climate. 
The  interior  is  as  yet  practically  unknown,  but  it  appears 
to  be  entirely  wooded.  The  northern  portion,  separated 
from  the  south  by  a  high  mountain-range,  supports  the 
densest  type  of  tropical  rain-forest,  while  in  the  south, 
which  is  somewhat  drier,  the  selva  proper  appears  to  be 
confined  to  the  river  margins,  a  lighter  forest  or  jungle 
occupying  the  intervening  lands.  It  is  also  known 
that  typical  savanas,  with  eucalypti  recalling  those  of 
Australia,  are  found  inland  about  1,200  to  1,500  feet 
on  the  southern  side. 

New  Caledonia,  parallel  to  the  coastal  range  of 
Queensland,  and  situated  on  the  margin  of  the  tropical 
belt,  within  the  trade-wind  belt,  enjoys  a  healthy, 
equable,  and  relatively  dry  climate.  Broadly  speaking, 
it  is  divided  by  a  long  inland  chain  of  mountains  and 
high  plateaus  into  a  moister  eastern  and  a  drier  western 
portion.  The  coastal  strip  of  lowlands,  up  to  1,000  feet, 
recalls  the  semi-arid  belt  of  northern  Australia,  with  a 
vegetation  of  savanas  and  a  peculiar  kind  of  wood- 
land, with  scattered,  stunted  melaleucas,  small  trees  40 
feet  high,  arising  out  of  an  entirely  bare  ground.  Only 
the  river  margins  possess  parallel  bands  of  tropical 
forest.  The  slopes  from  1,000  to  3,000  feet  are  more 
regularly  timbered  except  on  the  ridges,  and  their 
forests  greatly  resemble  the  rain-forests  of  south-eastern 
Australia.  The  upper  forest  belt  displays  a  great  wealth 
of  conifers,  including  araucarias  and  ferns.  The  dry, 
stony  plateaus  are  covered  with  a  short  evergreen  scrub. 
The  variety  of  the  vegetation  and  of  the  resources  in 


192 


AUSTRALIA 


timber,  pastures,  and  agricultural  land,  and  the  pleasant- 
ness of  the  climate,  make  New  Caledonia  a  little  inde- 
pendent world  capable  of  the  highest  development,  like 
New  Zealand  and  Tasmania. 

New  Zealand  is  entirely  situated  in  the  temperate 
latitudes,  corresponding  to  those  of  southern  Europe, 
and  enjoys,  on  the  whole,  a  very  mild  equable  climate. 


Fig.  69.     Kauri  Logs  and  Furest,  N.  Zealand. 


Only  the  upper  reaches  of  the  southern  Alps  rise  to  the 
cold  belt  and  possess  permanent  glaciers. 

The  distribution  of  the  rainfall  over  the  North  Island 
and  the  northern  point  of  South  Island  is  fairly  uniform 
and  abundant  throughout  the  year.  This  combination 
of  an  equable  and  mild  climate  with  a  plentiful  moisture 
is  ideal  for  the  development  of  the  temperate  rain-forest, 
which  finds  here  a  luxuriant  expression.     One  or  two 


NEW  ZEALAND  193 

species  of  the  smaller  palms  give  a  touch  of  the  sub- 
tropics,  while  the  wealth  of  tree-ferns  recalls  south- 
eastern Australia.  Stately  conifers,  however,  of  species 
entirely  confined  to  this  region — the  kauri  (dammara), 
the  kahikatea  (podocavpus),  &c,  among  them — give 
the  temperate  stamp  to  the  '  Bush  '.  There  are  many 
other  huge  trees,  most  of  them  with  leathery,  oval 
leaves.  The  extreme  luxuriance  of  the  forest  is  due  to 
countless  ferns,  mosses,  and  lichens,  &c.  climbers,  creepers, 
and  shrubs,  which  make  progress  almost  impossible. 
A  specific  feature  is  the  absence  of  bright  flowers. 

Towards  the  south,  the  small-leaved  evergreen  beech 
(called  '  black  birch ')  becomes  increasingly  abundant, 
and  the  forest  loses  much  of  its  profusion,  assuming  the 
aspect  of  the  south  Chilian  beech  forest.  The  evergreen 
beech  only  covers  the  western  slopes  of  the  southern 
Alps.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  range,  the  rainfall 
has  decreased  to  30-40  inches,  and  the  forest  remains 
confined,  in  an  impoverished  condition,  to  the  moister 
gullies.  The  undulating  plain  which  extends  at  the  foot 
of  the  Alps  in  spite  of  a  fair  rainfall,  is  so  swept  by 
winds  as  to  become  comparatively  dry.  Tree-growth  is 
scattered  and  low.  The  plain  is  covered  with  a  sort  of 
park-prairie  orpark-steppe,excellent  alike  for  grazing  and 
agriculture:  here  is  the  home  of  the  New  Zealand  flax. 

The  natural  resources  of  New  Zealand  are  varied  and 
abundant.  The  timber  is  extremely  valuable  and  plen- 
tiful yet,  despite  its  rapid  destruction.  Agriculture  and 
grazing  are  very  prosperous.  Subtropical  and  medi- 
terranean fruits,  maize  and  hard  wheat,  as  well  as  all 
our  temperate  produce,  are  grown  in  large  quantities. 
With  its  healthy  climate,  and  the  influx  of  the  white 
population,  it  has  now  come  abreast  of  European  com- 
munities in  every  respect.     The  natives  themselves,  now 

1159.1  O 


194 


AUSTRALIA 


fast  disappearing,  had  reached  a  fair  stage  of  civilization 
before  the  arrival  of  the  white  man. 

Pacific  Islands.  The  great  bulk  of  the  countless 
Pacific  islands  lie  within  the  intra-tropical  belt,  and 
therefore  enjoy  a  thoroughly  equable,  warm,  and  rainy 
climate,  the  outcome  of  which  is  a  luxuriant  forest 
growth.    Palms   constitute    one    of    the    most    common 


-     :'. 


" 


Fig.  70.     Pineapple  Plantation. 


features  of  these  islands.  The  coco-nut  palm,  which 
forms  a  fringe  round  most  islands,  and  the  sago' palm 
are  the  most  useful.  Yams  and  colocasias  furnish 
starch-containing  roots.  The  bread-fruit  tree  and  the 
banana  offer  an  easy  and  abundant  food.  Numerous 
spices  are  also  found,  while  cultivation  can  raise  the 
whole  range  of  tropical  fruits  and  produce.  Mangrove  - 
swamps  occur  occasionally  on  muddy  shores. 


CHAPTER  V 

AFRICA 

General.  Well  astride  of  the  equator,  the  dark  conti- 
nent is  the  most  symmetrical  of  the  large  land  masses. 
With  its  centre  in  the  belt  of  equatorial  calms  and  rains, 
it  passes  through  the  regions  of  trade  winds  into  those 
of  tropical  high  pressures,  clear  skies,  and  droughts, 
exposing  only  a  narrow  fringe  on  either  side  to  the 
mediterranean  climates.  In  its  broad  features,  African 
vegetation  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

Mediterranean 
Tropical  Deserts 
Tropical  Savanas 
Equatorial  Selva 

Tropical  Savanas 

Tropical  Deserts 

Mediterranean. 

The  symmetry  of  this  diagram  is  broken  by  the 
unequal  distribution  of  African  lands  in  the  two  hemi- 
spheres. The  much  greater  area  under  the  northern 
tropic  not  only  exposes  a  larger  surface  to  drought 
but  tends  to  emphasize  the  aridity  of  the  climate,  by 
a  sort  of  cumulative  effect :  hence  the  striking  disparity 
between  the  Sahara  and  the  austral  deserts.  Yet  that 
the  ratios  between  arid  and  total  areas  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  equator  are  so  disproportionate  is  not 
adequately  explained  by  a  mere  consideration  of  total 
surfaces.  South  Africa  is  open  to  the  moisture- bearing 
winds  from    the  boundless  austral  ocean,  without  any 

o  2 


196 


AFRICA 


interference;  while  the  north  and  east  of  the  continent 
is  dominated  by  the  vast  mass  of  Eurasia  from  which  no 
moisture  comes.  The  relative  lowness  of  most  of  northern 
Africa,   as    contrasted   with  the  high  elevation  of  the 


Fig.  71.     Physical  Features  of  Africa. 

southern  extremity,  also  permits  much  less  condensation. 
Owing  "to  those  circumstances,  in  southern  Africa  the 
place  of  the  desert  is  taken  by  a  vast  extent  of  very  dry> 
but  not  desert,  grass-land. 


GENERAL 


197 


The  western  extension  of  the  continent  for  thirty 
degrees  of  longitude  under  the  northern  tropic,  the 
excessive  heating  of  the  atmosphere  over  the  broiling 


INCHES 
Under  10 
10    -   20 

ao  -  «o  £= 

40  -  80 
Over  80 


Fjo.  72.  Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  Africa. 


pZ^£-*< 

Trafit  of  Canozr^  „  .  .  _  _  ^ .. .  ,  . 

TO^ 

\    y        \. 

J        *^3* 

Eauaior               J         /""N. 

J_        "     i  i  ij \      1     < 

JANUARY  ^ 

Fig.  73.  Seasonal  Distribution  of  Rainfall. 
TO 


Fig.  74.    Mean  Temperature  of  Africa,  reduced  to  sea-level. 

surface  of  that  desert,  and  the  existence  of  a  sufficient 
relief  along  the  Guinea  coast  at  sub-equatorial  latitudes, 
combine    to    produce    a    partly    monsoon    and    partly 


198 


AFRICA 


equatorial  belt  of  excessive  moisture  and  the  exuberant 
Guinea  selva.  The  equatorial  rain-forest  is  not  carried 
over  from  shore  to  shore.     This  is  to  be  explained  by 


H  Mediterranean\^gQ 

□  Desert  &Poor  Scrub 

ED  Scrub 

EE3  Steppe 

Mountain  fbresT:  &  Grass 
Park  Land  (Savana) 
HotW*  foreft 


Fig  75.     Vegetation  of  Africa. 

the  absence  of  moist  north-eastern  trade  winds ;  by  the 
eastern  equatorial  portion  being  an  elevated  plateau  ;  by 
the  south-eastern  trade  winds  exhausting  their  moisture 


GENERAL  199 

first  on  Madagascar,  and  the  irregular  mountains  that 
skirt  the  eastern  tableland  ;  and  by  part  of  the  mon- 
soons being  deflected  and  drawn  towards  the  lofty  mass 
of  Abyssinia.  As  a  consequence,  the  mountain  and  hill- 
ranges  strewn  over  the  high  plains  alone  have  sufficient 
moisture  for  the  maintenance  of  heavy  rain-forests,  and 
these  are  so  high  that  they  are  mountain  forests  rather 
than  selvas.  The  undulating  high  plain  has  a  savana 
climate  and  vegetation. 

The  elevation  of  the  Congo  basin  and  the  barriers 
surrounding  it  reduce  the  rainfall,  and  thus  the  area 
of  the  selvas,  which  are  neither  so  widespread  nor  so 
strongly  developed  as  those  of  the  Amazoni.  South  of 
them  the  savana  covers  nearly  the  whole  breadth  of  austral 
Africa.  The  tropical  type  of  grass-lands  passes  with 
higher  latitudes  into  a  subtropical,  then  to  a  temperate 
type.  The  bulk  of  the  grass  area  corresponds  to  the 
trade-winds  belt  on  the  oceans,  and  with  the  elevated 
austral  plateau  on  land.  The  sea  winds  spend  their 
moisture  on  the  eastern  and  southern  scarps  of  the 
plateau,  which  are  in  consequence  covered  with  a  girdle 
of  forests.  The  tableland  has  only  a  moderate  rainfall, 
and  the  evaporation  is  greater. 

Mediterranean  Africa.  The  Atlas  Ranges  separate 
from  Africa  a  strip  of  mountainous  land,  whose  climate 
is  closely  related  to  that  of  central  and  eastern  Spain. 
Mediterranean  Africa  or  Mauretania,  as  it  was  formerly 
called,  extends  from  Tunis  to  Mogador,  and  it  includes 
a  long  and  winding  valley  called  the  Tell  hemmed  in 
between  a  lower  and  much  broken  coastal  range  and  the 
northern  slopes  of  the  Atlas.  This  broadens  in  the  ex- 
treme west  into  fertile  plains  open  to  the  Atlantic 
winds.  On  the  whole,  the  country  is  fertile,  and  the 
vegetation  resembles  that  of  the  mediterranean  portion 


200  AFRICA 

of  Spain.  Had  it  been  preserved  in  its  original  state, 
it  would  have  been  that  of  an  open  woodland  and 
shrub] and  of  hard-leaved  evergreens  where  the  grass 
is  dry  and  wiry,  finding  a  parallel  in  the  valleys  of 
California  and  Central  Chile.  Successive  girdles  of 
vegetation  depend  on  altitude.  The  lowest  zone  consists 
of  the  coastal  and  western  plains    of   the   Tell  valley. 


Fig.  76.     Gorge  in  Mountains  of  Algeria. 

This  is  covered  with  forests  of  Aleppo  pines,  cork  oaks, 
and  white  or  deciduous  oaks,  of  palm  groves,  and  olive 
clumps,  varying  with  the  soil.  The  undergrowth  consists 
of  numerous  evergreen  shrubs  such  as  tree-heath,  dwarf- 
oak,  cistus,  lentiscus,  rosemary,  &c,  and  still  more  numer- 
ous undershrubs  such  as  thyme  and  lavender.  The 
forests  have  now  been  almost  entirely  cleared  away 
for  agricultural  purposes.     In   the  fields  are  to  be  seen 


MEDITERRANEAN  AFRICA. 


201 


olives,  figs,  date-palms,  vines,  and  other  fruit-trees; 
tobacco,  maize,  lucerne,  &c.  Waste  lands  are  covered 
with  a  high  and  dense  scrub  of  prickly  green  bushes 


Fig.  77,     Atlas  Cedars— Algeria. 


forming  the  maquis,   or  with  close  thickets    of   dwarf 
palms. 

On  the  lower  slopes  some  prosperous  forests  of  ever- 
green oaks   have    been    left.     Cork   oaks    predominate 


202  AFRICA 

below,  with  undergrowth  of  myrtles,  tree-heaths,  straw- 
berry trees  and  other  shrubs,  while  ilex  forests  are  more 
abundant  farther  up.  Most  of  the  original  covering  has 
long  been  destroyed,  as  in  the  plain,  and  the  slopes  are 
clad  with  dense  scrub,  when  they  are  not  entirely  bare. 

At  about  1,600  feet,  mountain  vegetation,  represented 
by  the  cedar  of  the  Atlas,  mingles  with  the  holm-oak, 
above  this  the  cedar  forms  the  forest,  mixed  here  and  there 
with  deciduous  trees  up  to  the  tree  limit  at  5,500  feet. 
Loose  brushes  of  lavender  and  other  small  bushes  are 
scattered  over  the  stony  tops.  The  upper  girdles  have 
been  somewhat  better  preserved,  perhaps  on  account  of 
their  steeper  slopes. 

The  variety  of  cultivation  which  is  possible  in  this 
part  of  Africa  offered  great  scope  to  the  settled  tribes  of 
Kabyles  and  Berbers.  Unfortunately  pastoral  and  more 
warlike  tribes  conquered  the  land,  and  have  held  it  now 
for  centuries  and  kept  it  back.  Strife  between  agri- 
culturist and  nomad  is  still  rampant  in  the  western 
or  Moroccan  region,  and  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  its 
prosperity.  The  easternmost  outlier  of  typical  Mediter- 
ranean evergreen  vegetation  is  found  in  Cyrenaica  or 
Barka,  but  in  a  much  poorer  form.  Mauretania,  with 
its  desirable  climate  and  the  rich  rewards  it  offers  to 
human  industry,  has  at  all  times  attracted  invasions 
from  the  east.  Its  historical  ground  is  bestrewn  with 
the  ruins  of  the  Mediterranean  civilizations,  Greek, 
Phoenician,  Roman,  Arab,  which  it  successively  shared. 

The  Atlas  Intermont  Plateaus.  Behind  the  great 
barrier  of  the  Northern  Atlas  is  an  elevated  region  of 
vast  arid  plateaus,  arranged  in  parallel  terraces  and 
dotted  with  innumerable  salt  lakes  or  ( shotts '.  Those 
plateaus  reappear  south  of  the  Saharan  Atlas,  running 
as  a  sort  of  shelf  along  the  foot  of  the  inland  slopes  of 


THE  ATLAS  JNTERMONT  PLATEAUS     203 

the  range.  In  this  region  the  rainfall  is  greatly  reduced 
and  the  climate  is  semi-desert,  although  heavy  downpours 
may  occasionally  cause  disastrous  floods.  The  variations 
of  heat  and  cold  are  necessarily  greater  than  in  the 
surrounding  lowlands. 

These  high  plains  give  us  a  foretaste  of  the  great  desert. 
At  first  sight  there  seems  to  be  nothing  but  a  boundless 
sea  of  scattered  tufts  of  alfa  or  esparto  grass  over 
stony  plateaus.  Soon,  however,  one  discovers  a  network 
of  broad  and  winding,  waterless  river-beds  converging 
towards  the  shallow  shotts.  These  are  marked  by  other 
steppes,  covered  chiefly  with  wormwood,  in  small  whitish 
bunches.  The  saline  tracts  surrounding  the  shotts  are 
laid  out  in  belts  of  fleshy  salt-bushes  or  succulents. 
Small  dunes  may  interrupt  these  belts.  They  are  the 
home  of  a  desert-grass,  the  '  drinn '  (aristida  pungens), 
a  favourite  fodder  of  camels.  Trees  are  absent,  or  con- 
fined to  some  isolated  and  thin  orchards  in  the  more 
fertile  hollows  with  some  ground  moisture.  They  are 
reduced  to  the  size  and  shape  of  shrubs  such  as  the 
batoum  pistacio  and  the  thorny  jujube-tree. 

Amid  such  arid  tracts,  fresh- water  sources  and  oases 
are  welcome  features.  Large  oases  line  the  southern 
shelf  of  the  Saharan  Atlas  :  the  largest  of  them,  Figuig, 
Ain-Sefra,  Laghuat,  Biskra,  appear  like  seas  of  waving 
date-palms.  They  are  the  true  gates  of  the  desert, 
the  starting-points  of  those  thin  straggling  lines  of 
travel  which  span  the  immensity;  but  there  are  hun- 
dreds of  other  sources  of  water,  in  which  man  has 
bored  wells.  By  thus  tapping  and  utilizing  the  waters,  he 
has  dotted  the  desert  with  fertile  orchards  arid  gardens 
of  fresh  verdure. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  Saharan  Atlas  is  much 
drier  than  the  northern   branch ;    the  slopes    are  now 


204  AFRICA 

mostly  bare,  with  blue-green  patches  of  alfa  grass,  and 
only  in  the  ravines  and  at  the  heads  of  gorges,  sheltered 
and  inaccessible,  can  scattered  woods  of  green  oak, 
Aleppo  pine,  and  juniper  be  discovered :  they  are 
probably  vestiges  of  once  much  more  extensive  forests. 
The  high  plateaus  can  support  but  temporarily  the 
passing  herds  of  sheep  and  goats,  or  trains  of  camels 
and  horses.  The  esparto  grass  is,  however,  a  valuable 
product,  the  collection  of  which  occupies  a  few  hundreds 
of  workmen  scattered  in  wandering  communities  along 
the  railway  lines. 

The  African  Islands.  The  Canary  Islands  grouped 
on  the  west  coast  of  the  Sahara  are  able,  by  reason 
of  their  altitude,  to  condense  a  certain  amount  of  oceanic 
moisture,  and  form  a  link  between  the  Mediterranean 
region  and  the  desert.  The  lower  slopes  are  related 
with  the  neighbouring  mainland  in  point  of  aridity. 
Their  vegetation  is  of  semi-desert  character,  consisting 
mainly  of  succulent  plants.  The  dragon  tree  and  the 
Canary  date-palm  are  the  chief  treas,  in  addition  to  the 
olive,  the  Atlantic  pistacia,  and  the  Phoenician  juniper. 
Outside  the  cultivated  alluvial  valleys,  this  belt  offers 
little  else  than  stone  fields  and  rocks  bestrewn  with 
succulents  and  meagre  bushes  of  the  broom  and  heather 
type.  The  middle  belt,  from  4,000  to  7,000  feet,  has 
open  slopes  clad  with  scrub  of  mediterranean  character, 
and  in  the  secluded  gorges,  temperate  evergreen  rain- 
forests have  found  refuge.  The  extension  of  Canary 
pine-forests  above  the  preceding  zone  coincides  with 
the  belt  of  clouds  and  mists  which  frequently  hide  the 
upper  slopes.  More  or  less  scattered  bushes  of  retama, 
a  kind  of  broom,  characterize  the  Alpine  zone,  which 
reaches  8,500  feet. 

The  Canary  Islands  have  played  an  important  part  in 


THE  AFRICAN  ISLANDS  205 

the  history  of  agriculture :  a  number  of  products  of  the 
Old  World,  such  as  the  sugar-cane  and  the  banana,  only 
became  American  after  a  stage  of  acclimatization  in 
those  islands.  The  native  populations,  now  wiped  out, 
were  mainly  agricultural,  and  reached  a  fairly  high 
standard  of  civilization. 

Madeira,  with  very  much  the  same  plant- life,  enjoys 
a  moister  climate,  while,  except  for  a  few  fertile  spots, 
the  Cape  Verde  Islands  remain  huge  naked  blocks  of 
lava. 

Sahara.  Three  main  aspects  have  been  distinguished 
in  the  Great  Desert.  They  are  produced  not  by  climatic 
differences  but  by  the  nature  of  the  surface. 

The  Hamada,  or  rocky  desert,  is  due  to  the  cracking 
and  splitting  of  the  rocks  by  alternate  expansions  and 
contractions  brought  about  by  abrupt  changes  of  tem- 
perature. It  occurs  as  bare  hills,  as  tablelands  intersected 
by  waterless  river-beds,  as  undulating  expanses  and 
broken  outcrops,  or  as  isolated  blocks,  vestiges  of  the  prim- 
itive surface,  rising  above  the  accumulated  detritus.  Low 
bushes  are  sparsely  scattered  on  the  bare  floor,  anchoring 
their  roots  in  the  fissures  and  cracks.  Despite  the  scarcity 
of  the  vegetation,  it  is  surprising  to  find  in  the  hamada 
a  large  variety  of  species,  among  which  are  the  alfa,  the 
white  artemisia,  and  several  sage-like  shrubs,  or  again 
various  loose  and  leafless  undershrubs.  When  the  waste 
rocks  of  the  ruined  hamada  are  worn  down  to  pebbles 
and  gravel,  or  where  the  surface  is  clayey  and  stony,  the 
desert  is  known  as  '  reg '  or  '  areg '.  This  gives  the  im- 
pression of  a  flat,  boundless,  almost  plantless  waste  of 
pebbles,  where  sheep  and  camels  can  find  practically  no 
food.  The  immense  barren  is  dotted  with  what  at  first 
sight  appear  like  rounded,  low,  whitish  boulders,  but, 
on  inspection,  turn  out  to  be  extremely  dense  tussocks 


206 


AFRICA 


of  a  cushion  plant,  the  anabasis,  also  called  '  desert 
cauliflower'.  Such  tussocks  are  made  up  of  packed 
bundles  of  wiry  shoots  bristling  with  leathery,  short, 
pointed  and  crowded  leaves,  and  glued  fast  together  by 
the  dried  clay.  But  for  a  few  distant  leafless  bushes 
of  zollikoferia  and  ephedra,  two  feet  high,  the  ground 
seems  bare  as  far  as  the  horizon  :  on  looking  carefully, 
however,  one  discovers  a  large  variety  of   pigmy  plants. 


Fig.  78.     Reg  Desert— Sinai.1 

Where  the  gravel  and  clay  are  ground  to  impalpable 
drifting  sands,  the  formations  of  sand-dunes  or  'erg' 
arise.  Vast  tracts  of  this  sea  of  moving  sand  may 
remain  entirely  plantless :  nothing  seems  to  vary  the 
beauty  of  the  vivid  orange  billows ;  but,  at  other  places 
and  more  frequently,  the  surface  is  sprinkled  with  spots 

1  Reproduced  from  a  photograph  of  the  Ordnance  Survey  by  per- 
mission of  the  Controller  of  H.M.  Stationary  Office. 


SAHARA  207 

of  a  delicate  greyish-green.  Desultory  bushes  of  leafless 
retama,  buried  and  then  uprooted  by  the  wind,  of 
Saharan  broom,  tufts  of  drinn-grass,  spurge,  and 
some  other  dry  undershrubs  and  grasses  are  scattered 
over  the  sand.  Farther  on,  the  dunes  may  be  partially 
or  temporarily  fixed  by  the  binding  aristida,  and  the 
tamarix  endeavours  to  form  a  thin  heath. 

These  three  main  varieties  of  the  Sahara  appear  to  be 
distributed  in  vast  areas  or  regions  which  they  may 
serve  to  characterize.  Thus  the  westernmost  or  coastal 
band,  including  the  Rio  de  Oro  and  Sahel  and  extending 
down  to  Senegal,  is  chiefly  one  of  hamadas  and  aregs : 
a  second  region,  stretching  from  Tunis  to  the  western 
Aderar,  includes  the  Great  Erg,  the  Igidi  and  Elgof, 
and  is  a  colossal  sea  of  sand-dunes :  to  the  east,  a 
broad  expanse  of  hamadas  and  aregs  characterizes  the 
somewhat  higher  plateaus  of  Ahaggar  continued  south- 
ward by  that  of  Ahir;  and  is  followed  again  by  the 
somewhat  interrupted  and  lower  ergs  of  the  Fezzan  and 
Teda.  The  central  portion,  reaching  south  to  the  Chad 
and  embracing  the  Tibu  with  the  Tibesti  range,  is 
mostly  hamada  and  reg.  The  Libyan  desert,  beyond 
the  oases  of  Farafreh,  El  Khargeh,  and  Dakhel,  is  one 
vast  unbroken  stretch  of  dreary  barren  sands.  In  the 
Egyptian  and  Nubian  deserts  is  shown  a  recurrence  of 
the  rocky  and  clayey,  hilly  type  divided  or  interrupted  by 
the  narrow  valley  of  the  Nile  or  Egypt  proper.  Beyond 
the  Red  Sea  again,  the  Arabian  desert  is  divided  into 
vast  seas  of  moving  sand  and  wastes  of  stone  and  lava. 

The  saline  tracts  characteristic  of  all  deserts  are 
always  present  in  the  Sahara,  with  their  usual  vegetation 
of  fleshy  or  '  succulent '  salt-bushes.  As  may  be  noticed 
on  the  maps,  the  caravan  routes  avoid  the  ergs  and  go 
from  well  to  well,  and  from  oasis  to  oasis,  over  and  along 


208  AFRICA 

the  hamadas  and  the  regs.  The  oases,  due  to  the 
accumulation  of  underground  water  or  to  the  short 
mountain  streams  which  lose  themselves  in  the  sands, 
are  found  in  depressions  or  along  the  foot  of  the  heights 
and  tablelands.  The  well-known  date-palm,  which  is 
the  feature  of  their  vegetation,  is  useful  alike  for  its 
protection  and  for  its  products  and  by-products,  just 
as  the  camel  is  valuable  in  so  many  ways.  The  date- 
palm  in  the  oases  and  the  camel  on  the  road  are  the  two 
essentials  of  desert  life ;  and  the  very  simple  existence 
of  the  nomads  and  of  the  few  settled  communities  is 
practically  based  on  them. 

Sudan  Semi-Desert.  The  transition  from  the  desert 
to  the  less  arid  southern  regions  is  very  gradual.  A 
certain  amount  of  rain  falls  between  July  and  September, 
but  this  is  very  irregular,  and  some  years  may  be 
practically  rainless. 

The  semi-desert  naturally  offers  a  more  varied  land- 
scape than  the  desert,  on  account  of  a  more  severe  erosion. 
Small  trees  and  a  dearth  of  grass  appear  to  be  the  most 
prominent  features  of  the  vegetation.  First,  small  bushes 
and  low,  gnarled  trees,  either  solitary  or  in  thin  groves, 
make  their  appearance.  They  no  longer  belong  to  the 
mediterranean  flora,  but  consist  largely  of  various  species 
of  acacias  and  acacia-like  plants,  often  thorny  or  prickly, 
with  small,  deciduous  leaves ;  other  plants  are  swollen 
into  water  reservoirs ;  the  majority  are  resinous  or  waxy. 
'Presently,  the  isolated  bushes  cluster  in  loose  scrub ;  on 
some  of  the  tablelands,  besides  entirely  bare  stretches, 
sprinklings  or  even  thickets  of  acacias  occur  occasion- 
ally, on  others,  sparse  but  regular  deciduous  woodlands 
are  formed  by  a  relative  of  the  balsam-trees,  commiphora 
— the  aderas,  on  the  naked  soil.  Grass  is  confined  to 
the  river-beds  and  to  a  few  slopes.     In  depressions  with 


SUDAN  SEMI-DESERT 


209 


a  sufficiency  of  ground  water,  groves,  woods,  or  even 
extensive  forests  of  doum-palm  (kyphaene  thebaica)  are 
the  rule ;  but  the  predominant  features  are  the 
acacia,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  some  of  them 
local,  others  of  wide  distribution,  and  the  umbrella  shape 
of  the  thorny  trees  arranged  in  scattered  woods.  The 
clayey  soils,  heavy  and  retentive,  generally  remain  tree- 


Fig.  79.     Semi-desert — Nigeria. 


less  and  give  rise  to  marshes  and  even  lagoons.  Here 
and  there  swards  of  pennisetum  grass  may  be  seen. 
Some  cultivation  is  now  possible,  the  dhurra  millet 
being  the  commonest  crop. 

Such  are  the  general  features  of  the  belt  of  land,  about 
300  miles  broad  on  an  average,  which  stretches  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Red  Sea  on  the  margin  of  the  desert      It 


1159.1 


210 


AFRICA 


is  to  be  compared  with  similar  belts  round  the  Australian 
desert,  especially  on  the  northern  side,  and  with  the 
southern  margins  of  the  Afghan  and  Indian  deserts. 
Such  regions  are  naturally  passage  ways:  the  number 
of  wells  and  water-holes  increases  as  the  desert  is  left 
behind;    yet   cultivation    remains   localized    in   a  very 


Fig   80.     Open  Brush — Nigeria. 

few  and  small  areas.  The  tending  of  sheep,  camels, 
and  half-wild  cattle  is  the  main  occupation  of  the 
nomad  populations. 

Sudanese  Savaua.  The  savana  is  one  of  the  most 
widespread  landscapes  of  Africa:  it  extends  in  an 
uninterrupted  belt  around  the  great  forest  region,  from 
Senegal  to  the  Egyptian  Sudan,  thence  over  the  region 


SUDANESE  SAVANA  211 

of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  round  across  the  whole  of  the 
Zambezi  region  back  to  the  Atlantic.  It  results  from  the 
tropical  climate  with  a  moderate  amount  of  rainfall  and 
a  long  spell  of  drought. 

Though  the  series  of  trees,  shrubs,  grasses,  and  herbs 
changes,  the  savana  preserves  throughout,  despite  differ- 
ences of  detail,  its  main  characteristics  of  tall  grass- 
land dotted  with  deciduous  trees  and  bushes,  either 
dispersed  or  in  woods.  So  gradual  are  the  transitions 
from  the  poorest  to  the  richest  forms  of  vegetation ; 
from  the  desert  lands,  whether  of  Sahara,  Somali,  or 
Kalahari,  to  the  dark  selvas  ;  that  any  sharp  boundary 
between  the  semi-desert  and  the  savana.  or  between  the 
latter  and  the  light  tropical  woodland,  is  out  of  the 
question.  Representative  forms  and  formations  of  the 
desert  and  the  semi-desert  continue  for  a  time  to 
intermingle  with  the  specific  savana  vegetation,  while 
isolated  members  of  the  high  forest  penetrate  far  into 
the  park-land. 

The  Sudanese  savana  belt  extends  from  Senegal  to  the 
Upper  Nile  amid  a  varied  landscape,  now  of  high  table- 
lands, now  of  lower  plains.  Some  kind  of  acacia, 
mimosa,  or  allied  tree  is  always  in  sight,  often  gather- 
ing in  loose  woods,  sometimes  dotted  singly,  not  un fre- 
quently making,  with  many  other  small  trees,  regular 
thickets  drowned  in  the  tall  grass.  Large  deciduous 
trees  like  the  baobab,  the  ceiba,  the  tamarind,  the 
sycamore,  or  a  banyan-like  fig-tree  prefer  to  stand 
alone  in  the  open.  The  guttifer  shi-butter  or  butter- 
and- tallow  tree  is  also  one  of  the  economic  features. 
Palms  of  the  borassus  type  and  kernel  oil-palms  form 
groves  in  the  south,  whereas  the  doum-palm  prevails  in 
the  north.  The  raphia  wine-palm  adorns  the  margins  of 
rivers  and  lakes. 

p  2 


212 


AFRICA 


Senegambia  is  a  low  tract  of  land  of  a  decided  savana 
type,  while  retaining  a  number  of  semi-desert  plant 
forms.  South  of  the  Gambia,  the  vegetation  increases 
in  variety  and  luxuriance  as  it  approaches  the  high- 
forest  region ;  yet  the  intervening  sandstone  plateaus 
offer  but  stunted  forms  of  woods  and  scrub,  in  which 
acacias  are  predominant.     Farther  east,  to  the  south  of 


Fig.  81.     High  Savana  Brush — Nigeria. 


the  Niger,  the  high  tablelands  are  mantled  with  tall 
grass  interspersed  with  bushes,  among  which  is  the 
landolphia  rubber-bush.  Trees  are  comparatively  rare 
and  scattered,  so  that  an  open  tree-steppe  is  formed : 
towards  the  south,  they  fail  entirely.  In  the  plateau, 
rivers  have  cut  deep  and  narrow  valleys  the  slopes  of 
which  are  forest-clad. 


SUDANESE  SAVANA  213 

This  district  gives  way  to  the  vast  Niger- Benue  plain 
which  resumes  the  character  of  park-savana,  consider- 
able portions  of  the  plain  being  under  an  impenetrable 
grassy  jungle,  or  again  under  orchards  of  small  trees 
overgrown  with  a  rank  crop  of  gigantic  grass.  Rivers, 
now  broad  and  at  a  level  with  the  land  which  they 
frequently  flood,  are  marked  from  afar  by  fringes  of 
tall  palms  or  dense  margin-forest.  Towards  Kano,  the 
savana  passes  rapidly  to  the  acacia  half-desert. 

Lake  Chad,  which  occupies  the  centre  of  a  vast  arid 
depression,  at  the  point  of  transition  from  the  half-desert 
to  the  true  savana-land,  is  girt  with  a  broad  belt  of 
swamps,  and  the  delta  of  the  Shari  River  is  covered  with 
a  dense  growth  of  acacias.  Following  to  the  south- 
east, the  territory  of  the  Middle  Shari  is  also  part  of 
the  typical  park-savana  which  displays  here  a  variety 
of  trees,  the  acacia  type  predominating  with  the  butter- 
and-tallow  tree,  the  tamarind  and  baobab.  Nearer  Lake 
Chad  the  clayey  nature  of  the  soil  gives  rise  to  immense 
swamps  and  lagoons,  partly  overgrown  and  surrounded 
with  reeds,  an  infertile,  sweltering,  and  often  impassable 
land. 

The  Nile  portion  of  the  savana,  the  Bahr-al-Ghazal 
basin,  exhibits  much  the  same  characteristics  with 
a  tendency  towards  the  thornbush  type.  It  is  marked 
by  an  abundance  of  doum-palms  and  several  forms  of  the 
Nubian  flora.  Amid  the  uniformity  of  the  grassy  plains 
arise  sometimes  rocky  islands,  some  600  to  900  feet  high, 
which  are  clad  with  a  very  luxuriant  tropical  forest  and 
defended  by  belts  of  dense  acacia  thickets.  In  the  vast 
swamps  of  this  district  grow  the  papyrus,  the  common 
tall  reed,  and  a  kind  of  wild  sugar-cane.  The  Sudan 
savana  supports  a  comparatively  large  population 
engaged  in  agriculture  and  cattle-breeding.     With  the 


214  AFRICA 

remarkable  wealth  of  its  natural  resources  it  bids  fair 
to  become  one  of  the  most  prosperous  parts  of  Africa  : 
situated  between  the  desert  and  the  high  forest,  which 
are  both  avoided  by  man,  it  attracts  the  whole  human 
and  animal  population.  The  conflicts  arising  out  of 
differences  between  the  nomadic  and  the  settled,  the 
pastoral  and  the  agricultural,  tribes  have  long  retarded 
the  development  of  the  Sudan,  and  given  a  chequered 
history  of  spells  of  prosperity  followed  by  periods  of 
decay. 

Futa-Jallon.  A  narrow  strip  of  elevated  tableland, 
the  watershed  between  the  Niger  and  Guinea,  from 
which  the  West  African  rivers  arise,  is  crowned  with 
broken  granitic  peaks  and  heights,  3,500  to  4.500  feet 
in  altitude.  These  broken  plateaus,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Sudanese  bush  and  on  the  south  by 
the  high  forest  of  Guinea,  display  dreary  and  treeless 
vistas  of  monotonous  grass-lands  :  the  carpet  of  meagre 
and  short  grass,  about  one  foot  high,  is  interspersed 
with  Labiatae,  Scrophulariaceae,  Coiivolvulaceae,  and 
Compobitae  :  the  medium-sized  trees,  gathered  in 
sheltered  situations,  are  of  a  deciduous,  temperate  type : 
in  short,  the  landscape  reminds  one  strongly  of  the 
European  scenery  and  atmosphere.  The  treelessness  of 
those  plateaus  appears  to  be  due.  to  a  wholesale  destruc- 
tion of  the  forests  rather  than  to  any  influence  of  climate 
or  soil.  The  sunk  valleys  are  more  prosperous,  and 
harbour  patches  of  tropical  forest  on  their  slopes,  while 
the  bottoms  are  covered  with  gigantic  grasses,  9  to 
10  feet  high. 

Egyptian  Sudan.  This  region,  which  continues  south- 
ward the  great  Libyan  desert  and  extends  across  the 
middle  course  of  the  Nile  up  to  the  foot  of  the  Abyssinian 
plateau,  skirting  the  latter  southward  to  Lake  Rudolph, 


EGYPTIAN  SUDAN 


215 


shows  an  improvement  on  the  semi-desert  margin,  and 
marks  a  step  towards  the  more  prosperous  savana  con- 
ditions, for  the  rainy  season  may  be  fairly  depended  upon. 
The  vegetation  is  uniform,  and  characterized  throughout 
by  a  large  development  of  thorn  woods  (cf.  p.  213). 

In  the  north  one  still  meets  with  large  stretches  of 
desert  land,  especially  on  the  plateaus,  while  in  the 
broad  depressions,  forests  of  doum-palms,  gummy  aderas, 


Fig.  82.     In  the  drier  Scrubland  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan. 

balanites,  &C.,  predominate  with  grassy  tracts ;  but 
thickets  of  thorny  Nubian  and  other  acacias,  and 
scrub,  3  to  5  feet  high,  of  deciduous,  tiny-leaved  bushes, 
become  a  distinctive  feature.  As  it  penetrates  farther 
south,  the  scrubby  and  thorny  vegetation  grows  more 
continuous,  closer,  and  taller.  The  landscape  is  now  a 
mosaic  of  thin,  shadeless  woods  of  gnarled  acacias  which 
expand  in  umbrella  shapes,  and  in  many  ways  recall  our 


216 


AFRICA 


orchard  trees  in  winter.  There  may  be  a  bushy  and 
woody  undergrowth,  but  generally  the  stony  ground  is 
bare  under  and  between  the  scattered  trees.  Meagre 
steppes  of  dry  and  wiry  bunch-grass  alternate  with 
knee-high  scrub,  now  open,  now  fairly  close.  The 
thornbush  vegetation  of  this  region  may  be  compared 
to  that  of  the  sertao  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the 
Brazilian  highlands.  Extensive  tracts  among  the  wood- 
and  scrub-lands  are  covered  with  peculiar  grass  formations 


(TOiTlii 

Fig.  83.     Floating  Blocks  of  Sudd. 


which  suggest  meagre  and  patchy  cornfields  on  a  stony 
soil,  and  constitute  a  specific  feature  of  those  regions. 

The  lower  portion  of  the  district,  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  Nile  and  under  its  beneficial  influence, 
shows  already  something  of  the  luxuriance  of  grass  of 
the  savana.  The  river  flows  between  banks  adorned 
with  groves  of  palms  and  other  tall  trees ;  but  behind 
that  fringe  and  occasional  strips  of  savana,  commence  the 
leafless,  thorny  scrub  and  woodland.  The  river  forms 
vast  swamps  bristling  with  tall  reeds,  papyri,  sedges, 


EGYPTIAN  SUDAN  217 

canes  and  rushes,  and  cloaked  with  sudd,  which  may 
so  cover  the  marshes  as  to  seem  like  a  regular  growth, 
which  completely  hides  the  waters  and  assumes  the 
appearance  of  our  meadows.  A  fishing  population  of 
most  peculiar  habits  lives  amid  those  swamps.  On  the 
savana  and  the  other  poor  steppes,  as  well  as  in  portions 
of  the  scrub  area,  a  certain  number  of  cattle  can  be 
supported,  for  the  nature  of  the  country  compels  pastoral 
activities.    Agriculture  is  confined  to  the  vicinity  of  the 


Fig.  84.     The  Desert  near  Rogel. 

rivers  and  to  the  higher  lands  which  receive  a  somewhat 
more  generous  rainfall.  The  woodlands  are  of  no  special 
economic  value,  but  they  supply  an  abundance  of  fuel 
for  the  steamboats  which  ply  on  the  Nile ;  hence  they 
are  rapidly  becoming  exhausted. 

Abyssinia  is  an  enormous  block  of  lofty  tableland, 
topped  by  still  loftier  ranges  and  peaks,  and  broken 
by  deep  and  narrow  gorges.  While  it  attracts  the 
summer  monsoon  rains  from  across  the  equator,  it  is 
yet  so  severely  drained  and  wind-swept  that  the  effect 


218 


AFRICA 


of  the  abundant  rainfall  is  partly  lost.  Varying  with 
the  altitude,  its  climate  ranges  from  dry  and  hot 
conditions  of  the  Sudan  and  the  Red  Sea  to  the  cool- 
ness of  northern  lands.  In  addition  to  this,  an  unequal 
distribution  of  rainfall  and  an  extreme  diversity  of 
the  drainage  due  to  variations  of  the  relief  and  of  ex- 
posure, and  the  nature  of  the  ground  combine  in  render- 


Fig.  85.     Coffee  Plantation — British  East  Africa. 

ing  the  plant  cover  strikingly  varied;  indeed  the 
landscape  of  Abyssinia  may  be  regarded  as  a  summary 
of  most  of  the  vegetations  of  Africa.  The  most  charac- 
teristic and  extensive  formation  is  the  meagre  treeless 
steppe  of  the  wind-swept  plateaus,  which  is,  however, 
interrupted  on  the  arid  rocky  sides  of  the  gorges  by 
patches  of  thorny  brush  or  thin  sprinklings  of  acacias 
and    low    leafless    trees.     Prosperous    park    landscapes 


ABYSSINIA  219 

strongly  rec.il lino-  those  of  Europe  are  not  wanting  in 
favoured  positions  on  the  upper  levels.  Orchard-like 
woodlands,  dotted  with  candelabra  euphorbias,  groves 
of  tall  deciduous  trees,  mountains  clad  with  forests 
of  gigantic  juniper  and  podocarpus,  and  possessing  an 
undergrowth  of  mediterranean  tree-heath,  vary  the 
grass}-  brushes  and  scrub.  The  increase  of  rainfall 
with  elevation  determines  a  corresponding  arrangement 
of  the  vegetation  in  belts  of  altitude.  Thus  the  lower 
slopes,  like  the  neighbouring  lowlands,  support  bush 
grass-lands ;  a  taller  hillbush  follows  higher  up ;  on 
the  plateaus  and  upper  slopes  the  park  landscape  with 
its  European-looking  deciduous  trees  and  pastures 
becomes  predominant :  juniper  forests  are  best  developed 
between  6,000  and  9,000  feet,  on  the  slopes  of  the  loftier 
mountains. 

The  country  is  mainly  pastoral,  but  agriculture  is  quite 
possible,  is  indeed  practised  everywhere  for  local  require- 
ments, and  with  primitive  methods.  Abyssinia  is  also 
the  home  of  the  Arabian  coffee-tree,  and  shelters  two 
kinds  of  wild  olive-trees  and  a  great  many  plants  of 
economic  interest. 

The  mountains  of  Yemen  in  Arabia  Felix  offer  a  close 
analogy  with  Abyssinia,  the  ancient  Ethiopia,  both  as 
regards  climate  and  vegetation,  and  it  is  not  surprising 
that  the  population  of  the  latter  was  partly  derived 
from  the  Arabian  Sabeans;  who  brought  with  them  their 
civilization.  Ethiopia  was  also  influenced  by  Egyptian 
invasions  and  became  an  important  centre  of  culture. 

Abyssino-Eritrean  Foot-hills.  The  land  gradually 
rises  from  the  low  and  arid  Somali  plains  towards  the 
Ethiopian  highlands  in  a  series  of  broken  terraces  which 
form  a  hilly  landscape.  This  is  carried  towards  the  east 
up   to   Cape    Guardafui    by   an    irregular   line    of   low 


220  AFRICA 

mountains,  and  is  continued  by  the  hilly  ranges  which  join 
the  Eritrean  coast  with  the  northern  part  of  Abyssinia. 
An  increase  of  rainfall  during  the  wet  season,  a  greater 
diversity  of  soil,  and  the  occurrence  of  clouds  and  mists 
in  the  upper  reaches  go  to  make  the  vegetation  of  this 
hot  belt  much  more  varied  than  that  of  Somaliland 
proper.  A  large  development  of  the  grassy  thornbn^li 
and  acacia  scrubs,  a  wealth  of  orchard-like  woods  against 
a  background  of  grass-lands  are  the  specific  features 
of  this  scenery,  which,  on  the  whole,  repeats  that  of  the 
Brazilian  sertao. 

A  number  of  strange  plant-forms  imparts  a  peculiar 
character  to  these  dry  grass-  and  scrub-lands.  Among 
them,  the  candelabra  euphorbias,  the  stiff-leaved  aloes, 
the  compact,  low  and  rounded  crowns  of  the  dragon- 
trees,  and,  strangest  of  all,  the  barrel-shaped  adenium- 
trees  with  their  bodies  swollen  and  smooth,  and  their 
crowns  of  short  stout  limbs  ending  in  small  bunches 
of  leaves,  arise  solitary  or  in  loose  clumps  on  the  slopes : 
gum  acacias  are  also  abundant. 

In  the  north  of  this  region  the  scorched  hills  of  Eritrea 
support  forests  of  balsam-trees,  leafless,  except  for  a 
few  weeks  in  the  year;  shadeless,  without  grass  or 
undergrowth  of  any  kind.  Such  woods  look  like  copses 
of  dead  young  oak-trees,  left  standing  on  naked  stony 
wastes.  The  cloud-belt  favours  the  growth  of  more 
regular  forests  of  tall  junipers,  podocarpus  and  tree- 
heaths  interrupted  by  pastures,  identical  with  those  of  the 
Abyssinian  highlands.  It  was  principally  on  the  slopes 
of  this  transition  belt  that  the  Sabean  herbalists  found 
the  gums,  resins,  and  aromatic  products,  myrrh  and 
frankincense  among  them,  which  were  the  objects  of  an 
extensive  trade  in  ancient  times. 

Yemen.     Across   the    Red    Sea,  the  hilly   margin   of 


YEMEN  221 

Arabia  repeats  vi-yy  much  fche  same  landscape  and  the 
same  vegetation  as  the  symmetrical  mass  of  Ethiopia. 
The  raised  south-western  edge  of  the  great  desert 
plateau,  which  in  places  exceeds  9,000  feet  in  elevation, 
attracts  the  monsoons  from  the  Indian  Ocean  in  the  same 
manner  as  docs  Abyssinia.  Hence,  on  the  middle  and 
upper  slopes,  there  is  a  sufficient  rainfall,  which  is  sup- 
plemented by  an  abundance  of  clouds  and  mists  and  by 
plentiful  dews  at  night.  The  climate  is  equable,  warm 
temperate  bo  subtropical.  The  streams  have  eaten  their 
way  far  up  into  the  tableland  and  dissected  its  jagged 
rim  into  a  network  of  deep  valleys;  but  on  reaching  the 
torrid  coastal  shelf  they  are  swallowed  up  by  the  sands, 
or  evaporated.  Such  fortunate  conditions  convert  the 
highlands  into  an  island  of  abundance  amid  the  sur- 
rounding deserts. 

The  vegetation  combines  the  features  and  profusion 
of  the  mediterranean  and  moist  subtropical  types ;  but 
it  includes  also  many  characteristic  forms  of  the  ad- 
jacent dry  lands,  thanks  to  an  extreme  variety  of  physical 
conditions.  Hence  the  extraordinary  wealth  and  diver- 
sity of  the  natural  and  cultivated  resources  which  gained 
for  the  Yemen,  in  ancient  times,  the  name  of  Arabia 
Felix.  It  is  largely  the  vegetation  of  the  more  arid 
areas,  reaching  a  point  of  supreme  intensity,  which 
furnishes  the  abundance  of  gums,  resins,  wax,  balsams, 
scents  and  spices,  just  as  among  the  foot-hills  of  Eritrea 
and  Ethiopia.  The  collection  of  gums,  cassia  and  senna, 
myrrh,  frankincense  and  kat  occupied  the  ancient  Sa- 
beans,  and  £ave  rise  to  one  of  the  most  famous  trades 
of  the  remote  past.  The  civilization  of  the  Minoans, 
Sabeans,  and  Himyarites  spread  as  from  a  centre  to 
Syria,  Ethiopia,  and  Babylonia. 

Somaliland,  'the  Horn  of  Africa,'  is  a  region  inter- 


222 


AFRICA 


SOMALI  LAND  223 

mediate  between  the  Sudan  and  Arabia.  The  rain- 
bearing  monsoons  on  their  way  to  the  lofty  mass  of 
Abyssinia  pass  over  this  thirsty,  sweltering  lowland, 
grudging  it  the  benefit  of  their  moisture.  Thus  the  plant 
cover  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  which  renders  the 
country  very  similar  to  the  arid  margin  of  the  Sahara. 
A  meagre  sprinkling  of  umbrella-acacias  and  other 
low  trees,  thorny  and  leafless,  over  the  bare  sandy  or 
stony  ground  is  quite  typical  of  this  region.  Now 
bushes  gather  in  open  scrubs ;  now  light  acacia  woods 
mark  the  tracts  of  some  underground  moisture :  a 
dotting  of  stiff'  grass-bunches  or  of  prickly,  leathery, 
strap-leaved  plants  recalling  pineapple  bunches,  may 
form  the  scanty  undergrowth.  Grass  is  scarce  and  bad  ; 
pastures  mostly  temporary  and  localized.  A  rich  develop- 
ment of  thorny  plants,  a  general  umbrella  shape  of  the 
tiny- leaved  deciduous  trees  of  low  woody  and  bushy 
growth,  are.  with  the  strange  forms  of  the  candelabra 
euphorbia,  species  of  aloes  and  water- storing  plants, 
specific  features  of  the  vegetation.  Tamarix,  calotropis, 
indigo,  salvadora,  and  other  denizens  of  the  semi-desert 
Sudanese  belt  reappear  in  Somaliland.  It  is  only  in 
the  margins  of  the  often  waterless  river-beds  that  one 
sees  impenetrable  thickets  of  acacias  and  a  stronger 
development  of  grass  :  long  stretches  of  the  coastland 
are  completely  destitute  of  any  visible  vegetation.  Amid 
the  scorching  semi-deserts,  two  large  rivers  arising  from 
the  Ethiopian  highlands  form  symmetrical  replicas  of 
the  Blue  Nile  and  the  Atbara.  Their  flood  margins 
extend  in  places  over  five  miles,  and  long  sections  of  the 
valleys  support  dense  equatorial  selvas,  marshes,  and 
jungles  of  marvellous  exuberance :  a  presumably  true 
picture  of  primeval  Egypt  before  the  secular  efforts  of 
man   brought  it   under   control.     A   similar  effort   has 


224  AFRICA 

apparently  been  beyond  the  powers  of  the  Somalis,  whose 
thinly  scattered  tribes  continue  to  tend  hungry  cattle, 
and  to  hunt  among  the  rich  scrub. 

Light  Forests  and  Parks  of  Tropical  Africa.  The 
savana  does  not  pass  abruptly  to  the  high  tropical 
forest:  with  the  gradual  increase  of  rainfall  and  the 
appearance  of  a  double  wet  season,  the  vegetation  slowly 
grows  more  luxuriant ;  patches  of  woods  become  at  once 
more  extensive  and  more  frequent ;  while  the  park  aspect 
is  emphasized.  Yet  woodlands  do  not  attain  to  the  height 
and  wealth  of  the  equatorial  selvas :  a  good  many  trees 
still  shed  their  foliage  or  possess  leathery  leaves  :  and 
lianas  and  epiphytes,  except  in  the  river- forests,  are 
comparatively  small  and  scarce.  In  short,  there  is  a 
distinct  belt  of  transition  from  the  savana  to  the  selva, 
consisting  of  light  kinds  of  tropical  woods  mixed  with 
grass-lands  of  the  savana  type  ;  but  by  reason  of  the 
universal  practice  of  burning  the  grass  yearly  in  the 
dry  period,  the  savana  has,  in  most  cases,  been  extended 
right  to  the  margin  of  the  selva,  and,  in  many  instances, 
has  indeed  largely  encroached  upon  its  limits  by  the 
destruction  of  the  belt  of  light  woods,  which  are  easily 
set  on  tire.  Cultivation  is  also  responsible  for  much  of 
the  damage  to  the  light  forests.  Thus  it  is  that,  in 
tropical  Africa,  this  belt  has  been  largely  transformed 
into  a  savana.  Distinct  traces  of  it  may  be  found  in 
the  hinterland  of  Upper  Guinea  (the  Ivory  and  Gold 
Coast,  Togo,  and  Nigeria),  on  the  watersheds  of  the 
Shari,  Bahr-al-Ghazal,  and  Congo  basins ;  and  the  great 
Ituri  forest  passes  to  the  savana  through  such  a  margin 
of  light  deciduous  tropical  woods  interspersed  with 
grass-lands. 

In  Upper  Guinea,  representative  growth- forms  of  the 
selva  are  present  throughout  this  belt.     Oil  and  borassus 


.9 

1 


226  AFRICA 

palms  form  a  conspicuous  feature,  along  with  ceibas, 
bombax,  anogeissus,  West  African  mahoganies,  ster- 
culias,  fig-trees,  chlorophoras,  and  other  large  trees : 
wild  coffee-trees  are  abundant. 

On  the  south  of  the  Congo  basin,  the  Kasai  and 
Lualaba  rivers,  with  their  tributaries,  run  across  a  series 
of  terraces  leading  up  to  the  Zambezi  divide.  Here 
only  the  slopes  of  the  valleys,  deeply  sunk  below  the 
general  level,  are  clad  with  forests  of  the  selva  type. 
The  tablelands  are  covered  with  a  mixture  of  light 
woods  and  grassy  glades. 

This  transition  zone,  the  most  fertile  part  of  Africa,  is 
capable  of  great  development.  It  has  the  advantage  of 
an  easy  irrigation  without  the  drawbacks  of  the  over- 
whelming forest.  Its  comparatively  old  cultivation  and 
thick  population  are  proofs  of  its  natural  fertility  even 
under  primitive  methods  of  cultivation.  Rice,  yams,  oil 
palms,  rubber,  coffee,  cotton,  sugar-cane  are  but  a  few  of 
its  most  important  products. 

West  African  Coast :  Guinea.  From  the  southern 
part  of  French  Guinea  to  the  Gold  Coast,  the  tropical 
rain-forest  extends  from  the  shore  to  the  upper  valleys 
of  the  plateaus  at  the  back,  and  penetrates  along  these 
gorges  far  into  the  savana  region.  The  reason  of  this 
is  the  heavy  rainfall,  exceeding  80  inches  and  fairly 
continuous  throughout  the  year,  coupled  with  the 
equable  heat. 

The  low  coast-line  is  sandy  and  marked  by  a  screen 
of  tall  coco-nuts  and  oil-palms.  Behind  this  extend 
freshwater  or  brackish  lagoons,  girt  with  reeds,  tall 
grassy  jungles,  and  thin  low  shore  woods.  Villages  are 
dotted  all  along  the  beach,  and  the  natives  have  cleared 
narrow  strips  of  ground  between  the  sea  and  the  dark 
forest  which  rises  at  the  back.     Frequently  this  sandy 


WEST  AFRICAN  COAST :  GUINEA         227 

shore  is  interrupted  by  tidal  swamps,  which  mark  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers  and  inlets,  and  bear  on  their  slimy 
surface  mangrove  forests.  Where  the  hills  reach  the 
coast-line  the  rain- forest  crowds  down  almost  to  the 
shore.  The  Guinea  selva  is  said  to  be  the  densest  and 
most  luxuriant  forest  of  Africa,  and  is  now  becoming 
famous  for  its  wealth  in  rubber  plants.  In  respect  of  its 
situation,  physical  conditions,  and  density,  it  is  to  be 
compared  to  the  Brazilian  coast  forest  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Atlantic.  This  remark  applies  to  the  forests  of 
Lower  Guinea  and  the  Loango  coast,  which  extend  almost 
continuously  from  Lagos  to  the  vicinity  of  the  lower 
Congo,  and  beyond  that  river,  on  the  seaward  slopes  of 
the  great  southern  plateau,  to  Benguella.  Mangrove 
swamps  are  particularly  abundant  along  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  covering  the  low  and  broad  tidal  tracts  at  the 
delta  of  the  Niger,  of  the  Old  Calabar,  and  the  mouths 
of  the  Cameroon. 

The  enormous  mass  of  the  Cameroon  mountain  displays 
well-marked  belts  of  vegetation  :  a  lower  belt  of  heavy 
equatorial  forests,  followed  by  a  zone  of  dense  mountain 
forests,  reaches  up  to  6,000  feet;  thence  upwards  the 
forest  gradually  dwindles  to  the  size  of  a  high  bush  and 
becomes  increasingly  mixed  with  grass-lands  dotted  with 
low  shrubs.  At  8,000  feet  the  shrubs  disappear  fast 
and  open  grass  slopes  lead  to  upper  moorlands,  above 
which  the  ash-cone  towers.  Compared  with  mountains 
in  other  parts  of  the  inter-tropical  world  (Mexico,  the 
Andes,  and  even  with  the  Himalayas),  the  Cameroon 
thus  shows  an  unexpectedly  low  tree-limit. 

The  Gaboon  forest  appears  to  continue  east  of  the 
Oguwe  and  to  join  the  great  forests  of  the  Sanga  and 
Ubanghi. 

West  African  Plateaus.     In  West  Africa  there  occur 

Q  2 


228  AFRICA 

a  few  masses  of  higher  plateaus,  the  vegetation  of  which 
differs  in  many  respects  from  that  of  the  surrounding 
lands.  The  Futa-Jallon  has  already  been  briefly  men- 
tioned. Other  highlands  occur  in  Togo,  in  a  general 
north  and  south  direction.  North  and  east  of  the 
Cameroon  the  extensive  tablelands  of  Adamawa  and 
Ngaunclere  separate  the  interior  basin  of  the  Chad  from 
the  basin  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  possibly  continue 
between  the  Gaboon  and  the  Congo  basins.  Here  rivers 
flow  at  the  bottom  of  narrow  gorges  which  harbour 
dense  and  luxuriant  forests  of  the  selva  type.  The 
hills  and  plateaus,  on  the  other  hand,  display  a  dry  kind 
of  vegetation,  contrasting  with  the  exuberance  of  the 
Cameroon  and  Gaboon.  There  seems  to  be  a  recurrence 
of  the  flora  of  drier  lands,  with  the  acacias  and  other 
plants  of  the  Sudan  :  mixed  brush- woods  of  middle-sized 
deciduous  trees  alternate  with  grass  stretches  in  a  park 
landscape :  forests  of  Combretaceae  display  in  January 
a  fresh  pale  and  shimmering  verdure ;  palms  are  rare, 
epiphytes  and  climbers  both  scanty  and  small.  The 
drier  character  of  these  plateaus  is  possibly  due  to  the 
more  complete  drainage,  and  to  the  winds.  Similarly, 
the  little  known  hill-  and  plateau-land  which  forms  the 
watersheds  between  the  Shari,  Ubanghi,  and  Bahr-al- 
Ghazal  basins,  appears  to  have  a  vegetation  different 
from  that  of  the  valleys,  composed  of  light  woods  and 
park-lands,  in  which  the  baobab  and  the  borassus  palm 
fail.  The  trees  are  small  or  of  moderate  size,  and 
include  amongst  others  the  butter-  and  tallow-tree, 
numerous  members  of  the  acacia  and  mimosa  tribes,  and 
many  other  shrub  forms  with  small  leaves. 

The  plateaus  to  the  north  and  east  of  the  Cameroon 
are,  to  a  large  extent,  under  prosperous  native  cultivation. 

The  Congo  Basin  ■  is  a  circular  plain-like  basin,  some 


Fig.  88.     Tropical  Forest  in  the  Congo  State. 


230  AFRICA 

1,500  feet  above  sea-level,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the 
edges  of  higher  plateaus '.  It  was  long  described  as  one 
colossal  and  unbroken  stretch  of  equatorial  rain-forest, 
yet  it  appears  to  receive  a  rainfall  that  hardly  exceeds 
80  inches  yearly.  Perhaps  the  impression  of  boundless 
selva  which  is  recorded  in  the  accounts  of  more  than 
one  traveller  is  due,  as  on  the  Amazon,  to  the  fact  that 
explorers  seldom  ventured  far  from  the  rivers,  thus 
having  no  opportunity  to  see  the  back-country.  From 
the  edge  of  the  plateau, for  hundreds  of  miles  upstream, 
the  main  waterways  are  accompanied  by  wide  belts  of 
true  selva.  This  is  true  for  the  lower  Sanga  and  the 
Ubanghi  up  to  its  eastward  bend,  for  the  Congo  up 
to  Stanley  Falls,  and  for  the  lower  Kasai.  As  in  the 
Amazon  these  broad  strips  on  both  sides  of  the  main 
streams  are  liable  to  permanent  or  temporary  floods  :  and 
on  the  middle  and  upper  sections  of  the  rivers,  the 
selvas  confine  themselves  to  narrow  fringes.  The  Congo 
high  forests  are  of  the  equatorial  rain-selva  type,  like 
the  Amazon  caaguapu  in  all  its  essential  vegetative 
features,  much  as  the  floras  may  differ.  Oil  and  borassus 
palms,  which  were  present  in  the  savana,  continue  to  be 
conspicuous  in  this  region :  rubber-trees  and  lianas  are 
found  in  abundance  and  heavily  exploited.  Among 
other  interesting  trees  may  be  noted  the  dragon-tree, 
which  is  well  represented  in  drier  regions,  the  fig-tree, 
rotang  palms,  ceibas,  &c. 

The  nature  of  the  vegetation  covering  the  tablelands 
between  the  rivers  has  not  as  yet  been  satisfactorily 
studied.  In  the  Welle  district,  beyond  the  margin  forest, 
opens  a  park  landscape  of  light  woods  and  savanas ;  the 
Itiri  forest,  partly  of  the  rain-forest  type,  turns  to  a 
lighter  kind  towards  the  east ;  and  in  its  middle  course 
the  Kasai  runs  also  through  a  variegated  scenery  of  light 


THE  CONGO  BASIN  231 

woods  and  grass-lands.  Such  characteristic  denizens  of 
the  savana  as  the  ceiba,  dragon-tree,  borassus  palm,  &c, 
by  their  recurrence  among  the  inter-river  landscapes, 
suggest  a  similarity  of  conditions  between  the  two 
physical  environments.  In  the  lower  districts  of  the 
Congo,  the  selva  is  limited  to  the  shores  and  the  islands : 
savanas  become  the  chief  plant  formation,  corresponding 
with  a  lower  atmospheric  humidity. 

Human  settlements  are  scattered  along  the  rivers, 
where,  by  fishing,  hunting,  and  a  minimum  of  agriculture, 
as  well  as  by  the  collection  of  rubber,  scanty  populations, 
once  more  prosperous  and  numerous,  eke  out  the 
meagre  living  that  satisfies  them. 

Angola.  The  northern  edge  of  the  high  austral 
African  plateau  curves  round  the  Congo  basin.  Its 
north-western  extremity  passes  quite  close  to  the  lower 
Congo,  forming  the  region  known  as  Angola,  which 
possesses  a  low  and  narrow  coastal  shelf.  This  coastal 
strip  is  but  the  northern  spur  of  the  south-western  desert, 
and  its  rainfall  doe.s  not  exceed  eight  inches  yearly. 
Consequently  its  vegetation  repeats  that  of  Somaliland 
or  Gazaland  :  meagre  and  patchy  swards  of  stiff  grass, 
with  a  sprinkling  of  thorn-bush  and  stunted  trees,  where 
the  forms  of  the  candelabra  euphorbia  and  the  baobab, 
the  aloe  and  the  sanseviera  are  conspicuous. 

On  the  foot-hills  at  the  back,  the  thorn-bush  thins 
out  and  soon  mingles  with  jungles  of  large-leaf  ever- 
greens. Climbing  up  the  edge  of  the  plateau,  at  about 
1,000  feet,  one  crosses  the  southern  outlier  of  the  West 
African  coast  forest,  comprising  high  trees  and  lianas, 
which  has  been  already  mentioned.  The  forest  belt 
rapidly  decreases  in  size  and  profusion,  as  one  approaches 
the  brink  of  the  tableland,  and  after  passing  through 
a  fringe  of  hill -bush  one  steps  into  the  boundless  savanas 


232 


AFRICA 


which  cover  the  whole  breadth  of  the  South  African 
continent.  The  coastal  hill  forest  rapidly  dwindles  to- 
wards Benguella,  and  is  replaced  by  the  jungle  and  the 
thorn-bush.  Rubber  and  the  Guinea  palm-oil  are  the 
best  known  resources  of  the  rain-forest  belt,  but  cultiva- 
tion, which  is  here  fairly  extensive,  comprehends  many 
tropical  products,  amongst  which  coffee,  cotton,  and 
sugar-cane  are  the  most  important. 


FrG.  89.     The  King  of  the  African  Savana.     Baobab  tree. 


East  African  Mountain  Region.  Under  this  name 
may  be  included  the  variegated  landscape  of  terraces, 
escarpments,  hills,  and  mountains  which  border,  and 
lead  on  to.  the  South  and  East  African  plateau  from  the 
eastern  coast.  It  comprises  also  the  rolling  and  hilJy 
land  north  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  the  broken  country 
which  skirts  the  eastern  rift  and  the  hills  west  and  east 


234  AFRICA 

of  the  Nyassa,  south  to  the  lower  Zambezi.  The  region 
thus  defined  embraces  a  manifold  scenery:  it  differs 
alike  from  the  Somali  half-desert,  from  the  Bahr-al- 
Ghazal  savana,  from  the  Congo  forest,  from  the  Zambezi 
savana,  and  from  the  drier  lowlands  of  Mozambique : 
yet  despite  its  diverse  aspects,  from  the  forest-clad  hills 
of  the  Shire  to  those  of  the  Upper  Nile  province,  it  has 
a  certain  unity. 

Several  factors,  such  as  the  varying  but  generally  high 
altitudes,  the  equatorial  and  tropical  situation,  the 
unequal  influence  of  the  south-east  trade- winds,  the 
diversity  of  the  drainage,  and  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
combine  to  make  this  region  one  of  the  most  varied  of 
the  continent.  The  background  and  general  theme  of 
the  picture  is  always  some    kind   of   savana  or  thorn 

oodland,  corresponding  to  a — for  the  tropics — moderate 
rainfall.  From  this  rise  light  tropical  woods  and  even 
high  forests,  but  by  reason  of  the  great  elevation  of  the 
plateau  on  the  west  and  of  the  drought  nearer  the  coast, 
the  savanas  are  generally  poor,  and  the  deciduous  thorn- 
brush  or  wood  of  the  caatinga  form  is  the  typical  vege- 
tation except  in  the  south,  where  a  dotting  of  acacias 
with  the  umbrella  shape  prevails.  Thus  this  part  of 
Africa  offers  a  great  similarity  to  the  northern  Brazilian 
highlands,  and  for  similar  physical  reasons. 

As  a  rule,  the  eastern  and  southern  slopes  possess 
a  richer  vegetation  than  those  of  the  west  and  north, 
most  of  the  rainfall  coming  from  the  south-eastern 
trades  and  monsoons.  Light  kinds  of  tropical  forests 
do  not  fail  in  the  hill-land.  The  best  known  is  the 
Mau  forest,  large  portions  of  which  are  only  of  moderate 
height,  60-70  feet,  trees  with  thin  light  crowns  and  thick 
gnarled  trunks,  and  few  lianas,  few  climbers,  but  a  dense 
undergrowth  of  shrubs  and  grass :  other  parts  approach 


EAST  AFRICAN  MOUNTAIN  REGION      235 

the  exuberant  subtropical  rain-forest.  Hill  rain-forests 
occur  on  most  of  the  mountains,  the  lower  portions  often 
assuming  the  true  selva  type.  Inland  valleys  are,  in 
many  instances,  extremely  dry.  In  the  Athi  and  Kidwani 
valleys,  extensive  tracts  are  thinly  studded  with  um- 
brella-shaped acacias  over  a  meagre  carpet  of  low  grass. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  regular  park  savana  is  exemplified 
beautifully  in  the  Masai  and  Karamoyo  plains. 

The  belts  of  altitude  can  be  traced  distinctly  up  the 
four  great  mountain  masses  of  the  Ruwenzori,  Elgon, 
Kenya,  and  Kilima-njaro.  On  the  first-named  the 
different  zones  are  the  following,  with  reference  to  the 
Uganda  side : 

ft. 

Snow 

Tree  senecios  and  shrub  lobelias, 

a  loose  bush  up  to  .     14,200 

Tree-heaths  up  to  12,000 

Rambu  forests  up  to     .         .         .     10,000 
Tall  forests  up  to  .         .         .       8,700 

Savanna  and  bush  up  to       .         .       6,500 

Two  conifers,  the  tall  juniper  and  the  podocarpus,  may 
be  found  in  Masailand. 

Towards  the  south,  among  the  hills,  the  vegetation 
passes  to  a  more  uniform  type  of  deciduous  monsoon 
forest,  all  varieties  of  which  are  to  be  seen  on  both 
sides  of  the  Nyassa  and  in  the  Shire  district,  south  to 
the  lower  Zambezi:  north-eastern  Rhodesia  especially 
displays  several  large  belts  of  them.  They  reappear 
south  of  the  Zambezi  on  the  hilly  terraces  of  Umtali  and 
Barue,  south  to  the  Sabi  River. 

Populations  of  hunters,  shepherds,  and  agriculturists 
are  naturally  intermixed  amid  such  varied  surroundings, 
but,  as   usual,  the    hunting  and   pastoral   tribes,  being 


236  AFRICA 

more  warlike,  have  established  an  ascendancy  over  the 
tillers  of  the  soil.  These  countries  are  capable  of  a 
prosperous  development  under  the  influence  of  the  white 
man :  the  Uganda  plateau,  especially,  offers  a  vast  scope 
on  account  of  its  healthy  climate.  Several  animal  foes 
such  as  the  tsetse  fly  and  the  tick,  however,  will  have 
to  be  stamped  out  before  a  regular  settlement  is  possible. 
The  Zambezi  basin  and  Unyamwezi.  As  far  as  we 
know,  the  vast  plateau  territory  which  sweeps  round 
from  Angola  to  the  Great  Lakes  over  the  Congo-Zambezi 
divide  and  most  of  the  Zambezi  basin,  and  beyond  Tan- 
ganyika to  Victoria  Nyanza,  offers  throughout  a  fairly 
uniform  type  of  savana  repeating,  though  at  a  much 
higher  elevation,  the  physical  conditions  of  the  Sudan. 
Under  the  general  influence  of  a  characteristic  savana 
climate,  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  of  the  relief  seems 
to  be  the  determining  factor  in  the  distribution  of  the 
vegetation.  A  light  tropical  forest  of  a  leaf -shedding 
type,  which  in  many  instances  resembles  a  thin  oak 
forest,  is  the  tallest  form  of  it.  Besides  this,  many 
varieties  of  savana  woods  occur,  now  in  clumps  and 
groves,  now  even  in  extensive  patches:  among  them 
may  be  enumerated  :  thin  copses  of  deciduous  trees  with 
straight,  slender  trunks  and  flat,  spare  crowns  supported 
by  gaunt,  twisted  limbs  ;  no  undergrowth  but  grass  up 
to  three  feet  high ;  open  clusters  of  trees  of  a  stouter 
and  more  bushy  growth  with  clear,  round  heads  and  fine 
foliage;  jungles  and  orchards  of  loose-limbed  acacias 
overgrown  with  tall  grass;  doltings  of  umbrella-shaped 
thorn-bushes  in  the  savana  with  the  solitary  baobab 
conspicuous  in  the  distance  On  drier  and  more  broken 
basaltic  and  limestone  rocks  the  grass  and  woods  give 
way  to  stunted  forms  of  grey  thorn  scrub  relieved  by 
shrubby  evergreens  and  woody  perennials.     Candelabra 


238  AFRICA 

euphorbias,  aloes,  and  other  water-storing  or  succulent 
plants,  are  lightly  scattered  among  the  rocky  scrub. 

Towards  the  great  lakes  Tanganyika  and  Nyassa  the 
surface  heaves  up  into  a  regular  hill-land ;  the  vegetation 
becomes  more  exuberant  and  is  diversified  by  light 
forests,  and  the  region  passes  gradually  to  the  hill  forests 
of  East  Africa. 

Over  the  vast  savana  tableland,  centres  of  inland 
drainage,  or  tracts  of  doubtful  gradient,  have  developed 
large  shallow  swamps  partly  covered  by  tall  reeds,  some- 
times girt  with  light  jungles  On  one  of  those  swamps, 
peculiar  tribes,  living  entirely  on  the  products  of  the 
water,  lead  a  primitive  existence  on  floating  reed-rafts, 
screened  from  the  whole  world  which  they  ignore. 
Hunting  in  the  once  thickly  stocked  savana,  cattle- 
grazing,  and  agriculture  are  the  simple  occupations  of 
the  inhabitants  of  this  region. 

Gazaland  and  Mozambique.  South-east  of  the  hill 
region  of  east  Africa  the  coastal  plains  and  plateaus 
expand  greatly  before  reaching  the  edge  of  the  high 
austral  African  tablelands.  They  are  too  low  to  con- 
dense the  moisture  of  the  south-east  trade- winds,  which 
therefore  sweep  past  them  without  materially  benefiting 
them.  Broadly  speaking,  this  is  a  repetition  of  the 
conditions  obtaining  in  Somaliland  in  a  lesser  degree. 
The  vegetation  is  correspondingly  poor  and,  on  the  whole, 
similar  to  that  of  the  latter  region,  or  of  the  lowland 
of  Mossamedes,  that  is,  an  open  bush  of  thorn-wood 
with  but  scant  grass  of  a  wiry  description.  The  arid 
landscape  is  broken  by  the  deltas  of  the  most  important 
rivers,  especially  along  the  lower  courses  of  the  Zambezi 
and  Limpopo,  where  the  moist  ground  supports  luxuriant 
tropical  evergreen  forests,  and  swamps  create  around 
them  heavy  jungles. 


GAZALAND  AND  MOZAMBIQUE  239 

Boschveld.  South  of  the  Zambezi,  with  increasing- 
distance  from  the  equator  and  an  undiminished  eleva- 
tion, the  tropical  savana  very  gradually  turns  to  a 
subtropical  type  of  park  landscape  which,  under  the 
name  of  'boschveld',  extends  into  the  northern  Transvaal. 
With  a  rainfall  of  about  20  inches,  concentrated  in 
summer,  this  is  essentially  a  grass-land,  the  low  growth 
of  which  no  longer  compares  with  the  tall  tufts  of 
the  tropical  savana  grasses,  but  consists  largely  of 
short  andropogon  and  aristida  forms.  Numerous  small 
herbaceous  bushes  with  small  leathery  leaves,  especially 
composites,  are  freely  interspersed  among  bulbous  and 
tuberous  plants;  there  is  no  longer  that  variety  of 
trees  which  prevailed  within  the  tropics.  Trees  are 
mostly  bushy,  and  acacias  form  the  bulk  of  them,  with 
low  and  flattened  crowns  as  a  characteristic  feature. 
'  They  are  scattered  singly  or  in  groups  over  the  surface 
and  their  dark  foliage  contrasts  strikingly  with  the 
lighter  green  or  faded  straw -yellow  of  the  sward.' 
Especially  noticeable  here  are  the  thorny  acacia  hor- 
rida,  and  the  mopani-tree  which  alone,  or  almost  alone, 
successfully  resists  the  yearly  grass-fires :  the  majority 
of  trees  shed  their  foliage  in  winter.  On  granite  hills, 
like  the  Matoppos,  the  grass  plays  but  a  secondary 
part,  and  the  woody  perennials  and  bushy  tree-forms 
become  more  prominent.  It  is  a  barer  landscape, 
but  more  varied  in  forms  of  vegetation  and  species 
of  plants. 

The  boschveld  may  be  compared  with  the  prairies  of 
Texas,  in  which  the  mesquite  would  be  replaced  by  the 
acacia  and  the  mopani-tree.  It  is  closely  allied  in 
appearance  and  mode  of  life  with  the  park  scenery  of 
East  Africa,  and  is  primarily  a  grazing  ground. 
Agriculture  can   only  assume   the   second   rank   as   an 


240  AFRICA 

occupation  as  it  requires  a  combination  of  soil  and  water 
which  is  realized  in  but  limited  areas. 

Hoogeveld.  The  South  African  plateau  continues  in 
an  increasing  gradient  towards  its  south-eastern  edge, 
which  is  called  the  Drakenberg.  The  combined  influence 
of  winds,  drought,  and  soil  has  prevented  tree-growth, 
and,  following  upon  the  boschveld,  the  hoogeveld 
extends  on  the  south  at  an  elevation  of  from  4,000  to 
5,500  feet,  a  vast,  level,  treeless  expanse ;  a  steppe  with 
a  short  and  irregular  sward,  only  to  be  compared  to  the 
other  vast  steppe-regions,  the  American  prairies  and  the 
Asiatic  steppes.  Table-like  eminences  called  kopjes  rise 
here  and  there  above  the  general  level  of  the  plains, 
a  thin  sprinkling  of  stunted  bushes  on  their  often  steep 
and  rocky  scarps.  Otherwise,  not  a  pebble,  not  a  shrub, 
breaks  the  monotony  of  the  endless  plateaus :  trees  are 
restricted  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  water-courses 
and  of  human  settlements.  The  dry  and  cool  climate  of 
the  hoogeveld  renders  it  the  healthiest  part  of  Africa. 
The  pastures  originally  supported  quantities  of  wild 
cattle  and  big  game,  and  the  huntsman  and  the  herds- 
man found  there  abundant  occupation.  Large  numbers 
of  cattle,  however,  could  not  be  grazed  permanently  on 
the  same  spot ;  hence  arose  the  necessity  of  shifting  the 
pastures  and  hunting-fields  and,  partly,  of  the  nomadic 
life  led  by  the  white  invaders,  in  their  turn. 

Drakenberg.  The  pastures  are  carried  right  over  the 
raised  edge  of  the  plateau  which  has  been  so  carved  into 
hills  as  to  deserve  the  name  of  mountain- range.  A 
rain-supply  falls  upon  the  Drakenbergs  sufficient  to 
justify  the  presence  of  forests,  were  not  these  mountains 
exposed  to  the  full  strength  of  precisely  those  south- 
easterly blasts  which  bring  the  rain.  Thus  the  beneficial 
effect  of  the  latter  is  counteracted,  as  far  as  tree-growth 


DRAKENBERG  241 

is  concerned,  by  an  exaggerated  evaporation,  and  woods  of 
a  marked  deciduous  and  temperate  type  are  confined  to 
the  bottom  of  the  valleys.  The  landscape  of  the  Draken- 
berg  is  thus  one  of  grassy  dales  and  gorges  varied  with 
shrubs  and  perennial  herbs,  typical  pastoral  scenery. 

Kalahari.  The  strength  and  moisture  of  the  south- 
eastern trade  winds  are  exhausted  before  the  central 
and  western  portions  of  South  Africa  are  reached :  the 
westerly  winter  storms,  on  the  other  hand,  exercise  but 
little  influence  over  these  portions.  Thus  the  vast  regions 
lying  to  the  south  of  the  subtropical  boschveld  depend 
for  their  life-stirring  moisture  mostly  on  local  winds 
and  storms,  or  again  on  north  winds  and  sea-breezes 
which  cool  in  winter  on  reaching  the  high  plateau. 
Hence  the  extension  of  broad,  arid  lands,  the  dry  char- 
acter of  which  goes  on  increasing  from  east  to  west,  so 
as  to  reach  a  truly  desert  condition  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  The  average  rainfall  oscillates  about  four  inches, 
but  is  very  irregular  from  year  to  year.  The  Kalahari 
is  the  largest  of  those  regions  and  occupies  the  centre 
of  the  high  tableland.  West  of  the  boschveld  of 
Rhodesia  and  Transvaal  the  trees  are  gradually  more 
scattered  and  lower,  and  the  grass  is  thinner  and  shorter. 
Now  table-like  tops  and  vast  plains  may  be  seen  bare 
and  rocky  or  with  a  ragged  mat  of  poa  grass.  Thorn- 
bushes,  especially  the  acacia  with  its  tusk-shaped  thorns, 
form  loose  thickets  in  the  dry  beds  of  the  streams,  amid 
wiry  tufts  of  dry  andropogon  and  aristida  grasses.  In 
similar  situations  the  tree  euphorbia  and  the  aloe,  with 
a  small  number  of  low,  heath-like,  woody  trees  and 
short  sage-bushes  are  thinly  spread  over  the  whole 
area  of  the  Kalahari ;  the  only  portions  which  are 
really  plantless  are  the  valleys  or  level  depressions  and 
dry  salt  pans,  for  scattered  succulents  speckle  the  stony 

1159.1  E, 


242  AFRICA 

scarps.  The  South  African-  waste  land  is  almost  sym- 
metrical with,  and  analogous  to,  the  Algerian  high 
plateaus  in  point  of  forms  of  growth,  though  perhaps 
not  so  destitute  of  trees. 

Damara  Desert.  A  rainless  strip  along  the  coast  from 
the  Cunene  to  the  Orange  River,  but  broadening  some- 
what in  the  middle  towards  the  Namib  region,  reaches 
purely  desert  conditions.  The  sandy  strand  extending 
inland  by  means  of  dunes  is  plantless,  over  miles 
and  miles.  In  places  may  be  seen  that  strangest  of 
plant-forms,  the  wehvitschia,  a  solitary  stumpy  pigmy- 
tree,  buried  in  the  sand,  only  showing  its  woody  head, 
whence  emerges  a  crown  of  long  tattered  ribbons  of  leaves 
coiling  over  the  ground.  Again,  on  sandy  wastes  may 
occur  here  and  there  an  open  brush  of  bushy,  leafless, 
fleshy  euphorbias.  Stony  troughs  harbour  a  sprinkling 
of  thorn- bush  and  trees :  giraffe  acacias,  thorny  acacias, 
tree  euphorbias,  &c.  Plateaus,  chiefly  characterized  by 
a  vegetation  of  bulbs  and  tubers,  are  found  farther 
inland.  In  comparatively  wet  years  the  ground  is 
covered  with  the  crawling  melon  plant,  acanthosicyos 
horrida,  which  supplies  a  most  welcome  food.  In  the 
interior,  a  few  grassy  depressions  afford  some  temporary 
pastures. 

Karroo  Region.  The  Kalahari  is  carried  across  the 
Orange  River  to  a  scarcely  less  monotonous  plain,  treeless 
and  dotted  with  stunted  bushes,  though  in  the  moister 
depressions  grassy  patches  are  found  interspersed  with 
shrubs  and  the  ever-present  thorny  acacia :  these 
alternate  with  heath-like  wastes  covered  with  short 
brushes  of  dwarf  shrubs  of  a  dull-green  hue.  Beyond  the 
edge  of  the  plateau,  which  is  thrown  into  a  mountain- 
like range,  one  descends  to  a  lower  terrace  called  the 
Karroo. 


H   / 

i 

I 

1  ■•§ 

1 

1 

i 

B  2 


244  AFRICA 

The  Karroos  are  also  treeless  waste  lands,  mostly  stony 
and  semi-desert,  likewise  the  homes  of  dwarf  rounded 
shrubs,  with  tiny,  heath- like  leaves:  in  some  years  the 
rainfall  may  reach  the  minimum  of  one  inch.  A  very 
large  number  of  tubers  and  bulbs  is  characteristic  of 
the  Karroos,  which  are  thus  divided  into  deserts  of 
bulbs  and  succulents  and  deserts  of  dwarf  shrubs, 
and  end  where  continuous  grass  begins.  In  the  dry 
river-beds  is  loose  scrub  of  the  horrid  tusk-thorn 
acacia,  the  giraffe  acacia,  the  olive-like  capparis,  a 
sumac,  the  karreeboom,  and  a  herb  with  fleshy  leaves, 
in  addition  to  numerous  pelargoniums  and  oxalids. 
Few  oases  occur  among  those  deserts  and  semi-deserts, 
human  settlements  are,  of  necessity,  confined  to  river- 
banks  :  animal  life  cannot  be  plentiful  on  such  a 
meagre  fare,  and  agriculture  and  grazing  are  out  of  the 
question.  There  remains  only  the  ostrich,  the  specific 
bird  of  the  desert  which  is  bred  for  its  feathers  on 
regular  ostrich  farms.  Natives  who  have  been  driven 
there  by  more  powerful  tribes  and  by  white  men  live 
permanently  on  the  verge  of  starvation  and  at  the 
lowest  stage  of  destitution,  and  are  fast  disappearing. 

Southern  Belt  of  South  Africa.  The  Cape  Region 
receives  the  benefit  of  the  winter  rains  due  to  the 
westerly  winds,  and  by  reason  of  its  position  enjoys 
a  climate  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean. 
On  that  account  it  exhibits  a  vegetation  which  stands  in 
close  relation  to  that  of  extreme  North- West  Africa: 
a  wealth  of  evergreen,  small-  and  hard-leaf  shrubs  and 
small  trees  of  spare  vegetative  habit  but  profuse 
flowering.  Forest  growths  similar  to  those  of  the 
mediterranean  oaks  and  pines  have  disappeared ;  the 
woody  formations  are  reduced  to  the  condition  of 
maquis,  with  a  small,  leathery,  and  simple  foliage,  among 


SOUTHERN  BELT  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA    245 

which  proteas  and  leucadendron  are  the  best  known  types. 
A  large  number  of  extremely  varied  shrubs  and  heath- 
like plants,  usually  well  represented  in  our  conservatories 
under  the  name  of  '  Cape  heaths ',  is  characteristic  of  this 
region.  In  addition,  a  diverse  flora  of  bushy  perennials, 
of  bulbs  and  succulent  plants,  which  appears    like   an 


Fig.  93.     Silver  trees. 


enriched  replica  of  the  Mediterranean  flora,  has  furnished 
us  with  a  large  collection  of  ornamental  plants. 

This  south-western  margin  of  the  South  African  table- 
lands has  been  so  dissected  by  deep  valleys  as  to  fall 
into  a  hilly  scenery  in  which  altitudinal  belts  are  well 
marked.  A  broken  strip  of  coast  and  lowlands,  which 
receives  the  minimum  of  moisture,  includes  the  strand 


246  AFRICA 

and  dune  formations,  among^which  are  remarkable  bush- 
lands  and  shrubby  heaths,  recalling  the  Brazilian  res- 
thigas.  Acacia  cyclops,  introduced  from  Australia,  has 
spread  abundantly,  and  has  materially  altered  the  original 
aspect  of  the  landscape.  Characteristic  also  of  this 
coast  strip  are  the  numerous  representatives  of  the  sedge- 
like order  of  Restiaceac,  which,  together  with  myrtaceous 
shrubs,  form  well-defined  vegetation  units  on  shifting 
sands  resting  on  clay  or  hard  pan.  The  foot-hills  support 
the  typical  evergreen  hard-leaf  scrub :  along  with  these 
maquis  occur  hill  heaths  akin  to  the  garigues,  both  of 
which  probably  replace  the  destroyed  woodlands.  With 
increased  rainfall,  cloud,  and  mists,  the  upper  mountain 
belt  displays,  in  isolated  areas,  mountain  swamps,  rock 
heaths  and  mountain  brushes,  the  aspect  of  the  whole 
suggesting  the  bush  of  the  coast  strip  rather  than  the 
maquis.  A  pseudo-alpine  low  vegetation  crowns  the 
wind-swept  ridges. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  Cape  region  once 
possessed  luxuriant  forests  of  the  Mediterranean  type,  and 
that  the  same  process  of  destruction  which  gave  origin  to 
the  European  maquis  largely  also  transformed  these 
forests  into  mere  brushes.  The  Mediterranean  cypress,  the 
cedars  of  the  Atlas  and  Lebanon,  find  an  equivalent  in 
the  widdringtonia,  so  much  like  the  Monterey  cypress 
of  California,  which  had  formerly  a  large  area  of  dis- 
tribution. The  last  few  survivors  of  those  stately  and 
useful  trees  are  now  left  at  about  2,700  feet,  in  inacces- 
sible positions  on  the  northern  slopes  of  a  remote  moun- 
tain range  (Cedar  Mountains). 

Knysna  Forest.  Almost  the  only  natural  timbered 
tract  left  in  South  Africa  occurs  in  a  narrow  and  hilly 
strip  along  the  coast,  from  Mossel  Bay  to  Algoa  Bay. 
The    forests    are    regular,    tall   and   dense    formations 


KNYSNA  FOREST  247 

of  various  evergreen  trees  with  a  glossy  foliage,  due  to 
a  rainfall  amounting  to  36  inches  yearly  and  spread  over 
the  whole  year ;  epiphytes  and  climbers  abound  in 
portions  of  them,  as  in  the  warm  temperate  rain-forests. 
This  timber  belt  is  intermediate  between  the  medi- 
terranean and  the  subtropical  rain -forests.  There  is 
a  remarkable  parallel  between  the  central  valley  of 
Chile  with  its  mediterranean  vegetation  and  the  temper- 
ate rain-forest  on  the  south  of  it,  and  the  sequence  of 
the  Cape  and  extreme  South  African  forest  region.  The 
Knysna  forest  was  more  extensive  in  former  days ;  its 
area  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the  axe  and  the  fire,  and, 
as  usual,  the  early  mistakes  now  cost  much  money  and 
energy  to  repair.  Reafforestation  is  more  difficult 
and  more  costly  than  would  have  been  a  wise  husband- 
ing of  the  natural  resources. 

Kafir  aria.  Crossing  the  Drakenberg,  one  descends 
into  Kaffraria.  This  region  consists  of  a  succession  of 
broad  terraces  open  to  the  south-east  winds  and  possesses 
a  fairly  abundant  rainfall,  the  effect  of  which  is  here 
again  partly  counteracted  by  the  winds.  The  northern 
and  upper  parts  are  covered  with  a  park  vegetation  of 
a  warm  temperate  type.  Woods  are  not  uncommon 
among  the  northern  hills ;  but  they  assume  the  form  of 
dense  jungles  of  slender,  twisted,  and  distorted  trees  of 
small  stature,  giving  the  impression  of  overgrown  elfin 
woods.  Upon  the  mountains  are  found  two  conifers, 
podocarpus  and  ividdringtonia.  For  the  most  part, 
however,  the  middle  and  upper  terraces  support  park 
or  bush  grass-lands,  where  acacias,  aloes,  and  proteas 
predominate,  and  form  excellent  pasture  grounds,  not 
unlike  those  of  Texas.  Winters  are  dry  and  cool,  and 
last  from  May  to  July.  Many  bulbous  plants,  varied 
shrubs,  and  perennials  are  found  interspersed  among  the 


248  AFRICA 

grass  or  in  colonies  around  the  trees :  the  umbrella  shape 
is  also  a  feature  of  the  acacias.  Thickets  of  grey,  bushy 
euphorbias  studded  with  tall  aloes  are  not  rare,  while 
the  stony  hills  are  strewn  with  succulents  and  the 
ever-present  aloe  form. 

On  the  lower  terraces,  at  about  1,500  feet,  the  climate 
changes  to  a  moderately  dry  and  hot  subtropical  type, 
favourable  to  the  development  of  subtropical  agricul- 
ture :  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  maize,  bananas,  and  other 
fruits  may  be  grown  with  excellent  results.  The  natural 
vegetation  consists  mostly  of  shrubs,  thickets,  and 
woods  of  small  trees,  among  which  are  palms  and  the 
ornamental,  banana-like  strelitzia,  the  tree  euphorbias 
and  aloes,  which  latter  are  found  alike  among  the  park- 
steppes  and  the  subtropical  brush- woods.  A  frequent 
type  of  woodland  is  that  of  the  caatinga  jungles; 
those  of  a  more  profuse  character  occur  in  the  well- 
watered  valleys  of  the  south. 

The  character  of  savana  is  strongly  marked  on  the 
terrace,  about  1,500  feet  above  sea-level,  which  extends 
between  the  Drakenberg  and  the  Lebombo  range  in  the 
north  of  Natal.  This  hilly  district,  a  transition  between 
the  bush-steppe  and  the  regular  tropical  savana,  is  some- 
times known  as  the  '  nether-veld ' ;  without  possessing 
the  luxuriance  of  the  savana,  it  has  taller  trees  and 
grass  than  the  boschveld. 

Three  zones  of  occupation  may  thus  be  distinguished 
in  Natal :  (1)  the  subtropical  coast  belt  of  cane, 
cotton,  and  fruits,  up  to  1,500  feet;  (2)  the  temperate 
agricultural  belt  with  corn  and  maize  ;  and  (3)  the  upper 
or  exclusively  pastoral  belt. 

Madagascar.  The  core  of  Madagascar  is  an  elongated 
high  plateau  occupying  the  centre  of  the  island,  and  con- 
tinuing across  the  sea  the  tableland  of  Rhodesia.     To- 


MADAGASCAR 


249 


wards  the  west  the  sea  is  reached  by  a  series  of  step-like 
terraces,  while  towards  the  east  the  plateau  sinks  pre- 
cipitously to  a  narrow  fringe  of  marshy  coast. 

Situated  within  the  south-eastern  Trades  belt,  Mada- 
gascar is  ever  moist  on  the  eastern  scarp  of  the  tableland, 


Fig.  94.     Traveller's  trees. 


which  consequently  is  clad  with  an  overwhelming  tropical 
rain-forest,  descending  to  a  margin  of  mangrove-swamps. 
The  top  of  the  tableland  is  naturally  the  continuation 
of  the  Rhodesian  boschveld.  The  western  terraces,  on 
the  whole,  reproduce  the  condition  of  the  hinterland  of 
Beira,  and  display  a  similar  kind  of  light  tropical  wood- 


250  AFRICA 

land  interrupted  by  savanas  and  thorn  woods.  In  the 
moister  depressions,  however,  the  vegetation  may  attain 
the  profusion  of  the  true  selva.  The  extra-tropical 
southern  point  of  the  island  is  very  much  drier,  and 
offers  a  vegetation  not  unlike  that  of  the  Karroo. 
Long  detached  from  the  main  mass  of  the  African 
tableland,  the  block  of  Madagascar,  while  retaining 
much  of  the  plant  and  animal  population  of  the  con- 
tinent, has  developed  many  special  types  of  its  own, 
which  give  it  a  specific  character.  Among  the  curious 
plants  may  be  mentioned  an  obelisk-like  pandanus 
and,  better  known,  the  banana-like  traveller's  tree, 
the  beautiful  ravenala:  several  rubber-trees  are  also 
to  be  found  here. 

All  agricultural  industries  of  the  Tropics  find  a  pro- 
mising field  amid  the  varied  conditions  of  this  island. 
The  native  populations,  on  the  whole,  were  more  ad- 
vanced than  the  Africans.  For  a  time,  attempts  at 
colonization  were  unsuccessful,  because  the  approach 
was  made  from  the  unhealthy  eastern  shore,  but  recently, 
decided  progress  has  been  made  by  settlers  on  the 
western  and  northern  sides. 


CHAPTER  VI 
EUROPE 

General.  In  the  general  land-mass  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  Europe  appears  like  a  peninsula  grafted  on  to 
the  western  side  of  Asia  and  advancing  into  the  middle  of 
temperate  seas.  Its  geographical  situation,  its  subdued 
relief  and  the  penetrations  of  inland  seas  almost  to  its 
eastern  limits  ensure   for  the   small   continent  a  great 


252 


EUROPE 


equability  and  a  great  uniformity  of  climate  which  are 
its  dominant  features.  The  climate,  on  the  whole,  may  be 
described  as  cool  temperate,  with  a  moderate  sunshine, 
a  moderate  rainfall,  moderate  winds,  a  moderate  atmo- 
spheric moisture,  yet  with  a  marked  seasonal  rhythm. 
Such  conditions  are  the  result  of  the  westerly  winds 
which  sweep  across  the  Atlantic  and  penetrate  far  into 


Fig.  96.    Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  Europe. 

the  Arctic  circle.  These  breezes  are  not  checked,  as  in 
Pacific  North  America,  by  transverse  barriers  of  moun- 
tains, and  therefore  are  able  to  extend  their  influence 
to  a  considerable  distance  inland.  Congruous  with  the 
climatic  conditions,  the  vegetation  exhibits  the  same 
features  of  equability  and  uniformity,  finding  its  expres- 
sion  in  a   fairly  continuous  cover  of  forests  of  a  cool 


GENERAL 


253 


WINTER  RAIN 


^^M  OVER  I 
^^  UNDER 


temperate,  deciduous,  broad-leaf  t}^pe.    Of  this  character 
the  oak  and  beech  are  the  foremost  representatives. 

In  opposition  to 
Asia,  in  every  respect 
a  land  of  sharply  con- 
trasted extremes,  Eu- 
rope shows  gentle  and 
gradual  variations  of, 
or  departures  from, 
a  uniform  temperate 
average,  best  exempli- 
fied in  the  British 
Isles  as  being  nearer 
to  the  moderating  in- 
fluences, i.  e.  the  west- 
erly breezes.  Hence 
the  greater  difficulty 
of  characterizing  what 
'  nuances '  of  the  vege- 
table carpet,  and  of 
indicating  their  geo- 
graphical boundaries 

As  may  be  expected, 
starting  from  the  At- 
lantic shores  and  pene- 
trating farther  and 
farther  into  the  mass 
of  land,  Europe  may 
be  analysed  into  a 
succession  of  strips  or 
belts  of  decreasing 
equability  and  uni- 
formity. The  seasonal 
and    daily    contrasts 


Fig.  07.  Regions  of  Europe  receiving 
more  or  less  than  0  inches  of  rainfall 
during  the  summer  thiee  months. 

appear   as   delicate   shades   or 


Fig.  98.  Regions  of  Europe  receiving 
more  or  less  than  6  inches  of  rainfall 
during  the  winter  three  months. 


tend    to    be    emphasized    more 


Fig.  99,  100.     Mean  Temperature  of  Europe  in  January  and  July,  reduced 

to  sea-level. 


GENERAL 


255 


and  more;  periods  of  rainfall  and  drought  are  more 
sharply  defined,  and  ranges  of  temperature,  both  in 
seasonal  averages  and  in  absolute  extremes,  widen  in- 
creasingly. While  the  Scilly  Isles,  with  their  balmy 
atmosphere,  and  mild  winter  and  summer,  express  the 
complete  moderation  of  climate  in  their  wealth  of  broad- 
leaf,  luxuriant  evergreens,  central  Russia  with  a  sharp 


Vegetation 

Tundra 
Coniferous  forest 
Deciduous    trees 
Mediterranean 
Steppe 
Mountain 


Fig.  101.     Vegetation  of  Europe. 

and  prolonged  winter  frost,  and  a  scorching,  dry,  summer 
heat,  instances  the  opposite  extreme  in  its  steppe.  In  this 
way  may  be  distinguished  an  Atlantic  or  oceanic  fringe, 
a  western  European  margin,  a  central  European  tract, 
and  an  eastern  European  region. 

In  respect  of  heat  and  cold  and  of  their  action  on 
vegetation,  the  western  fringes,  in  conformity  with  the 


Fig.  102.     Clump  ot  Cork  Oaks  in  S.  France. 


GENERAL  257 

trend  of  isotherms,  stretch  in  a  general  meridian  direc- 
tion. Farther  east,  witli  the  weakening  influence  of 
the  westerly  breezes,  the  distribution  of  warmth  tends 
more  and  more  to  conform  to  latitudes:  hence  a  broad 
division  into  cold,  cool  temperate,  and  warm  temperate, 
belts  which  find  their  expression  in  the  coniferous,  the 
broad-leaf  deciduous,  and  the  evergreen  hard-leaf  forests. 
In  the  northern  region  the  shortness  of  the  vegetative 
period  excludes  the  broad-leaf  deciduous,  and  leaves  the 
ground  to  the  spare  and  gaunt  conifers,  with  their 
enormously  reduced  and  wholly  protected  green  surface, 
ever  ready  to  work  when  the  weather  permits,  and  with 
their  store  of  reserve-matter  in  the  soft  wood.  In  the 
southern  or  Mediterranean  region,  the  brief  duration  of  the 
period  of  intense  growth  and  the  general  unfavourable- 
ness  of  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  due  to  winter  colds 
or  summer  droughts,  limits  the  broad-leaf  deciduous 
vegetation  to  abundantly  watered  areas.  The  larger 
portion  of  the  land  supports  a  stout,  well-protected,  non- 
luxuriant  type :  the  woody  evergreen  with  a  spare  and 
leathery  foliage. 

In  the  northern  region,  the  strip  of  coast  open  to  the 
Arctic  winds  is  clear  of  tree-growth  and  is  clothed  with 
low  brush  and  moors:  this  constitutes  a  distinct  belt 
of  tundras.  The  passage  from  the  coniferous  to  the 
deciduous  belt  is  very  gradual  and  is  obscured  by  the 
influence  of  soils;  but  the  boundary  between  the  cool 
temperate  and  the  warm  temperate  regions,  i.  e.  between 
the  deciduous  and  the  mediterranean  vegetations,  is  de- 
fined by  mountain  ranges  such  as  the  central  plateau  of 
France,  the  Alps  and  their  outspurs  in  Illyria,  and  by 
the  Rhodope  range. 

If  differences  between  the  east  and  the  west  of  Europe 
are  observed  in  the  vegetation  of  the  northern  coniferous 

s  *!#*** 


258  EUROPE 

and  southern  or  Mediterranean  regions,  they  are  still 
more  apparent  in  the  deciduous  zone  of  central  Europe. 
Such  distinctions  are,  of  necessity,  more  subtle  than 
between  the  latitudinal  belts  of  vegetation.  They  do 
not  materially  affect  the  general  aspect  and  composition 
of  the  large  masses  of  forests,  but  show  themselves  in  the 
comparative  abundance  of  certain  growth-forms  and 
plant  formations,  or  again  in  the  varied  forms,  vegeta- 
tive habits,  and  modes  of  life  of  the  same  plant  species 
in  the  various  districts. 

In  the  west,  the  mild  winters  allow  plants  to  retain 
their  foliage  longer  than  in  the  east;  the  periodic  phe- 
nomena of  plant  life  are  not  so  regular  nor  so  sudden. 
Life  is  perhaps  less  exuberant  in  summer,  but  the  period 
of  rest  is  not  so  complete  and  universal.  As  the  advent 
of  autumn  is  more  gradual  and  slow,  so  the  spring  re- 
awakening, as  a  whole,  takes  place  earlier.  With  the 
weakening  of  the  seasonal  rhythm,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  a  prolonged,  if  less  active,  growth  period,  to  a  sort  of 
tender-leaf  evergreen  of  the  cool  temperate  type.  In 
this  respect  western  Europe  bears  some  relation  to  such 
cool-temperate  evergreen  regions  as  southern  Chile  or 
south-western  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania.  This  is 
especially  the  case  for  the  oceanic  fringe  of  coasts  and 
headlands,  from  Ireland  to  Spain,  where  evergreens  of 
more  or  less  thin  foliage,  like  the  strawberry-tree,  the 
cherry  laurel,  the  Portugal  laurel,  the  holly  and  the 
yew,  develop  best.  In  addition,  a  large  number  of 
mediterranean  leathery- leaf  evergreens  survive  the 
winter  and  are  extensively  planted,  and  there  is  a  marked 
tendency  to  the  evergreen  habit  in  certain  shrubs  which, 
in  the  east,  are  frankly  deciduous. 

The  contrast  between  the  east  and  the  west  is  more 
striking  in  the  grass  formations  than  in  the  forests  and 


GENERAL  259 

shrubs.  In  eastern  Europe,  outside  the  lush  meadows 
of  the  rich  alluvial  valleys  and  the  subalpine  and  alpine 
regions,  the  grass  tracts  are,  as  a  rule,  of  the  dry  and 
spare  type  of  the  steppe  with  narrow,  hard,  and  wiry 
leaves.  To  the  climate  of  western  Europe  are  due  the 
extensive  evergreen  carpets  of  succulent  grass  with  thin, 
broad  leaves,  which  reach  their  characteristic  develop- 
ment in  the  British  Isles.  At  a  short  distance  from  the 
Atlantic  shore  of  the  continent  the  grass  begins  to  turn 
yellow-grey  and  to  wither  in  winter  and  in  the  height 
of  summer.  The  meadows,  common  to  eastern  and 
western  Europe,  are  determined,  as  a  rule,  by  the  abun- 
dance of  water  in  the  rich  soil.  Thus  the  geographical 
significance  of  the  two  types  of  grass  carpets  in  the 
west  and  in  the  east  is  entirely  different  The  dissimi- 
larity of  appearance,  requirements,  and  habits  connotes 
a  fundamental  divergence  of  physical  environment.  Also 
indicative  of  uniformly  cool  and  rainy  climates,  and  to 
be  found  extensively  in  western  Europe  as  well  as  in  the 
north,  are  the  high  moors  or  peat-bogs  which  occur  on 
badly  drained  soils  and  in  impure  waters,  and  disappear 
gradually  eastward.  The  heather  moors,  characteristic 
of  poor  soils,  are  again  plentiful  in  the  west  and  in 
northern  Germany,  but  fail  in  the  east. 

In  Europe  the  relations  between  vegetation  and  its 
physical  environment  are  obscured,  as  in  China  or  India, 
by  the  removal  of  the  primitive  plant-covering  and  the 
alterations  undergone  by  the  soil,  and  even  the  climate,  in 
the  course  of  centuries.  The  well-kept  woodlands  of 
these  countries  bear  but  a  distant  relation  to  the 
primeval  wildernesses  of  forest,  undrained,  strewn  with 
mires  and  swamps,  packed  with  a  thick  undergrowth, 
encumbered  with  dead  trunks  and  stumps,  littered  with 
decaying  branches,  and  padded  with  mosses  and  ferns 

s  2 


GENERAL  261 

Such  forests  only  allowed  settlements  on  the  margins  of 
the  valley  meadows,  and  made  even  the  barbarians  pause 
and  go  round. 

The  areas  of  grass  pastures,  heather  moors,  and  peat 
bogs  have  been  changed  and  generally  extended  and  the 
surface  altered  beyond  recognition.  Some  portions  have 
been  drained,  others  submerged,  others  again  irrigated 
or  put  beyond  the  reach  of  floods.  Most  parts  have 
been  cleared  of  timber,  many  given  up  to  cattle  and 
sheep,  many  again  burned  yearly,  whilst  a  large  area  has 
been  claimed  by  cultivation.  Similarly  the  composition  of 
forests,  bushes,  and  grasslands  has  been  altered,  by  fire  or 
by  grazing.  A  large  extent  of  waste  and  derelict  land 
has  been  created,  whose  variable  and  heterogeneous  plant 
carpet,  drawn  From  the  adjacent  formations,  strives  for 
some  kind  of  organization  and  balance.  Numberless 
species  of  plants  have  been  imported  by  man,  sometimes 
competing  successfully  with  the  original  denizens.  Ulti- 
mately, it  is  apparent  that  by  altering  the  equilibrium  of 
the  animal  world,  destroying  many  species  and  intro- 
ducing others,  the  nature  of  the  plant  carpet  has  been 
indirectly  but  powerfully  affected.  It  is  therefore  diffi- 
cult to  do  more  than  briefly  to  indicate  the  more  obvious 
correspondences  between  the  vegetation  and  its  regional 
environment. 

In  the  middle  of  the  deciduous  belt  various  subalpine 
heights  form  insulated  areas  of  conifers.  On  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Alps  and  the  Carpathians,  the  coniferous 
districts  enclose  cores  of  alpine  vegetation. 

The  Arctic  Region.  The  most  unfavourable  conditions 
offered  to  plant  and  animal  life  are  found  in  the  ice  and 
snow-fields  of  the  arctic  and  alpine  regions.  An  intense 
frost  and  darkness  during  nearly  a  half  of  the  year, 
alternations  of  frostbound  earth  and  icy  water  during  the 


262  EUROPE 

remainder,  such  are  the  conditions  to  which  organisms 
must  adapt  themselves.  Yet  even  the  hostility  of  such 
an  environment  has  not  proved  too  much  for  the  powers 
of  endurance  of  plant  and  animal  life.  Seventy-two  plant 
species,  in  addition  to  many  species  of  animals,  are  able 
to  live  and  reproduce  on  snow  and  ice.  They  are  reduced 
to  the  most  elementary  forms,  hardly  more  than  drops  of 


Fig.  104.     Snow-bound  Tundra. 

living  matter  finding  their  powers  of  resistance  in  the 
nature  of  their  own  substance  rather  than  in  adventi- 
tious means  of  protection,  for  of  external  devices  such  as 
higher  forms  of  life  are  able  to  evolve,  there  appear  to  be 
few  or  none.  Living  things  are  reduced  to  a  powdering 
of  tiny  cells  penetrating  the  snow  to  a  depth  of  one  or 
two  inches.     The  bright  colours,  rose,  red,  purple  and 


THE  ARCTIC   REGION  263 

brown,  assumed  by  the  algae  are  ascribed  to  the  pro- 
duction of  substances  apparently  destined  to  absorb  heat, 
and  sanction  the  names  of  red,  brown,  yellow  and  green 
snows  given  to  colonies  of  such  hardy  organisms. 

Arctic-Alpine  Tundras  and  Fjelds.  Arctic  condi- 
tions such  as  make  tree-growth,  and  even  shrub-growth, 
impossible  are  only  found  in  Europe  along  a  narrow  strip 
of  coast  facing  the  polar  seas.  This  is  due  to  the  com- 
paratively low  latitudes  o't*  the  northern  shores  and  to  the 
moderating  influence  of  the  south-westerly  winds  which 
penetrate  far  into  the  Arctic  Circle.  The  immediate  shores 
of  the  frozen  sea,  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  those  winds 
by  the  lofty  barrier  of  the  Scandinavian  Alps,  and  bearing 
the  full  onslaught  of  the  circumpolar  winds,  alone  possess 
a  climate  severe  enough  to  preclude  the  extension  of  the 
hardy  northern  trees  and  shrubs. 

The  most  telling  features  of  the  arctic  climate  are  the 
shortness  of  the  vegetative  period,  which  is  reduced  to 
two  or  three  months  in  the  year,  not  so  much  by  the  long 
winter  night  as  by  the  freezing  of  the  ground  and  the 
icy  and  drying  winds.  Those  features  are  reflected  by 
the  usual  characteristics  of  the  tundra  belt :  the  absence 
of  arboreal  vegetation  ;  the  shortness  of  growth  in  length 
of  the  shoots  and  internodes ;  the  consequent  crowded 
foliage  close  to  the  ground  ;  the  strong  development  of 
the  underground  root-stock,  woody  or  fibrous,  which 
serves  as  a  store  of  reserve  materials ;  the  thick,  com- 
pact, and  leathery  nature  of  the  foliage,  and  its  re- 
duction in  size ;  the  frequent  provision  of  a  woolly 
covering  on  the  leaves ;  the  vivid  colours  of  herbaceous 
shoots  due  to  the  presence  of  heat-storing  substances; 
the  bright  coloration  of  the  blossoms  associated  with  the 
duration  of  the  long  summer  day ;  and  a  wealth  of  finer 
devices  both  superficial  and  internal.     The  tundra  also 


264  EUROPE 

shelters  a  small  number  of  tiny  and  tender  annuals 
which  accomplish  their  life-cycle,  from  seed  to  seed,  in 
the  space  of  a  few  weeks. 

Rock,  rubble,  and  parched  clay  floors  in  exposed 
situations,  destitute  of  snow  in  winter,  offer  the  scantiest 
vegetation.  It  may  be  a  coat  of  crust-lichens  or  a  sparse 
dotting  of  pigmy  undershrubs  and  perennial  herbs ;  often, 
however,  the  ground  is  left  bare.  These  ultimate  ex- 
pressions of  plant-life  under  most  unfavourable  circum- 
stances penetrate  farthest  north  and  are  the  pioneers  of 
the  higher  plant- world. 

Vast  carpets  of  shrubby  lichens,  interspersed  with 
crawling  junipers,  dwarf  berry-bushes,  and  other  creep- 
ing under-shrubs ;  in  comparatively  quiet  and  sheltered 
surroundings  even  low  shrub-heaths ;  marshes  of  reeds, 
rushes,  sedges,  cotton-grass  and  coarse  grass  growing  on 
the  silt  of  the  margins  of  the  streams  ;  beautiful  oases  or 
bloom-mats  on  the  southern  slopes  of  hillocks  at  right 
angles  to  the  rays  of  the  low  sun,  all  aglow  with  gor- 
geous flowers ;  these  form  the  more  luxuriant  aspects  of 
the  tundra. 

The  European  tundra  is  characterized  by  an  abundant 
development  of  moss-heaths  or  moss-swamps,  dreary 
moors  formed  by  vast  accumulations  of  half-decomposed 
peat-moss  remains  in  the  shape  of  gigantic,  spongy, 
rounded  cushions  and  mounds,  sometimes  from  10  to  18 
feet  high,  with  a  labyrinth  of  intervening  puddles  or 
gutters,  choked  with  snow  in  winter  and  submerged  in 
summer.  Mosses  are  particularly  fitted  to  withstand  the 
dry  conditions  obtaining  on  these  peat  hillocks  on  account 
of  their  capacity  of  drying  up  and  reviving  again  rapidly 
under  moisture,  and  of  their  hardy  nature.  The  nearest 
approximation  we  have  to  moss-tundras  is  the  peat-bog, 
common  in  Ireland  and  Scotland ;  but  the  formation  of 


ARCTIC-ALPINE  TUNDRAS  AND  FJELDS     265 

peat  in  the  Arctic  region  is  not  so  rapid,  extensive,  and 
perfect  as  in  milder  countries,  chiefly  by  reason  of  the 
shortness  of  the  vegetative  season.  Moreover,  the  peat- 
moss, or  sphagnum,  and  the  ling,  so  common  among 
our  tracts  of  peat-bogs,  fail  in  the  Arctic.  The  moss- 
tundra  disappears,  going  farther  north,  and  is  character- 
istic only  of  the  subarctic  district. 

In  the  tundra  the  gastronomic  resources  are  reduced 
to  their  minimum.  A  scanty  supply  of  berries,  a  meagre 
soup  of  reindeer-lichen,  a  few  roots,  and  an  occasional 
salad  of  cochlearia  are  all  that  can  be  expected.  For- 
tunately the  reindeer,  besides  its  hardiness  and  its  unique 
aptitude  to  cross  the  moors  by  reason  of  its  broad  hoofs, 
exhibits  a  remarkable  faculty  for  turning  lichens  into 
food.  Hence  it  becomes  a  most  valuable  asset  for  the 
natives  who  are  obliged  to  leave  it  to  find  its  own  fodder, 
while  they  wander  after  the  half-wild  herds,  and  depend 
largely  on  the  milk,  skin,  horns,  bones,  and  flesh,  for 
a  living. 

Physical  conditions  very  similar  to  those  of  the  tundra 
extend  far  south  on  the  ridges  of  the  Urals  and  the 
summits  of  the  Scandinavian  Highlands,  the  ultimate 
outliers  of  which  may  be  encountered  in  the  broad  table 
tops  of  the  Scottish  Highlands.  Despite  the  now  regu- 
lar alternation  of  day  and  night,  the  vegetation  of  these 
arctic-alpine  plateaus  possesses,  on  the  whole,  the  same 
features.  The  name  '  fjelds '  connotes,  in  Scandinavia, 
this  type  of  physical  and  plant  scenery.  Above  the  last 
birches  which  here,  as  on  the  polar  side,  form  the  upper 
limit  of  the  forests,  occurs  a  grassy  brush  of  low  under- 
shrubs,  with  small  and  leathery-leaved  dwarf  junipers 
and  birches,  crowberries,  cranberries,  &c.,  often  over 
a  carpet  of  mosses  and  lichens.  Beyond  4,000  feet  this 
is  succeeded  by  a  close  mat  or  rug  of  yellow-grey  shrubby 


266 


EUROPE 


lichens,  and  higher  up  again  they  are  more  and  more 
interrupted  by  plantless  rubble  screes  which  ascend  to 
the  snow-line. 

Northern    Europe.     The    region    of    vast    forests    of 
conifers  includes  most  of  Scandinavia,  and  Russia  north 


Fig.  105.     View  in  Southern  Norway — the  typical 
northern  forest  of  Europe. 

of  a  line  extending  from  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland 
towards  the  mouth  of  the  Vyatka.  The  exclusion  of 
summer-green  broad-leaved  forests  seems  to  be  deter- 
mined largely  by  the  shortness  of  the  vegetative  season 
as  marked  by  the  correlative  duration  of  continuous 
frost  which  here  averages  five  months.     Of  rainfall  there 


NORTHERN   EUROPE  267 

is  a  sufficiency  throughout  the  year  and  the  atmosphere 
remains  fairly  moist,  chiefly,  perhaps,  by  reason  of  the 
low  temperatures  generally  prevailing.  The  biting,  dry 
arctic  winds  become  here  more  moderate,  and  there  is  an 
abundance  of  snow  on  the  ground  in  winter ;  but  the 
uncertainties  of  the  earl}'  and  late  growing  period  limit 
still  more  the  actual  time  available  for  the  develop- 
ment and  work  of  the  broad  leaves,  whilst  the  night 
frosts,  which  occur  at  the  beginning  and  towards  the 
close  of  the  period  of  growth,  endanger  their  very  exist- 
ence. Ultimately  there  is  hardly  time  enough  for  the 
maturing  of  the  fruits  of  the  temperate  vegetation  as 
we  know  it  in  central  and  western  Europe.  As  climatic 
conditions  become  more  severe,  the  number  of  tall  trees 
able  to  withstand  them  is  necessarily  much  reduced. 
Hence  the  uniformity  of  northern  forests,  where,  contrary 
to  what  occurs  in  warmer  latitudes,  a  single  species,  or 
two  or  three  species,  may  prevail  exclusively  over  exten- 
sive tracts  of  country. 

The  chief  timber  species  are,  in  the  western  districts  of 
Scandinavia,  the  Norway  spruce,  the  European  larch, 
and  the  Scots  pine,  to  which  in  the  eastern  part  of 
northern  Russia,  east  of  the  Ladoga  and  Onega  lakes, 
the  Siberian  spruce  and  fir,  the  Siberian  larch  and  the 
Siberian  stone  pine  are  added.  Thus  as  we  go  eastward 
the  variety  of  coniferous  forms  increases.  The  spruce 
generally  thrives  best  in  moist  situations  and  on  heavy 
soils,  while  the  pine  and  the  larch  are  not  so  particular 
in  their  requirements,  though  they  do  not  grow  so  well 
in  damp  surroundings.  Among  the  very  few  hardy 
summer-green  trees  that  accompany  the  conifers  in  these 
northern  regions  are  the  white  birch,  the  aspen,  and  the 
rowan.  Indeed,  a  stunted  form  of  birch  constitutes  low 
woodlands  in  a  broken  belt  north  of  the  limit  of  conifers  : 


268  EUROPE 

alders  may  occur  in  river  thickets.  Under  the  heavy 
canopy  of  dense  spruce  forests,  the  persistent  semi-dark- 
ness tolerates  on  the  mat  of  dead  needles  but  occasional 
carpets  of  mosses  and  lichens,  while  the  lighter  cover 
of  the  pines  and  larches  admits  of  the  existence  of  a 
uniform  brush  of  low  woody  and  straggling  bushes  with 
inconspicuous  flowers  and  small,  leathery  leaves,  and  of 
low,  herbaceous  ferns.  There  are  no  lianas ;  even 
climbers  are  rare  and  small,  and  epiphytes  arc  reduced 
to  mosses,  lichens,  and  an  occasional  fern. 

Though  forests  occupy  the  largest  portion  of  the  land, 
especially  in  Russia,  a  considerable  space  is  claimed  by 
other  forms  of  vegetation;  on  the  margins  of  the  rivers 
are  different  kinds  of  meadows  and  moors ;  on  alluvial 
silt  flats,  reed-,  sedge-  and  rush-marshes  ;  on  wet  grounds, 
thickets  of  willows,  alders,  &c.  Depressions  and  badly 
drained  areas  are  the  scat  of  extensive  peat-bogs  or  high 
moors :  indeed,  it  is  in  damp  and  cool  northern  Europe 
that  the  greatest  accumulations  of  peat  are  found.  Not 
infrequently,  waste  lands,  either  natural  or  artificial,  are 
covered  by  moors  of  low  shrubs,  similar  to  our  heather- 
moors,  with  an  abundance  of  berry  bushes,  heather,  and 
bracken. 

Only  a  very  few  kinds  of  small-leaved  trees,  and  those 
extremely  hardy,  represent  the  deciduous  components  of 
such  forests.  Fair-sized  willows  are  chiefly  restricted  to 
damp  and  sheltered  situations :  those  growing  in  the 
open  are  stunted  and  often  straggling.  Large-leaved 
herbs  are  limited  to  meadows  and  are  chiefly  perennial, 
probably  by  reason  of  the  shortness  of  the  growing 
period :  annuals  are  rather  scarce  and  small :  tubers  and 
bulbs  are  rare.  The  food  resources  of  the  forests,  moors, 
and  morasses  are  limited  to  a  few  berries  and  roots ; 
large  fruits  cannot  withstand  the  raw  and  chilly  climate, 


270  EUROPE 

and  have  no  time  for  maturing.  Of  cereals,  only  oats, 
rye,  and  barley  can  be  grown  in  a  few  favoured  spots : 
the  potato  is  grown  locally.  The  soil  of  the  northern 
region,  largely  of  glacial  origin,  is  poor  and  cold,  and 
therefore  unsuited  for  agriculture. 

The  population  being  reduced,  outside  mining,  to  the 
industries  connected  with  hunting,  fishing,  lumbering, 
and  transport,  is,  of  necessity,  very  scarce,  but  also  very 
hardy  and  industrious.  In  some  parts,  as  in  Finland 
and  Sweden,  the  meadows,  which  occupy  clearings  in  the 
vast  forests,  support  a  flourishing  dairy  industry.  In 
Norway,  pastoral  activities  are  limited  by  the  steepness 
of  the  mountain  sides,  and  the  impossibility  of  utilizing 
them  for  cattle  or  sheep. 

Russian  Steppe.  Forest  growth  ceases  altogether  and 
gives  way  to  the  steppe  or  dry  grass-land  when  the 
annual  rainfall  is  below  20  inches,  and  there  is  a  cold  and 
dry  winter  and  a  hot  summer.  The  conditions  which  ac- 
company'and  largely  determine  the  appearance  of  this 
new  landscape  are  now  well  known  :  a  scarcity  of  rain- 
fall and  atmospheric  moisture  ;  a  fairly  abundant  precipi- 
tation in  spring ;  a  period  of  growth  limited,  on  the  one 
hand,  by  two  to  four  months  of  frost}'  weather  and,  on 
the  other,  by  two  months  of  excessive  heat ;  in  winter 
as  well  as  summer,  a  dry  atmosphere.  Such  circum- 
stances, if  they  allow  a  low  vegetation  of  grass  and  her!  m 
are  not  favourable  to  tree  growth ;  but  to  the  direct 
climatic  influences  must  undoubtedly  be  added  the  re- 
sultant conditions  of  the  ground. 

The  Russian  steppe  is  the  westernmost  extension  of 
that  vast  belt  which  crosses  Asia  between  the  northern 
forests  and  the  central  deserts.  It  covers  low,  level,  or 
gently  undulating  plains,  in  which  the  main,  if  not  the 
sole,  diversity  is  afforded  by  the  succession  of  the  seasons. 


RUSSIAN   STEPPE  271 

The  steppe  may  be  formed  upon  various  soils,  such  as 
sand,  loess,  and  clay,  but  the  chief  feature  of  South 
Russia  is  a  deep  and  fertile  cover  of  fine  loam,  formed 
by  the  accumulation  of  dead  and  decomposed  vegetable 
matter,  known  as  '  black  earth '  or  chernozyom.  The 
conditions  of  the  soil,  its  porosity,  depth,  fineness,  chemi- 
cal and  physical  nature,  and  its  proportion  of  organic 
matter,  control  the  various  details  of  appearance  and 
composition  of  the  steppe.  The  main  part  of  the  vege- 
tation consists  of  short  tufts  of  grass  which  very  seldom 
form  a  continuous  sward  like  that  of  our  lawns  or 
meadows.  Those  grasses  have  generally  narrow,  stiff, 
dull  green  or  bluish  leaves,  wiry,  curled  or  rolled  in 
along  the  edges.  On  the  black  earth,  sheep-grasses  and 
leader 'm  predominate:  on  less  generous  soils,  feather 
or  thyrsa-grasses  spread  a  silvery  sheen  in  earl}* 
summer.  Among  these  tufts  of  grass,  however,  numerous 
kinds  of  low  herbs,  short-lived  annuals,  perennials 
with  stronger  tap-roots,  bulbs  and  tubers,  and  even 
under-shrubs,  cropping  up  at  various  times  of  the  year, 
are  profusely  interspersed,  their  abundance  being  deter- 
mined entirely  by  local  conditions  of  soil  and  drainage. 

After  the  dreary  winter,  the  first  awakening  is 
announced  by  a  magnificent  blossoming  of  bulbs  and 
tubers,  among  which  are  fritillaries,  garlics,  squills, 
gageas,  tulips,  irises,  pheasant's-eyes,  and  corydalis. 
Early  summer,  with  its  changing  skies,  exhibits  equally 
glorious  sights,  such  as  boundless  fields  of  blue  flax,  red 
poppies,  clovers,  nonsuch,  milk-vetch,  yarrow,  hedge- 
mustard,  and  many  others.  With  the  coming  of  the  hot 
weather,  under  dazzling  skies  and  a  scorching  sun,  when 
the  overheated  atmosphere  is  all  aglow  with  fantastic 
visions,  mirages,  and  fata  morgana,  all  delicate  plants 
die  out.     The  glamour  of  spring  vanishes,  and  a  grey, 


272  EUROPE 

yellowish  tint  invades  the  whole  landscape,  which 
assumes  the  aspect  known  as  the  'buryan'.  Now 
only  stronger  plants,  one  to  one  and  a  halt'  feet  high, 
can  withstand  the  drought,  such  as  various  kinds  of 
spreading  thistles,  wormwoods,  and  knapweeds,  among 
which  the  flowers  of  the  spikenards,  larkspurs,  eryngos, 
echinopses,  and  mallows  can  hardly  throw  a  little  bright- 
ness ;  but  even  these  wither  under  the  continuous 
drought.  Dead  stalks,  flower  halms  and  straw  turn 
a  darker  and  darker  grey,  and  at  the  outset  of  the  bad 
weather,  the  vast  silent  plain  appears  uniformly  dead. 
In  the  sunk  valleys,  below  the  broad  levels  and  in  the 
depressions  of  the  rolling  downs,  patches  or  fringes  of 
river  woods  present  the  familiar  aspect  of  broad -leaved, 
summer-green,  temperate  trees:  poplars  and  willows  are 
the  dominant  notes  of  such  oases. 

The  steppe  is  the  typical  pasture  land  and  supports 
large  herds  of  cattle  and  horses,  to  which  are  added 
sheep  and  goats.  Under  irrigation,  however,  the  '  black 
earth  '  has  proved  to  be  of  immense  fertility,  and  pastures 
have  slowly  retreated  before  the  cornfields  and  the  sugar- 
beet,  much  as  in  the  case  of  the  Argentine  Pain  pa  and 
South  Australia.  The  chernoz3^om  reaches  the  foot  of  the 
Caucasus  down  to  the  Caspian  Sea;  but  the  steppes 
around  the  Black  and  the  Caspian  seas,  on  sand,  loess, 
or  clay,  are  not  so  fertile  and  retain  their  pastoral  life. 
Around  the  Caspian  Sea,  especially,  the  soil  is  mostly 
salt  and  the  grass  steppe  gives  way  to  the  vermuth  or 
wormwood  brushes  similar  to  the  s  sage  brush  '  of  western 
North  America.  These  brushes  form  arid  wastes  whose 
scattered,  silver-grey  or  hoary  bushes,  two  feet  high, 
showing  the  bare  soil  between  them,  impart  a  dull 
appearance  to  the  wdiole  scenery.  Even  in  May,  the 
uniform  dark-grey  tone  is  not  brightened  by  the  gorgeous 


RUSSIAN   STEPPE  273 

colours  of  the  steppe.  Other  salt  bushes  accompany  the 
wormwood,  but  often  large  tracts  are  left  entirely 
lifeless.  The  steppe  extends  on  the  west  to  the  foot  of 
the  Carpathians  and  stretches  north  to  the  forest-belt. 
On  the  indented  edge  of  it,  the  deciduous  forests  consist 
almost  entirely  of  oaks,  with  a  rich  scrubby  undergrowth : 
in  many  places,  the  hornbeam  forms  an  irregular  belt  of 
dense  thickets  crowded  with  thin,  slender  trees. 

Hungary.  Like  the  Russian  steppe,  Hungary  is 
a  region  where  the  moderate  rainfall,  the  dry  and  cold 
winter,  the  dry  and  hot  late  summer,  the  strong  winds, 
and  the  prevalent  dryness  of  the  air  are  unfavourable  to 
tree  growth.  The  climate  of  this  broad  depression  is 
one  of  extremes,  owing  to  its  central  situation  in 
Europe,  as  well  as  to  the  circle  of  lofty  mountain-ranges 
which  shut  out  most  of  the  external  modifying  influences. 
In  mid-summer,  the  leaves  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  wither 
in  consequence  of  the  great  heat,  drought,  and  consequent 
evaporation ;  the  crops  turn  yellow  prematurely,  and 
grass  completely  withers  in  the  meadows.  Hungary  is 
thus  an  outlier  of  the  great  steppe,  whose  climate,  and 
conditions  of  plant-life  it  largely  shares,  though  in  a  less 
accentuated  form.  On  the  margins  of  the  rivers,  the 
usual  river-woods,  reed-  and  sedge-swamps  and  flood 
meadows  are  found.  The  steppe,  called  here  'puszta', 
and  covered  with  waving  feather-grass  or  close,  tall  tufts 
of  golden-beard  grass,  is,  in  places,  dry  enough  to  give 
rise  to  sand-dunes  often  covered  with  low,  dense,  greyish- 
green  swards  of  dry  grasses.  Salt  tracts  are  frequent, 
.especially  in  the  eastern  portion,  and  are  distinguished, 
according  to  local  conditions,  by  salt  meadows,  i.  e.  dense, 
low  mats  of  perennial  herbs,  or  by  salt  steppes  showing 
scattered  tufts  of  blue-green  waxy  herbs  or  undershrubs. 
In  places,  the  appearance  of  these  salt  depressions,  dotted 

1169.1  T 


274  EUROPE 

with  a  meagre  sprinkling  of  succulent  salt-bushes,  is 
almost  identical  with  that  of  the  Algerian  shotts.  On 
the  edge  of  the  steppe  are  to  be  seen  frequently  de- 
ciduous scrubs  of  thorny  or  prickly  bushes,  not  unlike 
the  common  blackthorn  or  the  juniper.  These  establish 
a  transition  to  the  forests  of  oaks  which  surround  the 
grass-lands. 

Apart  from  its  pastures  on  which  especially  fine  horses 
are  bred,  the  Hungarian  plain  has  been  largely  laid  under 
cultivation  and  is  noted  as  one  of  the  granaries  of  the 
world.  The  dry,  sunny  hills,  covered  by  a  rich  carpet  of 
feather-grass,  have  been  utilized  for  vine-growing  and 
yield  a  famous  wine  (Tokay).  The  lowlands  and  foot- 
hills which  encircle  the  puszta  display  the  characteristic 
vegetation  of  central  Europe.  The  oak  forests  which 
partly  clothe  them  offer  the  same  types  as  our  own,  but 
in  a  much  greater  wealth  of  species  and  a  larger  variety 
of  forms.  They  are  mixed  with  forests  of  black  pine, 
with  lush  meadows  and  other  varied  formations.  Be- 
hind this  belt  of  lowland  and  forehills  rise  the  wooded 
highlands  of  the  Alps  and  Carpathians. 

Balkan  Peninsula.  North  of  the  Rhodope  range  the 
Balkan  lands  offer  a  type  of  climate  and  vegetation 
intermediate  between  those  of  the  Mediterranean,  central 
Europe,  and  the  steppe ;  indeed  the  three  types  of  plants 
of  the  steppe,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  cold  temperate 
forests  struggle  here  for  predominance. 

The  broad,  low  valleys,  especially  that  of  the  Danube, 
display  much  of  the  steppe  character.  Apart  from  the 
river- woods  and  lower  swamps,  the  steppe  still  largely 
clothes  the  plains,  intermixed,  now  with  flood  meadows, 
now  with  dry  sand  prairies.  The  natural  pastures  deter- 
mine the  occupation  of  the  inhabitants,  but  the  more 
fertile  parts  offer  a  scope  for  the  growing  of  hemp,  beet- 


BALKAN   PENINSULA 


275 


root,  and  various  other  vegetables.  Forests  are  deficient 
in  the  lowlands  and  on  the  lower  hills  up  to  1,500  feet. 
Clumps  of  mixed  deciduous  woods,  dominated  by  the 
manna  ash,  represent  the  tree  vegetation.  Among  the 
lower  uplands  and  foot-hills,  cultivation  includes  the 
vine,  tomatoes,  sugar-  and  water-melons,  and  southern 
fruit-trees  such  as  peach,  apricot,  almond,  and  mulberry. 


Fig.  107.     Characteristic  vegetation — Serbia. 

About  1,600  feet  above  sea-level,  broad  leaved,  summer- 
green  trees,  mostly  oaks,  intermixed  with  black  pines, 
walnuts,  &c,  begin  to  close  in  regular  forests  of:  some 
extent.  Maize  and  wheat,  tobacco,  apple,  plum,  and 
walnut  are  grown  in  this  belt,  which  reaches  up  to 
3,600  feet. 

Among  the  highlands  proper,  the  vegetation  of  oaks 
and  black  pines  gives  way  to  true  mountain  forests  dis- 
tinguished, as  in  central  Europe,  by  heavy  mixed  masses 

T  2 


276  EUROPE 

of  beeches  and  fir  trees ;  and  interspersed  with  mountain 
pastures,  meadows,  and  moors.  Conifers  form  the  upper 
tree  belt  and  are  followed  by  a  strip  of  elfin  woods 
of  dwarf  pines  and  other  shrubs.  The  usual  alpine 
carpets  commence  at  6,500  feet  and  extend  to  the  summit. 

Caucasia.  The  region  comprised  between  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Caspian,  and  between  the  steppes  of  Russia 
and  those  of  Persia,  is  extremely  diversified  alike  in  its 
relief,  climate,  and  vegetation.  Thrown  as  a  steep  and 
lofty  barrier  athwart  the  path  of  the  south-west  winds 
which  sweep  across  the  Black  Sea,  the  Caucasus  range 
causes  a  heavy  precipitation,  which  in  the  west  reaches 
over  80  inches  yearly,  and  gradually  dwindles  to  20 
inches  towards  the  east.  This  rainfall  is  spread  with 
a  fair  regularity  throughout  the  year.  At  the  same 
time  the  conditions  of  temperature,  at  least  in  the  lower 
parts,  are  warm  or  temperate  with  a  mild  winter.  Cauca- 
sia has  a  climate  analogous  to  that  of  western-central 
China,  especially  in  the  mountain  district,  or  again  to  that 
of  the  southernmost  Appalachians. 

Such  ideal  circumstances  make  the  Caucasus  essentially 
a  land  of  heavy  and  dense  forests  contrasting  sharply 
with  the  surrounding  arid  areas.  The  development  of 
warm  temperate  evergreen  rain- forests  is  opposed  by  the 
temperature  minima  of  the  winter  and  the  scarcity  of  rain 
in  the  autumn.  For  these  reasons  and  owing  to  the  well- 
defined  seasonal  rhythm,  the  forests  remain  of  the  broad- 
leaved  summer-green  type,  like  those  of  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Elburz.  The  centre  of  the  greatest  luxuri- 
ance is  to  be  found  in  western  Caucasia,  in  a  lower  belt 
along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea.  Europe 
possesses  no  region  of  richer  profusion  than  the  ancient 
Colchis,  well  known  from  earliest  times  for  its  in- 
describable beauty.     Another  distinctive  feature  of  its 


CAUCASIA  277 

forests,  and  one  which  denotes  at  once  a  more  generous 
climate  and  a  less  troubled  history  than  those  of  western 
Europe,  is  the  variety  of  forest  trees  and  shrubs.  With 
the  several  kinds  of  oaks,  hornbeams,  plane  trees,  chest- 
nuts, walnuts,  lime-trees,  beeches,  maples,  horse  chestnuts, 
cherry  trees,  cherry  laurels,  with  an  admixture  of  several 
Mediterranean  representatives  such  as  the  laurel,  fig- 
tree,  and  sumac,  of  varied  conifers  such  as  pines,  firs, 
and  spruces,  and  their  wealth  of  beautiful  shrubs,  vines, 
and  climbers,  the  west  Caucasian  forests,  often  impene- 
trable, avoid  the  monotony  of  those  of  western  Europe 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,,  recall  the  conditions  prevailing 
over  the  south-western  part  of  the  continent  prior  to  the 
onset  of  the  Ice  Age. 

Rising  towards  the  central  range,  one  notices  the  dis- 
appearance, one  by  one,  of  the  more  delicate  species  of 
trees  and  shrubs  and  the  gradual  change  to  the  more 
monotonous  aspect  of  our  western  forests,  until  conifers 
alone  remain;  but  there  is  ample  compensation  in  the 
development  of  exuberant  meadows  with  grass  6  to  7 
feet  high.  They  are  packed  with  many  tall  and  strong 
herbs  of  broad  and  delicate  foliage  and  profuse  flowering. 
Above  the  conifers,  at  6,500  feet,  extends  a  belt  of  shrubs, 
richly  blossomed  rhododendrons,  cotoneasters,  &c,  which 
lead  up  to  the  shorter-set  -but  scarcely  less  beautiful 
alpine  meadows  and  pastures,  abundantly  watered  by  the 
snow-fed  torrents  and  the  mists. 

Quite  different  is  the  scenery  of  the  eastern  half  of  the 
range,  which  is  much  drier,  and  where  woods  play  quite 
a  secondary  part.  The  northern  slopes,  even  in  the  west, 
are  more  uniformly,  less  profusely,  wooded.  The  broad- 
leaved  forests  are  mainly  composed  of  oaks  with  an 
undergrowth  of  hazel,  for  conifers  do  not  extend  over 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  range :  indeed,  woods  seem  to 


278  EUROPE 

be  mostly  of  local  occurrence  on  the  Caspian  slopes. 
They  are  replaced  by  thickets  of  a  thorny  bush,  the 
poliurus,  which  form  a  sort  of  maquis. 

The  little  Caucasus,  south  of  the  Kur  valley,  and  the 
complex  ranges  of  northern  Armenia  share  only  to  a 
limited  extent  in  the  luxuriance  of  the  western  Caucasus  : 
what  remains  of  their  forests  is  of  a  mixed  deciduous 
and  coniferous  type,  more  or  less  scattered  and  with  but 
a  scanty  undergrowth.  The  Caspian  valleys  are  increas- 
ingly dry  towards  their  mouths  and  largely  deforested, 
and  the  steppe  penetrates  far  into  them  ;  but  agriculture 
is  carried  on,  even  in  the  lowlands  of  the  Kur  valley. 
This  region,  being  situated  on  a  natural  route  from  the 
east  to  the  west,  and  sheltering  many  vanquished  races 
in  the  fastnesses  of  its  rugged  and  difficult  mountains, 
has  suffered  greatly  from  the  wars  and  petty  struggles 
that  have  gone  on  for  centuries,  with  the  result  that 
many  of  its  forests  have  entirely  disappeared:  while 
the  agricultural  populations  made  inroads  on  them  from 
below,  the  pastoral  population  of  the  plateau  and  upper 
slopes  destroyed  them  from  above.  As  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, the  forests  have  been  reduced  often  to  loose  and 
dry  wood-  brush-  and  shrublands. 

The  hilly  nature  of  the  Crimean  peninsula  affords  it 
the  full  advantage  of  the  moisture  of  the  Black  Sea 
winds  and  makes  it,  in  respect  of  vegetation  as  well  as  of 
climate,  an  outlier  of  the  Caucasian  region,  in  the  middle 
of  the  steppe. 

Mediterranean.  The  region  of  warm  temperate  cli- 
mate, with  a  mild  and  rainy  winter  and  a  hot  and  dry 
summer,  is  fairly  well  defined,  geographically,  round  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  by  a  barrier  of  mountains  and 
highlands:  the  Pyrenees,  the  central  plateau  of  France,  the 
Alps,  and  the  Rhodope  range.     On  the  east  the  Mediter- 


MEDITERRANEAN 


279 


ranean  region  is  bounded  by  the  Anatolian  plateau,  the 
'Taurus,  and  the  Syrian  desert:  on  the  south  it  embraces 
broken  strips  of  the  north  African  headlands  such  as 
the  coast  of  Cyrenaica,  a  coastal  strip  of  Tunis,  and 
the  Tell  of  Algeria  and  Morocco  north  of  the  Atlas. 


Fig.  108.     Olive  grove — S.  France. 

On  such  a  vast  and  diversified  area  the  climate 
naturally  changes  in  its  details,  but  remains  fairly  con- 
stant in  its  typical  features.  The  mean  average  tempera- 
ture for  the  year  ranges  from  60°  to  70°  F.,  and  the  annual 
rainfall  is  generally  over  20  inches :  there  are  three  or 
four  months  of  dry  and  hot  weather,  and  the  winter  is 
comparatively  mild  and  rainy.     These  conditions  favour 


280  EUROPE 

the  growth  of  a  vegetation  consisting  mostly  of  forests, 
wood-  and  shrublands — characterized  by  a  small-leaved, 
leathery,  evergreen  foliage  ;  by  an  apparent  exaggeration 
of  the  woody  and  fibrous  portions;  by  a  rather  low  stature 
of  the  trees ;  a  general  dull-green  or  bluish  colour ;  the 
development  of  thorns  and  prickles,  resins,  wax,  and 
essential  oils,  and  other  devices  chiefly  directed  against 
excessive  transpiration.  Bulbs,  tubers,  and  rootstocks 
are  characteristic  of  this  region  :  perennials  are  richly 
varied  and  often  assume  a  woody,  shrubby  form.  The 
forests  do  not,  as  a  rule,  attain  great  density,  luxuri- 
ance, or  height;  lianas  are  wanting;  vines  are  usually 
fibrous  and  wiry  climbers;  the  undergrowth  of  shrubby 
evergreens  is  abundant,  sometimes  impassable.  The 
most  common  forests  are  those  of  ilex-oak,  cork- oak, 
stone-pine,  Aleppo  and  black  pines,  firs,  cypress  and 
cedar.  Frequently  deciduous  forests  occur  where  the 
ground  moisture  allows  it :  oaks,  manna-ash,  plane-trees, 
&c,  are  the  components. 

When  the  forests  are  destroyed  there  springs  up  in 
their  place  dense  scrub,  5-10  feet  high,  of  mixed  ever- 
green and  deciduous  shrubs,  many  of  which  composed  the 
undergrowth  of  the  original  woods.  On  limestone  grounds 
the  scrub  is  generally  drier  and  more  scattered,  chiefly 
limited  to  bushy  evergreens,  and  is  called  the  '  garique ' 
in  France.  There  are  many  varieties  of  such  rocky  heaths 
and  low  thin  woodlands  and  brushes.  Laurels,  olive, 
fig,  dwarf  palms,  locust-bean  or  carob-trees,  and  several 
others  may  form  locally  mixed  or  pure  woods  or  thickets. 
The  elm  and  its  relative  the  celtis,  the  plane-tree,  the  tere- 
binth and  the  Judas-tree,  are  also  characteristic,  but  are 
mostly  solitary.  Of  shrubs  and  smaller  trees  there  occurs 
a  bewildering  variety:  among  the  best  known  are  the 
myrtle,  rosemary,  cistus,  lentiscus,  tree-heath,  dwarf -oak, 


282  EUROPE 

laurustinus,  oleander,  and  many  others.  Agriculture 
affords  here  most  varied  resources :  wheat,  maize,  and 
rice,  cotton  and  tobacco,  lucerne  and  carob,  orange  and 
lemon,  almond  and  fig,  walnut  and  chestnut,  grape 
and  olive ;  the  number  of  ornamental  plants,  trees, 
shrubs,  undershrubs,  perennials,  and  bulbs  is  even 
larger. 

Typical  Mediterranean  vegetation  generally  extends 
up  the  slopes  of  the  surrounding  highlands  to  about 
2,800  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is  succeeded  by  a  belt  of 
mixed  summer-green  woodlands,  among  which  oaks  play 
a  prominent  part,  while  the  cedar  is  a  notable  type  in 
the  south-west  and  in  the  east  (Atlas,  Lebanon,  and 
Taurus). 

The  destruction  of  forests  in  this  region  is  even  more 
complete  and  extensive  than  in  central  and  western 
Europe,  and  has  been  attended  by  more  serious  conse- 
quences by  disturbing  the  water-supply,  exposing  and 
clearing  away  the  soil,  reducing  whole  mountain  sides 
to  the  bare,  rocky  core :  the  whole  region  has  been 
impoverished  thereby  and  in  places  entirely  ruined. 
Among  those  countries  which  have  suffered  severely, 
because  the  rainfall  is  scantier,  Spain  may  be  mentioned. 
Over  a  great  portion  of  its  surface  the  yearly  precipita- 
tion does  not  reach  20  inches:  the  forests  having  been 
all  but  wiped  out,  the  sierras  have  been  converted  into 
stony  and  rocky  wastes:  rain-water,  instead  of  being 
retained  and  distributed  regularly  by  the  vegetation 
of  the  highlands,  is  allowed  to  rush  away,  unchecked, 
to  the  sea,  so  that  the  rivers  are  either  dried  up  or  in 
flood,  and  agriculture,  except  in  the  irrigated  lowlands 
or  huertas  of  Andalusia,  Murcia,  and  Valencia,  &c,  is 
rendered  rather  precarious.  Spain  is  further  remarkable 
for  its  arid  esparto  grass-lands,  which  recall  the  Algerian 


MEDITERRANEAN  283 

alfa  plateau.  Such  areas  correspond  to  a  rainfall  below 
16  inches.  The  most  important  are  found  in  the  Ebro 
valley,  in  La  Mancha,  and  on  the  south-east  coast.  The 
high  '  Meseta  '  plateau,  another  centre  of  low  rainfall, 
is  equally  arid  and  treeless. 

Illyrian  Karst.  The  Highlands  of  Illyria,  Albania, 
and  Greece  separate  the  Mediterranean  from  central 
Europe.  A  series  of  limestone  ranges,  rising  sharply 
from  the  Adriatic  and  shaping  its  eastern  shore,  run  in 
a  general  north-west  to  south-east  direction,  forming 
many  longitudinal  terraces  and  scarps,  deep  valleys,  lofty 
plains,  stony  depressions  and  rugged  highlands  ;  they 
sink  gradually  to  the  north-east  into  the  hilly  lowlands 
of  the  Save  and  Danube.  Here  the  prevalence  of  lime- 
stone rock  entirely  controls  the  nature  of  the  relief  and 
largely  that  of  the  vegetation.  The  rock  is  full  of  cracks, 
fissures,  caverns,  and  holes  of  all  sizes,  through  which 
rain-water  sinks  too  rapidly,  leaving  the  surface  dry. 
When  torrential  downpours  sweep  across  the  country,  the 
overflow  comes  rushing  down  the  steep  slopes,  washing 
away  the  loose  soil  and  depositing  it  over  the  closed 
plains  or  'poljes'.  Scarcity  of  soil  naturally  renders 
vegetation  both  stunted  and  scattered,  and  confines  it 
largely  to  valleys  and  terraces.  These  conditions  of 
sheer  slope,  porous  rock,  and  scanty  soil,  resulting  from 
the  soluble  nature  of  the  limestone,  impart  to  the  vege- 
tation a  much  drier  aspect  than  it  would  possess  other- 
wise. According  to  the  elevation  three  climatic  zones 
may  be  distinguished  :  a  lower  or  Mediterranean,  a  mid- 
dle area  whose  climate  corresponds  to  that  of  the  low- 
lands of  central  Europe,  and  a  higher  mountain  belt 
corresponding  to  the  Alps.  As  features  of  this  region 
are  to  be  counted  the  bora  and  the  sirocco :  the  former 
a  dry  icy  blast  sweeping  down,  in  winter,  from  the  snow- 


284  EUROPE 

clad  summits  and  doing  great  harm  to  early  vegetation  : 
the  latter,  which  blows  from  the  south  and  west,  pro- 
ducing, from  October  to  December,  mighty  downpours 
which  soon  sink  down  through  the  honeycombed  rock, 
choke  the  narrow  gorges,  flood  the  holes  and  close  1 
plains,  wash  down  the  soil  and  humus,  and  work  more 
harm  than  good.  This  specific  aspect  of  the  limestone 
country,  with  its  fantastic  rugged  relief,  fissured  rock, 
lack  of  water  and  soil,  and  the  arid  appearance  of  its 
vegetation,  is  connoted  by  the  local  name  of  '  Karsl  . 
which  applies  to  the  western  and  southern  portion  of 
this  region. 

The  most  typical  part  of  the  Karst  is  the  lower  or 
Mediterranean  belt,  with  its  rainless  scorching  summer 
and  its  moderately  rainy  winter.  Rugged  cliffs  and 
sheer  slopes,  with  narrow  ledges  and  terraces ;  stony 
wastes  with  pits  and  target  holes  called  'dolina';  the 
whole  seamed  with  precipitous  gorges ;  desolate  high- 
lands and  isolated  depressions  turning  into  temporary 
lakes,  form  its  characteristic  features.  The  woodlands, 
which  at  one  time  undoubtedly  covered  a  large  portion 
of  it,  having  been  recklessly  destroyed,  the  slopes  were 
almost  entirely  denuded  of  their  soil,  and  the  maquis  and 
garigues  have  taken  possession  of  the  ground.  They 
sometimes  form  impenetrable  thickets  wherein  dwarf 
oaks,  myrtle,  laurel,  strawberry-tree,  tree-  and"  other 
heaths,  lentiscs,  sumacs,  terebinth,  Spanish  broom,  lau- 
rustinus,  oleander,  paliurus,  and  numerous  other  hard- 
leaf  shrubs,  undershrubs,  and  perennials  abound.  Often, 
however,  the  plants  can  only  form  a  scattered  growth  or 
rock-heath,  and  large  stony  tracts  are  left  almost  bare. 

The  coastal  shelves,  alluvia  and  isles  have  partly 
retained  forests  of  black  and  Aleppo  pines  with  an 
undergrowth  of  hard-leaf  evergreens  on  the  rocky  ground. 


286  EUROPE 

Other  alluvial  parts  are  quite  fertile  when  drained,  but 
swampy  when  not.  Above  1,500-2,000  feet  the  typical 
leathery-leaf  vegetation  gradually  gives  way  to  a  sum- 
mer-green landscape  which  covers  most  of  the  hill-lands, 
depressions,  and  slopes  up  to  3,800  feet.  This  is  the 
temperate  oak  belt  which,  wrapping  round  the  ranges  of 
high  mountains,  reappears  on  their  eastern  and  northern 


Fig.  111.    Limestone  slopes  on  the  Adriatic. 

sides  and  spreads  over  the  uplands  draining  to  the  Save 
and  Danube,  and  the  middle  valleys  draining  to  the  Aegean 
Sea.  Great  havoc  has  been  wrought  among  these  de- 
ciduous oak  forests  on  the  Mediterranean  slopes,  but 
extensive  timber  areas  still  persist  on  the  Danube  side. 
The  karst-forest  includes,  beside  oaks,  characteristic 
forms  such  as  the  manna-ash,  various  kinds  of  maples, 
and   hornbeams;    it    is   frequently   replaced   by   scrub, 


ILLYRIAN   KARST  287 

heaths,  waste  lands  and  rough  pastures  of  feather-grass 
and  andropogon  or  golden-beard  grass.  Not  seldom  even 
bush  and  tb'irsty  grass-lands  disappear  entirely  :  the  soil 
is  washed  away  and  nothing  is  left  but  deserts  of  naked 
rock.  The  upper  zone  is  better  preserved  and  exhibits 
stately  forests  of  mixed  beeches  and  conifers  of  great 
beauty  and  a  rich  variety  of  plant  forms.  Interspersed 
among  the  forests  and  spreading  into  an  alpine  zone  are 
to  be  found  extensive  and  lush  meadows  and  pastures: 
these  are  best  represented  on  the  outcrops  of  older  rocks 
which  form  the  core  and  summits  of  many  of  the  inland 
mountain  ranges. 

Po  Valley.  Well  enclosed  on  all  sides  but  one  by 
mountains  and  lying  very  low  and  level,  receiving  there- 
fore but  a  scanty  rainfall,  and  having  as  a  consequence 
a  rather  extreme  climate,  the  big  alluvial  plain  of  north 
Italy  possesses  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  which  dif- 
ferentiate it  at  once  from  neighbouring  Mediterranean 
lands,  but  liken  it  to  the  Hungarian  puszta  and  to  the 
Rumanian  and  Russian  steppe. 

What  appearance  the  virgin  alluvium  originally  pre- 
sented, it  is  difficult  to  say  after  so  many  centuries  of  culti- 
vation and  alteration.  Certain  it  is  that  it  does  not  bear 
the  stamp  of  the  typical  Mediterranean  vegetation  ;  that 
it  owes  its  great  fertility  to  the  abundant  irrigation  pro- 
duced by  a  network  of  rivers  and* canals,  and  presents 
a  striking  similarity  to  the  plain  of  the  Ganges.  Its 
actual  tree-growth  is  largely  of  the  broad-leaved,  sum- 
mer-green type,  either  planted  or  in  river-woods.  It 
seems  probable  that  besides  flood-meadows  and  marshes, 
dry  grass-lands  with  a  steppe  character  once  played  an 
important  part  in  the  natural  landscape,  but  of  these 
few  traces  are  left :  for  these  reasons  the  plain  of  the 
Po  stands  apart  as  a  geographical  unit. 


288  EUROPE 

Central  Europe.  Under  this  name  may  be  described 
the  region  which  includes  the  southern  portion  of  Scandi- 
navia, Denmark,  and  the  bulk  of  the  land  east  of  the 
lower  Rhine  valley,  of  the  Vosges  and  Jura,  and  north 
of  the  Alps :  it  stretches  eastward  in  the  shape  of  a 
wedge,  between  the  northern  belt  of  conifers  and  the 
Russian  steppes,  to  the  Urals. 

From  the  Atlantic  coast  eastward  the  rainfall  de- 
creases, while  the  contrast  between  winter  and  summer 
temperatures  increases.  The  trend  of  the  winter  iso- 
therms lies  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  and  the 
lines  of  equal  duration  of  frosty  weather  are  similarly 
directed :  for  instance,  the  isotherm  of  32°  F.  for  January, 
which  marks  the  northern  limit  of  average  winter  tem- 
perature above  freezing-point,  runs  from  the  west  coast 
of  Denmark  and  Norway  a  very  few  points  east  of  south 
down  to  Trieste.  Most  of  central  Europe  possesses  over 
two  months  of  lasting  frosts,  but  summers  are  warm 
and  the  vegetative  period  is  long  and  sufficiently  damp, 
the  yearly  amount  of  precipitation  exceeding  20  inches. 

Those  are  ideal  conditions  for  a  dense  forest  growth  of 
a  cool,  temperate  type,  and  it  is  well  known  that  most  of 
central  Europe  was  at  one  time  heavily  wooded.  Deci- 
duous trees  with  broad  leaves  are  best  adapted  to  this 
kind  of  climate,  and  they  occur  in  overwhelming  majority; 
yet  the  northern  conifers  are  not  excluded.  Forests  are 
of  a  mixed  type  like  those  of  eastern  North  America  or 
of  Manchuria.  Taking  the  broad  lines  of  the  respective 
distribution  of  conifers  and  deciduous  trees,  the  former 
are  characteristic  of  the  upper  slopes  of  the  highlands,  i.  e. 
of  a  climate  analogous  to  that  of  northern  Europe :  their 
occurrence  in  the  lowlands,  and  under  milder  conditions, 
generally  marks  outcrops  of  poor  and  dry  soils,  mostly 
due  to  glacial  or  subglacial  deposits,  or  again  to  a  spon- 


CENTRAL   EUROPE  289 

taneous  or  artificial  deterioration  of  the  soil.  Again,  the 
interference  of  man,  mostly  by  cutting  or  burning  forests 
for  mining,  smelting,  for  agriculture,  or  cattle  and  sheep 
raising,  has  entirely  altered  the  original  covering,  and 
resulted  in  a  complete  disturbance  of  the  natural  state  of 
affairs.  Thus  different  kinds  of  forest  have  replaced 
each  other  or  again  have  given  way  to  pastures,  moors 
or  waste  lands. 

Among  the  predominant  forest  constituents,  the  oak 
and  the  beech  stand  foremost  and  sometimes  form  nearly 
pure  communities.  The  beech  especially  succeeds  in 
shutting  out  all  competitors,  much  as  the  spruce  does. 
The  oak  constitutes  more  open  covers  and  tolerates  the 
growth  of  other  subordinate  trees.  The  sweet  chestnut, 
the  birch,  the  ash,  the  hornbeam  may  also  flourish 
almost  exclusively  in  special  circumstances  and  over 
tracts  of  lesser  extent  than  the  oak  and  the  beech. 
Other  still  less  social  trees,  which  occur  scattered  or  in 
small  clumps,  are  the  maple,  the  aspen,  the  rowan,  elms 
and  lime-trees,  the  gean  (or  wild  cherry),  willows,  poplars, 
&c.  The  shrubs  and  smaller  trees  of  the  undergrowth  are 
also  deciduous.  The  temperate  forests  vary  greatly  in 
the  amount  of  undergrowth  which  their  leaf  canopy 
allows.  The  heavier  types  like  the  beech  forests, 
when  most  strongly  developed,  exclude  all  underwood 
except  a  few  mould-loving  species,  like  the  lily  of  the 
valley,  Solomon's  seal,  herb  Paris,  certain  orchids,  wild 
hyacinths,  anenomes,  primroses,  woodsorrel,  woodrush, 
woodruff,  or  again  ferns  and  patches  of  mosses. 
The  clearings  generally  harbour  a  large  number  of 
shrubs,  perennial  and  annual  herbs,  and  even  bulbs 
and  tubers. 

The  fairly  regular  distribution  of  the  rainfall  through- 
out the  year,  the  absence  of  excessively  dry  winds,  and 

1159.1  •  XJ 


290  EUROPE 

the  moderate  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  in  central 
Europe  also  favour  the  local  development  of  close  grass 
and  herb  carpets  of  the  succulent  meadow  type,  non- 
fibrous,  tall  and  profuse ;  and  also,  according  to  circum- 
stances, of  shorter  pastures  presenting  drier,  less  luxuri- 
ant types  leading  to  the  dry  steppe  grass-lands.  In 
places,  the  contest  between  forest  and  meadow,  tree  and 
grass,  is  keen  and,  beside  local  conditions,  man's  in- 
fluence has  often  turned  the  scale  in  favour  of  pasture, 
seldom  of  forest.  From  a  comparison  of  virgin  soils  in 
eastern  Asia  and  America,  it  seems  that  originally  the 
best  for  the  transformation  of  such  combinations  of 
meadows  and  woods,  sometimes  called  wood-meadow  s. 
into  a  park  scenery,  are  rich  alluvial  plains.  Pastures 
also  exhibit  a  great  variety,  not  only  in  their  com- 
position but  in  their  adaptations  and  modes  of  life, 
depending  entirely  on  local  circumstances :  greatly 
resembling  the  steppe,  for  instance,  are  certain  short  and 
meagre  tracts  of  dry,  stunted  grasses,  carpeting  lime- 
stone rocks  over  a  thin  coat  of  soil. 

Leaf-shedding  shrubs  sometimes  constitute  lasting 
communities  in  the  form  of  thickets,  e.g.  hornbeam  or 
hazel-nut  copses  on  sunny  limestone  hills,  or  again 
willow  and  alder  thickets  in  river  marshes;  but  these 
are  of  local  occurrence.  More  important  are  the  heather 
moors  of  various  kinds  which  occupy  large  portions  of 
poor  soil  areas  in  north-west  Germany,  in  Denmark  and 
Scandinavia.  Again,  peat-bogs  or  high-moors,  especially 
in  the  northern  portion  of  this  region,  and  in  the  moun- 
tains, develop  in  badly  drained  localities.  Marshes  are 
frequent  and  varied. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  relations  between 
the  natural  physical  environment  and  the  vegetation  have 
been  infinitely  complicated  by  the  intervention  of  man. 


CENTRAL   EUROPE  291 

Quite  apart  from  spontaneous  causes,  it  is  now  fairly 
certain  that  a  large  extent  of  such  peat  bogs  covers  the 
former  sites  of  forests.  A  considerable  portion  of  the 
North  German  heather  moors  has  taken  the  place  of 
forests  of  conifers :  the  manifold  varieties  of  pastures 
have  similarly  replaced  other  vegetable  coverings :  again 
cultivation  has  extended  over  former  timber  grounds  or 
natural  meadows,  or  over  former  swamps.  Doubtless 
the  later  or  secondary  developments  of  the  original 
plant  cover  and  the  uses  to  which  it  was  put  by  man 
were  largely  determined  by  the  double  influence  of 
climate  and  soil ,  yet  even  the  nature  of  both  has  been 
so  profoundly  altered  in  the  process  of  utilization  that  it 
becomes  increasingly  difficult  to  unravel  the  tangle  of 
actions  and  reactions  which  have  been  at  play. 

Western  Europe  climatically  is  distinguished  from 
central  Europe  by  its  milder  winters,  during  which  frosts 
are  only  temporary ;  by  a  somewhat  greater  and  more 
regularly  distributed  rainfall ;  by  cloudier  skies,  and 
a  moister  atmosphere.  The  vegetative  period  is  thus 
longer  than  in  central  and  eastern  Europe,  while  the 
summer  is  also  somewhat  milder  than  farther  east.  It 
is  generally  a  region  of  subdued  features,  large  plains 
and  gentle  uplands,  and  for  these  reasons  the  vegeta- 
tion lacks  the  variety  which  obtains  in  central  Europe. 
Most  of  England  belongs  to  this  region.  It  is  essentially 
a  land  of  oak  and  beech  forests  and  of  green  pastures 
and  meadows.  Conifers  are  remarkably  lacking,  except 
the  Scots  pine  in  Britain,  the  common  juniper,  and  the 
yew.  They  have  been  introduced  extensively,  but 
never  constitute,  in  the  wild  state,  pure  or  mixed  forests. 
The  westernmost  coniferous  forests  are  to  be  found  on 
the  line  of  the  Venns,  the  Vosges,  Jura,  and  western 
Alps,  on  the  central  plateau   of    France,  and    on    the 

u  2 


292  EUROPE 

Pyrenees,   barring  the  woods  of  maritime  pine  on  the 
south-west  shores  of  France. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  forests  have  been  cleared 
for  cultivation  and  grazing.    They  include  mostly  mixed 


Fig.  112.     Arundel  Beeches. 


deciduous  types,  of  which  the  beech  and  the  oak  are  the 
chief  constituents,  and  sometimes  form  pure  woods. 
River  woods  or  marsh  woods  consist  of  poplars,  willows, 
birches,    ashss,    rowans,    alders,    berry-bearing    alders, 


WESTERN   EUROPE  293 

with  a  great  development  of  large-leaved  herbs  and 
climbers.  In  England,  the  Scots  pine  generally  marks 
poorer  and  drier  grounds,  such  as  sand  or  gravel  or  moors. 
There  are  few  shrub  formations.  The  thickets  of  sloe 
or  sea-buckthorn  on  rocks  or  sandhills,  or  brushes  of 
gorse  and  broom  are  well  known ;  and  on  dry  limestone 
hills,  with  a  thin  layer  of  soil,  may  be  found  copses 
of  hornbeam,  blackthorn,  juniper,  bramble,  brier,  hazel- 
nut, dogwood,  hawthorn,  guelder-rose,  either  mixed  or  in 
separate  colonies,  over  a  carpet  of  sheep's  grass.  Amongst 
lower  brushes  may  be  counted  the  heather,  usually  asso- 
ciated with  sand  or  peaty  or  other  poor  grounds  devoid 
of  lime  ;  or,  again,  succulent  salt-bush  brushes  in  salt 
marshes  near  the  sea.  Herbaceous  vegetations  offer  a 
fairly  large  variety,  from  the  tall  reed-swamps,  the  rush-, 
sedge-,  and  meadow-marshes,  to  the  regular  meadows 
and  pastures  of  different  kinds.  Under  the  name  of 
moors  may  be  included  grass  moors,  heather  moors,  or 
mixtures  of  both  ;  or,  again,  brushes  or  brakes  and  other 
more  or  less  indefinite  waste  herbage.  The  peat  bogs 
formed  by  the  accumulation  of  dead  remains  of  several 
kinds  of  mosses,  chiefly  of  the  sphagnum-moss,  do  not 
occur  so  plentifully  in  this  region  as  farther  north, 
in  the  belt  of  coniferous  forests.  A  more  frequent  form 
of  marsh  is  the  meadow-marsh  or  low  moor  in  which  the 
water  is  moderately  rich  in  lime  and  characterized  by 
rushes,  reeds,  sedges,  and  coarse  grasses. 

The  largest  areas  of  peat  bogs  are  to  be  found  in  an 
intermediate  zone  between  western  and  central  Europe 
on  glacial,  ill-drained  soils,  in  the  north  of  Holland,  the 
western  German  plain,  and  Denmark.  Low  marshes  pre- 
dominate in  the  fenlands  and  the  corresponding  tracts 
of  polders  in  Flanders  and  Holland.  Heather  moors  are 
often  associated  with  peat  moors. 


294  EUROPE 

Western  Europe  was  probably  less  extensively  and 
densely  forested  than  central  Europe.  An  abundance  of 
rich  grass  of  the  succulent  type  was — and  still  is — 
a  feature  permitted  by  the  moderate  and  uniform  climate : 
wood  meadows  and  valley  meadows  are  combined  with 
timber  in  a  pleasant  park  landscape.  There  was  more 
ground  directly  available  for  the  rude  implements  of  the 
early  agriculturist  and  more  room  for  his  cattle ;  indeed, 
in  the  course  of  history,  the  mild  climate,  the  bountiful 
alluvial  plains,  and  the  lush  grass  of  the  graceful  wolds 
exercised  almost  as  great  an  attraction  for  the  eastern 
invaders  emerging  from  the  sombre  central  European 
forests  as  the  Mediterranean  itself. 

South  of  this  region  rises  the  central  plateau  of  France, 
which  in  respect  of  climate  and  scenery,  as  well  as  of 
vegetation,  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  the  highlands  of 
England  and  Scotland. 

Atlantic  fringe.  The  most  temperate  region  of 
western  Europe  is  naturally  found  on  the  oceanic  fringe, 
open  directly  to  the  moderating  influence  of  the  south- 
erly, south-westerly,  and  westerly  winds.  This  fringe 
includes  a  narrow  coastal  strip  of  south-west  Ireland 
and  England  extending  eastward  to  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
and  in  France  wraps  round  the  point  of  Britanny.  It 
covers  also  a  widening  strip  south  of  the  Gironde  to  the 
Pyrenees,  the  seaward  slopes  of  the  Cantabrian  and 
Asturian  barrier,  and  the  coast  ranges  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  down  to  Lisbon. 

In  this  region  of  narrow  climatic  ranges  and  weak 
seasonal  rhythm,  plants  have  a  greater  freedom  as 
regards  the  times  of  passing  through  the  periodical 
stages  of  their  annual  growth,  which  are  performed 
more  in  accordance  with  the  particular  bent  of  each 
species  or  even   of  each  individual :    the  setting  in  of 


Fig.  113.     Pine  Wood — Surrey. 


296  EUROPE 

the  autumnal  rest,  as  well  as  the  reawakening  in  spring, 
are  spread  over  longer  periods;  the  leafy  stage  is  also 
somewhat  prolonged.  Hence,  the  whole  plant  world 
gives  an  impression  of  evergreenness,  and  in  many  cases 
there  is  a  real  tendency  thereto.  This  is  especially 
noticeable  with  the  lawns  and  pastures,  which  preserve 
throughout  the  winter  an  ever- fresh  appearance,  but 
it  is  not  lacking  among  the  shrubs  of  the  undergrowth, 
such  as  the  privet. 

The  same  mildness  of  winter  accounts  for  the  luxuri- 
ant growth  and  abundance  of  such  native  evergreens 
as  the  holly,  the  strawberry  tree,  and  the  yew,  with 
their  comparatively  tender  leaves.  It  also  explains 
the  enormous  development  of  such  imported  evergreens 
as  the  cherry  laurel  and  Portugal  laurel,  the  rhododen- 
drons, ancubas,  privets,  euonymus,  and  even  camellias  and 
aralias,  while  in  sheltered  corners  it  permits  the  exis- 
tence in  the  open  of  some  of  the  hardier  palms.  At  the 
same  time  a  large  number  of  hard-leaf  evergreens  of  the 
Mediterranean  are  able  to  vegetate  throughout  the 
winter,  assuming,  in  most  cases,  the  broader  and  thinner 
foliage  and  the  general  aspect  of  tender-leaved  evergreens. 
Among  those  which  are  most  commonly  seen  in  our 
gardens  may  be  mentioned  the  laurel,  the  holm  oak,  and 
the  laurustinus.  Southern  conifers  may  be  thoroughly 
acclimatized  in  favourable  spots :  even  such  plants 
as  the  fuchsias,  camellias,  and  some  profuse  types  of 
delicate  magnolias,  intimately  associated  with  thoroughly 
temperate  climates,  display  the  same  exuberance  of  foli- 
age and  blossom  as  in  their  native  homes. 

As  regards  plant  societies,  the  oceanic  fringe  of  Europe 
has  developed  few  characteristics  of  its  own  and  does 
not  differ  from  western  Europe.  It  is  important  also  to 
mention  that,  strange  as  it  may  appear  in  view  of  the 


ATLANTIC   FRINGE  297 

enormous  cultivation  of  bulbs  in  this  country,  the  bulb 
and  tuber  are  not  characteristic  features  of  the  vege- 
tation of  mild  oceanic  climates.  Such  forms,  so  ob- 
viously adjusted  in  respect  of  their  stores  of  reserve 
materials  in  bulbs,  tubers,  or  strong  rootstocks,  to  long 
periods  of  rest  through  drought  or  cold  and  to  a  short 
period  of  aerial  growth,  are  rather  test  plants  of  arid, 
semi-arid,  steppe  or  mediterranean  climates.  They  are 
particularly  well  developed  in,  and  quite  characteristic 
of,  regions  like  the  South  African  Karroos,  the  Peruvian 
semi-deserts,  the  Asiatic  and  Russian  steppes,  and  the 
Mediterranean.  They  decrease  alike  in  number,  variety, 
and  size,  from  the  south-east  to  the  north-west  of 
Europe.  On  oceanic  and  sub-oceanic  margins  they  con- 
fine themselves,  or  are  possibly  confined  by  competition 
of  other  plant  forms  in  the  wild  state,  to  very  special 
environments  such  as  rich  pastures,  meadows  and 
marshes,  certain  kinds  of  forest  moulds,  rocks",  &c, 
where  but  a  short  growth  period  is  available.  The  fact 
of  their  extensive  cultivation  illustrates  their  great 
adaptability  and  the  early  reawakening  of  nature  on 
the  oceanic  fringe. 

Britain.  Several  aspects  of  the  vegetation  of  Britain 
have  already  been  mentioned :  the  Scottish  and  English 
highlands  were  associated  with  the  Scandinavian  Alps 
as  part  of  the  North  European  region  of  conifers  and 
birches,  and  the  south-western  or  Atlantic  fringe  was 
connected  with  the  broken  fragments  of  a  similar  belt 
in  France  and  Spain.  The  bulk  of  the  country  belongs 
undoubtedly  to  the  western  region  of  the  cool-temperate 
deciduous  belt,  from  which  it  differs  in  no  essential 
respect.  The  landscape  is  typically  that  of  western 
Europe,  viz.  an  undulating  park,  where  pastures  and 
meadows  predominate  over  the  cultivated  area,  dotted 


298 


EUROPE 


with  small  patches  of  forest,  mostly  of  oak  and  beech 
and  other  mixed  deciduous  trees,  maple  and  ash  being 
the  chief  subordinate  species. 

Of  the  vast  forests  which  undoubtedly  once  covered 
a  large  portion  of  the  land  there  remains  less  than 
in  most  continental  countries;  indeed,  except  in  some 
remote  parts  of  Scotland  and  Wales  it  is  doubtful  whether 


Fig   114.     A  forest  clearing  planted  with  rye  and  bordered 
with  elms. 

there  remains  any  genuine  vestige.     The  existing  woods 
have  all  been  planted. 

Above  the  plains  and  lower  hills  rise  the  uplands  and 
highlands,  which  have  also  been  entirely  denuded  of 
their  original  covering,  and  whose  actual  vegetation  con- 
sists of  moorlands  and  hill  pastures.  It  is  possible  to 
trace  four  main  zones  of  altitude:  the  lowest  zone  is 
that  of  the  beech  woods  and   lowland  oak  woods;    the 


BRITAIN  £99 

oak  rises  higher  than  the  beech,  and  with  the  help  of  the 
Scots  pine  constitutes  a  second  belt  of  deciduous  forests 
poorer  than  those  of  the  lower  reaches  and  lowlands ; 
the  forest  intermingles  with  hill  pastures  in  a  third  zone, 
and  moorlands  constitute  the  fourth.  Curiously  enough, 
this  order  is  the  reverse  of  that  prevailing  among  central 
European  mountains  where  beech  forests  mixed  with 
conifers  occur  above  the  oaks  and  mark  the  upper  belt 
of  summer-green,  broad-leaf  forests ;  but  it  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  order  of  succession  prevailing  among 
the  Scandinavian  mountains  and  also  with  the  extension 
of  the  beech  and  oak  in  latitude,  when  the  beech  stops 
nearer  south  than  the  oak.  In  this  respect,  therefore, 
the  British  highlands  are  related  rather  with  the 
northern  mountains  than  with  those  of  central  Europe. 

Above  the  oak  belt,  at  altitudes  ranging  from  700  to 
900  feet,  the  conifers  remain  in  almost  exclusive  posses- 
sion of  the  ground  to  an  elevation  reaching,  in  places, 
over  2,000  feet ;  they  are  accompanied  by  the  birch,  and 
both  form  the  tree  limit.  The  actual  woods,  however, 
are  extremely  few  and  scattered.  Moorlands,  peatbogs, 
and  various  kinds  of  hill  pastures  occupy  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  surface,  while  alpine  pastures,  moors,  and 
wastes  occur  above  the  coniferous  or  subalpine  belt 
The  British  mountains  lack  the  larch,  the  Norway  spruce, 
the  silver  fir,  the  arolla,  and  mountain  pine.  They 
show  only  the  Scots  pine,  and,  as  subordinate  species., 
the  yew  and  juniper.  Similar  deficiencies  are  noticeable 
among  the  broad -leaf  trees  and  shrubs,  not  to  mention 
humbler  plants,  which,  once  introduced,  thrive  and  spread 
just  as  well  as  in  their  native  countries.  An  early 
separation  from  Scandinavia  and  from  the  Continent 
before  Britain  was  fully  stocked  with  European  plants, 
appears  to  be  responsible  for  the  absence  of  a  number  of 


300 


EUROPE 


timber-trees  and  shrubs  which  diversify  the  continental 
mountains,  and  generally  for  the  poverty  of  plant  forms. 
In  the  lowlands,  the  Scots  pine  usually  marks  the 
occurrence  of  dry,  poor  soils  such  as  gravel  and  sand, 
or  again  moor- lands ;  with  it  generally  appears  the 
heather,  forming  low  heaths,  which  may  be  taken  as 
connoting  infertile  soils,  either  cold  and  devoid  of  lime, 
or  sandy  and  porous. 


Fig.  115.     Turf-cutting  on  an  Irish  bog. 

The  extension  of  moors  in  the  plains  is  similarly  con- 
nected with  poor  glacial  soils  in  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
The  wet  moors,  also  called  high  moors  or  peat  bogs, 
originate  in  ill-drained  areas  supplied  with  pure  siliceous 
water.  They  are  due  to  the  enormous  development  of 
several  kinds  of  mosses,  chiefly  of  sphagnum  or  peat- 
moss, whose  dead  remains  putrefy  under  unfavourable 
conditions,  namely,  an  excess  of  moisture  and  lack  of 
air :  a  similar  result  is  produced  by  other  plants,  mainly 


BRITAIN  301 

sedges  and  cotton-grass.  Heather  is  usually  associated 
with  this  kind  of  vegetation,  which  is  extensively  de- 
veloped in  the  west  and  north  of  Britain  and  on  the 
uplands  and  highlands:  heavy  and  impervious  infertile 
glacial  clays  are  particularly  favourable  to  their  forma- 
tion. In  many  cases  the  peat  has  taken  the  place  of 
forests,  as  is  shown  by  the  remains  of  trees  found  buried 
in  the  high  moors. 

Another  kind  of  moor,  characteristic  of  the  lowlands, 
is  the  fen,  low,  or  meadow-moor  which  usually  takes 
the  form  of  reed  (rush  or  sedge)  or  grass  marsh.  It 
is  frequently  associated  with  alluvial  tracts,  in  process  of 
formation,  undrained,  and  provided  with  water  rich  in 
lime  or  organic  deposits,  such  as  the  *  fens '  or  '  carses ', 
which  are  represented  across  the  Channel  by  the  '  moeres ' 
and  'polders'  of  Flanders  and  Holland.  When  they  are 
drained  and  cultivated,  the  peat  decomposes  into  a  rich 
black  earth  which  is  especially  suitable  for  market 
gardening. 

The  older  x*ocks,  which  form  so  large  a  proportion  of 
the  uplands  and  highlands  of  Britain  are,  on  the  whole, 
of  an  infertile  nature.  This,  added  to  the  uncertainty 
of  the  weather  and  the  difficulties  of  cultivation,  renders 
them  more  suitable  for  pastures.  It  was  largely  the 
nature  of  the  soil  which  determined  the  fate  of  the  hills, 
after  they  were  cleared  of  their  timber,  the  poorer  soils 
rapidly  developing  moors,  dry  grass-moors,  heath-moors, 
&c,  the  better  kinds  giving  rise  to  pastures.  Among 
the  best  for  pastures,  under  the  moist  and  equable 
climate  of  Britain,  may  be  mentioned  the  limestone  soils 
of  Yorkshire,  Sutherland,  &c. 


CHAPTER  YII 

CONCLUSION 

Though  the  foregoing  account  only  deals  with  the 
broad  features  of  the  natural  regions  of  the  world  in 
a  bird's-eye  view,  it  will  be  at  once  apparent  that  the 
plant-covering  does  not  consist  of  a  mosaic  of  entirely 
dissimilar  parts,  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  it  offers 
obvious  similarities  and  relations,  a  number  of  which 
have  been  mentioned  in  the  course  of  the  descriptions. 
Thus  the  vegetation  of  the  mediterranean  scenery  all 
over  the  world  is  singularly  alike,  whether  the  Mediter- 
ranean of  the  old  world,  California,  the  central  valley  of 
Chile,  the  south-west  corner  of  Africa,  or  the  south-west 
corner  of  Australia,  be  considered.  When  their  indi- 
genous vegetable  products  are  placed  side  by  side  in 
a  conservatory,  it  is  difficult  to  trace  them  back  to 
different  regions. 

Similarly  the  equatorial  forests  all  over  the  tropical 
belt,  though  composed  of  entirely  different  species,  can 
hardly  be  told  one  from  the  other,  and  the  landscapes 
of  the  lower  Amazon,  of  the  lower  Orinoco,  of  many  parts 
of  the  Upper  Guinea  coast,  Borneo,  or  New  Guinea,  or 
again  of  the  big  Indo-Chinese  deltas,  are  strikingly 
alike.  The  list  of  these  obvious  correspondences  or 
4  analogies '  will  easily  be  made  from  the  foregoing 
short  sketches,  and  should  now  be  attempted  as  a 
necessary  exercise. 

Nature,  however,  attains  her  ends  by  various  means, 
and  shows  herself  infinitely  diverse.  To  apparently 
identical  conditions  of  climate  and  soil,  plants  may  be 


CONCLUSION  303 

adapted  in  many  different  ways:  various  plant  com- 
munities, like  plant-forms,  may  be  adjusted  with  equal 
efficiency  to  similar  environments.  The  result  is  a  certain 
difficulty  in  bracketing  together  regions  which  from  the 
physical  data  at  present  available  we  may  presume  are 
enjoying  similar  conditions,  though  the  appearance  of  the 
vegetation  either  in  plant-forms  or  in  communities  may 
be  different.  The  evergreen,  cool,  temperate  forests  of  the 
Magellan  and  south  Chilian  coast  region,  and  the  moist 
coniferous  forests  of  the  coast  of  British  Columbia,  are 
a  case  in  point ;  again,  the  Argentine  pampa  and  the 
North- American  prairie ;  or,  again,  the  eucalyptus  park- 
landscapes  of  the  hinterland  of  eastern  Australia  and 
the  campos  park-landscapes  of  the  subtropical  Brazilian 
highlands.  In  many  cases  uncertainty  arises  simply 
from  the  scarcity  of  reliable  observations.  In  others, 
however,  the  dissimilarity  of  plant-forms  really  conceals 
a  combination  of  different  means  making  for  an  equivalent 
adjustment  to  similar  conditions.  Only  the  study  of  the 
modes  of  life  and  of  the  deeper-seated  internal  adapta- 
tions discloses  the  identity  of  purpose  and  final  adjust- 
ment, the  true  homology  of  the  plant-forms  and  com- 
munities. 

It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  present  plant 
populations  of  the  various  parts  of  the  world  have  arisen 
from  various  sources,  undergoing  different  processes  of 
development  in  the  course  of  ages.  Even  though  physical 
conditions  be  equivalent  at  the  present  time  on  two 
points  of  the  world,  the  plant  materials  which  had  to 
change  and  adjust  themselves  to  these  now  identical 
environments  may  have  been  originally  different.  It  is 
somewhat  difficult,  for  instance,  to  understand  why  the 
Pacific  mountains  of  North  America  should  be  so  over- 
whelmingly populated  with  coniferous  forests,  without 


304  CONCLUSION 

the  help  of  some  geological  reason.  In  other  words,  the 
processes  of  modification  of  unlike  plant  materials  in 
view  of  the  same  end  have  been  different.  Starting  with 
a  different  history  or  heredity,  plant  materials  evolving 
towards  a  similar  adjustment  to  similar  circumstances 
have  attained  this  same  end  in  different  ways.  Assuming, 
therefore,  an  equal  degree  of  fitness  to  thrive,  reproduce, 
and  spread  amid  equivalent  surroundings,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  result,  in  point  of  plant-forms  and 
combinations  thereof,  offers  divergences.  It  would  be 
bold,  however,  to  assert  that  the  vegetation,  even  as 
it  is  now  represented  in  corresponding  natural  regions, 
is  adapted  with  equal  efficiency  to  its  actual  environ- 
ment. Instances  are  not  wanting  of  one  type  of 
vegetation  dying  out,  of  another  slowly  spreading  and 
replacing  it. 

In  South  Africa  the  mediterranean  vegetation  of  the 
south-western  or  Cape  region  is  slowly  being  driven 
back  by  the  drier  and  lower  forms  of  the  Karroos :  in 
the  savanas  of  Central  Africa  it  is  an  open  question 
whether  the  baobab  or  monkey-bread  tree  is  still 
spreading  or  holding  its  own,  indeed  whether  it  is  not 
gradually  dying  out:  in  the  back  lands  of  Queensland 
and  New  South  Wales,  there  is  a  severe  struggle  between 
the  grass-land  and  the  thorny  brigalow  scrub  whose 
formidable  tangles  steadily  spread  and  kill  the  grass : 
again,  the  superior  fitness  of  plants,  from  other  but 
similar  regions  of  the  world,  to  hold  the  ground  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  Plate  region,  where  weeds  imported 
from  the  Mediterranean  propagate  with  extraordinary 
rapidity  at  the  expense  of  the  native  species :  or  again 
in  New  Zealand,  where  a  high  proportion  of  foreign 
plants  have  been  able  successfully  to  compete  with  the 
indigenous   vegetation.     Nearer   home,  the  advance  of 


CONCLUSION  305 

the  spruce  forests  from  east  to  west  through  north- 
western Europe  is  an  established  fact.  Gradual  changes 
of  climate  are  almost  certainly  responsible  for  the 
retreat  of  the  Canary  temperate  rain-forests  to  secluded 
moist  gorges ;  for  the  transformation  of  the  vegetation 
of  Cyprus  and  Cyrenai'ca,  the  latter  once  a  granary  of 
Rome:  again,  travellers  through  the  deserts  of  Takla- 
makan  report  having  passed  through  endless  miles  of 
dead  scrub  of  saxaul  and  other  desert  shrubs. 

That  the  length  of  time  during  which  the  present 
physical  conditions  have  prevailed,  and  therefore  during 
which  the  process  of  adjustment  has  been  going  on,  has 
been  unequal  in  various  corresponding  regions,  is  highly 
probable  and,  in  some  instances,  is  established  beyond 
doubt.  The  result  naturally  is  that  the  aim  is  not  at- 
tained with  the  same  completeness  everywhere  and  that 
a  more  or  less  large  proportion  of  plant-forms  belonging 
to  previous  periods  in  the  history  of  these  regions  has 
been  able  to  survive.  In  other  words,  when  dealing 
either  with  single  growth  forms  or  combinations  of  them 
into  landscapes,  the  problem  involves  the  fourfold 
question  : 

(1)  of  origin,  starting-point,  or  previous  history; 

(2)  of  process  of  adjustment ; 

(3)  of  time  during  which  this  process  has  been  at 
work ; 

(4)  of  the  gradual  evolution  of  physical  conditions ;  or 
again,  of  the  point  which  the  process  of  adjustment 
may  have  reached. 

The  task  of  finding  out  homologies  is  thus  rendered 
somewhat  complex,  and  the  degree  of  correspondence  is 
not  equal  in  all  cases. 

Last,  not  least,  man  has  been  instrumental  in  intro- 
ducing profound  changes  in  the  character  and  economy 


306  CONCLUSION 

of  the  world  surface.  The  heavily  forested  plains  of 
Europe  and  North  America  have  retained  a  small  pro- 
portion of  woodlands :  China  has  been  cultivated  for 
countless  centuries:  all  over  the  world,  whole  mountain- 
chains  have  been  left  bereft  of  their  plant  covering  and 
turned  into  arid  rocks  :  a  good  deal  of  the  treelessness  of 
the  Asiatic  grass-lands  is  probably  due  to  persistent 
depredations  :  the  tropical  savana  has  been  extended  and 
depleted  by  yearly  grass  fires  at  the  expense  of  woodlands 
and  even  of  the  tall  forests. 

This  interference  with  the  balance  of  nature,  some- 
times justified  by  the  very  necessities  of  life,  and 
constituting  legitimate  improvements  upon  the  original 
conditions,  from  man's  standpoint,  has,  in  countless  other 
instances,  been  the  result  of  ignorance  and  improvidence, 
involving  consequences  disastrous  for  humanity.  It  is 
somewhat  sad  to  reflect  that  the  activity  of  quite  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  mankind  is  devoted  to  repairing 
damages  done  by  other  portions,  or  by  former  generations. 

What  has  been  said  hitherto  of  the  large  masses  of 
vegetation  obtains,  and  in  a  still  larger  measure,  when 
considering  the  various  minor  units  of  different  orders 
which  compose  them,  and  may  be  conveniently  termed 
here  plant  formations  or  communities.  Ultimately, 
among  the  primitive  units,  the  growth  forms  or 
vegetative  types,  which  correspond  to  plant  species 
in  the  study  of  the  flora,  analogies  of  this  sort  are 
innumerable.  To  mention  only  one  or  two  of  the  most 
striking  instances :  the  candelabra  cerei  or  cacti  of 
America  correspond  to  the  candelabra  euphorbia  of  Africa; 
the  agaves  of  Mexico  and  Texas  are  equivalent  to  many 
forms  of  African  aloes,  and  are  frequently  mistaken  for 
them ;  or  again,  analogous  cushion-forms  in  arctic  or 
in  alpine  regions  are  drawn  from  the  most  diverse  orders 


CONCLUSION  307 

of  plants :   the  '  elfin '  form   is  assumed  by  shrubs   of 
widely  separated  families  in  widely  separated  habitats. 

Botanic  gardens,  with  their  conservatories,  thus  group 
together  plants  of  the  same  requirements  and  modes  of 
life,  and  provide  them  as  far  as  possible  with  the  most 
favourable  conditions.  Hence  the  variety  of  moist 
tropical  hothouses,  dry  tropical  houses,  fern  and  palm 
houses,  temperate  houses,  alpine  rockeries,  marshes,  &c. 
endeavouring  to  copy  the  conditions  of  climate  and 
soils  suitable  to  analogous  plant  forms.  It  is  there 
that  the  variety  and  uniformity  of  Nature  will  be  best 
studied  in  our  countries. 


X  2 


GEOGRAPHICAL   INDEX 


The  spelling  of  the  names  following  is  that  of  Chisholm's  Gazetteer 
of  the  World. 

The  figures  in  thick  type  indicate  the  headings  of  sections. 


Abertos,  142. 

Abyssinia,    199,     217,    218,    220, 

221. 
Abyssino-Eritrean  Foot-hills,  219. 
Adamawa,  228. 
Aderar,  207. 
Adriatic,  283. 
Aegean,  286. 
Afghanistan,  45. 
Africa,  195,  306. 

Central,  304. 

East,  238. 

Mediterranean,  199. 

South,  241,  304. 

West,  226. 
African  Islands,  204. 

Mountain  Region,  East,  232. 
Ahaggar,  207. 
Ahir,  207. 
Ainsefra,  203. 
Akmolinsk,  62. 
Alai,  59. 

Alaska,  16,  17,  79,  81,83. 
Albania,  283. 
Aldan,  63,  65. 
Alexandria,  58. 
Algoa  Bay,  246. 
Alleghany,  89. 
Altai,  63,  66,  69. 
Alto  Parana.  149. 
Altyn  Tagh,  65. 
Amazon,  19,  124,  145. 

Basin,  135. 
America,  306. 

Central,  123,  124. 

North,  75,  306. 

South,  124. 
Amu,  57,  58,  70. 
Amur,  13,  14. 
Amuria,  13,  22,  63,  65,  84. 
Anadyr,  10. 
Anahuac,  117,  119. 


Anatolia,  53,  55,  279. 
Andalusia,  282. 

Andes,   124,    131,   147,   151,    161, 
162. 

Argentine  sub-tropical,  164. 

Eastern,  163. 

Western,  166. 

Peruvian,  166. 
Angola,  231. 
Annam,  17. 
Antilles,  Lesser,  123. 
Apa,  153. 

Appalachian  Region,  85,  90. 
Apure,  151. 
Arabia,  221,  223. 

Felix,  219,  221. 
Arakan,  17. 
Aral,  55,  58. 
Arctic  Ocean,  5. 

Region,  261. 
Areg,  205. 

Argentina,  West,  155. 
Argentine  Cordillera,  165. 

Wastes,  West,  155. 
Arizona,  93,  113. 
Arkansas,  90. 
Armenia,  44,  49,  53,  55. 
Asia,  1. 

Minor,  53,  56. 
Assam,  18,  36. 
Atacama,  168. 
Atbara,  223. 
Athi,  235. 

Atlantic  Lowlands  of  Mexico, 119. 
Alps,  257,  261,  276,  283,  288. 

Western,  291. 
Atlas,  51,  199,  283. 

Intermont  plateaus,  202. 

Saharan,  202,  203. 
Australia,  171. 

South,  182. 
Aymaras,  168. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 


309 


Babylonia,  221. 
Bactra,  58. 
Bactria,  T)8. 
Badakshan,  59. 
Bad-Lands,  95. 
Bagrach-kul,  70. 
Bahr-al-Ghazal,  224,  228. 
Balkh,  58. 
Baluchistan,  44,  48,  51. 

Highlands,  41,  42. 
Banados,  158,  154. 
Barka,  202. 
Barue,  235. 
Beira,  249. 
Benguella,  232,  237. 
Berbers,  202. 
Bering  Sea,  78,  83. 

Straits,  17. 
Bermejo,  148,  151. 
Biskra,  203. 
Black  Earth,  28,  271,  276. 

Sea,  55,  272. 
Blue  Mountains,  108. 
Borneo,  32,  34. 
Boschveld,  239. 
Brahmaputra,  36. 
Brazilian  Coast  Forest  Belt,  139. 
Brazilian  Highlands,  133,  149. 

East,  141. 

South,  143. 
Brigalow  Scrub,  178. 
Britain,  291,  297. 
British  Columbia,  104. 

Isles,  259. 
Brittany,  294. 
Burma,  17,  22. 
Buryan,  272. 
Bush  prairie,  97. 

Caa-gapu,  136. 

Caa-guazu,  137. 

Caa-puera,  138. 

Caatinga,  18,  120,  141,  174. 

Caldera,  168. 

California,  102,  106, 112.  113. 

Gulf  of,  112,  115. 

Lower,  115. 
Cambodia,  22. 
Cameroon,  227,  228. 
Campeachy,  120,  125. 
Campo  vero,  142. 
Canada,  98. 
Canadian  Forest,  Great,  81. 

South,  84. 


Canary  Islands,  204,  305. 
Cape  Region,  244. 
Capoeira,  138. 
CapSes,  142. 
Carolina,  92. 

Carpathians,  261,  273,  274. 
Carpentaria,  174,  180. 
Carrasco,  142 

Cascades,  99,  102,  103,  108. 
Caspian  Sea,  3,  49,  56,  272. 
Cassiquiare,  131. 
Castanhal,  138. 
Caucasia,  276. 
Caucasus,  272,  276. 

Little,  278. 
Ceara,  142. 
Cebunayas,  124. 
Cedar  glades,  90,  92. 

Mountains,  246. 
Celebes,  32,  34. 
Ceylon,  39. 
Chaco,  147,  149,  153. 
Chad,  207,  213,  228. 
Chapadas,  143. 
Chaparral,  113. 
Chernozyom,  271. 
Chiapas  Valley,  120. 
Chibcha,  131. 
Chile,  Central,  168. 
China,  306. 

Central,  29. 

Northern,  26. 
Chu,  58. 

Coast  Mountains,  99. 
Colchis,  276. 
Colombia,  125,  181. 
Colorado,  104. 

Columbia,  17,  100,  104,  107,  112. 
Congo,  199,  224,  226,  230. 

Basin,  228. 
Cordilleras,  155. 
Coromandel,  38. 
Corrientes,  149. 
Crimea,  278. 
Cross  Timbers,  97. 
Cuba,  123. 

Cumberland  plateau,  89. 
Cunene,  242. 
Cyprus,  305. 
Cyrenaica,  202,  279,  305. 

Dakhel,  207. 
Dakota,  95. 
Dampierland,  176. 


310 


GEOGEAPHICAL  INDEX 


Danube,  274,  283,  286. 
Deccan,  35,  36,  42. 
Demerara,  135. 
Denmark,  288,  290,  293. 
Desert,  Arabian,  207. 

Colorado,  115. 

Damara,  242. 

Egyptian,  207. 

Gibson,  182. 

Gila,  109. 

Great  Central,  182. 

Indus,  41. 

Libyan,  207,  215. 

Mohave,  109,  113. 

Nubian,  207. 

Syrian,  50,  279. 

Tarim,  45,  56. 

Thar,  41,  42. 

Victoria,  180. 
Deserts,  American,  113. 
Diarbekir,  52. 
Drakenberg,  240,  247,  248. 

Ebi-nor,  70. 
Ebro,  283. 
Ecuador,  131. 
Egypt,  207. 
Egyptian  Sudan,  210. 
Elburz,  42,  48,  49. 
Elgon,  235. 
Elgof,  207. 
El  Khargeh,  207. 
England,  291,  293,  294. 
Entre  Rios,  159. 
Erg,  206. 
Eritrea,  221. 
Eskimos,  81. 
Esteros,  156. 
Ethiopia,  219,  221. 
Euphrates,  50,  53. 
Europe,  250,  306. 

Central,  288,  293. 

Northern,  266. 

Western,  291,  294;  296. 

Falkland  Islands,  162. 
Farafreh,  207. 
Fergana,  58,  70. 
Fezzan,  207. 
Figuig,  203. 
Finland,  266. 

Gulf  of,  270. 
Fjelds,  10,  263. 
Flanders,  301. 


Florida,  88,  90,  123. 
Forests,  Light,  African,  224. 

Congo,  234. 

Flood,  136. 

Great  Canadian,  81. 
Fort  Churchill,  79. 
France,  257,  292. 
Frazer,  100. 
Fuego,  161,  162, 170. 
Futa-Jallon,  214,  288. 

Gaboon,  227,  228. 
Gambia,  212. 
Ganges,  19,  36. 
Garigue,  52. 
Garmsir,  51,  53. 
Gauchos,  159. 
Gazaland,  231,  238. 
Germany,  291. 

North,  259. 

North-west,  290. 

West,  293. 
Ghats,  Eastern,  38. 

Western,  35,  38,  42. 
Gila,  117. 
Gironde,  294. 
Gobi,  24,  66,  75. 
Gold  Coast,  224,  226. 
Goyaz,  142,  147. 

West,  145. 
Grass  Belt,  94. 
Great  Barrens,  81. 

Central  Plateau,  23. 

Erg,  207. 

Lake  Region,  84. 
Greece,  283. 
Greenland,  80,  82. 
Guapore,  147. 
Guardafui,  219. 
Guatemala,  131. 
Guayaquil,  124,  163. 
Guiana  Highlands,  133. 

Lowlands,  135. 
Guinea,  214,  226. 

French,  226. 

Gulf  of,  228. 

Upper,  224. 
Gulf  Stream,  123. 

Hamada,  205. 
Han-hai,  66,  68. 
Hatteras,  91. 
Hayti,  123. 
Herat,  58. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 


311 


Heri-Rud,  58. 
Himalayas,  35,  36,  89,  42 
Hindu  Rush,  42,  45,  47. 
Hispaniola,  123. 
Hokkaido,  13,  23. 
Holland,  293,  301. 
Honduras,  125. 
Hoogoveld,  240. 
Hudson  Bay,  79. 
Hudsonian  forest,  81. 
Hunan,  30,31. 
Hungary,  273. 
Hupe,  30. 
Hwang-ho,  29,  70. 
Hylea,  136. 
Himyarites,  221. 

Idaho,  108,  109. 
Igapu,  19,  136. 
Igarapfs,  136. 
Igidi,  207. 
Ilchuri-Alin,  13. 
Illyria,  257. 
Illyrian  Karst,  283. 

1  Iir.lS,    168. 

India,  35. 
Indo-China,  17. 
Indus,  42,73. 
Intermont  plateaus,  107. 
Iran,  42. 
Irawadi,  18,  19. 
Ireland.  258,  264,  294. 
Irtish,  i0. 
Isfahan,  48,  4t». 
Islas,  148. 
Isle  of  Wight,  294. 
Ivory  Coast,  224. 

Jablonoi,  65. 
Jamaica,  123. 
Japan,  15,  22,  27. 
Java,  32. 
Jujuy,  170. 
Jungle,  18,  21,  223. 
Junta  wastes,  156. 
Jura,  288,  291. 

Kabyles,  202. 
Kaffraria,  247. 
Kalahari,  211,  241.  242. 
Kamchatka,  16. 
Kami,  66. 
Kano,  213. 
Kansas,  95. 
Karamoyo,  235. 


Karroo,  242,  304. 
Kasai,  226. 
Kashmir,  73. 
Kentucky,  89,  91. 
Kenya,  235. 
Kerman,  44,  45. 
Khingan,  Great,  13. 

Little,  23,  26. 
Khorassan,  44,  45,  48,  56,  58. 
Kiangsi,  30,  31. 
Kidwani,  235. 
Kilima-njaro,  235. 
Knysna  forest,  246. 
Kobdo,  66,  69. 
Kolyma,  10. 
Korea,  13,22. 
Korean  Highlands,  23. 
Kria,  58. 
Kuhistan,  44. 
Kuku-nor,  73. 
Kuenlun,  63. 
Kur  valley,  278. 
Kweichou,  30,31. 

Labrador,  79. 

Ladakh,  73. 

Laghuat,  203. 

Lagos,  227. 

Lake  Rudolph.  214. 

La  Mancha,  283. 

Laos,  18. 

Lapland,  17. 

La  Plata,  153. 

Lebanon,  282. 

Lebombo,  248. 

Lena,  12,  13. 

Liaotung,  26,  28. 

Limpopo,  238. 

Lisbon,  294. 

Llano  Estacado,  03,  97. 

Llanos,  Bolivian,  147,  148. 

Orinoco,  131,  135. 
Loango,  227. 
Lob-Nor,  70. 
Lualaba,  226. 

Macdonald  Range,  182. 
Mackenzie  River,  79,  82. 
Madagascar,  199,  248. 
Madeira,  205. 

River,  138,  147. 
Magellan,  162. 
Malabar,  35,  36,  39. 
Malay  Archipelago,  17, 18,  32. 


312 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 


Malezales,  153. 
Mallee  scrub,  179. 
Manchuria,  14,  23. 
Maquis,  52. 
Maracaibo,  25. 
Maranhao,  141. 
Masailand,  235. 
Masai  plains,  235. 
Matoppos,  239. 

Matto  Grosso,  142,  145,  147,  149, 
151. 
Virgem,  140. 
Mauretania,  199,  202. 
Maya,  124. 
Medanos,  153. 
Mediterranean,  50,  51,  257,  278, 

297,  304. 
Mediterranean  Africa,  199. 

South  Australia,  183. 
Mekong,  18,  19,  36. 
Mekran,  47. 

Menam,  19. 

Merv,  58. 

Mesas,  94. 

Meseta,  283. 

Mesopotamia,  42,  50,  51,  56. 

Mexican  plateau,  127. 

Mexico,  91,  113,  116,  131,  306. 
Gulf  of,  91,  92. 
Southern,  119. 

Meztisos,  137. 

Minas  geraes,  143. 

Minoans,  221. 

Misiones,  145. 

Mississippi,  88,  90,  97. 

Moeres,  301. 

Mogador,  199. 

Mogollon,  101,  110. 

Mongolia,  23,  62,  63,  65. 

Montana,  138,  147,  163. 

Montreal,  85. 

Moore,  188. 

Morocco,  279. 

Mossamedes,  238. 

Mossel  Bay,  246. 

Mozambique,  234,  238. 

Mulga  scrub,  180. 

Murray-Darling  Valley,  182. 

Nahua,  119. 
Namib,  242. 
Nan-shan,  68. 
Natal,  248. 
Nebraska,  95. 


New  Caledonia,  191. 

England,  84. 

Guinea,  191. 

Mexico,  113. 

South  Wales,  188,  304. 

Zealand,  191,  192,  304. 
Ngaundere,  228. 
Niger,  212,  214,  227. 
Nigeria,  224. 
Nile,  207,  213,  214,  216. 

Blue,  223. 

Upper,  234. 
Nippon,  22. 
Norway,  270,  288. 
Nyr.ssa,  234,  235,  238. 

Ob,  10. 
Oguwe,  227. 
Ohio,  89. 
Okhotsk,  3,  16. 
Old  Calabar,  227. 
Orange  River,  242. 
Ordos  plateau,  90. 
Oregon,  108. 
Orinoco,  131,  132,  147. 
Orkhon,  65. 
Ormuz,  48. 
Ostiak,  11. 

Pacific  Islands,  194. 
Paddy-lands,  19,  22. 
Pamirs,  56,  65,  71,  73. 
Pampa,  157. 
Papagos  Indians,  114. 
Paraguay,  147,  149,  153. 
Parana,  145,  159. 

Marshes,  Lower,  151. 
Patagonia,  South,  161. 
Pernambuco,  140. 
Persia,  47,  48,  55. 
Persian  Gulf,  43,  48,  53. 
Pilcomayo,  148,  151,  154. 
Pipil-Quichue,  131. 
Plate  region.  304. 
Platte,  95. 
Polders,  301. 
Poljes,  283. 
Polygonal  floors,  8. 
Pontus,  55. 
Porto  Alegre,  140. 
Portugal,  294. 
Po  Valley,  287. 
Punas,  170. 
Puszta,  273. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 


313 


Pyrenees,  261,  278,  292,  294. 

Queensland,  178,  188,  304. 
Quichuas,  168. 

Rain  forests,  21,  235. 

South  Chilian,  169. 

South-eastern  Temperate,  188. 
Rebalsa,  136. 
Red  River,  97. 

Sea,  207,  209,  218,  220. 
Reg,  205. 
Registan,  44. 
Restinga,  38. 
Rhine,  288. 
Rhodesia,  241,  248. 
Rhodope,  257,  274,  276. 
Rio  Colorado,  157,  160. 
Rio  de  Oro,  207. 
Rio  Grande,  93,  111,  117. 
Rio  San  Francisco,  143. 
Rocky  Mountains,  83,  95,  104. 
Russia,  255,  266,  268. 
Ruwenzori,  235. 

Sabeans,  219,  221. 
Sabi,  235.    ' 
Sacramento,  169. 
Sahara,  205,  207,  211. 
Sahel,  207. 
Sakhalin,  13.  15. 
Salitrales,  156. 
Sal  win,  19. 
Samarkand,  58. 
San  Francisco,  102. 

Luis,  112,  155,  157. 
Sanga,  227,  228. 
Santa  Cruz,  147. 

Fe,  153. 
Sao  Paulo,  145. 
Savana,  18,  224. 

Bahr-al-Ghazal,  234. 

Guiana,  132,  134. 

Sudanese,  210. 

Tropical,  174. 

Woods,  185. 

Zambezi,  234. 
Save,  283,  286. 
Sayan,  63. 

Scandinavia,  266,  267,  290. 
Scandinavian  Highlands,  265. 
Scilly  Islands,  255. 
Scotland,  264,  294,  298. 
Scottish  Highlands,  265. 


Scrubland,  178. 
Sechwan,  30. 
Seistan,  45. 
Selva,  136,  224. 

Amazon,  133,  163. 

Guinea,  227. 
Semi-desert,  Patagonian,  160. 

Southern,  161. 

Somali,  234. 

Sudan,  208. 
Senegal,  207,  210. 
Senegambia,  212. 
Serrados,  1 42. 
Sertao,  141,  142,  174. 
Shamo,  66. 
Shantung,  28. 
Shari,  213,  224,  228. 
Shasta,  103. 
Shiraz,  43,  45,  47,  49. 
Shire,  234. 
Siam,  17,  18,  22. 
Siberia,  80. 

East,  12. 

West,  10. 
Siberian  Highlands,  62. 

Taiga,  64. 
Sierra,  166. 
Sierra  de  Cordoba,  155,  157. 

do  Mar,  139. 

Madre,  114,  116,  120. 

Nevada,  103,  108,  110,112,115. 
Sikhota  Alin,  23. 
Si-kiang,  19. 
Siverma,  10. 
Sogdiana,  58. 
Somaliland,  220,  221,   223,  231, 

238. 
Somali  plains,  219. 
Song-ho,  19. 
Sonora,  Northern,  115. 
Southern  States,  91. 
Spain,  258,  282. 
Spencer  Gulf,  185. 
Staked  Plain,  93. 
Stanley  Falls,  230. 
Stanovoi,  12,  16. 
Steppe,  Kirghiz,  56,  61. 
Rumanian,  287. 
Russian,  270. 
Sudan,  218,  223. 
Egyptian,  214. 
Sumatra,  39. 
Sundarbans,  19. 
Sungari,  13,  14,  25. 


314 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 


Sungaria,  62,  66. 
Sutherland,  307. 
Syr,  57. 

Darias,  58. 
Syria,  221. 

Tabasco,  120. 
Tagai,  13. 

Canadian,  81. 

Siberian.  64. 
Takhla  Makan,  66,  68,  69,  305. 
Tanganyika,  236,  238. 
Tas,  10. 

Tasmania,  189. 
Taurus,  47,  52,  55,  282. 
Teda,  207. 
Teheran,  45. 
Tehuan  tepee,  120,  124. 
Tell,  199,  279. 
Tennessee,  89,  90,  91,  92. 
Texas,    88,    90,   92,    94,    95,   97, 

308. 
Thorn  wood,  174. 
Tian  Shan,  56,  59,  65,  68,  69. 
Tibesti,  207. 
Tibet,  17,  23,  71,  73. 
Tibu,  207. 
Tierra  caliente,  120. 

templada,  120. 
Tigris,  50,  53. 
Tocantins,  138. 
Togo,  224,  228. 
Tola,  65. 
Tongking,  29. 
Trans-Baikalia,  63. 
Transvaal,  239,  241. 
Travesias,  155. 
Trieste,  228. 
Trinidad,  124. 
Tsaidara,  75. 
Tsin-ling,  29. 
Tsing-ling-shan,  68. 
Tucuman,  148. 
Tundra,  5,  79,  263. 
Tunis,  199,  207. 
Turan,  49,  56,  58,  68. 
Turkestan  Highlands,  59. 

Ubanghi,  227,  228,  230. 


Uganda,  236. 
Umtali,  235. 
Unyamwezi,  236. 
Urals,  10,  265. 
Uruguay,  141,  159. 
Ust-Urt,  56,  58. 
Usuri,  13,  25. 

Valdivia,  169. 

Valencia,  282. 

Vargam,  19. 

Venezuela,  124,  125,  131,  163. 

Venns,  291. 

Verkhoyansk,  10. 

Victoria  Nyanza,  232,  236. 

River,  174. 
Vindhyas,  41. 
Vitim,  63,  65. 
Vosges,  288,  291. 
Vyatka,  266. 

Wales,  298. 
Wasatch,  104,  110. 
Washington,  89. 
Welle,  230. 
Wergian,  58. 
West  Australia,  186. 
Western  mountains,  98. 
West  Indies,  91,123,  131. 
Winnipeg,  84,  97. 

Yangkan,  10. 

Yang  Tse,  23,  29.  30. 

Yellow  Basin,  28. 

Earth,  28. 

River,  68. 
Yemen,  219.220. 
Yenissei,  10. 
Yezd,  44. 
Yezo,  13,  15. 
Yorkshire,  301. 
Yucatan,  121,  125. 
Yukon,  83,  107. 
Yunnan,  18,  29. 

Zagros,  43,  45,  47.  48.  50,  r>:). 
Zambezi,  211,  226,  235,  236,  238, 
239. 
Basin,  236. 
Zerafshan,  58. 


INDEX   OP  PLANT  NAMES 


Gerth  van  Wijk,  Dictionary  of  Plant  Names,  and  Engler-Prantl, 
NatiirUche  Pjlanztnfamilien,  have  been  taken  as  authorities  in  compil- 
ing this  Index. 


ASIA 


Aconite,   Acoyiitum,   Eranthis,    &.c. 

spp.,  13,  60,  64. 
Ailanthus  glandulosa,  tree  of  Hea- 
ven, 27. 
Alder,  Alnus  spp.,  11,  16. 
Almond,    Prunus    amygdalus,    44, 

47,  51,  59. 
Andromeda  poli folia,  Marsh  andro- 

meda,  or  wild  rosemary,  11. 
Anemone,  64. 

Apple,  Pyi-us  malus,  47,  59. 
Apricot,  Prunus  Armeniaca,  44,  47, 

59,  70. 
Arabian    acacia      (gum    acacia), 

Acacia  arabica,  42. 
Areca    (betel)    nut    palm,    Areca 

Catechu,  19,  21. 
Arolla     (Siberian     stone)      pine, 

Pinus  Cembra,  12,  64. 
Artemisia  spp.,  wormwood,  66. 
Ash,  Fraxinus  spp.,  49. 
Ash,    mountain    (rowan),    Sorbus 

Aucuparia,  14. 
Asparagus,  60. 

Aspen,  Populus  iremulosa,  63,  64. 
Azalea,  31. 

Bambu,  Bambttsa  arundinacea, 
Dendrocalamus  spp.,  19,  31. 

Banana,  Musa  spp.,  19,  21,  30. 

Barberry,  Berberis  vulgaris,  14,  60. 

Barley,  Hordeum  rulgare,  28. 

Betel  nut,  see  Areca. 

Bilberry,  VacHnium  Mtjrtillus,  15, 
155. 

Birch,  Betulus  spp.,  16,  54,  63. 

Black  (Corsican)  pine,  Pinus 
Laricio,  54. 


Box,  Buxus  sempervirens,  49. 
Bramble,  Rubus  fruticosus,  13,  15, 

66. 
Bread  fruit,  Arctocarpus  incisa,  19. 
Broussonetia  papyrifera,  paper-tree 

or  paper  mulberry,  27. 
Buckthorn,  Rhamnus  spp.,  75. 
Buffalo   grass,    Panicum    muticum, 

25. 


Camphor,  Cinnamomum  Camphora, 

Dryobalanops  aromatica,  21,  30. 
Candytuft,  Iberis  amara,  60. 
Cardamom,  Elettaria  Cardamomum, 

21. 
Catalpa,  29. 

Cassia,  Cinnamomum  Cassia. 
Casuarina     (tjemoro),     Casuarina 

equisetifolia,  34. 
Cedar  of  Lebanon,  Cedrus  Libani, 

54. 
Cedrela      spp.,      Bastard       cedar, 

Chinese  cedar,  Toon  tree,  &c, 

38. 
Celtis  spp.,  False  elm,  39. 
Charmik,  Lycium  barbarum}  75. 
Chnjsanthemum,  31,  60. 
Cilician  fir,  Abies  Cilicia,  54. 
Cinnamon,    Cinnamomum    zeylani- 

cum,  19,  21. 
Coco-nut,  Cocos  nucifera,  19,  39. 
Coffee,  Coffea  spp.,  34,  51. 
Columbine,  Aquilegia  spp.,  60,  64. 
Cotton,    Glossypium  spp.,    19,   28, 

31,  36,  51,  59. 
Cow-parsnip,    Heracleum   sphondy- 

lum,  61,  64. 


316 


PLANT  INDEX 


Crocus,  60. 

Cucumber,  Cucumis  sativus,  21. 
Cypress,  Cupressus  funebris,  30,  48, 
54. 

Dahurica    larch,    Larix   dahurica, 

16. 
Date  palm,  Phoenix  dactyli/era,  53. 
Day  lily,  Hemerocallis  fulva,  61. 
Deodar,  Cedrus  Deodara,  41. 
Dimorphanthus,  Aralia  edulis,  14. 
Djati,  see  Teak. 
Dog  rose,  Rosa  canina,  66. 

Elm,  Vlmus  spp.,  14,  66. 
Euphrates  poplar,  Popidus  euphra- 
tica,  42,  44. 

Fig,  Ficus  carica,  42,  48,  51,  52,  54. 
Fir,  Abies  spp.,  41. 
Fuchsia,  31. 

Gentian,  60,  64. 
Geranium,  13,  60,  64. 
Ginger,  Zingiber  officinale,  21. 
Ginkgo  {bilobata),  maidenhair  tree, 

30. 
Gleditschia  (sinensis),  Chinese  soap 

tree,  27. 
Globe  flower,  Trollius  spp.,  64. 
Grapes  (vine),  Ft<i»  vinifera,  59,  70. 
Groundsel,  Senecio  spp.,  64. 
Gutta-percha  tree,  i*7c?<s  elastica, 

21. 

Hazel,  Corylus  spp.,  14. 
Heather,  .Enca  spp.,  301. 
Heliotropium  europaeum,  Heliotrope, 

cherrypie,  60. 
Hemp,  Cannabis  saliva,  25,  28,  31. 

51. 
Honeysuckle,  Lonicera  spp.,  66. 
Hornbeam,  Carpinus  spp.,  49. 
Horse-chestnut,    Aesculus    Hippo- 

castanum,  55. 
Horsetail,  Equisetum  spp.,  34. 
Hydrangea,  15. 

Indigo,  Indigo/era  tinctoria,  19,  31, 
36. 

Japonica,  31. 

Juniper,  Juniperus  spp.,  54. 

Kamchatka  rhododendron,  Rhodo- 
dendron kamtschaticum,  16. 


Larch,  ianx  spp.,  12,  14. 
Laurel,  Laurus  nobilis,  54. 
Lemon,  CWrws  Limonum,  19. 
Limetree,  Tt7ia  spp.,  14. 
Ling,  Calluna  vulgaris,  9. 
Liquidambar  (formosana),  Chinese 

sweet  gum,  30. 
Live  oak,  Quercus  virens,  47,  54. 

Magnolia,  31. 

Maize,  Zea  Mais,  28,  31,  48,  51 ,  53, 

59,  70. 
Mangrove,  Bruguiera  gymnorrhiza, 

Rhizophora  conjugata,  &c,  36. 
Manjack,  Cordia  macrophylla,  19. 
Maple,  Acer  spp.,  14,  49. 
Melon,  Cucumis  Melo,  21,  59,  70. 
Millet,  Panicum  spp.,  Sorghum  spp. , 

&c,  49. 
Mongolian  oak,  Quercus  mongolica, 

14. 
Monkshood,  Aconitum  Napellus,  13. 
Mulberry  spp.,  Morus,  59,  70. 

white,  Morus  alba,  48. 

Nilraria  spp.,  nitre  bush,  salt  tree, 
75. 

Oak,  Quercus  spp.,  41,  49,  55. 
Olive,  Olea  spp.,  39,  47,  54. 
Onion,  Allium  Cepa,  31. 
Opium  poppy,  Papaver  somniferum, 

25,  36. 
Orange,  Citrus  Auranlium,  19,  54. 

Pansy,  Viola  tricolor,  60. 
Patdowniailndica),  Matherancoffee, 

29. 
Peach,  Prunus  Persica,  44,  47,  51. 
Peony,  Paeonia  spp.,  64. 
Pepper,  Piper  nigrum,  21. 
Phlox  spp.,  Pink,  Sweet  William, 

&c,  60. 
Pine,  Pinus  spp.,  14,  41,  54. 
Pineapple,  Ananas  sativa,  19. 
Plane,  Platanus  spp.,  44,  48,  49. 
Plum,  Prunus  spp.,  59. 
Pomegranate,  Punica  Granatum,47, 

48. 
Poplar,  Populus  spp.,    16,  17,  44, 

49,  59,  61,  66,  68. 
Poplar,   Lombardy,  Populus  pyra- 

midalis,  59. 
Poppy,  Papaver  spp.,  31,  60,64. 


PLANT  INDEX 


317 


Plerocarya  spp.,  Caucasian  walnut, 

&c,  55. 
Pumpkin,  Cucurbita  Pepo,  70. 

Raspberry,  Rubus  idaeus,  66. 
Rhododendron,  11,  17,  31,  41,   55, 

60. 
Rhubarb,  Rheum  officinale,  60,  66. 
Rice  (paddy\  Oryza  sativa,  19,  21, 

36,  51,53,  59. 
Rose,  Rosa  spp.,  60. 
Rowan    (mountain    ash),    Sorbus 

Aucuparia,  14. 
Rubber,  Ficus  elastica,  21. 

Sabine  juniper,  Juniperus  sabina, 
60. 

Sill  tree,  Shorea  robusia ,  :>'.». 

Sandal-wood,  Sani<ditm  album,  38. 

Saxaul,  Haloxylon  ammodendron,  57, 
68. 

Saxifrage,  64. 

Scots  pine,  Pinus  sylrestris,  12,  64. 

Senecio  spp.,  Ragwort,  groundsel. 

Siberian  fir,  Pinus  Cembra,  64. 

Sophora  spp.,  Pagoda  tree,  Hima- 
layan laburnum,  &c,  27. 

Spruce,  Picea  spp.,  12,  64. 

Sugar  cane,  Saccharum  officinarum, 
21,  31,  32. 


Sumac,  Rhus  spp.,  39. 

Tamarind,  Tamarindus  indica,  19. 
Tamarisk,  common,  Tamarix  anglica 

or  gallica,  42,  44,  57,  68,  75. 
Tea.  Thea  chinensis,  21,  30,  39. 
Teak,   Tectona  graiidis,  18,  21,  33, 

38. 
Tobacco,  Solanum  nicoliana,  19,  25, 

28,  31,  34,  49,  53. 
Tsuga  fir,  Tsuga  brunoniana,  &c,  14. 
Tulip,  Tulipa  spp.,  60,  67. 

Vine,  Vitis  vinifera,  14,  49. 
Violet,  Viola  spp.,  64. 

Walnut,  Juglans  regia,  14,  41,  44, 

47,  49,  55,  59,  70. 
Wheat,  Triticum  spp.,  31,  36,  48. 

51,  53,  59. 
Whortleberry,  Vacciniumspr).,  13. 
Wild  rose,  Rosa  canina,  13. 
Willow,  Salix  spp.,  16,  61,  66,  68. 
Willow  herb,  Epilobium  spp.,  64. 
Wormwood,  Artemisia  spp.,  68. 

Yew,  Taxus  baccala,  15. 

Zelkova   spp.,    river    elm,    keaki, 
false  sandal-wood,  &c,  49. 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Acacia  spp.,  114. 

Agave  (americana),  False  or  Ameri- 
can Aloe,  century  plant,  93, 
114,  117. 

Alder,  Alnus  spp.,  86,  100. 

A 1  fa  1  fa  (lucerne\iHetf?ca<70  sativa,  113. 

Arctic  (Iceland)  poppy,  Papaver 
nndicaule,  81. 

Artemisia  spp.,  wormwood,  108,1 12. 

Ash,  Fraxinus  spp.,  85,  86. 

Aspeu,  Populus  tremuloides,  83, 
107,  110. 

Bald    (or  swamp)  cypress,   Taxo- 

dium  distkhum,  92. 
Balsam  fir,  Abies  balsam  if  era,  83. 
Balsam    poplar,    Populus    balsami- 

fera,  83. 
Banana,  Musa  spp.,  116. 
Bearberry,  At ctostaphxjlos  uva  ursi, 

81,  83. 


Beech,  Fagus  spp.,  85. 

Big   tree    (Wellingtonia),   Sequoia 

gigantea,  103. 
Birch,  Behda  spp.,  84,  86. 
Birch,    paper   (or   canoe),    Behda 

papyracea,  83. 
Black  spruce,  Picea  nigra  (maria- 

na],  83,  87. 
Buffalo   grass,   Buchlo'e   dactyloides, 

94,  98. 
Bunch    grass,    Bouteloua    oligosta- 

chya,  110,  118. 

Cacao,  Theobroma  Cacao,  120. 
Cactus,  93,  95,  111,  116,  117,  121. 
Califbrnian     laurel,     Umbellidaria 

californica,  112. 
Candelabra-cerei,  Cereus  giganteus, 

116. 
Cedar,  Cedrus  spp.,  120. 
Cereus,  93,  95,  114. 


318 


PLANT  INDEX 


Chestnut  (edible),  Castanea  satira,       Juniper,  Juniperus  spp.,  104. 


Coconut-palm,  Cocos  nucifera,  117. 

Coffee,  Coffea  spp.,  117. 

Cotton,    Glossypium  spp.,    89,    91, 

94,  117. 
Cottonwood,     Populus     monilifera, 

107,  108. 
Cranberry,  Oxy coccus  palustris,  83. 
Creosote- bush,    Larrea     mexicana, 

114. 
Crowberry,  Empetrum  nigrum,  83. 
Cypress,  Cupressus  spp.,  112. 

Dasilyrion  ( Wheeleri), bear  grass,  1 1 4. 

Dodecantheon  primrose  (Ameri- 
can cowa\ip),DodecantheonMeadia, 
81. 

Douglas  (red)  fir,  Pseudotsuga 
Douglasii,  100,  102,  106,  111. 

Dwarf  oak,  Quercus  humilis,  113. 

Dwarf  pine,  Pinus  Mughus,  104. 

Dyewood  (logwood),  Haematoxylon 
campechianum,  120. 

Elm,  Ulmus  spp.,  86,  97. 
Eurotia  spp.,  white  sage,  &c,  95. 
Evergreen  oak,  Quercus  ilex,  92. 

Fir,  Abies  spp.,  100,  110. 
Eraser's  fir,  Abies  Fraseri,  87. 

Gentian,  81. 

Geranium,  81. 

Gleditschia  spp.,  Honey  locust, 
&c,  90,  97. 

Grama  grass,  Bouteloua  spp.,  95, 
98,  110. 

Guayule  (rubber  bush),  Parthenium 
argentatum,  117. 

Gymnocladus  spp.,  Kentucky  coffee- 
tree,  &c.,90,  97. 

Hazel,  Corylus  spp.,  86. 

Hemlock  spruce,  Tsuga  canadensis, 

85,  86,  89,  97. 
Hickory    (white    walnut),    Carya 

spp.,  85,  86,  89,  97. 
Hornbeam,  Carpinus  spp  ,  85,  86. 
Horse-chestnut,  Aesculus  spp.,  86. 
Huckleberry,  Gaylussacia  spp.,  83. 

Incense-tree,  Liquidambar  styraci- 
flua,  92. 


Kalmia  spp.,  American  laurel,  &c. 
81,  86. 

Laurel,  Laurus  spp.,  86. 

Ledum  spp.,  Labrador  tea  plant, 

&c,  81. 
Lemon,  Citrus  Limonum,  113. 
Lime,  Tilia  spp.,  85,  97. 
Lucerne  {see  Alfalfa),  113. 

Madura   spp.,    Bow   wood,    osage 

orange,  &c,  86. 
Magnolia  spp.,  Sweet  bay,  cucum- 
ber tree,  &c,  86,  92. 
Mahogany,      Swietew'a     Mahagoni, 

120. 
Maize,  Zea  Mais,  90,  113,  117. 
Mammillaria  spp.,  Mammal  cactus, 

&c,  114. 
Mango,  Mangifera  indica,  116. 
Mangrove,  Rhizophora  mangle,  &c, 

115. 
Maple,  Acer  spp.,  85,  86. 
Mesquite,  Prosopis  spp.,  93,  117. 
Mexican  rubber,  CasWloa  elastica, 

120. 
Mimosa  spp.,  114. 
Monterey  cypress,  Cupressus  macro • 

carpus,  102. 
Mountain    mahogany,  Cercocarpus 

spp.,  110. 
Mulberry,  Moms  spp.,  113. 
Murray  (lodge  pole)  pine,  Pinus 

Murrayana,  107. 

Nolina  (Roulinia),  114. 

Oak,  Quercus  spp.,  84,  86,  89,  97. 

Oats,  Avena  spp.,  117. 

Ocotillo  (devil's  chair),  Fouquiera 

splendens,  114. 
Oil  palm,  Elaeis  guineensis,  117. 
Olive,  Olea  spp.,  113. 
Opuntia   spp.,  Prickly   pear,   &c, 

93,  95,  114. 
Orange,  Citrus  Auraniium,  113. 

Papaw,  Carica  papaya,  116. 
Peach,  Prunus  persica,  113. 
Pine,  Pinus  spp  ,  110. 
Pifion,  Pinus  edulis,  104. 
Pitch  pine,  Pinus  rigida,  84. 


PLANT  INDEX 


319 


Plane,  Platanus  spp.,  85,  86. 
Poplar,  Populus  spp.,  86,  110. 
Potato,  Solarium  tuberosum,  117. 
Prairie  grass,  Spartina  spp. ,  95. 

Red  cedar  (savin),  Juniperus 
virginiana,  90. 

Red  spruce,  Picea  rubra,  83,  87. 

Red  wood,  Sequoia  semper vir ens, 
102. 

Rhododendron  spp.,  False  honey- 
suckle, rosebay,  azalea,  &c,  81, 
86,  92. 

Rice,  Oryza  sativa,  117. 

Robinia  spp.,  Locust  tree,  false 
acacia,  86,  89. 

Sabal  Palmetto,  Palmetto  palm,  92. 
Sage    brush,    Artemisia   tridentata, 

108,  110,  112. 
Sassafras   officinale    (Laurus   Sassa- 
fras), sassafras  tree,  ague  tree, 

86. 
Saxifrage,  Saxifraga  spp.,  81. 
Sequoia,  see  Big  tree,  redwood. 
Silver  fir,  Abies  pectinata,  102. 
Single-leaf  pine,  Pinus  monophylla, 

110. 
Spruce,  Picea  spp.,  100,  102,  107. 
Sugar-cane,  Saccharum  officinarum, 

91,  92,  117. 
Sugar  maple,  Acer  Saccharinum,  85. 
Sugar  pine,  Pinus  Lambertiana,  102. 
Swamp     cypress,     Taxodium     di- 

stichum,  92. 
Swamp    (long    leaf)    pine,   Pinus 

Lambertiana,  92. 


Sweet  gale   (bog  myrtle),  Myrica 
Gale,  83. 

Tamarack    (black     larch),    Larix 

americana,  83,  84. 
Tillandda  spp.,  Tumbleweeds,  &c, 

92. 
Tobacco,  Nicotiana  Tabacum,  89. 
Tsuga,  see   Hemlock  spruce,   100, 

102. 
Tulip  tree,  Liriodendron  tulipij era, 86. 

Vanilla,  Liatris  odoratissima,  120. 
Virginia  creeper,    Vitis   hederacea, 

Ampelopsis  quinquefolia,  &c,  87. 
Virginian  oak,  Quercus  virginiana, 

92. 

Walnut,  Juglans  spp.,  85,  86,  97. 
Water  melon,  Citrulus  vidgaris,  94. 
Weymouth    pine,    Pinus    Strobus, 

84,  85,  87. 
Wheat,  Triticum  spp.,  90,  108,  117. 
White  elm,  Ulmus  americana,  85. 
White   spruce,     Picea     canadensis 

{alba),  83. 
Whortleberry,  Vaccinium  spp.,  83. 
Willow,  Salix  spp.,  81,  100,  110. 
Winter  green,    Gauliheria  procum- 

bens,  83. 
Wormwood,  Artemisia  spp.,  97. 

Yellow  pine,  Pinus  mitis,  103,  104, 

106,  111. 
Yucca      spp.,      Adam's      needle, 

Spanish    bayonet,  bear's  gra<-s, 

&c,  93,  114. 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Acacia   spp.,   125,    128,    141,   142, 

148,  166. 
Adesmia,  Lena  amarilla,  165. 
Agave   spp.,   century   plant,    &c, 

128,  142. 
Alfalfa,  Medicago  sativa,  159. 
Aloe,  142. 
Alsophila,  140. 
Andropogon  spp.,  False  spikenard, 

&c,  158. 
Antarctic  beech,  Fagus  antarctica, 

162. 
Araucaria  spp.,  140. 


Araucaria     brasiliensis,     Brazilian 

pine,  144. 
Araucaria    imbricata,    Chile   pine, 

monkey  puzzle,  169. 
Aristidaspp.,  Drinn  grass,  fcc,  158. 
Atriplex  spp.,  Common  orache,  &c, 

148. 
Atialea    spp.,    Broom   palm,   &c, 

142. 

Baccharis  spp.,  Groundsel  tree, 
ploughman's  spikenard,  &c, 
157. 


320 


PLANT  INDEX 


Bambu,  Bambusa  spp.,  127,  164, 

169. 
Banana,  Musa  spp.,  126. 
Barberry,  Berberis  vulgaris,  169. 
Bean,  Vicia  spp.,  143. 
Bejaria  spp.,    Rose  of  the  Andes, 

&c,  164. 
Bombax    Ceiba,    silk    cotton   tree, 

141. 
Brazil  nut,  see  Para  nut. 
Broad-leaved  cedar,  164. 
Bromelia    spp.,   Wild   pine  apple, 

pinguin,  &c. ,  141,  142. 
Buddleia      spp.,    Summer      lilac, 

honey-ball  tree,  &c,  164. 
Buriti  palm,  Mauritia  spp.,  142. 

Cacao,  Theobroma  Cacao,  125,    126, 

134,  135. 
Cactus,  148. 
Calceolaria,  166. 
Candelabra   cereus,   Cereus  gigan- 

teus,  141,  148. 
Carfiauba  (wax  fan  palm),  Coperni- 

cia  cerifera,  142. 
Cassia       (acutifolia,       angustifolia), 

senna,  148. 
Cebil   acacia   (red  cebil),    Acacia 

Cebil,  148. 
Ceiba,  Eriodendronleiantherum,  125. 
Cereus,  142,  155,  157,  166. 
Chanar,  Gourliea  chilensis,  148, 155, 

165. 
Chestnut,  Cupaina  americana,  164. 
Cinchona    spp.,     Peruvian     bark, 

quinine,  164. 
Clematis,  166. 

Coconut-palm,  Cocos  nucifera,  143. 
Cocoscoronata,  142. 
Coffee,  Coffea  spp.,  145. 
Colletia    cruciata,     anchor     plant, 

169. 
Cotton,  Glossypium  spp.,  126. 
Cranberry,  Oxycoccus  palustris,  169. 
Creosote    bush,    Larrea    mexicana, 

165. 

DtimysWiv.teri,  Winter's  bark,  164, 

169. 
Dye  wood,     Haematoxylon      ca>nr>e- 

chianum,  125. 

Echeveria  (cotyledon)  spp. ,  Kidney- 
wort,  pennywort,  &c,  166. 


Elder,  Sambucus  spp.,  165. 
Epiphytes,  127,  140,  149,  169. 
Escallonia    spp.,    Chile    gumbox, 

Ac,  164,  165,  169. 
Evergreen  oak,   Quercus   ilex,  127, 

164. 

Frailezones,     Espeletia,     Culcitium 
spp.,  127. 

Green  beech,  170. 
Gynerium  argenteum,  Pampas  grass-, 
158. 

Ichu  grass,  Siipa  Ichu,  170. 
Ilex,  see  Evergreen  oak. 

Jaracanda,  140. 

Laurel,  Lauras  ndbiU»,  164. 
Lianas,  127,  140,  149,  164. 
Lupin,  Lupinus  spp.,  166. 

Machaerium  spp.,  Tigerwood,  &c, 

164. 
Mahogany,     Sicietenia      Mahagoni, 

125. 
Maize,  Zea  Mais,   126,   134,    138, 

142. 
Mandioca      (mainhot,     cassava), 

Mandioca  utilissima,  138,  142. 
Mango,  Mangifera  indica,  127. 
Mangrove,  Conocarpus  erectus,  Rhi- 

zophora  mangle,  &c,  126. 
Manioc,  see  Mandioca,  134,  145. 
Mauritia  or  miriti  palm,  Mauritia 

vinifera  and  Jlexuosa,  137. 
Melica  spp.,  Melic  grass,  158. 
Mesquite,  Prosopis  spp.,  166. 
Mimosa,  148,  169. 

Oak,  Quercus  spp.,  131. 

Ombu  (poke  weed),  Phytolacca  Bpp., 

157. 
Opunlia   spp,    Prickly   pear,    &c, 

141,  155,  157,  166. 
Orange,  Citrus  Aurantium,  148. 
Orchid,  141. 

Palms,  149,  164. 

Pampas  grass,  Gynerium  argenteum, 

157,  158. 
Panicum  spp.,  millet,  panic  grass, 

&c,  132,  158. 
Papaw,  Carica  papaya,  127. 
Pappophorum,  158. 


PLANT  INDEX 


321 


Part      (Brazil)      not,    Bertholletia 

(Castanha)  excelsa,  138. 
Pain     (Brazilian)     rubber,    Hevea 

brasiliensis    and    Seringeira,    125, 

126,  136. 
Paspalum  spp.,  millet  grass,  132, 

158. 
Peach,  Prunus  Persica,  159. 
Peruvian  alder,  Alnus  acuminata, 

165. 
Pine,  Pinus  spp.,  131. 
Pineapple,  Ananas  satioa,  126. 
Plantago  spp.,  Plantain,  160. 
Plum,  Prunus  domesUca,  159. 
Poa  Jlabellata,  Tussock  grass,  161. 
Podocarpus spp.,  plum  fir,  &c,  1<",  1, 

165. 
Prickly  pear,  Opuniia  vulgaris,  128. 
Prosopis,  Mesquite,  148. 

Quebracho,  Aspidosperma  Quebracho, 

147,  148. 
Quenoa,  Polylepis  racemosa,  165. 
QuUhija  saponaria,  Chile  soap  tree, 

169. 
Quince,  Cydonia  vulgaris,  159. 

Retama,  Spartocytisus  nubigens, 
155. 

Rhopala,  134. 

Rice,  Onjza  sativa,  127. 

Rose  of  the  Andes,  Bejaria  spp.  ,164. 

Rubber,  ceara  (see  also  Para  rub- 
ber), Manihot  Glaziovii,  Rubber, 


Guiana,  Hevea    guianensis,    &c, 
135. 

Saponaria  spp.,  Soap  wort,  169. 
Schinus  spp.,    Mastic   tree,    false 

pepper,  &c,  157. 
Spondias  spp.,  Hog  plum,  &c,  141. 
Stipa  spp.,  Feathergrass,  &c,  158. 
Strawberry    tree,  Arbutus    Unedo, 

127. 
Sugar-cane,  Saccharum  officinarumt 

125,  134,  135,  138,  148. 
Sumac,  Rhus  spp.,  169. 
Sxcartzia      grandifolia,      Brazilian 

black  tree,  134. 

Tillandsia  spp.,  Tumbleweed,  vege- 
table hair,  black  moss,  &c,  141, 
165. 

Tobacco,  Nicotiana  Tabacum,  127, 
166. 

Tree  ferns,  164,  169. 

Vanilla,  Liairis  odoratissima,  125. 
Verbena,  155,  160. 

Wax  palm,  Copernica  cerifera,  164. 

Yerba-mate  (Paraguayan  tea  tree), 
Hex  paraguayensis,  145,  148,  151. 
Yucca,  142. 

Zizyphus  spp,  jujube  tree,  lotus 
tree,  &c,  141. 


AUSTRALIA 


Acacia  spp.,  Myalls,  wattles,  &c, 

182,  185,  189. 
African    marigold,    Tagetes    erecta, 

179. 
Alsophila,  188. 
Andropogon  spp.,  False  spikenard, 

golden  beard  grass,  &c,  181. 
Araucaria      spp.,     Bunya-bunya, 

Norfolk  Island  pine,  &c,  189. 
Aristida   spp.,    Drinn    grass,    &c, 

181. 

Banana,  Musa  spp.,  194. 

Banksia  spp  ,  Australian  honey- 
suckle, bottle  brush,  &c,  185, 
189. 

Bombax  Ceiba,  Silk  cotton  tree,  176. 

1159- 1 


Bread  fruit,  Arctocarpus  incisa,  194. 

Brigalow  scrub,  Acacia  harpophylla, 
179. 

Callitris  spp.,  Cypress  pine,  &c, 
180. 

Casuarina  spp.,  Beef-wood,  she- 
oak,  &c,  176,  180,  182. 

Coco-nut,  Cocos  nucifera,  194. 

Colocasia  spp.,  koko-yam,  taro.  &c, 
194. 

Cotton,  Glossypium  spp.,  188. 

Cyathea,  188. 

Dicksonia,  188. 

Eucalyptus  spp.,  Australian  gum- 
tree,  176,  182,  184,  189. 


322 


PLANT  INDEX 


Evergreen  beech,  '  Black  birch  ', 
Fagus  antarctica,  193. 

Kahikatea  (Sugar-loaf  pine,  white 

pine),    Podocarpus      dacrydioides , 

193. 
Kangaroo    grass,    Anthistiria    au- 

stralis,  181. 
Kauri,  Agalhis  (Dammara)  austra- 

lis,  193. 

Leptospermum  spp.,  South  Sea 
myrtle,  Australian  tea  tree,  &c, 
174. 

Maize,  Zea  Mais,  183,  193. 
Mallee   scrub,  Eucalyptus  dumosa, 

179. 
Mango,  Mangifera  indica,  188. 
Mangrove,    Ehizophora   mucronata, 

&c,  173. 
Melaleuca     Cajaputi    (leucadendron), 

cajuput  (Australian  tea   tree\ 

180,  191. 
Mimosa  spp.,  wattles,  &c,  182,  185. 
Miihlenleckia       spp.,     Macquarrio 

harbour  grape,  native  ivy,  &c  , 

181. 
Mulga  scrub,  Acacia  aneura,  180. 


Olive,  Olea  spp.,  185. 

Orange,  Citrus  Aurantium,  185,  189. 

Palms,  173. 

Pandanus  spp.,  Screwpine,  &c,  173. 


Pimelea  spp.,  Rice  flower,  179. 
Pineapple,  Ananas  sativa,  188. 
Podocarpus  spp.,  Australian  yew, 

brown     or     shea     pine,     &c, 

193. 
Porcupine  grass,  see  Spinifex. 
Protea   spp.,    sugar    bush,  Wagen 

boom,  &c,  185. 

Rhagodia    spp.,     Australian     sea 
berry,  &c,  181. 

Sago     palm,     Mciroxylon     (Sagus) 

Rumphii,  194. 
Sandalwood  (bastard),  Eremophila 

Mitchelli,  179. 
Spinach,  Spinacia  oleracea,  181. 
Spinifex  'porcupine  grass  ,  Triodia 

irrifans,  pungens,  182. 
Stipa  fenacissima,   Alfa  or  esparto 

grass,  181. 
Sugar-cane,  Saccharum  ojficinarum, 

188. 

Tea  tree,  Leptospermum,  174. 

Todea,  188. 

Tree  nettle  (stinging  tree),  Lar- 

portea  gigas,  189. 
Triodia,  see  Spinifex. 


Vine,  Vitis  vinifera,  185,  189. 
Wheat,  Triticum  spp.,  183,  193. 
Yam,  Dioscorea  satka,  194. 
AFRICA 


Acacia,   208,   209,    211,    213,   220, 

223,  228,  231,  239,  241. 
Acacia  Cyclops,  246. 
Acacia  horrida,  Tusk  thorn  acacia, 

239,  241. 
Acanthosicyos  horrida,  Nara  plant, 

242. 
Adenium  spp.,  Hongel'bush,  220. 
Aderas,  Commiphora  sp  ,  208,  215. 
Alfa  or  esparto  grass,  Stipa  fenacis- 
sima, 204,  205. 
Aloe,  220,  231,  236,  238,  241,  247, 

248. 
Anabasis  spp.,  Desert  cauliflower, 

berry-bearing    glasswort,    &c. 

206. 


Andropogon  spp.,  239,  241. 
Anogeissus  spp.,  Chew  slick,  &c, 

226. 
Arabian  coffee,  Coffea  arabica,  219. 
Aristida  spp.,  239.  241. 
Aristida  pungens,  Drinn  grass,  203, 

207. 
Atlantic  pistacia,  Pistacia  allantica, 

203,  204. 
Atlas  cedar,  Cedrus  atlantica,  202. 

245. 

Balanites  spp.,  thorn  tree,  desert 

date,  &c,  215. 
Balsam  tree,  see  Aderas. 
Bambu,  Arundo  Donax,  235. 


PLANT  INDEX 


323 


Banana,  Musa  spp.,  205,  248. 
Banyan,  Ficus  indica,  211. 
Baobab    (calabash    or   monkey's 

bread),  Adansonia  digitata,  211, 

213,  228,  231,  236. 
Batoum    pistacia     (see     Atlantic 

pistacia). 
Bombax,  Silk  cotton  tree,  226. 
Borassus   palm    (deleb),   Borassus 

Aethiopium,  211,  228,  230. 
Bunchgrass,  Bouteloua  oligostachya, 

216. 
Butter  and   tallow   tree  (guttifer 

•hi  batter)  Butyrospermum  I'ark  ii, 

211,  213,  228. 

Calotropii  spp.,  Minhtr.  228 

Canary  date  palm.  Phoenix  cana- 
densis, 204. 

Candelabra  euphoiia,  Candle-stick 
cactus,  219,  220,  223,  231,  236, 
238. 

Cape  heath,  Erica  spp.,  215. 

Capparis  spinosa,  Common  caper, 
244. 

Cassia,  Senna  plant,  221. 

Cedar  of  Lebanon,  Cedrus  Libani, 
246. 

Ceiba,  Eriodendron  anfractuosum, 
226,  230. 

Chlorophora  spp.,  Oilum,  ftc,  226, 

Cistus  spp.,  Rock  rose,  &c,  200. 

Coco- nut  palm,  Cocos  nucifera,  226. 

Coffee  sp.,  Coffea,  226,  231. 

Cork  oak,  Quercus  Suber,  201. 

Cotton,  Glossypium  spp.,  226,  231. 

Date  palm,  Phoenix  dactylifera,  201, 

208. 
Dhurra    millet,    Sorghum  vulgare, 

209. 
Doum    palm,    Hyphaene    thebaica, 

209,  211,213,  215. 
Dragon  tree,  Dracaena  Draco,  204, 

220,  230. 
Drinn,  Aristida  pungens,  203,  207. 
Dwarf  oak,  Quercus  humilis,  200. 
Dwarf  palm,   Chamaerops  humilis, 

201. 

Ephedra  spp.,  sea  grape,  shrubby 

horse  tail,  &c,  206. 
Esparto,  see  Alfa. 
Euphorbia,  248. 


Evergreen    (holm)    oak,    Quercus 
Ilex,  201. 

Fig,  Ficus  Carica,  201,  226,  230. 
Frankincense  tree,  Bosicellia  spp., 
220,  221. 

Giraffe     acacia    (African     camel 

thorn),  Acacia  giraffae,  242,  244. 
Gum  acacia,  Acacia  arabica  (Sens- 

galensis),  220. 
Guttifer   shi  butter   (butter  and 

tallow      tree),      Butyrospermum 

Parkii,  211,213,228. 

Holm  oak,  Quercus  Ilex,  202. 

Indigo,  Indigo/era  tinctoria,  221. 

Jujube  tree,  Zizyphus  Jujuba,  203. 
Juniper,  Juniperus  spp.,  219,  220, 
286. 

Karee   boom,  Erythrina   lomentosa, 

244. 
Kit,  Caltha  edulis,  221. 

Lavender     (Saharar),    Lavandula 

coronipifolia,  200,  202. 
Lentiscus  (Pistacia  leniiscus),  Mastic 

tree,  200. 
Leucadendron  spp.,  Silver  trees,  245. 
Lobelia,  235. 
Lucerne  (alfalfa),  Medicago  saliva. 

201. 

Maize,  Zea  Mais,  201,  248. 
Mangrove,  Avicennia  nitida,  Rhizo- 

phora  mucronaia,  227,  249. 
Mediterranean  cypress,  246. 
Mimosa,  211,  228. 
Mopani  tree  (African  iron  wood), 

Copai/era  Mopani,  239. 
My  rrh,  Commiphora  myrrha,  220, 221 . 
Myrtle,  202. 


Nubian  acacia,  Acacia  Senegalensis, 
215. 


Oak,  Quercus  spp. ,  200. 
Oil    palm,    Elaeis  guineensis,    211, 
226,  230. 


324 


PLANT  INDEX 


Olive,  Olea    spp.,    200,    201,    204, 

219. 
Oralis  spp.,  Wood  sorrel,  &c,  244. 

Pandanus  spp..  Screw   pine,   &&, 

250. 
Papyrus,  Cyperus  papyrus,  217. 
Pelargonium  spp.,  Stork's  bill,  214. 
Pennisetum spp.,  Foxtail  grass,  209. 
Phoenician      juniper,     Juniperus 

Phoenicea,  204. 
Pine,  Pinus  spp.,  244. 
Poa  (pratensis  and  trivialis),  Meadow 

grass,  241. 
Podocarpus  spp.,  Yellow  wood,  &c, 

219,  220,  231,  247. 
Protea   spp.,  Wagen    boom,   sugar 

bush,  &c,  245,  247. 

Haphia  wine  palm,  Raphia  vinifera, 

211. 
Ravenala  (traveller's  tree),  Rave- 

nala  madagascariensis,  250. 
Retama,     Thevelia     nercifolia,   204, 

207. 
Rice,  Oiyza  sativa,  226. 
Rosemary,    Rosmarinus    officinalis, 

200. 
Rotang    palm    (rattan),    Calamus 

Rotang,  230. 
Rubber,  Funtuma  elastica,  &c  ,  226, 

227,  230,  250. 

Sage   brush,    Artemisia    iridenlata, 

241. 
Saharan  broom,  207. 


Sanseviera  spp.,  Fibre  trees,  231. 
Sedge,  Carex  spp.,  217. 
Senna,  Cassia  spp.,  221. 
Spurge,  Euphorbia  spp.,  207. 
Sterculiaspj).,  Cola-nut  tree,&c.  ,226. 


Strawberry  tree,    Arbutus    Uncdo, 

202. 
Strelitzia  spp.,  Phoenix  tree,  bottle 

tree,  &c,  248. 
Sugar-cane,  Saccharum  officinarum, 

205,  213,  226,  231,  248. 
Sycamore,  A  cer  pseudo-platanus.  211. 

Tamarind,  Tama>indus  indica,  211, 

213. 
Tamarix  spp  ,  Tamarisk,  207. 
Tbyme,  200. 
Tea  (iron  wood),  Casuarina  equise- 

iifolia. 
Tobacco,   Nicoliana  Tabaaim,   201, 

248. 
Tree  euphorbia,  241,  242,  248. 
Tree  heath,  Erica  arborea,  200,  202, 

219,  220,  235. 
Tree    senecio,     giant    groundsel, 

Senecio  arborea,  235. 
Tusk  thorn  acacia,  Acacia  horrida, 

223,  242. 

Umbrella  acacia,  Acacia    Osicaldi, 
223. 

Vine,  Vitis  vinifera,  201. 

Welwitschia,  242. 

West  African  mahogany,  Khapa 

senegalenais,  226. 
White  artemisia,  Artemisia  Ihrba- 

alba,  205. 
White   (deciduous)    oak,    Quercus 

alba,  200. 
W iddringtoniaWhytei,  Mlanje  cedar, 

246,  247. 


Yam,  Dioscurea  sativa,  226. 
Zolliko/eria,  206. 
EUROPE 


Alder,  Alnus  spp.,  268,  292. 
Alder,  berry-bearing,  see  Elder. 
Aleppo  pine,  Pinus  fudepensis,  280, 

284. 
Almond,  Prunus   Amygdalus,  275, 

282. 
Andropogon    spp.,    golden    beard 

grass,  &c,  287. 


Anemone,  289. 
Apple,  Pyrus  malus,  275. 
Apricot,  Prunus  Armeniaca,  275. 
Arcdia  spp.,  Ginseng,  &c,  296. 
Arolla,       see       Siberian        stone 

pine. 
Ash,  Fraxinus  spp.,  289,  292. 
Aspen,  Popidus  tremulosa,  289. 


PLANT  INDEX 


325 


Ancubajaponica,  variegated  laurel, 
golden  leaf,  296. 

Barley,  H%rdeum  spp.,  270. 
Beech,  Fagus  spp.,  253,  277,  291, 

292,  298. 
Beet  root,  Beta  spp.,  275. 
Birch,  Betula  spp.,  265,  289,  292. 
Black  (Corsican)  pine,  Pimu  Lari* 

do,  274,  275,  280,  284. 
Blackthorn  (sloe),  Piunufi  spin<>sit, 

274,  293. 
Bracken,  Pleris  aquilina,  268. 
Bramble       (blackberry),       Putins 

/riiticosus,  293. 
Broom,  Cylisus  scoj>arins. 

Camellia,  296. 

Carob  (locust  beau,  nlgaroba), 
Ceratonia  Siliqua,  880,  282. 

Cedar,  Cedrus  spp.,  280,  282. 

Celiis  australis,  nettle  tree,  280. 

Cherry,  Cerasus  spp.,  277. 

Cherry  laurel,  Primus  Laurocerasus, 
258,  277,  296. 

Chestnut  (sweet  or  Spanish), 
Castanea  saliva,  277,  282,  289. 

Cistus,  Rock  rose,  &c,  280. 

Clover,  Medicago,TrifoHum,  &c.,271. 

Cochlearia  spp.,  Scurvy  grass,  265. 

Common  juniper,  Juniperus  com- 
munis, 291. 

Cork  oak,  Quercus  Suber,  277. 

Corydalis  spp.,  fumitory,  271. 

Cotoneasler,  277. 

Cotton,  Glossypimn  spp.,  282. 

Cotton  grass,  Eriophorum  spp.,  264. 

Cranberry,  Oxycoccus  palustris,  2(55. 

Crowberry,  Empetrum  nigrum,  265, 

Cypress,  Cupressus  spp.,  280. 

Dogwood  (cornel),  Cornusspp.,  293. 

Dwarf  (common)  juniper,  Juni- 
perus communis,  265. 

Dwarf  oak,  Quercus  humilis,  280,284. 

Dwarf  palm  (Spanish  palmetto), 
Chamaerops  humilis,  280. 

Dwarf  pine,  Pinus  mughus,  280. 

Echinopsis,  272. 
Elder,  Sambucus  nigra,  292. 
Elm,  Uimus  spp.,  280,  289. 
Eryngo,      sea     holly,      Eryngium 
maritimum,  272. 


Esparto,  Stipa  tenacissima,  282. 
Euonijmus  europaeus,  Spindle  tree, 

296. 
European  larch, Larix  europaea ,267 '. 

Feather  (steppe)  grass  or  thyra, 
Stipa  pennata,  271.  273,  274,  287. 

Fig,  Ficus  Carica.  277,  280.  282. 

Fir,  Abies  spp ,  275,  277,  280. 

Flax  (blue),  Linum  usitatissimum, 
271. 

Fiitillary  (snake's head), FriiiUaria 
Meleagris,  271. 

Fuchsia,  296. 

Gagea  lutea,  Yellow  gage,  271. 
Garlic,  Allium  sativum,  271. 
Gean  (wild  cherry), Cerasus  Avium , 

289. 
Golden   beard  grass,   Andropogon 

Sorghum,  273. 
Grape  vine,  Vitis  vinifera,  282. 
Guelder  rose,  Viburnum  Opulus,  293. 

Hawthorn,  Crataegus  Oxyacantha, 
293. 

Hazelnut,  Corylus  spp.,  293. 

Heather,  Erica  spp.,  268,  293. 

Hedge  mustard,  Sisymbrium  offici- 
nale, 271. 

Hemp,  Cannabis  saliva,  274. 

Herb  Paris,  Paris  quadrifolia,  289. 

Holly,  Ilex  aqui/olium,  258,  289, 
293,  296. 

Holm  oak,  see  Ilex. 

Hornbeam,  Carpinus  spp ,  273, 
275,  286. 

Horse  chestnut,  Aesculus  Hipi,o- 
castanum,  277. 

Ilex  (holm   oak,   evergreen  oak), 

Quercus  Ilex  296. 
Iris  spp.,  flags,  271. 

Judas  tree,  Cercis  Siliquastrum,  280. 
Juniper,  Juniperus  spp.,  264,  274, 
293,  299. 

Knapweed,  Centaurea,  272. 
Koeleria,  270. 

Larkspur,  Delphinium  Ajacis,  272. 
Laurel,  Laurus  nobilis,    277,    280, 


326 


PLANT  INDEX 


Lauristinus,  Viburnum  Tinus,  282, 

284,  296. 
Lemon,  Citrus  Limonum,  282. 
Lentiscus,  Pistacia  Lentiscus,  280. 

284. 
Lily    of    the    Valley,     Convallaria 

majalis,  289. 
Lime,  Tilia  spp.,  277,  289. 
Locust-bean,  see  Carob. 
Lucerne  (alfalfa),  Medkago  saliva, 

282. 

Magnolia,  296. 

Maize,  Zea  Mais,  275,  282. 

Mallow,  Malva  spp.,  272. 

Manna  ash,  Fraxinus  ornus,  275, 

280,  286. 
Maple,  Acer  spp.,  277,  28fi,  289. 
Melon,  sugar,  Cucumis  Melo,  275. 
Melon,    water,     Citrullus    vulgaris, 

275. 
Milk  vetch,  Astragalus  spp.,  271. 
Mountain  pine,  Pinus  Pumilio,  299. 
Mulberry,  Moi-us  spp.,  275. 
Myrtle,  Myitis  communis,  280,  284. 

Nonsuch,  Medicago  cupulina,  271. 
Norway  spruce,  Picea  ezcelsa,  267, 
298. 

Oak,  Quercus  spp.,  253,  274,  275, 

277,    280,   283,    286,   289,    291, 

292,  298. 
(Oak,  common,  Quercus  Robur.) 
Oats,  Avena  spp.,  270. 
Oleander,    Nerium    Oleander,  282, 

284. 
Oiive,  Olea  spp.,  280,  282. 
Orange,  Citrus  Aurantium,  282. 
Orchids,  Orchis,  &c,  289. 

Paliurus   spp.,   Crown    of    thorns 

tree,  &c,  284. 
Peach,  Prunus  Persica,  275. 
Peat  moss,  Sphagnum,  265. 
Pheasant's  eye,  Adonis  aulumnalis, 

277. 
Pine,  Pinus  spp.,  277. 
Plane,  Plata nus  spp.,  275,  280. 
Plum,  Prunus  spp.,  275. 
Poplar,   Populus   spp.,    272.    289, 

292. 
Portugal  laurel,  Prunus  lusitanica, 

296. 


Potato,  Solanum  tuberosum,  270. 
Primrose,  Primula  vulgaris,  289. 
Privet,  Ligusirum  vulgare,  296. 

Red  poppv,  Palaver  Rhoeas,  271. 
Rhododendron,  277,  296. 
Rice,  Oryza  sativa,  282. 
Rosemary    (old  man),  Rosmarinus 

officinalis,  280. 
Rowan    (Mountain    ash),    Sorbus 

Aucuparia,  289. 
Rye,  Secale  cereale,  270. 

Scots   pine,   Pinus    siltestris,   267, 

291,  299. 
Sea  buckthorn,  Hippophae  rhamnoi- 

des,  293. 
Sedge,  Car  ex  spp.,  273. 
Sheep's  grass,  Festuca  ovina,  271. 
Siberian    fir,  see    Siberian    stone 

pine. 
Siberian  larch,  Larix  sibirica,  267. 
Siberian    spruce,   Picea   ajanensis, 

267. 
Siberian  stone  pine  (arolla),  Pinus 

Cembra,  267,  299. 
Silver  fir,  Abies  pectinata,  298. 
Sloe,  see  Blackthorn. 
Solomon's  Seal,  Polygonalum  multi- 

Jlorum,  289. 
Spanish  broom,  Genista  hispanica, 

284. 
Sphagnum,  peat  moss,  293. 
Spikenard,  Nardostachys  Jatamansi, 

272. 
Spruce,  Picea  spp.,  277. 
Stone  pine,  Pinus  pinea,  280. 
Strawberry    tree,   Arbutus  Unedo, 

258,  284,  293. 
Sumac,  Rhus  spp.,  277,  284. 

Terebinth  (turpentine  tree),  Pista- 
cia Terebinthus,  280,  284. 

Tbistle,  Carduus  spp.,  272. 

Tobacco,  Nicotiana  Tabacum,  275, 
282. 

Tomato,  Lijcopersicum  esculcnlum, 
275. 

Tree  heath,  Erica  arborca,  280, 
284. 

Tulip,  Tulipa  spp.,  271. 

Vermuth  (wormwood),  Artemisia 
Absinthium,  272. 


PLANT  INDEX 


327 


Vine,  Vitis  vinifera,  274,  275. 

W;il nut,   Juglans   regia,   275,  277, 

282, 
Wheat,  Triticum  sativum,  275,  282. 
Wild    hyacinth,  Scilla    nonscripta, 

289. 
Willow,  Salix  spp.,  268,  272,  289, 


Wormwood  (southern  wood,  &c.), 

Artemisia  spp. ,  272,  273. 
Woodruff,  Asptrula  spp.,  289. 
Wood -rush,  LuzuJa  spp.,  289. 
Wood  sorrel ,  Oxalis  acetosella.  289. 

Yarrow,  Achillea  Millefolium,  27 J. 
Yew,  Taxus  baccata,  258,  296,  299. 


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revised  by  O.  J.  R.  Howarth.  Pp. 
128,  with  70  maps  and  diagrams.    2s. 

Questions,  by  F.  M.  Kirk,  and 
Statistical  Appendix  by  E.  G.  R. 
Taylor,  revised  by  E.  K.  Howarth. 
To  the  Junior  Geography,  is.  6d. 
To  the  Senior  Geography,  is.  6d. 


Other  Oxford  Geographies 


Practical    Geography,    by  J.  F. 

Unstead.  Pp.  332,  with  forty-eight 
maps  and  plans.  3s.  6d.  In  two 
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Commercial  Geography  of  the 
World,  by  O.  J.  R.  Howarth. 
19 13.  Pp.  236,  with  diagrams, 
statistical  tables,  and  index.     3s. 

Plant  Geography,  an  introduction 
by  M.  E.  Hardy.  1913.  With 
sixty-six  illustrations  and  maps.  Pp. 
192.     4s.  net. 


Animal    Geography,    by    M.     I. 

Newbigin.  1913  With  forty-eight 
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The  World  and  its  Discovery, 

by  H.  B  Wetherill.  1914.  Pp. 
318,  with  twenty-six  maps  and  an 
index.  3s.  6d.  net.  Also  in  four 
parts,  with  additional  illustrations. 
1916.     is.  6d.  net  each. 

The  British  Empire,  by  A.  J. 
HerbertsoNj  R.  L.  Thompson,  and 
O.  J.  R.  Howarth.  Pp.  256,  with 
113  diagrams.     3s  net. 


Atlases,  Maps,  &c. 


Physical  and  Political 

School  Atlas,  Physical  and  Poli- 
tical, by  J.  G.  Bartholomew.  1913. 
With  thirty-two  coloured  plates  and 
forty-two  diagrams.  Demy  4to 
(11X9I),  paper  cover,  is.  3d.  net; 
cloth  boards,  is.  6d.  net. 

The  Advanced  Atlas  of  Physical 
and  Political  Geography,  a  new 
series  of  maps  by  J.  G.  Bartholo- 
mew. 1917.  Folio  (i4|x  10),  pp.  36 
(letterpress  and  index),  with  ninety- 
six  pages  of  coloured  maps.  10s.  6d. 
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Designed  primarily  for  the  teaching 
of  advanced  students,  but  available 
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than  11,000  in  all,  and,  in  the  index, 
names  of  many  places  not  named  on 
maps,  with  their  latitudes  and  longi- 
tudes. 

A  Bible  Atlas,  &c. 
A  School  Bible  Atlas,  drawn  by 
B.  V.  Darbishire  1915.  Crown 
4to  (io|  x  8f),  sixteen  pages  of  maps 
and  six  pages  of  index.  Cloth  limp, 
is.  6d.  net. 

Atlas  Notes.  By  J.  C.  Chute. 
Second  edition  revised,  1913.  8vo 
(8  x  5"2  )>  PP.  82.     is.  9d.  net. 


Historical 
An  Historical  Atlas  of  Modern 
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Bartholomew.  1915.  Twenty-nine 
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Economic  Atlases  by  J.  G.  Bartho- 
lomew, with  introduction  by 
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An  Atlas  of  Economic  Geo- 
graphy. 1914.  Ninety-six  pages 
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School  Economic  Atlas.  Revised 
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A.  J.  Herbertson  and  O.  J.  R.  Howarth,  in  collaboration  with  seventy 
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