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Pa.mWe.ii-f.

THE GEOLOGIST;

A POPULAB ILLUSTRATED

MONTHLY MAGAZINE

GEOLOGY.

EDITED BY S. J. MACKIE, P.G.S., P.S.A.

LONDON :
" GEOIiOQIST" OFnCE, 23, SOUTHAMPTON-STREET, STRAND.

PBIinSS AT THE "GEOLOGIST' OFFICE, 156, STBAKH, LOVDOIT.

PREFACE,

As the snowball gathers weight and size in its rolling, so from the
first hoiu? I took charge of The "Geoloqibt" has it incessantly
gathered .str^gth in roiling on, nntil now it stands, if xny information
he correct, nnriyalled in^sirGialation by any British scientific periodical.
I naay be permitted some gratification in this resnlt ; and this
feeling of pride is enhanced hy the knowledge that of two previous
attempts by others, one failed io accomplish a seventh nmnber^ and
the other died at the third, althongh aided by liberal donations of
plates and absolate gifts of money.

T\^ Hnvafied Bnccess, contLaued miintermptedly to the present
hopr, aogOTQ welX and, to me, hopeMly for the fntnriB. I trust my
readers wiQ support me by endeavounng to extend still more the*
<nrculation of the magazine, and thus to supply the necessary
" sinews of war" for its further improvement and enlargement.

My fire bums brightly in the grate ; the wind gently whistles at
my window ; the moon tips the ripples of the pond in my garden
with pearls of silveiy light ; the air is just keen. By-and-bye the
bright coals will bum blue between the flaring flames of the Yule
log ; old Boreas will lustily howl his hurricane ; the pale moon will
wanly illuminate the smooth-surfaced ice: and skaters will blow

PREFACE.

their tingling fingers through their woollen mits. Christmas again
is coming ; and a merry, hearty, jovial, happy time may it be to all
and every of my friends and readers — aye, and to my enemies, too, if
I have any ; — on that one day, at least, God bless them.

My thanks are again due to my good and sincere friend, Thos.
Davidson, Esq., for his excellent contributions on the Scottish
Brachiopoda, and to my other excellent friends, H. C. Salmon, Esq.,
F. B. Edwards, Esq., Dr. Gibb, T. Rupert Jones, Esq., G. V. Du
Noyer, Esq., 0. Moore, Esq., Major Austin, and my other contributors.

I ought also to return my best thanks to my very numerous kind
querists for the many gratifications they have given me in the
pleasures I have had in replying to their interesting questions.
Nothing seems to make my editorial labours so light as these kindly
communications ; they seem a homely family link between us that
binds us together in the great brotherhood of geologists.

On the 1st of January, 1861, 1 shall again hoist the old colours,
when our ship will appear with fresh decorations, handsome to look
at, and in thorough repair. Some new and agreeable passengers will
be on board amongst the old sailors, and we shall start vigorously
on our fourth voyage.

S. J. MACKIE.

December f 1860.

INDEX.

Abbeville, Section of Strata at, 407
Achenl, St., Gravels of,'Queiy on Geologi-
cal Character of, by F. Thompson, 73

, Section of Strata at, 405

Alabaster and Lignite in Tuscany, 463
Alton Mnsenm, note on, by W. Curtis,

422
American Fossils, Exchange of, 417
Ammonites, Classification of, 396.

• , fi^m the Gault, 353

Anca, Baron, on Ossiferous Caves in

Sicily, 312
Answer to Hugh Miller and Theoretic

Geologists, by Thos. A. Davies, re-
view of, 277
Archaia, by Dr. Dawson, review of, 158
Archaeology, General Views on, by

A. Morlot, 45
Arrangement of Minerals, note on, 417
Arrow-heads, Ancient Canadian, note

on, by Dr, Gibb, 422
Arrow Heads and Mammalian Eemains,

inLanguedoc, £. Lartet on, 454
Asphalt of Trinidad, 411
Auckland, New Zealand, Geology of.

Dr. Hochstetter on, 184
, Volcanic

Country of, C. Heaphy on, 30
Austin, Fort-Major, on New Genus of

Echinoderm, 446
Austin, E. Godwin, on Fossils from

Grey Chalk, Guildford, 381
, on a Mass of Coal

in Chalk in Kent, 381
Australia, South, Geology of, T. Burr

on, 31
, Tertiary Deposit in.

Rev. J. E. Woods on, 31
Avicula contorta Beds, Dr. Wright on,

310

Bacon Hole, Gower,413
Bahia, South America, Fossils from,
S. Allport on, 33

Barrett, L., on Cretaceous Rocks in

Jamaica, 381
Basalt, Du Noyer on, 5, 9, 13
Beach, Raised at Mowslade Bay,

Prestwich on, 413
Beads, Fossils at St. Acheul, 406
Belemnites, former opinions of, 355
Bergh's Theory of Periodic Inunda-
tion, 423
Bigsby's Cavern, Murray Bay, 174
Brachiopoda, New, C. Moore on, 438
Brachiopoda of Scottish Carboniferous
System, Davidson on, 14, 99, 179,
219, 258

, Lists of Scottish Counties

in which found, 259

-, Scottish, Explanation of

Plates of, 265

-, Remarks on the Distri-

bution of, by Prof. E. Suess, 285
-, Belgic compared, 235

British Brachiopoda, 459

Bones of Quadrupeds, with marks of

Incisions of Instruments, 411
Bosco's Den, Gower, 414
Boucher de Perthes, Antiquite Ante-

diluviennes, notices of, 370
Boulder Clay on Cefti-y-bum, Grower,

Prestwich on, 413
Bowen's Parlour, Gower, 416
British Association Meetings, 26,

298
Bronze Age, M. Morlot on, 49
Bronze ReHcs in Auriferous Sands in

Siberia, T. W. Atkinson on, 30
Bury Cross, near Gosport, a Well- Section

at, Pilbrow on, 409

Cabinets for Fossils, Letter from E.
Wood, F.G'.S. on, 351

Camarophoria, Carboniferous, David-
son on, 24

crumena, 25

Canadian Caverns, Dr. G. D. Gibb on,
131, 161, 213, 341 422,

Canoes, Ancient, Note on, 196

INDEX.

Kirkby, J. W., on Sandpipes in Mag- |
neeian Limestone^ 293, 329

Lamellar Stmctnre of Bocks, 391
Lapis Lazuli, note on, by 6. E. Eo-

berts, 319
Lepidotns and Lepidosteus, Scales of,

Lee on, 458
Lepteena Davidsonii, 445
Lias, Lower, of South of England, Dr.

Wright on, 310, 183

at Whitchnrch, note on, 392

LingulidsB, Carboniferons, 227
Lingnla, Davidson on, 227

, Anatomy of, 228

squamiformis, 232

Bcotica, 232

mytiloides, 234

Lingnla-flags, Mackie on, 1

Lingnla Gredneri, in Coal-Measnres of

Durham, J. W. Kh-by on, 384
London Clay, in Norfolk, 409
Lndlow, New Fossils from, 462

Mackie, S. J., on Common Fossils of

Lower Silurian Bocks, 1
, on First Traces of Man,

370

-, on the Geology of Folke-
stone (the Gault), 41, 81, 121, 201,
281, 321, 853, 893

, Greology of the Sea, 241

Malta, Geology of, notes on, 198, 421

, Fossiliferous Localities in, 276

Malvern Field Club, 35
Mammalian Bemains at Bridlington,
119

at Folkestone, 282

at Frogmore, 421

atPetteridge,421

— at Salisbury, 77

Man, Biblical Chronology of, 136
, Co-Existance of with certain ex-
tinct Quadrupeds, E. Lartet on, 411
-, First Traces of, Mackie on, 307

' i — 7 — •

Maps, Geological, Beynold's, reviewed,
472

Metalliferous Deposits, Current Notes
on, by H. C. Salmon, 62

Saddles in Lower Carboni-
ferous Bocks in Derbyshire and
Staffordshire, Dr. Watson on, 357

Metamorphio Bocks of North of Ire-
land, Prof Harkness on, 311

Metamorphism of Bocks, Delesse on, 65

Meteorite of Agram, 459
Mineralogical Notes, by H. C. Salmon,

62
Minerals, Arrangement of, note on, 417

, Envelopment of, 397

, Tables of, 898

Mitchell, Bev. H., on New Fossils from

Lower Old Bed Sandstone, 275
Mongrel Words, note on, 377
Monoliths, at Boroughbridge, 390
Moore, C, on the Contents of Three

Cubic Yards of Triassic Earth, 315
, on Wealden Beds, at Linksfield,

409
Morlot, M., on some general vievs on,

Archaeology, 48
Mountain Limestone Works, on Fossils,

463
Museum, Alton, note on, by W. Curtis,

422
Museums, Provincial, Suggestions

Bespecting, by E. Charlesworth, 117
, by G. Homer, 136

New Bed Sandstone of Wolverhamp-
ton, Bev. Wm. Lister on, 308
Nagasaki Coal Mines, 421
Nicker Pits at Canterbury, 277
Norfolk, London Clay in, Prestwich on,

409
Norwegian Lakes, Probable Glacial

Origin of, T. Codrington on, 883
Notes and Queries, 36, 70, 117, 135,
184, 271, 317, 347, 885, 416, 458

Old B«d Sandstone of Forfarshire, Fos-
sil Fish of, W. Powrie on, 336

, Fossiliferous Lo-
calities of, in East of Scotland, note
on, by J. B. Gregory, 142

, FossilFishesin,147

-, Limestone Veins

in, 135, 273

-, New Fossils from,
Bev. Hugh Mitchell on, 273

and Metamorphic of

Bocks the Grampians, Prof. Hark-
ness on, 379

Oolites, Lower, of Oxfordshire, Inver-
tebrata of, J. Whiteaves on, 307

Operculum of an Ammonite in Situ,
S. P. Woodward on an, 328

Oreston, Ossiferous Caverns at, H, 0.
Hodge on, 26, 343, 877

INDEX.

Origin of Species by means of Nat^nral
Selection, by G. Darwin, Beview of,
464
Orthifl, Carboniferons, Davidson on, 99

resnpinata, 99

Michelini, 101

Os8ifexY>UB Caves in Sicily, 312
Owen, Prof., on Polyptichodon, 32
Oxford, New Geological Map of, 302
y Strata at, Phillips on, 379

Page's Handbook of Oeological Terms,

]bioorrectnesB in, 36, 135
Palsechinus, Austin on, 447
PalsBontographical Society's Works, 277
Paradoxides Bennettii, 2
Peckham Rye, New Fossils at, 77
Peckham and Dulwicli, Fossil Bemaias

in Tertiary Strata, 151
Pengelly, W., on Distribution of Devo-
nian Fossils, 309
Phillips, Professor, on Some Sections

of Strata, near Oxford, 379
Pictured Bocks, Lake Superior, 169
Pilbrow, J., on a Well- Section at Bury

Cross, GJosport, 409
Pillar Sandstones, North Coast of

Gaspe, 166
PithareUa Bickmani, Edwards on, 209
Phosphate of Lime, 87
Plant, from Coal-Measures of South

Wales, Dr. Bevan on, 460
Plants, Coal, Preservation of, 199
Pleistocene Deposits at Liverpool, 277,

343
Polyptichodon, Prof. Owen on, 32
Poole Harbour, Letter on, by P. Bran-

non, review of, 430
Powrie, W., on Pteraspis from Old Bed

Sandstone of Forfarshire, 336
Pre-adamite Man, review of, 155
Prestwich, J., on a Baised Beach in

Mewslade Bay, 413

, London Clay in Norfolk, 409

Proceedings of Greological Societies, 30,

69, 115, 133, 271, 379, 454, 408, 454
Productidae, Carboniferous, Davidson

on, 105
Productus, Carboniferous, 105, 179

■ fimbriatus, 114

costatus, 179

Youngianus, 180

■ aculeatus, 181

■ spinulosus, 182

mesolobus, 182

pustuloBus, 182

giganteuB, 106

Productus latissimns, 107

semireticulatus, 108

longispinus, 110

carbonaritts, 111

cora, 112

• undatus, 112

scabriculus, 113

punctatus, 113

, De Koninck's groups of, 188

Protoechinus, Austin on, 446
Pseudomorphs, Delesse's on, 396
Pteraspis and Coocosteus, 460
Pteraspis, in Lower Ludlow Bed, Dis-
covery of, 79, 151
Punjab, Geological Notes on the, by
J. Calvert, F.G.S., 348

Quatem«ry Geology, by S. B. P., 136

Beading, Geology of, note on, 350, 890

Bed Chalk of Yorkshire, 110

Gen. Emmett on, 419

Be-Occurrence of Fossil Species at
Various Stratal Horizons, 149

Beptiliforous Strata, near Elgin, Bev.
W. S. Symonds on, 410

Beviews, 40, 79, 117, 155, 200, 377, 320,
377, 423, 464,

Bhinoceros, Extinct Species of, Dr.
Falconer's Besearches on, 148

Bhizopodal Fauna of the Mediter-
ranean, Jones and Parker on, 69

BhynchonellidaB, Carboniferous, David-
son on, 22

Bhynchonella, Davidson on, 22

pugnus, 23

plurodon, 24

Boberts, G. E., on Severn Valley B&il-
way, 433

^ on Upper Silurian

Corals, 55

Bose, C. B., on the Divisons of the
Drift in Norfolk and Suffolk, 137, 317

, on the Strata Containing

Flint Implements at Hoxne, 347

Sahara, Geological System of, 305
Salmon, H. C, Mineralogical Notes, 62
, on Pseudomorphs, 396,

450
Salter, J. W., ou Ludlow Pteraspis, 79

, SilurianBocksof Ireland, 151

Sandpipes in Magnesian Limestone of

Durham, J. W. Kirkby on, 293, 329

IKDfiX.

Scotland, Highlands of, Bocks, Ores,
&c., on the Property of the Marquis
of Breadalbane 385
Sea, the Geology of the, Mackie on, 241
Severn Valley Railway, Roberts on, 483
Sicily, Ossiferons Caves in, 312, 410
Silurian Rocks, Abergele, 76

, Lower, Hackie on, 1

of South-east of

Ireland, T. Austin on, 70

of Ireland, Letter 151

Silver in California, note on, 351
SHckensides, 37, 38, 76, 117
Sligo, Geology of, 317, 350
Skipton, Map of, review of, 200
Smoking Pipes in Allnvinzn 78, 119
Spirifera, Carboniferous, Davidson, 15

duplicicosta, 16

— ■ bisulcata, 16

■ trigonalis, 17

pingms, 17

■ ovaJis, 18

glabra, 18

■ Carlukiensis, 19

Urii, 19

lineata,20

Spiriferina^ CarboniferoQS, Davidson
on, 20,

cristata, 21

insculpta, 22

laminosa, Davidson on, 234

Spitzbergen, Goology of, J. Lament on,

408
Spongeous Nature of Flints, Chemical

Evidence of, 271
Steinhauer Cavern, the, 171
Stone- Age, M. Morlot on, 49
Stone Axes, Manu&oture of, 349

Implements, Manu&43ture of^ 892

Stonesfield Slate, W. S. Horton on, 249
Streptorrhynchus, Carboniferous, Da-
vidson on, 103

. crenistria 103

Strophomena, Davidson on, 102

rhomboidalis, 102

Strophomenidee, Carboniferous, 99
Succession of Life, First Traces, 1
Suess, Prof. E., on Distribution of Bra-

chiopeda, 285
Symonds, Rev. W. S., on Geological
Habitats of Some Rare Plants, 813
-, on Reptiliferous Sandstone,

near Elgin, 410

Tate, C, on Carboniferous Strata, 238
Terebratella, Development of Loop in,
Moore on, 441

Terebratella Buckmanii, 441

furcata, 442

Terebratula maxillata, 440

hemisphoerica, 440

Terebratulina radiata, 443

Tertiary Ironsand of North Downs of

Kent, 839

Plants of Austria, 460

Toads, Living when Shut in Plaster for

Years, note on, by M. Segniini) 421
Travertine, at Kinder Scout, 416
Triassic Earth, the Contents of Three

Cubic Yards, Moore on, 315
Trinidad, Geology of, G. P. WaU on, 410
Tuscany, Geology of, 413

Unio and Paludinss of Wealden Mar-
ble, 448

Vegetable Fossils in Vlmt, 197
Verstegan's Observation on the former
Connectionof FranoeandEngland, 204

Warp, Deposition of, E. TindaJl on, 39
Waste of Land in Yorkshire, 421
Watson, Dr., on Metalliferous Saddles,

357
Wealden Area, Denudation of the,

Mackie on, 203
Beds at Linksfield, C. Moore

on, 409
Wexford Schists, T. Austin on, 891
Weymouth, Geology of, by B. Damon,

review of, 432
Woodward, S. P., on an Operculum of

an Ammonite in Situ, 328
Worcestershire, the Bocks of, by G. E.

Roberts, review of, 279
Worms, Influence of, in Formation of

Soils, Rev. H. Eley on, 80
Wright, Dr. T., on Avicula Contorta

Bed and Lower Lias of the South of

England, 310

Zellania, C. Moore on, 444

globata, 444

ooUtica, 444

INDEX.

LIST OF WOODCUTS.

ne. PAOE. FIG.

1. Chalk Clifib capped hj Basalt 4 45.

2. Junction of Basalt and Chalk 5

3. Irregularly Deposited Basalt 6 46.
4 View of Griant's Causeway. . 7

5. The "Organ" 8

6. GliflEsSouthofPortnoffer . . 10 47.

7. The Whin Dyke 10 48.

8. Coast of Griant's Causeway . 11 49.

9. Grouping of Basaltic Columns 13 50.

10. Interior of Athyris ambi^ua 15 51.

11. Interior of Spirifera striata . 15 52.

12. Ehynchonella psittacea . . 23 53.

13. Interiors of Camarophoria . . 25 54.

14. Fragment of Slickensides . . 39 55.

15. Eastwear Bay, Folkestone . 41 56.

16. The « Warren," at Folkestone 43 57.

17. Section at Waterfcnrd Haven . 72 58.

18. Anunonites Lantns ... 81 59.

19. Anunonites varicosns ... 82 60.

20. Anunonites tuberculatus . . 82 61.

21. Anunonites anritus .... 83 62.

22. Bostellaria Parkinsonii . . 83 63.

23. Hamites rotnndns .... 84 64.
21 Ammonites intermptus. . . 85 65.
26. Fragment of Dicotyledonous 66.

Wood bored by Toredo . . 86 67.

26. Copt Point, Folkestone . . 87 68.

27. Ammonites mammilaris . . 88 69.

28. Interior of Productnsgigantens 106 70.

29. Belemnites Listen .... 121 71.

30. Solarium omatum .... 124 72.

31. West Cliff, Folkestone, with 73.

capping of MammaJiferous 74.

Drift 125

32. Sandgate, Kent 126 75.

33. Kentish Bag and Wealden 76.

Beds 127

34. "Jill's Pipe," Lympne ... 128 77.

35. Shrinkage Joints in Trap . . 142 78.

36. Nodule from Tynet .... 145 79.
87. Disjointed Nodnle in Old Red

Sandstone 146 80.

38. Fruit from Bolton .... 198

39. Small Fruit fromBolton . . 198 81.
^' Map of the Denudation of the

Weald 203 82.

41. Crania Ignabergensis . . . 222

42.. Animal (rfDiscina . . . . 226 83.

«• Lingula anatina 228

44. Carboniferous System of the 84.

Lothians 239 85.

PAGE.

Vertical Veins of Limestone

inBiedShale,atTemplemore 272
Explanatory View of Sea-bed
forming the Strata at Tem-

plemore 273

Bone of Bos primigenius . . 281
ChaUc Downs, near Folkestone 282
'*Bull.dog" Steps, Folkestone 283
Section, showing Sandpipes . 294
Pipes in Magnesian Limestone 296

Tubular Sandpipes
Anmionites Bouchardiaaus
Inoceramus sulcatus
Inoceramus concentrious
Nucula pectinata . .
Nucula ovata ....
Nucula bivirgata. . .
Nucula omatissima . .
PUcatula pectenoides .
Ostrea Bauliniana « .
Lima parallela Ganlt •
Area carinata ....
Tnnitella vibrayeana .
Scalaria Clementina . .
Cast of Scalaria Dupioiana
Acteon vibrayeana

297
321
322
322
322
822
323
323
323
323
324
324
324
325
325
326
826
326
327
372
327
327

sur-

Ringinella Clementina .
Natica gaultina . . .
Solarium dentatum . .
Solarium conoideum . .
DentaJinm decnssatum.
BeUerophina vibrayeana
Ammonites subradiatus, with

the Operculum in Situ
Oblique Sandpipes . .
Decomposed limestone

rounding a Sandpipe .
Pipe in Bubble . . .
Hinder Portion of Pterygotus 337
Ideal Section ozplanatory of

theDriftand "Kentish Crag"
PlicatedStrata,NorthSta.fford-

«hire

Contorted Beds of sdtemating

Limestone and Shale. . .

Ideal Section of Limestone

Strata in North Staffordshire

Mode of Deposition of Ore,

North Staffordshire . . .
Sandstone Hammer . . .
Sandstone Hammer. . . .

328
329

330
331

340
358
360
363

365

386
386

I • •

VIU

INDEX.

TIG. PAGE.

86. stone Hammer 387

87. Vesuvian Lencite .... 400

88. Parallel Zones of Bipidolite . 401

89. Ferro-magnesian Mica enve-

loping Alnminons Mica . . 402

90. Ordinary Pear-shaped Flint

Implement, from the Gravel

of St. Achenl 405

91. Flint Implement fonnd by Mr.

J. W. Flower 505

92. Fossil Bead, formed of the

little Chalk-sponge, Cosci-
nopora globnlaris .... 406

PIG. PAGE.

93. Flint Implement fixed to a

Stout Pole, in illostration of
its probable nse as a Spear-
or Javelin-head 406

94. Travertine deposited by stream

near Kinder Scout, Derby-
shire 417

95. New Plant from Coal Mea-

sures, South Wales . . . 461

96. Section of Bocks, Pedwardine 462

97. New Fossil Bryozoan (?), from

Wenlock Shale, near Adfor-
ton 462

LIST OF PLATES.

PLATE To Face Page

I. Scottish Carboniferous Brachiopoda 23

II. Scottish Carboniferous Brachiopoda 104

III. Scottish Carboniferous Brachiopoda 180

rV. Scottish Carboniferous Brachiopoda 224

V. Pitharella Bickmani and Cyrena Dulwichiensis . . (Frontispiece) 212

V*. Bryon Island and "The Old Woman" of Gflspe . • 164

VI. View of the Pierced Island, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence 132

VI*. Caverns and Arched Eocks at Pero^, Gaspe 162

VII. Basaltic Caverns at Henley Island 171

Vin. Basaltic Dykes of Mecattina 173

IX. Bigsby's Cavern 174

X. Bouchette's Cavern, Kildare, Canada 176

XI. Murray's Cavern and Subterranean River, Ottawa 218

Xn. Sections of Bones of Recent Lepidosteus of the Mississippi, and of

Lepidotus Fittoni from the Wealden of Sussex 458

XIII. Development of Loop in Terebratula 440

XIV. Slab of Bethersden Marble, with Unio and Paludina 448

THE GEOLOGIST.

JANUARY, 1860.

THE COMMON FOSSILS OF THE BRITISH ROOKS.
By S. J. Mackib, F.G.S., F.S.A.

(Gontiwusd from vol, ii,, page 427.)

Chap. 7. — First Traces of the Succession of Life, — The Lower SUuria/n

. Bocks,

Obscube as are the animal remams of these old Lingnla-flags, the
traces of vegetation are yet more difficult to make out and to
describe. Easier, too, are they to describe than to figure ; for, mere
shallow impressions and stains as they are upon the cleaved rock, it
is easier to see their remote resemblances to some known forms than
to convey an idea of them by the finest lines that the graver will cut
npon the wood. And then how unsatisfactory to spend days in
elaborating the representation of a mere firagment, the very charac-
ters of which we are in donbt about.

We shalL shortly present our readers, however, with figures of the
most illustrative specimens we can obtain of those sea-weeds of
the primeval shores, the Cruziami semvpUca/ta, the Chondrites (?)
a/yidcmgulAiSy and Chondrites (?) informis.

In North Wales, near Tremadoc, an upper portion of the Lingula-
flags, consisting of dark grey or blackish schists with thin layers of
grit, has been made out by Mr. Salter. This upper zone, in addition
to the Lingula Dcmsii and Agnostus pisiformis, presents us with two
other forms of trilobites, Conoc&phalus vwvitvs (Salter), and Elipso-
cephahis (?) depressus (Salter), with a bryozoan (plate ii.), the oldest
of the group yet known, supposed to be allied to FenesteUa, and

VOL. III. A

2 THE GEOLOGIST.

intermediate between the Fenestellida and the Qraptolites, and named
Dictyonema (Ora^topora) sodalia by Mr. Salter; also a small Orthis
and a Scandinavian trilobite, Olenus alai/as of Beck. The fossil
DictyonemsB completely cover the snrface of a black slaiy layer at
that place ; and near Maentwrog and Ffestiniog the same bed has
been observed overlying the lighter colonred and more sandy mass
of the Lingularflags proper, and apparently forming a conformable
bed of passage into the lowermost portion of the Llandeilo group.

Such then, and so scanty, are aU the trophies as yet obtained from
these ancient silurian rocks — ^the Lingola-flags. Let ns cast onr eyes
over the equivalent rocks in other lands. In North America vast is
the development of the Potsdam sandstones which represents them,
but in these the fossils are like, and few. In Bohemia, Scandinavia,
France, Georgia, and other places it is the same.

From Newfoundland, during the past year, we have indeed been
presented with a giant trilobite nine inches and a-half across, and
named by Mr. Salter Paradoxides BermeUii, But this difference only
of size from the other species of the same genus in these rocks, con-
firms rather than depreciates the conclusion which Sir Roderick
Murchison has come to of the pauciiy of life-forms at this early stage
of the elaboration of the stratified crust of our planet.

Whether the geographical distribution of particular species in
particular regions at that remote era will be established as a &ct or
not, it is certain that the range of organic forms was at its TnaTriTnTmn
then; while the similariiy of the forms presented in regions far
remote and apart, seems certainly to indicate more equitable condi-
tions of climatal relations. This is what we should expect from the
general low oosy character of those tide-washed lands, and the still
warm and reeking atmosphere in which the whole globe was pro-
bably enveloped.

Let us pause for one moment on the strange scene. That great
expanse of sea, those wide, flat, muddy shores, over which the un-
checked tides ran rippling with rapid speed in a thin sheet, waving
into life the silken weeds, and ebbed as quickly, triturating in their
unctuous passage the fine material particles finer and finer, leaving
tiny pools innumerable, shallow lagoons, and mimic lakes for
Hymenocarides and Trilobites to sport and grovel in. How glori-

DU NOTEE — ^NOTBS ON THE GIANT'S CAUSEWAY. 3

onsly tlie pale " queen of night*' must have slied her rays along that
glistening tract, and how fair and white the long curling shore-waves
must have looked, as thej caught with their rolling crests her silvery
beams, and perchance reddened in the glare of some raging volcano.
Over the endless ocean the glittering flood of light ranged away, tmtil
&r, far off in the grey and misty horizon, it motmted to the clouds,
and seemed to mingle earth with heaven. How beautiful must have
been the moon's light then, when only the tnlobites turned their
hundred-lensed eyes towards her, aad skipping Hymenocarides in
their sportive progress, spattered out of the shadowy pools sparks
and flashes of bright light. What a world of silence, unbroken save
by the rushing of the wind, or the murmurs of the sea. No beast
upon that oosy land, where nor grass nor herbage grew. No birds
nor insects in that dewy air ; nor waves nor ripples landed the glit-
tering fish upon those slimy shores ; the wide expanse of waters was
untenanted by the scaly tribe, and the sluggish shell-fish, worms, and
three-lobed crabs, and their shrimp-like congeners, were the sole
tenants of the earth.

(To be continued,)

NOTES ON THE STRATIGRAPHICAL POSITION OF THE
GIANT'S CAUSEWAY, AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE
BASALTIC CLIFFS IMMBDIATBLY ADJOINING IT.

By Geo. V. Du Noteb, M.R.I.A., Senior Geologist of the Geolo-
gical Survey op Ireland.

During a visit to the Giant's Causeway in the month of September,
1857, 1 made a few notes and sketches on the spot, having reference
more particularly to the determinating of the stratigraphical position
of the Causeway itself, and to get if possible a clear idea of the struc-
ture of the exposed chfiT-sections of the basalts in the immediate
neighbourhood. On comparing my observations with an account of
the causeway and the adjoining coast given by the Rev. John
Dubourdien in his statistical survey of the county of Antrim in 1812,
I was struck with the discrepancies which exist between them, the

4 THE GE0LOai9T.

author's idea being that tlie bed of Basalt forming the Canseway ex-
tended eastward to Portmoon, a diatance of two-imles (page 46), and
that the whole of the strata are pardS^ to each other. These sap-
poaitions are, aa &r as I am aware of, adopted by all Bnbseqnent
writera on the Causeway ; and aa tliey are errors, a transcript of my
notes may not be unacceptable to the readers of the " GEOLoaisr ;"
they tend at least to illnstrate more fblly the Btmctoie of the Basaltic
depoeits to which I allude, and are a few additional &ctB added to
our present information on this interesting snlgect.

Proceeding to the Canseway from Portrnsh, when we arrrive
at Dnnlnce Castle the views of the coast are remarkably
striking and instruotiTe. That to the west, from a window in
Dnuluce Castle (Fig. 1) shows the jouciion of the Basalt and Chalk

Lign. 1.— View iodkhte vrtut, foun & wiudovr in Dtmlone Castle. Chalk CUBb capped by Basalt.

most admirably. The Basalt, which for the height of some hundreds
of feet above the Chalk is quite amorphous, is seeu capping all the
low chalk promoutaries along the coast. Between Portrnsh strand
and the stream adjoining Dunluce Castle on the west, the absolnto
junction of the two rocks can be closely studied in many places on
the road which passes over the cliffs alluded to, the snr&ce of the
chalk on which the basalt rests being very uneven, and in some places
excavated into wide and deep gnllies like the transverse sections of
river-conrses ; at others it presente blufis or possibly headlands
t^ainat which the basalt has flowed, and which it eventually com-
pletely overlays. In this view the cliff close to the epectetor is

DU HOTEH— NOTES ON THE OUHT B CAIlSewAT. 6

formed of bedded basalt which rises &om the sea, the adjoining head-
land beyond it being chalk ; thus we have an example of the latter
kind of junction between these two rocks, as the auppositdou of tiieir
being broogbt together by a flinlt is not tenable.

To make this paper more complete I have introduced the accom-
pEoijing sketeh of the jnnction of the basalt and chalk on tlie Port-
mab shore, as showing that iact more in detail.

Lign. S.— JnnMloD at Basalt and Cbalk, Bhors ot PoitniBb, Co. Deny.

a. Amorphous basalt, beconnng so decomposed in its lower portion
as to resemble dark brown earthy shale.

5. A layer of dnft-flints, water-worn, enclosed in what is now
hardened, or baked chalk-mod — the flinto being most nnmerons at the
bottom of the depc«it. This rests on the erroded surface of the
cbalk proper (e) , showing that before the deposition of the basalt, that
rock had been subjected to forces of sab-marine denudation, and that
the basalt flowed over it while so submerged. The chalk, thongb not
distinctly bedded, exhibits nnmeroos lines of lamination, which are
parallel to the direction of the layers of flint (d). Numerous joints
rather wide apart traverse the chalk layers at their upper part,
vertdcally.

The view (fig. 3) also from Ihmluce Castle is in the opposite
direction to the former, or looking east towards the Causeway-

hetwUaiidfi ; tlie lo'n' promontoiy in the for^roimd is formed entirely
of bedded basalt apparently of different degrees of baPdnesa, and
is exceedingly interesting, ae affording an insiglit iato tbe troe
manner in whicb basaltic Sows of nneqnal compadmeBs are de-
posited, a single bed of harder basalt being obserred to branch

off BO as to form two beds, each eqnal in tJuckness to the first;
while in another part of the cliff two beds join into one bed,
which titen equals their nnited balk. These are &cts that we must
bear in mind when examining and describing the Causeway and the

To the spectator who stands on that bed of colnmnaj' basalt called
" The Giant's Canseway" the view presented on the north-eaet, across
Portnoffer Bay, embraces the profile of the Obiraney-headland, half
a mile distant and three hundred and eighty feet in elevation, as
well as that of the nearer and less lofty projection of the coast east
of Portnoffer, three hundred and twenty-seven feet above the sea.
Adjoining this is the group of columns called " The Organ," part of
which is shown at the extreme right of the view (fig. 4) ; the
distance between the " Ghimney"-head and Portnoffer-point is only
two hundred and fifty yards.

»D KOTBR — ^liOTBS OS THE OIANT S CAOaEWAY.

/ I
I

THE GROLOQIST.

The section at tlie Chimney-headland Ja as follows : commencmg
at the top, two thick beds of colnnmar basftlt, closely resembling
each other in appearance, a few colmnns of the top one being left
stajiding apart from the main mass at the edge of the cli^ thus sug-
gesting the idea of the " chinmey ;" the fioor of the upper bed is re-
markably level. These columnar basalts rest on what is known as
the great ochre bed — a well marked feature in the section. Below
this ochre layer the remainder of the cliff consists of possibly fonr
deposits of amorphons basalt, each separated from the other 1^ a
thin layer of ochre.

In the lesser headland, east of FortuofTer Bay, the section is v^ry
similar to that just described; the two upper columnar beds are
again recognized, and together rest on the ochre bed, which here,
however, has become considerably thinner, and, owing to a steady
dip of about five degrees to the west in all the beds at that side of the
Chimney-head, it is now much nearer to the sea than before ; this
may be the result of a slight apheaval ett masse of the beds at the
Chimney-headland.

lign. S.— Tba " Organ.'*

If we attempt to follow the great ochre bed towards the Cause-
way, or in its western extension, it appears to thin out, and to
be easily concealed by the debris from the cliffs above, and
eventually a very marked change is observed in the superimposed

DU NOTER — NOTES ON THE GIANT's CAUSEWAT. 9

colnnmar beds ; they also become thinner, and lose their remarkable
parallelism of deposition, as well as distinct columnar structure;
The upper one is now but rudely columnar, and the columns are
much thicker than those of the bed below ; the underlying ochre-
layer is wanting, and its place is supplied by a deposit of amorphous
basalt, which now attains a thickness equal to that of the super-
imposed columnar beds. This change of structure in the cliff-section
occurs in a distance of less than three hundred yards. Below
this amorphous basalt a new columnar bed of trap appears, the
pillars of which are exceedingly symmetrical in every respect, and of
great beauty ; they are exposed for the distance of about two hun-
dred feet, and are all inclined to the eastwards ; while their upper
surface, vrhich is Very even, slopes to the westward at about six
to eight degrees. This group of columns is called " The Organ"
(see figs. 4 and 5).

Below this bed, though not absolutely seen, the missing ochre-
layer is presumed to be. If we now follow the cliff section west-
ward, we find that the " organ-bed" in its extension to that direction,
and with its dip of six to eight degrees would eventually be
brought so low that more than one-half of its thickness would be
emersed below the level of the sea, leaving the remainder to project
above the water, and thus to form that singular looking natural pier
called " The Giant's Causeway." At this spot the thickest and very
nearly the most central portion of this particular lava-flow is reached,
and it is worthy of remark that here the columns on the east side of
the Causeway, which is about one hundred and sixty feet across, in-
cline to the east, while on the west side they slope to the west, thus
showing in their vertical arrangement a radiation fi*om a series of
centres, all following a given line, which would have very nearly a
meridional direction, or in other words that of the longest axis of
the lava-flow. This structure, I have no doubt, would be apparent
throughout the entire of this particular bed if we had the power to
examine it throughout, indeed the view which the cliffs afford of it
is almost conclusive on this point, as it exposes a transverse section
of it in two of its most important positions, viz., at the " Organ-"
colmnns, near its eastern termination, and at the Causeway, close to
its centre.

VOL. III. ^

10 THE aGOLOOIST.

In the cliffs to the Bonth of Portnoffer, adjoining the Canseway-,
which average from two himdred lutd seventy feet to three hnudred
and seven feet in elevation (fig. 6), the two colnnmar beds, which

LigtL 6.— Cliffb Boath of PortnoflSc.

LiKTu v.— The Wtin Dyke.

are so distinot at the snmmit of the " Chimney-" headland, are repre-
sented by not less tban possibly four separate deposits of trap ; the

DD NOTES — NOTEB ON THE QUNT'S CAUSEWAY.

tiro lowest, wliioh occupy the central
poeitioii of the cliff, ore mdely and maa-
mdj colimmar, and are separated £rom
each other by an irregular layer of
rotten hlack Bhale, which at one period
Has searched for coal, and ia still known
K the "coal-mine;" the lower portion
of this shale is a dall brownish-red earth.
AboTe these colnmnar beds the re-
mainder of the cliff is composed partly
ef amorphous trap and a group of small
Golnnms, nhicb are bent ont of the per-
pendicular, being overlaid by a thin
lajer of horizontal colnmnB, which ter-
minate the chief section.

At this locality the cliff is traversed
from its base to its smninit hy a whin
dyke, fifteen feet thick, the strike of
vhich is abont north-west and' sonth-
eaet (Lign, 7),

The projection in the coast directly
sonlh of the Causeway and overhtmging
it, called " Ard snoot," is three hundred
aod seven feet above the sea It ex-
hibtto two weO-marked colnmnar beds,
mort probably the representativea of
those at the Chinmey-headland. They
appear to be of equal thickness, but the
upper bed, which forms the summit of
the cliff, exhibits small, well-formed, bat
partially bent, or irregnlarly bulged
Golnmns ; while those of the lower bed
are onuaually large, rudely formed, and
Biore vertical.

Prom the observations whidi I have
been able to make, it would appear that
tie bending of basaltic columns in gUu
may be accounted for in two ways:

12 THE GEOLOGIST.

first, as the result of vertical pressure applied to the colimms afier
their perfect formation, and before the mass had quite lost its
plasticity &om heat; secondly, the effect of a re-heating and
compression on the columns by an incandescent mass of trap being
poured out on them, thus rendering them plastic to a certain depth
only, an idea not improbable when it is recollected that basalt faaea
at a less heat than that required to melt pig-iron. Near Portrush, on
the Coleraine road, an excavation into a low knoll of amorphons trap^
the base of which is formed of a thick bed of columnar basalt, affords
a striking example of perfectly formed vertical columns being bent
over at the top to the depth of a few feet, most likely the re-
sult of their having been re-heated and compressed by the sa-peT"
imposed amorphous trap. The foregoing remarks have of course no
reference to columnar masses which exhibit a radiating structure, as
this may be merely a rude zeoHtic form of columnar arrangement, or
crystallization in the basalt.

Leaving the Causeway, and proceeding along the base of the cliffs
south west towards the headland called '^ Weirs snoot," (two hundred
and eighty-five feet in elevation), we soon pass off the Causeway-bed,
as it rises to that direction, or, in other words, slopes to the east-
ward ; and, as we get near the Hotel, the pathway under the ciJfEs ex-
poses the lost ochre bed of the Chimney-headland; it is here,
however, very thin, and is overlaid by the western extension of the
amorphous trap which was described as resting on the '' Organ"-bed,
or that which forms the Giant's Causeway. The base of this amor-
phous trap is rudely columnar to the height of from eight to ten feet
from the ochre-bed, the sides of the imperfectly formed pillars being
deeply waved or curved, giving them a pinched look. Many of these
columns if detached would resemble a long irregularly shaped wedge
or pyramid, the base or apex being up or down as chance would
have it.

The exceedingly close resemblance of this rudely columnar mass
to that of the Rowley Hill, near Dudley, in Staffordshire, is very
striking, though they are of different geological age.

The rugged headland to the north of the Causeway Hotel, caUed
" the Great Steucan," and the cliff called " Weirs snoot," are formed
of the amorphous basalts which underlie the ochre-bed, and con-

DU NOYBB — ^NOTBS ON THB OIANT'S CAUSEWAY.

seqnently in them we have regained the same geological horizon or
the beds eqnivalont to those forming the base of the Chimney-
headland.

From the foregoing
remarks we may infer

1st, That lava-flows
are nmcsh less regular
and parallel to each
other in their deposition
than matter deposited to
form an aqneons rock.

2nd, The Basalt which
forms the colnmnar bed
known as the " Giant's
Causeway" is qnite a
local deposit, measuring
at the most two thou-
saad six hundred feet in
width, or from east to
west, and appearing
along the coast as a len-
ticular shaped bed, thin-
ning ont at either side ; -
and it occupies a flat-
tened trough in the
amorphous basalts which
underlie the great ochre-
bed of the " Chimney-"
headland.

3rd, The section af-
forded by the coast ad-
joining the Causeway is

a cutting transverse to Lign. 9.— Grouping of Basaltic ooltumig.

. 1 , _. • !• . ^^^' 1 and 2.— Three sided colunms surroimded by their

tne longest aziS OI, at aseociated pillars. Fig. 3.— The largest perfect coltmm at
, ^. - the GauseMray; a nonagon snrrounded Ijiy its a^joiiiiiig

least, this lava-nOW. piUars. Fig. 4. — Possibly a decagon colmxm, siurounded

by nine other colrmms. It mav, however, be merely a hex-
4th, The columns of agon, and a heptagon attached by one side longer than the

others— no means of proving whether the cental division
this particular bed ap- ^ prolonged below the articulation of the piUar shown in
^ * the view.

14 THE GEOLOGIST.

pear to radiate &om aline of imaginary centres, which are coincident
with the longest axis of the flow ; the inner crrcnmference of these
radiations being defined by the npper surface of the lava-bed, and
hence the upright planes of colunmar ciystallization strike at right
angles downwards fix)ni what must have been the primary cooling
surface of the mass, that surface from the first having been slightly
depressed in its centre.

5th, The columns which form the " Giant's Causeway" exhibit a
peculiar beauty and accuracy of form, being in every respect more
symmetrical than those of any of the other columnar basalts of the
district, with the one exception of the " Organ-"oolumn8, and on
this account alone an observer would be led to identify them as be-
longing to the same bed.

THE CAEBONIFEEOUS SYSTEM IN SCOTLAND CHARAC-
TERIZED BY ITS BRACHIOPODA.

By Thomas Davidson, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., Hon. Member of the

Geological Socieiy of Glasgow, etc., etc.

(Continued from vol, ii., page 477.^

Genus SpiBiTEiiA. Sowerby. 1815.

The shells of which this genus is composed differ much in their external
shape and appearance, hence the great dimculty of correctly determining the
limits of certain species. The character of this extinct genus are now so well
understood that it is scarcely necessary to make any further allusion to the
subject ; but we may briefly repeat, for the sake of the less initiated, and in
order to shorten the descriptions of the vanbus species, that all possess a
straight hinge-line, and a triangular or sub-parallel area, which is divided by a
triangular fissure, this last being more or less covered, or contracted, by the
means of one or two curved plates, to which the term pseudo-deltidium has
been applied. The pseudo-deltidium is rarely preserved m the carboniferous
specimens, but did certainly exist in the perfect or Hving individuals. The valves
are articulated by the means of curved teeth -developed on either side of the
fissure in the ventral valve, and which fit into corresponding sockets in the
opposite or dorsal one. In the larger valve the teeth are supported by vertical
plates of greater or lesser dimensions, and in the space between these on the
bottom of the shell are situated the muscular impressions. The adductor, or
occlusor muscle leaves a narrow mesial oval-shaped scar, and on either side are
situated the cardinal, or divaricator muscular impressions. In the interior of
the smaller, or dorsal valve there exists two large conical spiral coils, which
nearly fill the interior of the shell, the ends being directed outwardly towards
the cardinal angles, while the bases of the hollow conical spires near^ meet at

DATIDSON— SCOTTISH CABBONIPEEOUS BRACHIOPODA. 15

the hinge side, but are wide apart in front. The binge-pkte is divided into
two portions, to which the principal stems are attached, and in the notch nnder
the eitremltj of the umbonal heak there exLsta a calcareous projection, to
whieh the term "cardinal" process has been applied, and to which was attached
one of the extremities of the divarioator rauscle. A little lower down, on the
bottom of the valve, are seen four lai^ elongated impresaiona, produced by
the adductor, and which have been recently designated as the anterior and pos-
terior ocdosor muscles bj Mr. Hancock.

lags. 1.— iDterior of AOj/ria amtigaa, Hhowing Uw Bfrfnl vpenCEaeoi.

Lign. B.— InlBiior ot thh doiwll vtive of Spirifera •trlatii.

All the species referred to the genua Spin/era proper possess a fibrous non-
perforated shell-stiueture.

The species of carboniferoua ^infera that appear to have been hitherto dis-
covered in Scotland, are not so numerous as those of England or of Ireland ;
and, after a careful esamination of many specimens, I could determine with
certainty but the nine following ; — Sp. dupHeicosla, Sp, buuleata, Sp. trigimalis.

16 THE GEOLOGIST.

Sp. finguisy Sp. ovalis, Sp. glabra, Sp. Carlukiensis, Sp. Urii, and Sp. Uneata ;
and it must also be fortner noted tliat some of these have hitherto proved
exceedingly rare, and that good examples of several others are with dimculty
obtaLoed.

Vni. — Spibifeea DUPLicicosTA. PMlIips. PI. xii.,* figs. 14, 15.

Spirifera dttplicicosta, Phillips, Geol. York., vol. ii., p. 218., pi. x., fig. 1, 1836 ;
and Dav. Garb. Mon., p. 24, pi. iii., figs. 7 — 10, pL iv., figs. 3, 5 — ^11. f

This shell varies much in external shape, being either transversely snb-rhom-
boidal or somewhat longer than wide. The valves are moderately convex, with
a more or less elevatea mesial fold in the dorsal, and a corresponding sinus in
the ventral one. The hinge-line is shorter than the width of the shelt the area
of moderate breadth, and the beak more or less incurved. The valves are orna-
mented by numerous radiating ribs, which anient in number at various dis-
tances from the beaks by intercalation and bifurcation. The ribs vary, how-
ever, somewhat in general appearance in different specimens, being only here
and there duplicose, or having three or four ribs clustered together; the term
duplicicosta is, therefore, very inappropriate, since many species of the g[enus
present the same peculiarity. Sp. duplicicosta is the largest Scottish spirifer
with which 1 am at present acquamted, some specimens measuring twenty-one
lines in length by about thirty m width ; and it has also been sometimes con-
founded with Sp. striata of Martin — ^a closely allied species, but of which 1 am
not acquainted with any well authenticated Scottish example.

Perfect specimens of this shell are rarely found, altnoush thousands of
crushed or broken valves occur in a bed of. limestone, four feet in thickness,
near Campsie, at Balgrochan, and Corrie Bum, in Stirlingshire. In Ayrshire it
is found at West Broadstone, near Beith ; at Craigie, near Kilmarnock ; and at
Auchenskeigh, near Dairy. In Lanarkshire it has been collected at Brockley,
near Xesmanago. It has oeen also found in West Lothian and Bute.

DC.— Spibifeba bisulcata. Sowerby. PL xii., figs. 19 — 25.

Spirifera bisfdeatusy J. de C. Sow., Min. Con. Tab., 492, figs. 1, 2, 1825;
Spirifera bisulcata, Dav. Mon. Garb., p. 31, pi. iv., fig. 1, pL v., fig. 1, pL vL>
figs. 1 — 19, and pi. vii., fig. 4.

This shell is either transversely semi-circular or obscurely sub-rhomboidal,
the valves being almost equally deep or convex. The hinge-line is sometimes
rather shorter, than the greatest width of the shell, with the cardinal angles
rounded ; or as long, with angles of vwiable pr6jection. The area is sub-
parallel, of moderate width, and divided by a triangular fiissure, the beaks
mcurved, and at times very approximate. In the dorsal valve the fold is some-
what angular, and of greater or lesser elevation, but is at times so flattened
that it hardly rises above the general convexity of the valve. The sinus is of
moderate depth. Each valve is ornamented with from thirty to fifty obscurely-
rounded ribs, which increase in number by the occasional bifurcation or inter-
calation of smaller ribs at various distances from the beaks. On the mesial
fold they are arranged into three groups, separated by sulci of greater depth,
the whole surface being also regularly covered with imbricating striae.
The variations in shape presented by tms species are quite perplexing, and
it is probable that several so termed species will require to be added to its
synonyms. Among these we may mention Sp. semicircularis, Phillips, and Sp,
crassa, de Koninck, certainly ; and possibly Sp. grandicostata of M'Coy.

• Thib plate forms part of the second volume of the " Gbolo&ist."
t For list of synonyms, Ac., see my monograph published by the Palseontographical
Sociely, all details not absolutely required having been omitted in the present monograph.

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CAEDONIFEROUS BRACHIOPODA. 17

Sp» bUukata is one of the most abundant of our Scottish spirifers, the largest
example with which I am acquainted measuring eighteen lines in length by
twentj-eight in width and thirteen in depth.

This shell has presented an extensive vertical range ; in Lanarkshire it is
found at Gare, at a depth of two hundred and thirty-nine fathoms below the
horizon of the ** Ell coal ;" at Baes Gill at three hundred and forty-three ; Lang-
shaw Bum three hundred and fifty-four ; Mosside three hundred and seventy-
three ; and at Braidwood Gill three hundred and ninety-seven fathoms. Ure
gives us a good figure of a specimen he had found at Lawrieston.* It has been
collected at Birkwood, near Lesmahago, and at Bobroyston, to the north of
Glasgow. Li Stirlingshire it is not rare at Craigenglen, Balglass Burn, Mill
Bum, Corrie Bum, and in the Campsie main limestone. Li Dumbartonshire, at
Castlecary ; in Renfrewshire, at Barrhead, and Arden quarry, ThomHebank ; in
Ayrshire, at Bou^hwood, and West Broadstone, near Beith ; Auchenskeigh,
ne^ DsJry; Craigie, near Kilmarnock; Monkredding and Goldcraig, near
Kilwinning ; and l)^eathemewton, parish of Loudon, &c. It has also been ob-
tained from Arran and Bute.

X. — Spieipera teigonalis. Martm. PI. xii., figs. 16—18.

Conekvliolitkus ajumites trigonalis, Martin, Petrif. Derb. tab. 36, fig. 1, 1809 ;
and Day. Mon. Garb., p. 29, J)l. v., fig. 28—33.

In slume it is transversely trigonal, with its hinge-line as long, or slightly
shorter, than the ^eatest breadth of the shell ; the area is sub-parallel, and of
moderate width, tne valves being almost equally deep ; the mesial fold is ele-
vated, angular, and often produced beyond the fronted margin of the lateral
portions of the valve ; it is also more often divided by three principal ribs, of
which the central one is at the same time the largest and most extended ; the
sinus is deep, and divided by from three to five longitudinal ribs, of which the
central one is also the most developed. Besides these, the surface o£» each
valve is ornamented with from fourteen to twenty-two simple ribs.

This is also a common shell in Scotland, ana does not appear to attain the
dimensions of Sp. bisulcata, with which it has been sometimes confounded. Dr.
Fleming was certainly mistaken when, at p. 374 of his " History of British
Animals," he referred Ure*s pi. xv., fig. 1, to the species under description.

In Lanarkshire, Sp. tri^onalis is found at three hundred and forty-three
fathoms below the "Ell coal" at Waygateshaw, and at Braidwood at three
hundred and seventy-five. It occurs also at Brockley, near Lesmahago;
at Moodies Bum, north-east of Glasgow, and in the main limestone near Camp-
sie ; and Renfrewshire, at Arden quarry, near Thomliebank ; in Ayrshire, at
West Broadstone, near Beith ; Craigie, near Kilmarnock ; and at Auchenskeigh,
near Dairy. In Midlothian, at Dryden, near iCdinburgh ; and at Courland,
near Dalkeith. It has also been found in West Lothian and in Bute.

XI. — Spibipbea pinguis. Sowerby. PI. xii., fig. 28.

Spirifera pinguisy Sow. Min. Con., vol. iii., p. 125, tab. 271, 1820 ; Spiri/era.
pinffuis, Dav. Mon. Carb., p. 50, pi. x., figs. 1 — 12.

When full grown (under favourable circumstances) it is transversely oval,
but is also sometimes as wide as long, or even (though more rarely so) longer
than wide. The hinge-line is ususdly shorter than the greatest breadth of the
shell, the cardinal angles being rounded, and the area narrow. The dorsal
valve is not quite so deep nor so convex as the opposite ; the fold is moderately

* It may be as well to mention that Mr. Bennie has ascertained that Lawrieston is the old
Dsme for a place a few hundred yards from the Capd Rig quarry, and now known by the
denomination of Brankamhall, East Kilbride.

YOL. III. C

18 THE GEOLOGIST.

wide and produced, smooth, and slightly depressed along its centre. In the
ventral valve the sinus is regularly concave and smooth, each valve being orna-
mented with from sDLteen to thirfy rounded or flattened ribs.

This species appears to be rare in Scotland, for I am acquamted with but a
single small example, which was derived from carboniferous limestone to the
north of Glasgow, and now belongs to the Museum of Practical Geology. It
measures eleven lines in length by twelve in breadth and ten in depth.

XII. — Spibipera. ovalis. Phillips. PI. xii., figs. 26, 27.

Spin/era ovalis. Philips, Geol. of York., vol. ii, p. 219, pi. x., fig. 5, 1806 ; and

Dav. Mon. Garb., p. 53., pi. ix., figs. 20 — 26.

This shell is, transversely or elongatedly oval, with a very short hinge-line,
and rounded cardinal angles ; the area is triangular, and more often wider than
high. The dorsal valve is moderately convex, and much less deep than the
opposite one, with a smooth, broad, flattened, mesial fold. In the ventral
valve the beak is small, tapering, and incurved ; the sinus rather shallow, com-
mencing at the extremity of tne beak, it extends to the front and is orna-
mented with one or two longitudinal ribs placed on either of its sides. Prom
eighteen to twenty simple flattened ribs ornament the surface of each valve.
Sp. ovalis appears to be an uncommon species in Scotland, and to which Prof.
Pleming, in 1828, had applied the name exarata ; but as the last named author
never figured his shell, and that the description, "Perforated valve, with broad,
smooth, flattened ribs, divided by shallow, narrow furrows ; beak gibbous, in-
curved ; hinge very short," mignt applj; equally well to several otner species,
I should question tne propriety of adopting the term exarata (notwithstandinff
its priority of date) m preference to the well-known one by Phillips, ana
especially so as Dr. Fleming further observes that, although he has frequently
found the perforated valve, it was always mutilated or without the other valve,
with which he was not acquainted, as may be seen from the original fr^ment
represented in our plate, and which was kmdly communicated by the author.

Sp. ovalis has been found in the Gorrie Bum beds, Stirlingshire ; also in West-
Lotnian and at West Broadstone in Ayrshire. In Lanarkshire at Brockley,
near Lesmahago.

XIII. — Spibifera glabra. Martin. PI. xii., figs. 32 — 34.

ConchvliolUhus anometes glaber, Martin Petrif. Derb., pi. xlviii., figs. 9, 10, 1809,
and Dav. Mon. Garb., p. 59, pi. xi., figs. 1 — 9, pi. xii., figs. 1 — 5, 11, 12.

This shell varies to such an extent, that it is difficult to assign any perma-
nent character ; the shape is, however, more often transversely oval, and rarely
longer than wide. Both valves differ in degree of convexity, the ventral one
being generally the deepest. The hinge-Kne is shorter than the greatest width
of the sh^ll, with rounded cardinal an^es and the beak more or less approxi-
mate and incurved.

The ventral hinge area is triangular and of moderate dimensions, the dorsal
one being narrow and sub-parallel, the mesial fold is either slightly and evenly
convex, rising ffradually from the lateral portions of the valve, or abruptly
elevated with a longituoinal depression along its middle ; the sinus varies like-
wise in depth according to the specimens. Externally both valves are gene-
rally smooth, but sometimes a few obscurely marked flattened ribs may be
observed on the lateral portions of the shell.

This species, at times, attains thirty-two lines in length by forty-three in
width, and twenty-six in depth ; but no Scottish specimens I have hitherto
seen attain half those proportions.

At Harestanes and Langshaw Bum in Lanarkshire, Sp. glabra is found at

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CARBONIFEROUS BRACHIOPODA. 19

three hundred and seventy-five fathoms below the " Ell coal ;'' ocoors also at
Middlehohn, near Lesmahago and East Kilbride. Li Stirlingshire at Corrie
Bum and Campsie main-limestone. In Renfrewshire at Orchard-quarry, near
Thomliebank. In Ayrshire, at West Broadstone, Beith, and at Auchenskeigh,
near Dairy, etc.

XrV. — Spibipera Carlukiensis. Davidson. PI. xii., fig. 29.

Sjpirifera Carlukiensis, Dav. Mon. Carb., p. 59, pi. xiii., ^^, 14, 1857.

Shell minute, nearly circular and smooth ; valves almost equally deep ; dorsal
valve regularly convex, most so at the umbone. Ventral valve convex, with a
narrow mesial depression or furrow commencing at a short distance from the
extremity of the oeak and extending to the front, where it indents the margin
of the opposite valve. The beak is small, pointed, and but slightly incurved ;
the hinge-line much shorter than the greatest width of the shell, with its
cardinal angles rounded, area small, tnangular. This little shell does not
appear to have ever greatly exceeded two fines in length by two and a-half in
breadth. It was discovered for the fi^t time at Hill Head in Lanarkshire, at
about three hundred and fifty-six fathoms below the " EU coal," along with
Sp. Urii, but it is a rare species, for in every hundred or more specimens of
the last named shell that is collected, a single example of Sp. Carlukiensis would
occur. It has also been recently discovered near Strathavon in a bed of shale
ahnost entirely composed of ^S^. Uriif and is there nearly as rare as at Hill
Head.

XV. — Spiripera XJrii. Eleming. PI. xii., fig, 30.

Spiri/er Urii, Eleming, British Animals, p. 376, 1828; Spiri/era Urii, Dav.

Mon. Carb., p. 58, pi. xii., figs. 13, 14.

This little species is sub-orbicular, and rather wider than long ; the hinffe-
line shorter than the greatest breeidth of the shell, and the cardinal angles
rounded. The dorsal valve is semicircular and slightly indented in front, with
a narrow hinffe area ; it is nearly fiat or slightly convex, especially at the um-
bone, from whence a shallow mesial furrow extends to the front. The ventral
valve is mach deeper and more convex than the o{)posite one, with a lengthened
incurved beak and longitudinal furrow, which, originating at the extremity of
the beak, is continued to the front. The area is small and triangular in shape ;
when perfect the exterior of the shell was covered with numerous closely im-
planted spines, but which are rarely preserved in the fossil, so that the shell is
generally found smooth or covered with minute pustulate markings, which are
produced by the fracture of the spines close to their bases.

This abundant and interesting little species was noticed, and figured for the
first time by Ure, in 1793, (History of Kutherglen and East Kilbride, p. 313,
fig. 12.) but named only thirty-five years later by Dr. Eleming. lire's figure
is not, however, very correct, for it does not represent the incurvature of the
beak which is always present, nor is the area ever as wide as is there depicted.
Sp. Urii has received several other names, for it is highlv probable (if not per-
fectly certain) that the Sp. Clannyana, King,* from the Permian formation, and

* The re-occnrrence of several carboniferons species in the Permian strata appears to be
almost certain, although sudi has been doubted by several palseontologists. It is therefore
probable that the following carboniferous (C), and Permian (P) shells are identical, notwith-
standing that they have received distinct specific names according to the strata in which they
M-ve been discovered. Thus Terehratula sac<nd»8, 0., — Sp. niJlata,P;? Spirifera Uri*,
C, -- 8p. Clannpana, P ; Spiriferma octoplieata, C, = Sp. cristaia, P. ; Cmnarophoria crumena, C,
-- Co. Schlothetmif P. ; Ca. globuUna, P., = Ca. rJumboidea, P. ; and the Lingulu Credneri, P., have
been found in the carboniferous strata by Mr. Barkby. TTie re-occurrence of species is a subject
that has been too often supposed impossible, and treated accordingly. .

20 THE QEOLOGIST.

the Sp, unguiculuSy Phillips, horn the Devonian series, are only synonyms of the
present species, and to which must also be added the Sp. Ooldfussiana of Prof,
de Koninck. It does not appear to have often exceeaed about four lines in
len^h by four and a-half in width and two in depth, but is usually a much
smaller sneU, at least so in Scotlsmd. Sp, Urii is certainly the most abundant
of Scottish spirifers, and may be pickea up by thousands in several localities,
such as at mil Head, in Lanarkshire, where it occurs at three hundred and
fifhr-six fathoms below the " Ell coal," and three hundred and seventy-five at
Kilcadzow. It is found plentifully on the east bank of the Avon, near Strath-
avon ; and at Coalbum, near Lesmahago. In Stirlingshire it has been found in
three different stages, viz., the Craigenglen beds, under the main-limestone, and
in the black-Umestone and shale of South Hill, Campsie.

XYI. SpmiPEBA LiNEATA. Martin. PL zii., fig. 31.

Conchilioliihus anomites lineatus, Martin, Petrif. Derb., tab., xxxvi., fig. 3,
1809 ; and Dav. Mon. Carb., p. 62, pi. xiii., figs. 1 — 13.

In shape this shell is either transversely oval or sub-orbicular, the hinge-line
being much shorter than the width of the shell, and the cardinal angles
rounaed ; the beaks are iacurved and more or less approximate, the area smalL
Ventral valve evenly convex, and rarely possessing any mesial elevation, or fold,
while the dorsal valve is rather deeper than the opposite one, and either
uniformly convex, or presenting a shallow longituoinal 'depression, which
becomes most apparent towards tne front. Externally the surface was covered
with numerous concentric ridges, rarely in any place more than a line apart,
but usually very much closer, and from each of wnich departed numerous con-
tiguous closely packed spines, which thus formed a series of rows, or fringes
over the shell. When the spines are absent, which is the general condition in
which the shell is found, the surface appears marked by numerous and regularly
imbricated lines, the radiating ones being produced by the small elevations from
which each spine took its birth, as I have attempted to show in the enlarged
representation, fig. Sic, and which is very different from the irregolar manner
in which the spines are scattered over the surface of Sp. Urii, of which ^g. 30^.
is an enlarged illustration. Sp. lineata is a common snell in the carboniferous
limestone and shales of Scotland ; but none of the examples I have vet seen
attained the dimensions presented by some which occur Wh in England and
Ireland.

At Gare in Lanarkshire Sn, lineata occurs at two hundred and thirty-nine
fathoms lower than the " EU coal ;" at Braidwood, three hundred and forty-
three ; at Harestanes, three hundred and seventy-five ; and at Nellfield, four
hundred and ten. It may also be collected at Brocklev, and Middleholm near
Lesmahago. In Ayrshire it occurs at Ex)u^hwood, and West Broadstone near
Beith; Hallerhirst, Stevenston; and Craigie near Kilmarnock. In Renfrew-
shire, at Barrhead ; and at Arden and Orchard quarries near Thomliebank.
In Dumbartonshire, at Castlecary. In Stirlingshire, under the main limestone
and in the CaLmy lunestone or Balquarhage beds, Campsie, as well as at Corrie
Bum. In Mid Lothian it is not rare at Dryden, near Edinburgh ; and at
Courland, near Dalkeith. Dr. Fleming mentions Dreghom and Ayr, and it
was also found in Arran by Prof. Ramsay.

SuB-GENUs Spibipebina. D'Orbiguy. 1847.
The species located in this sub-genus differ from Spirifera (which they re-
semble m external shape) by the perforations or canals which traverse their
shells, as well as by the development of a large elevated mesial septum in the
interior of the ventral valve, to the sides of wnich was attached the adductor,
or occlusor muscle.

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CAEBONIPEBOUS BRACHIOPODA. 21

Sfirijjerina cristaia var. octoplicata, and S^. insculpta are the only two species
bek>Dgmg to this sub-genus that have been liitherto discovered in our Scottish
carbomferoos rocks.

XYIL— Spikipbkina ceistata, var. octoplicata. J. de C. Sowerby.

Plate xii., figs. 36-38.

Spirifer oetoplicatus, Sowerby, Min. Ck)n., p. 120, pi. 562, fies. 2, 3, 4 : 1827.
Spiriferina cristataYax.octoplicaia, Dav. Mon. Carb., p. 88, pi. vii., figs. 37-47.

In external shape this shell is more often transversely sub-rhomboidal, with
nearly equally convex valves, the hmge-line being eitner as long or rather
shorter than the greatest width of the shell, with acute or rounded cardinal
angles ; the area is triangular, slightly concave, and of variable width. In the
dorsal valve the mesial fold is usually composed of a single rib, which is often
flattened along the middle ; but in some rare examples there exists a rudimen-
tary one on either of its slopes, so that in some instances the fold assumes to-
wards the front an obscurely biplicated, or triplicated appearance. In the
ventral valve the sinus is deep and acute, while both valves are ornamented
with from eight to twelve angular ribs, which are (as well as the sinus and
fold) closely covered with numerous small granular (spinose) asperities, which
give to the shell a rough feel and appearance. The shell-structure is also per-
forated by minute, tubuli, of which the external orifices may be readily detected
by the aid of a common lens. In the interior of the ventral valve a sharp
mesial septum rises from the bottom of the valve, and partly divides the spiral
cones. The species we are at present describing varies much in general shape,
as well as b^ the number of its ribs ; it is never a lar^e shell, although some
English specimens have been found more than double the size of any Scottish
one that has come under my observation, none of these last having exceeded
some six lines in length by about seven in breadth. I am also still inclined to
maintain the opinion expressed in my monograph, namely that the shell under
description bears so close a resemblsoice to the Permian Sp. cristaia of Schlo-
theim that it cannot be specifically separated, and could not in any case claim
more than a varietal distinction.

/Sjf?. octoplicata has been found at Gare, in Lanarkshire, at two hundred and
tliirty-nine fathoms below the " Ell coal ;" at Braidwood Gill, three hundred ;
at Hallcraig Bridge, three hundred ; and at Raes three hundred and forty-one
fathoms. The shell has also been collected in the same county at Brockley,
near Lesmahago ; Auchtentibber and Calderside, High Blantyre ; Capel Big,
East Kilbride; Strathavon; and Robroyston, north of Glasgow, in Ren-
frewshire, at Arden- and Orchard-quarries, Thomliebank; in Stirlingshire,
in the Gorrie Bum beds ; in Ayrshire, at Roughwood and West Broaostone,
Beith; Auchenskeigh, near Dairy; HaUerhirst, Stevenston; Craigie, near
Kilmarnock ; and Meadowfoot, near Drumclog. It has also been found in
West Lothian, as well as in the Island of Arran.*

* 8p. eriOata var. oeiopUeata is a common shell in the lower red carboniferoua aandBtone of
Cildz«88 ; in Ireiand 8p, partita of Portlock being a synonym.

Sisoe the pablicatdon of the first pages of my paper in the December number of the
" Gbologist, Mr. Kelly has informed me that the quotation at p. 465 relative to the arrange-
ment of the Carboniferous s^tem in Ireland does not represent his views, and he has kindly
Aimislied me with the following note.

"My subdivisions are, 1, Old Bed Sandstone ; 2, calciferous-slate ; 3, limestone ; 4, coal
measiues. The Kildress red and yellow sandstone, which is one, is not lower coal-measures ;
it lies" (as I have stated) "below the caldferous-slate. Again, the Old Red Sandstone is not
tfaat which predominates. This rock averages about one thousand feet thick in Ireland, and
is not much exposed, being covered with limestone. Our caiciferous slate is considerable in
thickness, and in the best developed places (Glonea, near Dungarvan) is half of it made up of
thin bands of limestone, the other hau calcareous shale. The fossils in both inseparable, so
that ^6 calclfarous slate and mountain-limestone might be considered as one division, but it

22 THE GEOLOGIST.

XVni. — Spibipebina insculpta. Phillips. PL xii., ^, 35.

Spirifera insculpta, Phillips, Geol. of Yorkshire, vol. ii., p. 216, pi. ix.,
2, 3, 1836 ; and Day. Mon. Garb., p. 42, plate vii., figs. 48-55.

In shape it is more or less semi-circular, and about one-third wider
long ; the hinge-area is straight and as wide as the greatest width of the s
The area large, triangular, and but slightly curved ; beak small, and not
produced. Both vSves are about equally convex; the ventral o:
ornamented with five (rarely seven) lar^ bold angular ribs, of which^
central one exceeds the others somewhat m proportion, and corresponds wif
deep angular sinus in the opposite valve. All the ribs are sculptured, .
closely intersected with smaQ concentric laminsB, which give to the perl^
shell a very elegant appearance. This is a rare Scottish shell ; it occurs \\
Gare, in Lanarkshire, at two hundred and thirty-nine fathoms below the "\\
coal." YV

Tamily Rhtnchoneliid^. a \

Of this family the genera Rhynchonella and Camarophoria alone have be
hitherto discovered in the Scottish carboniferous strata. Of the first we knd
but two species, and one only of the second ; while in England eight of Rk
ckonella and three of Camarophoria have been found.

Genus Rhtnchonblla. Fischer. 1809.

The shells composing this genus vary much in their external shape aa
appearance, some being transverse, others rounded or angjilar, smooth, vario
ribbed, or striated. The valves are generally convex, with or without a mes
elevation or sinus ; the beak is acute, promment, or so greatly incurved as tj
touch and even to overlie the umbone of the opposite valve ; the foramen i
variable in its dimensions and shape, being placed under the extremity of the.^
beak, and entirely or partially surrounded by a deltidium. The shell-structure
is fibrous and not perforatea ; and the valves articulate by the means of two
teeth in the ventral, and corresponding sockets in the dorsal valves. The

i& perhaps more correct to 8ei)arate them into two. The Carboniferoas, or Hibernian lime-
Btone is nfty feet thick at Drumgoin in Tyrone, it is about fifteen hmidr^ feet thick at Black
Head in Clare, and occupies above twenty thousand square miles in Ireland. This greatly
predominates ; the coal-measures are two thousand feet thick, or more. The Old Red sand-
stone, at Kildress in Tyrone, and the Old Red Sandstone of Herefordshire are two veiy dif-
ferent things. The first belongs to the Carboniferous system ; the latter is a subdivision of
the Silurian rocks."

My mistake was not therefore in in the order of superposition of ibB different strata,
which Mr. KeUy admits to be correct ; but in having endeavoured to reconcile the succession
of the Carboniferous strata in Scotland with that of Ireland by applying Mr. Page's g[eneral
denomination of " Lower Coal-measures" to that group which embraces all the altematioxis of
strata which lie between the Old Red Sandstone and the mountain- or Carboniferous-
limestone. The term, however, would not apply to Ireland, since in the sister island no
lower coal-measures underlie the mountain-limestone, as we find to be the case in Scotiand,
and where Mr. Kedly suggests tha$ the limestone may be moved up a stage, with coal-
measures below it. It must appear evident to all that the term Old Red Sandstone cannot be
retained for a Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous rock, and this is the reason why I was,
and still am, so averse to applying the term, or forming a subdivision by that name for those
Irish red and yellow SEUidstones full of carboniferous fossils; for if the Caldferous- and
mountain-limestone might, according to Mr. Kelly's own statement, be united into a single
division on account of the similarity of their fossils, as a palseontologist, I should add that
the same reasoning might equally weU applv to the red sandstone of Kildress, frar there also
we find exactly the same fossils as those which occur in the calciferous and carboniferous-
limestone. I should therefore sug^t that geologists should drop the term *' old," and
in their subdivisions of the Carbcniferous group say, 1, Lower carboniferous red and yel-
low sandstone ; 2, calciferous slate ; 3, carboniferous-limestone ; and, 4th, coal-measures, by
which means the vexed question relative to tiie Old Red Sandstone would not be interfered
with as fkr as the Carboniferous system is concerned. It is also well known that Mr. KeUy is
of opinion that no Devonian rocks occur in Ireland ; while Sir R. Murchison believes that
there exists tbere also a series of msmj thousand feet of shales and grits above the highest
Upper Silurian which represents precisely in time the mass of the Devonian rocks ; this,
however, has nothing to do with the red and yeUow sandstone of Kildress which un-
doubtedly forms part of the Carboniferous system.

m4;>mm

DAVID80H — SCOmSH CABBONirBBOnS BIIACHIOFODA. 23

km^plate is deeply dirided, and Bupporta two slender curved hmellie, to
which the spirally coiled fleshy oral arms (directed inwards towards the con-
cavity of the dorsal valve) were partially fixed. In the interior of the ventral
ralie the teeth are supported bj dental plates, between which, and extending
somewhat further down, are the muscular impressions produced by the adduc-
tcr or ocdusor, the devaricator, and pedicle muscles, while on the bottom of
Ik dorsal valve may be seen the four impressions formed by the adductor, or
Dcclusor muscle. Ovarian markings are observable on either side of the
moBCakr scan above described.

lAgn, S. — XJifnekamUaptiilaeia (recflot).

Tig. 1.— InlorlorofUieVontnilValvB.

P, Ventral B^nBloc „ „

a. Ovarian spooM.
i, Deltidium,
(, TeeUi.

XIX. — Eetnchonella fugnus. Martin. PI. i., figs. 1, S.

CoKkfliolilkw aiiomilei pugniu. Martin. PetriScata Derbiensia, tab. ixii.,
figs. 4, 5, 1809 ; and Dav. Mon. Carh., p. 97, pi. xiii., figs. 1-15.

'Hie shells composing this species are either transversely ovate or oblafo-
deltoidal, and vrSer than long. The dorsal valve is usually more or less
gibbous, moat elevated near the front, and evenly convex at the uml)one; the
nieaial fold is large, and more or less prominent; the ventral valve is less con-
vex than the oppoaite one, with a sinus of moderate depth, commencing at a
short distance from the beak, and extending to the front ; the beak is small,
lunch incnrved, and contiguous to the umbone, each valve being ornamented
*iUi from nine to twelve ribs, which become obsolete as they approach the
beab; from three to sii occnpy the fold and sinus.

All the Scottish examples of this shell that I have hitherto seen were small,
Mue having exceeded eight lines in length by about ten in width, while some
Engliah specimens have measured as much as two inches both ways ; neverthe-
less, the Scottish examples have all the characters of the full-grown shell ; but
» variety from Carluke parish is comparatively wider and leas convex than ano-
»er found in Stirlingshire and ebewhcre.

At Mosside and firaidwood, in Lanarkshire, R. mignu! is found at three
hoDdred and seventy-five fathoms lower than the " Ell coal," also at Brown Hill,
^^ Lesmahago ; m Renfrewshire, at Barrhead and Arden quarry, Tbomlie-

24 THE GEOLOGIST.

bank ; in Ayrshire, at Hyndberry Bank, parish of Loudon, also at West Broad-
stone, near Beith; in Stirlingshire, in tne main limestone, Campsie, and Mill
Bum.

XX. — ^Rhtnchonella pleueodon. Phillips. PI. i., figs. 3 — 5.

Terehratula pleurodon, Phillips, Geol. of York., vol. ii., p. 222, pi. xii., figs.
25—30, 1836 ; and Bh. id., Dav. Carb. Mon., p. 101, pL xxiii., ^. 1—15.

All the Scottish specimens of this common shell which have hitherto come
under my notice, were of small dimensions, and very variable in their shape,
but more often transversely oval, and rarely longer than wide. When younff
the valves were sometimes compressed, but with age became more convex, ana
at times even gibbous ; the beak . is small, moderately produced, with a small
circular foramen under its angular and slightly incurved extremity, and which
is surrounded and a little separated horn the ninge-line by a deltidium. The
mesial fold usually occupies one-third of the shel£ and is most elevated above
the front, the sinus in the ventral valve being of moderate depth. The ribs
are angular, and extend over the entire surface of the valves, and vary in num-
ber from ten to twenty-four in each valve ; of these three to five, and even
sometimes nine, compose the fold.

Many undoubted specimens of R. fleurodon possess but three ribs on the
mesial fold ; and it was for this vanety that Professor M'Coy proposed, in
1844, the name Atiypa triples:, but which is now superfluous.

At Grare, in Lanarkshire, R. pleurodon is found at two hundred and thirty-
nine fathoms under the "Ell coal," and three hundred and seventy-five at
Braidwood. At Capel Big, East Kilbride, it is very abundant, but nearly
every example is crushed; it occurs also at Brockley, near Lesmahago, Calder-
side and Auchentibber, Hi^h Blantyre. In Dumbartonshire, at Neatherwood,
near Castlecary. In Ayrslure, at Hallerhirst, Stevenston ; Loudon ; Craigie,
near Kilmarnock, and West Broadstone, Beith. In Stirlingshire it occurs in
several stages : at Craigenglen, Balglass, Mill Bum, Balgrochen, and Corrie
Bum. In Ilenfirewshire, at Barrhead.

Genus Camabofhoaia. King. 1844.

The external shapes and character resemble much those of Rhynehanella.
The beak is entire, acute, and more or less incurved, under the extremity of
which a small fissure is sometimes exposed. The valves articulate by the
means of teeth and sockets. In the ventral valve the dental plates are con-
joined at their dorsal margins, forming a trough-shaped process affixed to a low
medio-longitudinal nlate. In the dorsal valve the space oetween the sockets is
occupied oy a small cardinal muscular protuberance, on either side of which
two long slender processes curve upwards, to which were no douljt attached
the free cirrated spiral fieshy arms. Erom beneath the cardinal process a
high vertical mesial septum extends to a little more than a third of the length
of the valve, supporting along and close to its upper edge a spatida-sliaped pro-
Cess, considerably dilated towards its free extremity, and projecting, with a
slight upward curve, to nearly the centre of the shell. Shell stracture fibrous,
not perforated.

XXI. — Camabophoria crumena. Martin. PI. i., fig. 6.

Conchyliolithus anomites crumenay Martin, Petrif. Derb., tab. xxxvi., fig. 4,
1809 ; Terehratula Schlotheimiy Von Buch, Ueber Terebratula, 1834 ; and
Dav. Mon. Carb., pi. xxv., figs. 3-9.

This species is more often transversely oval, but sometimes also as long, or
longer, than wide, and trigonal in shape. The valves vary in degree of con-

DAVIDSON — ON BCOmSH CIKBONIFBBOUS BBACHIOPODl. 25

Teiity, as well oa in the charecter of their riba, which either cover the entire

ahell, or become obaolete towards the beakB. Wlien perfect, the volrea pos-

tjgn. 7. — Ca»arophoria emmeua^
Kg. L— Interior of the DorBBlTHlTS. !^. I.—InMrioroTthe Ventral Tilve.

>. addnotor, or ooclosor muscular inipnsBioiu {7} ; C, corred proceBBea, to which wen
Miod Oa Ofebj apna anoB ; D, dBiadiuio ; B, leeUi ; H, conjoinnd denial plAt« or troorii-
nu^ied prooeBH ; J, cuiUhbI procesa i K, Hooketa ; M, marginal expuialonfl ; O, apatola-
•l>4*dpn»BBB, OTTiBOenlaapparti R, oardiniJ, or divariMttor mnaonlaif BC(ws(P)i B, ssplom,

usa«d marginal espaDBions, bat which are rarelf preserved in the foasiL The
nesial fohl differs m width and elevation acconSng to the number of nbs which
ornament its aor&oe, theae vailing from two to seven, each valve being fur-
nisiied with from twdve to twenty ribs. The smas is of moderate depth.

Of this species I am acquainted with bnt a single well-authenticated example,
wbidt was found man; jears ago in West Lothiim b; the lat« Dr. Fleming.

26 THE GEOLOGIST.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION MEETING.

(Continued from page 485^.

On the Ossiferous Cavebns at Oreston. By Henry C. Hodge, of
Plymouth. Eead before the Geological Section, Sept. 17, 1859.

The constant removal of immense masses of limestone required for the pur-
poses of the Breakwater at Plymouth, during the past half century, has from
time to time brought before the attention of geologists a series of remarkable
cavernous fissures of great interest, from the number and variety of fossil
remains of extinct animals contained in them.

In the "Philosophical Transactions" for 1817, 1821, and 1823, will be
found some account of the earliest discoveries of these fossils, together with a
record of carefully conducted observations by Sir Everard Home and Mr.
Whidby (the engineer of the Breakwater at that time) respecting the circum-
stances under which they were met with.

Mr. Whidby, in a paper dated Nov. 1816, mentions the striking fact that he
saw no possibility of the cavern in which the remains were met with having
had any external communication through the rock in which it was enclosed,
the surrounding limestone being everywhere equally strong, and requiring the
same labour to blast it ; and, with respect to the occurrence of stalactite, he
remarks that nothing of the kind was met with in the cavern in which the
bones were found, so that there is no proof that any opening in the rock from
above had been closed by infiltration. In the year 1820 more bones were met
with, lying on a thin bed of dry clay; there also occurred here and there a few
small caverns, similar to that m wnich the bones were discovered ; and again
he states that none of them had the smallest appearance of ever having nad
any opening to the surface, or connection with it whatever, or with each other.
The caverns here spoken of were quarried many feet below the bottom of them,
and nothing was found but hard solid limestone. He also adds, " that many
caverns have been met with in these quarries, the insides of which have been
coated with stalactite ; but there was no appearance of this kind in the cavern
where the bones were found, every part of it being perfectly dry, and nearly
elear of rubbish — a circumstance whieh clearly proves it had no connection
with the surface."

During the summers of 1822-2S^ Mr. Jos. Cottle, of Bristol, obtained a large
collection of bones from the same quarries, and he has published some account
of them, and of the general circumstances of their occurrence.

Since that period, it would appear that similar openings in the limestone
have been of not unfrequent occurrence, and it is known that some of them
have contained fossils ; but no systematic observations have, I believe, been
instituted with the view of penetrating their origin or history.

The statements so confidently mSe by Mr. Whidby as to the perfect
enclosure of the caverns by soM limestone, have been confirmed by my own
observations, and this fact has not failed to surprize even the workmen engaged
in the quarry ; but it must be evident that at some period an opening did exist,
and it occurred to me that such might be most successfully sought for between
the surfaces of the beds of which .the masses of limestone are composed. No
satisfactory conclusion could be drawn from a careful examination of the rock

BRITISH. ASSOCIATION MEETINa.

dining the qpening of the eavem ; but, on looking narrowly at the beds of
limestone in the progress of the workings, it was found that a thin seam of
pQTfde calcareous " skte" was interposed between the beds of limestone, at
abaiu the same parallel as that in which the eayems were met with. On fur-*
ther investigation, it was discovered that alternations of this purple " slate"
with the limestone were not unfrequent, but the lamin® of slate were, in most
cases, so intimately blended with the limestone-beds, as to form really a solid
mass of compact rock ; and on looking into the structure of the more evident
layers (^ the " slate,"' it Was ascertained that in some parts they were much
more calcareous than in others, and that small portions of limestone, having
similar physical characters to those of the surrounding rock, were interspersed
at varymg intervals. In other places the layers were in a state of decomposi-
tion, red and reddish white clay being formed as its result ; and on tracing a
layer of this kind through the side of a cavern laid open during the workings,
it was seen that portions of it were so disintegrated as to be easily pulled from
their position, the seam being, in its most solid portions, composed merely of
layers of limestone-fragments with interposed clay and red sand — ^the whole,
apparently, kept in place by the accidental infiltration of calcareous matter.
Here, then, were facts that might enable me to account for the clay found in
the caverns, and afford a means through which the beds of limestone may have
been caused to separate from each other. Again, it was discovered that some
of the hollows in the adjoining limestone were stained with a black earthv sub-
stance, found, on analysis, to be composed of tibie peroxides of iron ana man-
ganese, these having evidently proceeded from the decomposition of a variety
of dolomite veir generally present in this limestone — ^not exhibiting, however,
any definite mode of deposit in it, but passing through its beds m the most
irr^nlar manner. IVom these phenomena^ it appeared reasonable to conclude
that the decomposition of the " skte"' in the myers, through the combined
agency of water and carbonic acid, had opened a commumcation with the
external air to the above-named irregular masses of dolomite (the unchanged
limestone-fragments of the " slate" serving to keep the beds from close contact
with each other), and that in this way tne carbonates of iron and manganese
contained in them had been converted into peroxides, and the evolved carbonic
acid proceeding from their decomposition, combining with the remaining consti-
tuents of the dolomite, had formed bicarbonates, readily removeable by the
agency of percolating water. In this way it is possible, not merely to account
for the formation of the caverns, and a means of access to them, but at the
same time to discover what are the causes still in operation which give rise to
the production of stalactite, and occasion the irregular dolomization of the lime-
stone, it being evident that the percolating waters, charged with bicarbonates
of lime, magnesia^ &c., may, by a loss of carbonic acid, deposit insoluble car-
bonate of Imie in the form of stalactite, and becoming by this means richer in
bicarbonate of magnesia, act chemically on the neighbouring limestone, convert-
ing it into dolomite.

To test the correctness of these views, a very careful examination of the clay
below the bones was instituted : it was extremely tenacious, and of a dark
reddish-brown colour; patches of red clay were visible in some places, and in
other parts of the mass distinct yellow and black layers were apparent, and
nodules, or, more strictly speaking, irregular masses of impure ochry red iron-
ore, together with black, rounded fragments, evidently arismg from the decom-
position of a dolomite similar to that before alluded to — ^for m the larger frag-
ments this rock was distinctly visible on fracture, and in one or two instances,
in which the masses were larger than usual, a brown zone was observable
between the black external coating and the central nearly unaltered dolomite ;
large and small masses of the common limestone-rock of the quarry were also

28 THE GEOLOGIST.

found in the day, thdi snrface being honey-oombed as if by exposure to the
lonff-continued action of carbonated waters. These phenomena may jnstly be
explained on the supposition, that the irregular masses of ochry iron-ore had
been derived from tne decomposed slaty seams, confirmatory appearances being
not unfrequent in other limestone-beds connected with the same series of rocks,
the *' slate in these alternating with the limestone on a hige scale, and con*
taining irregular nodules of impure iron-ore — ^a red oxide of iron being fre-

ratfy visiole at the points of junction. The varied colour of the day may
be accounted for by the gradual admixture with it df the red oxide of iron
from the slaty seams, and the black oxide of mansanese, accompanied bv yellow
hydrated peroxide of iron from the dolomitic rock, which may be concluded to
have formed a part only of the walls of the cavern — ^the honey-combed lime-
stone fragments resulting from the displacement of other portions of previously
fissured limestone-rock through the agency of aqueous carbonic add. The
most careful examination presented no lacts that at aU a])peared of an opposing
character ; the day was (uligently searched, and some of its laminated portions,
having a sandy appearance, were examined by the microscone for the siliceous
coveru^ of mfusoria, minute rounded grains of sand, and any other matter
that might suggest the washing in of the contents of the cavern through free
communication of its opening with external waters; nothing was, however,
discovered but very minute fr^ments of date, still farther confirmatory of the
position before advanced.

The facts elidted were thus far satisfactory, but they did not account for
the original production of those masses of dolomite, wnidi in the neighbour-
hood of the quarry, done afforded, by their own decomposition, the solution of
bicarbonates required for the dolomization of adjacent rocks : and in the hope
that a knowledge of such ori£;ind cause might turow still further light upon
the present condition of the bone-caves, a generd examination of the various
accessible quarries of the Plymouth limestones was instituted.

I propose to give some account of these investigations in the latter part of
this paper ; and will now proceed to give a brief description of the fossil re-
mains, and certain circumstances connected with them, as the following out of
the inquiries alluded to will lead me to speak, not merdy of changes having
an important relation to the phenomena of the endosed caverns, but also to
the attempted solution of other allied j^logicd questions of interest.

I am disposed to believe that verv httle stdactite was deposited in the bone*
caves during the early period of tneir formation, and a portion, if not the
whole, of the time durmg which the bones were being introduced. My reasons,
confirmed by the observations of Mi. Whidby, b^re alluded to, are the fol-
lowing : — ^The bones have been generally found lying on or near the uppermost
portion of a bed of clay, and those on its surface on^ are much mixea with, or
unbedded in stalagmite, the remains met with lowest m the day bein^ especially
free from such deposit. It is reasonable also to suppose that, if the fossd
bones were introduced through the agency of carnivorous cave-inhabiting mam-
malia, the instincts of these creatures would have induced them to prefer a dry
habitation, and one in which the constant dropping of percolating waters would
give them no inconvenience, not to mention tne constant disengagement of car-
bonic acid accompanying the deposition of the stalactite, which might even,
under some circumstances, render such caverns uninhabitable.

In giving an opinion that the bones were introduced by animal agency, and
not bv accidentd falling into fissures, it is not to be inferred that, in no former
recorded instance, has this mode of entombment occurred. I will, however,
give some facts connected with the nature and mode of occurrence of these re-
mains, before attempting to deduce any further oondusions in the present
instance*

BRITISH ASSOCIATION MEETING. 29

• tn the first, I would mention that remains of very large animals were met
with, the occurrence of portions of several mammoths being proved by the proo
sence of various grinders belonging not merely to very young, but also to some*
what mature animals, a fourth molar of the lower jaw of an animal of this
sptecies having been found six and a-quarter inches in length, the breadth at its
widest part being two and a-quarter inches, containinff sixteen plates, which
have all been brought into use, the tooth being worn down at its anterior ex*
tremity, so as to exhibit the common imiting base of dentme along the mar^pns
of the first and second plates. A second corresponding molar of the lower jaw
wanting a few plates at its anterior portion, together with fragments of two
other fourth molars in different stages of development were also met with, and
teeth of larger size than these were indicated by the presence in the clay of
other detached and fractured plates« I would also add that there occurred a
few fractured portions of one or more molar teeth of the rhinoceros, but no
mammoth's or other large bones were discovered.

The above facts being considered, can we allow that such ponderous animals
could have fallen upon a soft tenacious bed of clay, without sinking more than
a few inches into it r or that their skeletons could have been washea down from
above, without a much greater disturbance of the clay than was found to be
indicated by the parallel and undisturbed arrangement of its laminated por«
tions ? Ck)uld, moreover, these monsters have fallen into the cavern, without
a much greater apparent disturbance of the beds of limestone having been
caused by the formation of a sufficiently large opening ; and would not, m such
cases, numerous other parts of the skeleton nave been met with P

Secondly, numerous teeth of elk or deer and of ox were found, but
no antlers nor horn-cores belonging to such animals (a single fragment of the
base of an antler and one smui horn-core excepted), which would, most pro-
bably, have been the case, had the fissure beenalarffe one, and some fragments,
at least, of the franle antlers mi^ht naturally have been expected to occur, had
such been washed clown from a higher level ; on the other hand, it may be pre-
sumed that they would have proved to camivora an inconvenient and unprofit-
able burthen for carriage into their den.

Thirdly, among the bones met with, scarcely a single lar^ one had escaped
fracture, with the exception of the astralaffus and other haraand solid bones of
the tarsus and- carpus joints and those of the feet ; facts perfectly similar to
those observed by I)r. ^Buckland in the hyaena-cave at Kirtdale, in which the
presence of their nujnerous coprolites proved that these animals inhabited the
cavern.

fourthly, although the cave did not contain any remains of hysenas or their
coprolites, several teeth of bears and lions or tigers were discovered; and I
think it may be legitimately deduced from the occurrence of these cave-
inhabiting animals that the bones above referred to had been fractured by them
for the purpose of obtaining their edible contents ; the occurrence of several
fragments of canines of the m^antic Felts speUea having the two characteristic
longitudin^ indentations on their crowns, together with the canine and sectorial
mokr of an immense lion or tiger, the former tooth measuring five and three-
<inarter inches in length, may too, I imagine, satisfactorily account for the
strength required to carry the remains of such animals as the mammoth and
rhinoceros into the cave.

Lastly, I would remark that the view of the non-accidental introduction of
the remains into the cave appeared still further to be confirmed by the appear-
ances presented in a fissure unexpectedly opened into by the workmen, and
separated from the larger cavern by a comparatively thin wall of solid limestone.
Here many of the bones were only slightly fractured, and there occurred the
nearly perfect s^uU of a hog, encrusted with stalactite, a cast in the same sub-

80 THE QBOLOOIST,

stance of the interior of the cranitun of another animal, together with remains,
apparently belonging to the bear, wolf, or large dog, and the horse, with various
other fractured bones cemented into a breoda-like mass b^ a mixture of day
aud stalactite. These appearances coincide with what might have been ex*
pected to have occurred m the case of bones that had accidentally fallen into a
fissure, and it is not unlikely that they may have been rolled into it through a
small deep hole communicating with the large cavern, but not suflcientlj
capacious to allow of entrance for the recovery of the carcass. The brecdated
bones in the clayey stalactite mi^ht have been also derived from the larg^
cave by the constant falling into 2 of fragments of bone rejected by the cami*
vora, and which, as might oe expected from lying for some time in their den,
would be well mixed with the clay that formed its bottom.

A few of the bones were traversed in all directions by fissures filled with
clayey stalagmite, a mass composed of broken plates of a tooth of the mammoth
being in this condition — ^these facts possibly indicatinff displacement of the walls
of the cave after the introduction of the bones, sum dislocation affording the
opening, by means of which the superficial stabgmite was introduced.

In concluding this part of my description of the caverns and their inhabitants,
I will enumerate the genera of animals to which the specimens (nearly all of
which are in my own possession) belong.

(To be continued.)

PROCEEDINGS OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES.

Geological Society op London. — ^November 30, 1859. — ^Professor John
Phillips, President, in the Chair.

The following cwnmunications were read : —

1, ** On some Bronze Eelics from an Auriferous Sand in Siberia." By T. W.
Atkinson, Esq., T.G.S.

During the author's stay a,t the gold-mine on the Kiver Shargan (Lat. 59
deg. 30 min. N., and Long. 96 deg. 10 min* E.) in August, 1851, some frag-
ments of worked bronze were dug up by' the workmen, at a depth of fourteen
feet eight inches below the surface, from a bed of sand in whioi gold-nuggets
occur. This sand rests on the rock, and is covered by beds of gravel and sand,
overlain by two feet of vegetable soil. The fragments appear to have belonged
either to a bracelet or to some horse-trappings.

2. "On the Volcanic Country of Auckland, New Zealand," By Charles
Heaphj, Esq. Communicated by the President.

The isthmus-like district of Auckland and its neighbourhood, described by
Mr. Heaphy as a basin of Tertiary deposits, is bordered by day-slate, igneous
rocks, and at one spot on the south by cretaceous strata; and it is dotted by
upwards of sixty extinct volcanos, often dosely situated, and showing in
nearly every instance a well-defined point of eruption, generally a cup-like
crater, on a hill about three hundred leet high. Intereiing instances of suc-
cessive volcanic eruption are numerous all over this district, sixty miles round
Auckland; and there seems to have been four distinct epochs of eruption, thus
classified by Mr. Heaphy : — 1. The first was that which raised the trachytic

PROCEEDINGS. OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. 31

moimtsdns and the black boidder-like igneoius rook. 3. Then came the ierup*
tions in the Tertiary period, the ashes of which form beds in the Tertiary rock.
3. Then the eruptions on the upheavaL of the Tertiary difs : these appear as
cones above faxuts on the Tertiary beds and on the edges of cliffs. 4. liastly
the eruptions that have broken throogh the Tertiary b^, and the lava-streams
Qf which follow the natural valleys of the country. The volcanic phenomena
were illustrated by maps and numerous sketches oy the author. Some Ter«
tiary TerebrtUulay some few fossil plants, and some Cretaceous fossils {Inocera-
mm and Belemmteila} accompanied this memoir.

3. « On the Geology of a part of South Australia." By T. Burr, Esq.
From the Colonial Office. 1848.

The lowlands about Adelaide on the west, and along the river Murray on
the east,, oonaist of horizontal beds of limestone and calcareo-siliceous deposits,
yellowish and reddish in colour> full of marine fossils, and of the Tertiary age.
Sometimes gypsum and ferruginous sand replace the limestone. These plains
are arid, except where granite protrudes from the surface, presenting cavities
in which rain-water collects. The author obs^red a similar Tertiary forma-
tion on Yorke's Peninsula, at Port Lincoln, and to the S.E. to beyond Bivoli
Bay ; and it probably forms vast tracts in New South Wales and Western
Australia. None of these tertiary districts appear to exceed an elevation of
three hundred feet above the sea.

In describiiig two volcanos in South Australia, Mount Gambler and Mount
Schauck, Mr. Surr remarked that, coming from the west or north-west at about
twenty miles from these hUls a white coral-Hmestone (Bryozoan limestone)^
eontaming flint or chert, takes the place of the limestones and calcareous
sandstones, with recent sand-formations, previously passed over. This
white limestone is remarkable for the numerous deep well-like water-hole^
in it, within about twelve miles of the volcanic mountains, and about east or
west of them.

Mount Gambler has a height of nine hundred, feet above the sea (six hun-
dred feet above the plain), and has three craters, lying nearly «ist mi west,
and occupied with lakes of fresh -water. Mount Schauck, at a distance of
about nine miles, magnetic south, is circular, and haa one large, and two
small lateral craters.

The author next described the granite, gneiss, and slaty rocks along a sec-
tion extending from the Elver Murray and Kangaroo Bange, across Mount
Barker and mount Lofty, towards Adelaide ; and noticed the mode of occur-
rence of the ores of copper, iron, lead, &c., in these rocks. Lastly he noticed
and explained the occurrence of calciiied stems of trees^ standing in the posi-
tion of their growth, in the sandniunes in the Gulf of St. Vincent, near
Adelaide.

4. **0a some Tertiary deposits in South Australia." By the Rev. Julian
Edmund Woods, Communicated by the President.

The aathor, in the first place, described the ^ographical features of that
part of the colony of South Australia to which his ooservations refer. It lies
between the River Murray on the west, and the colony of Victoria on the east ;
and includes an area of one hundred and fifty-six miles long, north and south,
and seventy broad from east to west. Some trap-dykes and four volcanic
hills are aunost the only interruptions to the: honzontality of these plams,
which rise gradually from the sea, and are occupied by the Tertiary beds
to be noticed; thi^ extend into Victoria for some seventy miles, as far as
Port Fairy.

In some places on the plains a white compact unfossOiferous limestone lies
^uuler the surface-soil; and is sometimes thirty-feet thick. Under this is a
fossOif^cQua limeatone^ The paaaage betweea the. twa is gradual. This latter

32 THB GEOLOOIST.

rock is made tip of Bryozoa — ^perfect and in {ragmenta--wiih some PeeUtu,
Terebratulof, Echinoderms, &c.

Sometimes this rock appears like friable chalk, without distinct fossils* A
large natural pit, originating from the infalling of a cave, occurs near the ex-
tinct volcano, Mount Gambier, and is ninety feet deep, showing a considerable
thickness of this Bryosoan deposit in several beds of fourteen feet, ten feet,
and twelve feet in tnickness. Similar pits show the deposit in the same way
at the Mosquito Plains, seventy miles north.

Eegular layers of flints, ttsuaily black, rarely white, occur in these beds, from
fourteen to twenty feet apart. These, with its colour, and with the superficial
sand-pipes, perforating the rock to a great depth, give it a great resemblance to
ehalk.

The whole district is honeycombed with caves — ^always, however, in the
higher grounds in the undulations of the plains.

One of the caves, in a ridge on the northern side of the Mosquito Plains, is
two hundred feet long, is divided into three great hidls, and has extensive side-*
chambers. The caves have a north and south Section, like that of the ridge.
The large cave has a ^eat stalactite in it ; and many bones of Marsupialia are
heaped up against this on the side facing the entrance ; possibly they may
have been washed up against this barrier oy an inflowing stream. The dri^
coipse of a native hes m this cave. It has been partially entangled in the
stalactite ; but this man was known to have crept into the cave when he had
been wounded, some fourteen years ago. Many of the caves have great pits
for their external apertures, and contain much water.

Some shallow caves contain bones of existing Marsupialia, which have
evidently been the reUcs of animals that fell into the grass-hidden aperture at
top.

The caves appear in many caves to be connected with a subterranean system
of drainage ; currents and periodical oscillations being occasionally observed in
the waters contained in them. There is but little superficial drainage. One
overflowing swamp was found by the author to send its water into an under^
ground channel in a ridge of limestone.

Patches of shelly sand occur here and there over the ten thousand nine hun^
dred and eighty square miles of country occupied bv the white limestones ; but
near the coast this shelly sand thickens to two hunored feet.

A coarse limestone forms a ridge along the coast-line, and it contains exist-
ing species of shells. This indicates an elevation of the coast of late date, and
which probablv is still taking place.

Dec. 14. — ^1. "On some Kemains of Polyptychodan from Dorking.'* By
Prof. Owen, P.RS., P.G.S.

Eeferrin^ to the genus of Saurians which he had foimded in 1841 on certain
large detached teeth from the Cretaceous beds of Kent and Sussex, and which
genus, in reference to the many-ridged or folded character of the enamel of
ttiose teeth, he had proposed to call Polyptychodon, Prof. Owen noticed the
successive discoveries of portions of jaws, one showing the thecodont implanta-
tion of those teeth, whicn, with the shape and proportions of the teeth, led
him to suspect the crocodDian affinities of Polyptochodon ; and the subsequent
discoven^ of bones in a Lower Greensand quarry at Hythe, which, on the nypo-
thesis 01 their having belonged to Polyptychodon, had led him to suspect that
the genus conformed to the Hesiosauroia type.

The fossils now exhibited by Mr. G. Cubitt of Denbies, consisted of part of
the cranium (showii^ a large foramen parietale), fragments of the upper and
lower laws, and teeth of the Polyptychodon interrmtus, from the Lower Chalk
of Dorking, and afforded further evidence of the plesiosauroid affinities of the
genus. Professor Owenremarked that in a collection of fossik from the Upper

i
i

PROCEEDINGS OF OEOLOGIOAL SOCIETIES. 83

Greensand near Cambridge, now in the Woodwardian Museum, and in another
collection of fossils from the Greensand beds near Kursk in Russia, submitted
to the Professor's examination b^ Col. ICiprianoff, there are teeth of Polyptycho^
ioH, associated with plesiosauroid vertebrsQ of the same proportional magnitude,
and with portions of large limb-bones, without meaullary cayity> aud of
plesiosauroid shape.

Thus the evidenoe at present obtained respecting this huge, but hitherto
problematical, carnivorous Saurian of the Cretaceous period seemed to prove
it to be a marine one, more closely adhering to the prevailing type of the Sea-
lizards of the great mesozoic epocn, then drawing to its close, than to the Mosa-
taunts of the Upper Chalk, which, by its vertebral, palatal, and dental charac-
ters, seemed to loreshadow the Saurian type to follow.

Professor Owen exhibited also drawings of specimens in the Woodwardian
Museum and in the collection of Mr. W. Harris, of Charing, which show the
mode and degree of use or abrasion to which the teeth of Pofyptye&odon had
been subject.

2. " On some Fossils from near fiahia, South America." By S. Allport,
Eso. Communicated by Professor Morris, F.G.S.

The south-west point of the lull on which the Port of Montserrate is built^
in Bahia Bay, exhibits a section of alternating beds of conglomerate, sandstone,
and shale ; m the last Mr. AUport discoverea a large Dinosaurian dorsal verte-
bra, not unlike that of MegcUosaurm, several Crocodilian teeth, and numerous
large scales of Lepidoftu, together with a few Molluscs (Paluditui, Unio, &c.),
some Bntomostraca, and Lignite. Two miles from Montserrate, in a N.£.
direction, is the Plantaforma, another hill of the same formation, but loftier.
The shales here also yielded similar fossils.

These fossiliferous shales and conglomerates dip to the N.W. towards the
Bajr, and appear to overUe a similarly mclined whitish sandstone, which rests
against the gneissose hills ranging north-easterly from the point of St. Antonio.
3. " On a Terrestrial Mollusc, a Chilognathous Myriapod, and some new
species of Reptiles, from the Coal-formatian of Nova Scotia." By J. W.
Dawson, L.L.I)., F.G.S., &c.

On revisiting the South Jog^ings in the past summer. Dr. Dawson had the
opportunity of examining the mterior of another erect tree in the same bed
which had afforded therossil stump from which the remains of Dendrerpeton
Acadianum and other terrestrial animals were obtained in 1851 by Sir C. Lyeli
and himself. This second trunk was about fifteen inches in diameter, and was.
much more richly stored with animal remains than that previously met witL
lliere were here numerous specimens of the ^land-shell found in tne tree pre-
viously discovered in this bed — several individuals of an articulated animal, pro-
bably a Myriapod — ^portions of two skeletons of Dendrerpeton — and seven
small skeletons belonging to another Reptilian genus, and probably to three
species.

The bottom of the trunk was floored with a thin laver of carbonized bark.
On this was a bed of fragments of mineral charcoal (having Sigillaroid ceU-
stnicture)> an inch thick, with a few Reptilian bones and a Sternbergia-cs&i,
Above this, the trunk was occupied, to a height of about six inches, with a
hard black laminated material, consisting of fine sand and carbonized vegetable
matter, cemented Bv carbonate of lime. In this occurred most of the animal
remains, with coprolites, and with leaves of Noeggerathia (Poaeites), Carpo-
lithes, and Calamitesy also many small pieces of mineral charcoal, showing the
structures of Lepidodendron, Stigmariff, and the leaf-stalks of Perns. The
upper part of this carbonaceous mass alternated with fine grey sandstone, which
mied tne remainder of the trunk as far as seen. The author remarked that
this tree, like other erect SigHlaria in this section, became hollow by decay,

VOL. III. B

84 THB QEOLOOIST.

after haying been more or less buried in sediment; but that, nidike most
others, it remained hollow for some time in the soil of a forest, receiying small
quantities of earthy and veeetable matter, falling into it, or gashed in by rains.
In this state it was probably a place of residence for the snails and myriapoda
and a trs^ and tomb for the reptiles ; though the presence of coprolitic matter
would seem to show that in some instances at least the latter could exist for a
time in their underground prison. The occurrence of so many skeletons, with
a hundred or more specimens of land-snails and myriapods, m a cylinder only
fifteen inches in diameter proves that these creatures were by no means rare in
the coal-forests ; and the conditions of the tree with its air-breathing inhabitants
implies that the Sigillarian forests were not so low and wet as we are apt to
im^ine.

Tne little land-shell, specimens of which with the mouth entire have now oc-
curred to the author, is named by him Pupa vetmta, Dr, JDawson found entire
shells of Pk^ia heterostropha in the stomach of Menobranchus lateralis, and
hence he supposes that the Pupa may have been the food of the little neptiles,
the remains of which are associated with them.

Two examples of Spirorbis carhonarim also occurred ; these may hare been
drifted into the hollow trunk whilst they were adherent to Testable fragments.
The Myriapod is named Xylobius Siaillariof, and regarded as bemg allied to lultes.

The reptilian bones, scutes, and teeth referable to Dendrerpeton Acadianum
bear out the supposition of its Labyrinthodont affinities. Those of the new
^enus, Hylonomus, established by Dr. Dawson on the otiier reptilian remains,
mdicate a type remote from Arehegosaurm and Labyrinikodony but in numy
respects approaching the LacertianS. The three species determined by the
autnor are named H, I^ellii, H, aciedeniatus, and H. Wymani,

4. ''On the Occurrence of Footsteps of Ckiroiherium in the Upper Keuper
of Warwickshire." By the Kev. P. B. Brodie, F.G.S.

True Chirotherian feetsteps do not appear to have been hitherto met with in
the Keuper of Warwickshire ; but a specimen of Keuper sandstone showing
the casts of a fore- and a hind-foot of Ghirotherium was lately turned up by the
plough at Whitley Green, near Henley-in-Arden. Tlie breadth of the fore-foot
IS about two inches, the hind-foot is four and arhalf inches across. As the
New Bed sandstone of Cheshire, so well known for its fine Chirotherian foot-
tracts, certainly belongs to the upper part of the New Bed series, it may now
be further correlated with the tipper Keuper of Warwickshire, the latter
having yielded true Chirotherian foot-prints.

Geologist's Association, OrdiuMy Meeting, 5th Dec, 1859, Rev.
Thomas Wiltshire, M.A., P.G.S., President, in the chair.

The president stated that since the last meeting^the Association had lost a
valuable, friend in the person of John Brown, Esq., F.G.S., who had prepared a
paper which was to have been read that evening. Under these drcumstances
the coinmittee had thought it respectful to the memory of Mr. John Brown,
that his paper (which had been forwarded to the president) should not be read,
until the next meeting in January. It was announced that Professor Tennant,
P.G.S., had kindly volunteered at very short notice to give a lecture on
siliceous nodules in the various formations.

Professor Tennant commenced by some observations on the large proportion
in which silica enters into the composition of rocks, constituting one-half part
of granite, one-third part of syenite, nine-tenths of quartz, and three-fourths of
greensand. He then described, the enormous amount of silica in the fiints of the
upper chalk, and called attention to the peculiarity which distinguishes the
beds of fiints in Kent and Sussex from those of Yorkshire. In the rormer they

PBOCEEDINQS OF OGOLOQICAL SOCIETIES. 85

are of dense stmchire ; in the latter mostly of a porous cHaracter, taking
regular forms, not unlike those of many modem sponges.

Some remarks were then made on Dr. Bowerbank's theory that the great
mass of the flints found iiji the chalk are true sponges : a theory to which rro-
fessor Tennant said he was inclined to subscribe. He pointed out as an illustra-
tion of its possible truth, and as a proof that oi^anic remains may be enclosed in
silica^ the weU known appearance of moss-agates, sections of which, procured
from Oberstein, cannot under the microscope be distinguished from sections of
certain modern sponges. Professor Tennant also drew attention to the differ-
ence in the flints of volcanic and aqueous rocks ; the former being destitute of,
whilst the latter abound in, organic remains.

After alluding to the beds of chert in many of the formations, such as the
Portland-rock, Greensand, etc., he advocated the view that the Paramoudra, of
Ireland, are nothing more than enormous silicifled sponges, and concluded with
an account of the hollow flints found on Salisbury Plain, the core of which
when examined under the microscope is seen to oe composed of a mass of
delicate spicules.

A discussion by several of the members followed, during which the president
directed attention to a circumstance, which Mr. Charlesworth confirmed, viz.,
that a mass of flint when surrounding the base of a ventriculite, never en-
velopes the whole of the root of the ventriculite.

Mr. Charlesworth made several remarks, with a view of explaining this phe-
nomenon, and at some length entered into reasons for disagreeing with the
views of Dr. Bowerbank as to the spongous origin of many of the Chalk flints.

The late Mr. John Brown, P.G.8., of Stanway, has bequeathed the sum of
£100 to the Association.

Malvern Pxeld Club.— The Naturalists' Field Club lately held a meeting
at Pershore, on which occasion the President, the B>ev. Mr. Symonds, of Pen-
dock, addressed the meeting at some len^h upon a few of the most important
scientific topics of the day. On the subject of the supposed flint implements
which have caused so inuch disquisition among geologists, Mr. Symonds re-
marked that they were discovered in the north of France, in undisturbed beds
of gravel, sand, and clay, in drift, in fact, of much the same geolo^cal age as
the old lake- and river- margins of the Avon, the Severn, and the Wye. The
level of the land in that pafft of France, however, appears to have been more
deranged by oscillating movements than has been the water-level of the peace-
ful vales of Worcestershire and Herefordshire. The stratified travel, contain-
ing the weapon-looking flints, associated with the remains of tne extinct ele-
phant and rhinoceros, occupies, in some localities, a height of one hundred feet
above the present level of the river Somme, which has worn for itself a newer
and deeper bed since those flints and the bones of wild beasts were buried
together in the mud, silt, and gravel of its ancient margins. On the question
of the human fabrication of the flints, Mr. Symonds saia that he had seen many
exhibited at Aberdeen, by Sir Charles Lyell and Mr. R. W. Mylne, and that
the rudeness of many of these implements might well cause the cautious inves-
tigator of truth to pause before he believed that they were wrought by men;
while on the other hand some of the specimens appeared to have been so
wronffht. The question rested, from the evidence Mr. Symonds could collect,
on the fact as to whether or not the flints were human implements. The re-
mains of the extinct mammalia may have been drifted from older beds, but the
physical geology of the district, and the physical position of the stratified drifts,
containing the supposed human implements, compelled the most able of the

legists of Fratice and England to arrive at the conclusion that, if these flints

36 THE GEOLOGIST.

are human implements, man lived at a far more remote epoch than has usuaOj
been assigned to his creation.

The Pteraspis discovered at Leintwardine, near Ludlow, by Mr. L^htbody,
of the Woolhope Club, in the Lower Ludlow depK)sit8, ^n^eatlv antedated the
period at which fish were supposed to have first existed. The fossil bad been
examined by competent authorities and both its fish character, and the physical
position of the beds, had now been firmly established. After the meetmg of
the British Association of Aberdeen, Mr. Symonds accompanied Lord Ennis-
killen. Sir C. Lyell, Sk W. Jardine, and Professor Harkness to the Elgin dis-
trict, for the further examination of the reptile-bearing sandstones containing
the Telerpeton, Stagonolepis, and Hyperadaphodon, and long supposed to belong
to the age of the Old Rea Sandstone. Mr. Symonds entirely agreed with the
opimon formed by Sir C. Lyell, founded on a mass of evidence and details too
intricate to be briefly or easily explained, that the reptiliferous sandstones of
Elgin are more probably of the Triassic age, than of the epoch of the Old Ecd.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Notices of Ikcobsectnesses in Mb. Page's Handbook op Geolooicai.
Terms. — Deab Sib, — On the recommendation of last month's " Geologist,"
I bought Mr. Page's Handbook of Geological Terms. Upon glancing at it, I
saw that he had fallen into some errors of pronunciation, and, mvited to do so
by his preface, I wrote to him immediately to put him on his guard, and give
him an opportunity of taking such steps as he should deem advisable. As
the matter seems to have escaped your notice, I think it well to advise you of
it. In my opinion there are many of these errors ; but others may differ from
me in some instances. I note a few, however, below, which admit of no
doubt, as reference to every lexicon and received authority will show :

Afinis, AggMtinans, Albo-gal6rus, Briar^us, C<5ncavus, Cdn^ners, Echinus
and Echlnite, Edulis, Euglyphus, Gigant^us, Hexagdnus, Hippocr^pis, Ma-
crospdndylus, MammHllferons.

One or two other errors of a different kind, have caught my eye.

Miliola he derives from mille — ^though confounding the idea with that of
fivpids, 10,000, apparently. It evidently comes from milium, the seed of
millet, which the uttle shell resembles.* It would have been milliola other-
wise, I suppose, for the inventor would hardly have chosen the obsolete mile for
such a purpose.

Siva IS a male deity, not a goddess.

Brachiopoda — " spiral arms," "which they can uncoil and protrude.'*

Woodward says, " It has been conjectured, etc. . . this supposition is
rendered less probable by the fact that, in many* genera, they are supported by
a brittle skeleton of shell" — Manual, p. 211.^ — I am, dear sir, yours truly,
Henbt Eley. — ^We regard Mr. Eley's communication as a most important
note, and we cordially mtroduce it, as expressive of our sincere wish to add to
the usefulness of Mr. rage's valuable book, to remove some more of the numer-
ous stumbling blocks already laid in the student's path by the bad Latinism of
very many of the modem naturalists and pabeontologists. There is not only a

* If crowded aggregation is implied, the spike of millet is a most apt similitude*

NOTES AND QUERIES. S7

want of a critioal guide for the unlettered student^ but' the faulty pronuncia-
tion in YOgue seems little likely to be corrected without a good standard of
reference more ready at hand thMi dictionary and gradus. We may remark
that, besides those instances mentioned by Mr. Eley, several of which,
especially affiudis, girait^us, cdnoavus, edtilis, are sldom rightlv spoken among
geologbts, there is ue frequent mispronunciation of such words as the gene-
tivies of proper names ; tiius, Milleri wrongly for Mill6ri, Sc6uleri for Scoul^ri,
and the like ; also Ganoid^a, Crinoid6a» Cystid^, &c., are not always thus cor-
rectly pronounced. We may, however, remind tvros that family names, such
as Ostr^idffi, are to be pronounced as Mr. Page tnus marks, not Ostreid«, as
it is incorrectly and too commonly spoken.

In Mr. Page's list at p. 40, multifidus has no accentuation, it should be mul-
ti^dus — ^too often pronounced multlfidus wrongly ; so also quadriff dus and tri-
fidus. Hemisphencus fp. 398) should be hemisphffiricus. Fossilis (p. 396)
should be aoce»tuated tossflis. Cervical at p. lil should be Cervical, not
Cervical.

We here add some other corrections which have been pointed out to us by
another correspondent, and we hope the book will be all the better for sucn
criticisms in the next edition. Tor its sake we are open ta receive more
notes of corrections, so that both tvro and Mr. Page may have the benefit
thereof. Digitalus, finger-like, should be either digitalis, belonging to a finger,
or digitatus, fingered — formed as fingers ; dorsalis should have its accent on
the middle syllable ; gagateus may be accented thus, ^ag&teus. In the Latin,
Konig should be spelt Koenigius ; so also Noeggerathius. Longfmanus wants
the accent at p. 401. The correction of psildpora for the incorrect psilopdra
(p. 409), and tubipora for tubipdra, may remind many of the common wronff
pronuncation of the multitude of names of corals and bryozoa partly composed
of pora^ a pore. Pygmsens, unaccented at p. 409, should have its penultmiate
syllable long ; this is often forgotten. In tne same page, pucillus is apparently
a misprint for pusillus, and Ks^ikinei for Sankin^i. Saxdtilis at p. 410 should
be Saxatilis. Toliapicus (p. 414) has, we believe, a reference to Tolapia, or
some similar form of the Latin name of the Isle of Sheppy. Unfcolor should
take the place of the incorrect unicdlor. Mseandrinus should be placed for
meandrinus, Macrdstomus for macrostdmus. Moniliformis and monilitectus
monileformis, etc. Muensterianus for Miinsterianus (after Count Miinster).
Cypridina-Schiefer (p. 137) should not be half Latin half Grerman, but as the
Germans have it, Cypridinen-Schiefer.

We would suggest that the description of Brachiopoda at pa^ 96, may be
corrected thus ; — " which they cannot uncoil and protrude, but with wluch" etc.

SucKENSiDBS. — jyEAB. SiB, — I was much interested by the queries and re-
^es, upon the subject of slickensides, in the last number of the " Geologist."
They are very abundant in the Keuper sandstone of Cheshire, and the south-
west of Lancashire. Usually, two polished striated surfaces exist together,
but not always, for occasionally a single slickenside is only opposed by a soft
sandstone, without any trace of such an appearance. Those said to oe two
feet apart, I think can have no connection with each other. Faults are very
numerous in this neighbourhood ; in width they vary from an inch to twenty
yards. They are always filled with sandstone, very much harder than the
strata boundmg them, while at each side slickensides abound. If the strata at
each side of the fault is removed, the enclosed compact rock stands across like
a wall, beautifully polished and striated upon each side. In such cases it is
evident that the polished surfaces could not have been caused by the original
disruption of the strata, but afterwards — ^long after the fault had been filled by
debris. I am therefore of opinion that a throw of the strata to a very small
extent, acting under immense pressure, was sufiGicient to cause the phenomena.

38 THB OEOLOOIST.

This is confinned by the oocurrenoe of slickenaidies at different angles in sKdes
of the rock within the faults, and also hj higblj polished surfaces, occurring in
very slight faults, which displace the strata omj a foot or eighteen indies.

1 beheve it is the compact sandstone within the faults, and not the aUcken-
sides, that is considered to act as a barrier to subterranean water. — ^I remain;
dear sir, yours etc., George Hilloston, F.G.S., Liyerpool.

Slickensides. — Dear Sib, — ^The subject of " slickensides" is one to which
I have paid some attention, and I have always noted as many of the facts
relating to this appearance on rock-surfaces as I possibly could. I have read
with much interest in the last number of the " Qeologist" the queries on
** slickensides" submitted to the Geological Section of the British Association
during the meeting at Aberdeen, by Mr. Price, and the replies by Ftofessor
Ansted. Permit me to offer a few remarks on this really curious and interest-
ing subject.

The formation of a ** slickenside" on any rock-surface is due to the sHding
of one rock-mass on the other, the motion yerj pmssibly having been a slow
one, but exerted under enormous pressure, and without the aid of more heat
than would have been produced oy the friction. The result of this motion
would, in the first instance, be the pulverization more or less of the two
opposing rock-surfaces, and when this crushing action ceased, the re-consolida-
tion of that crushed material, by means of enormous pressure, accompanied by
motion.

I find in limestones and sandstones that most usually the ** sHckenside-" striae
are on the surface of the beds, and their direction frequently parallel to that of
the dip. In my geological notes I find many references like the following :
" Slickensides-strise parallel to the dip of the beds, showing vertical displace-
ment in the mass ;" but when the striss are transverse to the dip, and m the
direction of the strike of the beds, I say that " horizontal displacement is
indicated." In either instance of course there is no /auli produced in
the strata, though a displacement of them en mMse is clearly indicated, the
direction of which being pointed out by that of the stri» of compression.
This is the only way in which nx^-masses can be displaced without being
faulted.

- The slickenside-strisB are frequently oblique to the dip of the beds, the angle
of obliquity being of course variabre, but always incbcating the dii^ection of
the displacement.

The thickness of the slickenside, or striated substance, is very yariable ;
sometimes it is as thin as card-paper, at others nearly an inch from one surface
to the other. It varies also m its internal struchire : sometimes it consists
throughout of a series of very thin and finely striated lameUie, which readily
flake off from each other by the application of a penknife, or when struck on
the fractured edges with the hammer. At other times this structure is only
partial, and conned to the surfaces; and again, when the slickenside is tolera-
bly thick, it is homogeneous throughout, the surfaces above presenting a
highhr-polished or glazed appearance, but not such as would be the result of
vitrification.

In limestones the slickenside frequently appears as a white oQcareous
material resembling opaque carbonate of lime, but coated with a carbonaceous-
looking glaze, which readily soils the fingers. In slate or sandstone-rocks the
shckenside is most usually homogeneous in its structure ; it comes away in
small slabs, and resembles dull-looking quartz, or quartzite, having both sur-
faces highly polished, beautifully and often deeply striated, and stained of a
dark manganese— brown, or black colour.

The most remarkable kind of slickenside I know of is one not unfrequent in
the carbontferous limestone of Irebnd ; it exhibits two distinct sets ol stria.

ircrras a»d qdeeies. 89

vntged more or less at richt angles to each other; and closely Bdhnring, 6no
set being iwrallel, or nearly so, to the dip, and the other to the strike
d the heda.

From this it would appesf that the
Ma alMve and below had two distinct
Mitkina ptea to them, but at different
tnlenals of time. In the exampls be-
fore us we have evidence for believing
that at first one set of beds moved while
the other remained stationary i and that
one half of the crushed intervening sub-
stance, while adhering to the moving
mass by cohesion was pnUedinto a state
of striation to the amount of only one-
half its tbic^Bsss. The motion then
suddenly ceased, and the adjoining beds
were moved, but in a direction directly
contiai; to the Snt. The remaining
portion of the pulverised material fol-
lowed this second impulse, and assumed
a striated structors, the lines of which
were parallel with the direction of the
displacement and consequently at an
opposite angle with that which was first
formed.

^e have in Brockedon's patent pen-

aondation of a powdered substance by

the application of enormous pressure

into a material harder and more free from grit, or other impuritiea, than the

original native plumbago, and to this our slickensidea bear a striking analogy.

Dear air, faithfully youis, Gbo. V. Do Kotib, M.B.IA., Geologicid Survey of

Ireland.

Pdblibhk) Accoumts op Fossil Humas Reuains. — Sih,— Will you
obl^ me by answering tile following query in the " Geologist." I ask as
welT for others as myself. Where may he procured the fullest and most re^
liable information respecting fossil human remains that have been discovered in
the world P, Sobscbibkb, Hedlwids. — There is no connected account of the
human remains discovered in various parts of the globe, and it is one of the
objects of the papers on the " Fiiat Traces of Man on the Globe." now pub-
liaoing in this magazine, to give a ooll6cted acooulit of all the reliable cases,
and to give illustrationa ^ the ancient flint-weapons, etc., as also of the
st«Do-implementa recently, or still in use amongst savage tribes in varions parts
of the world.

The best account of human remains published up to the present time will be
found in the appendix to M. Boucher de Perthes' book. Other notices may he
profitably consulted, snch as Dr. Mantell's paper, read at the Oxford meeting
of the Aroiueologic&l Institute, 1860, and M. Marcelde Serrcs' several papers
in the Bulletin Soc. QeoL de iWice, Comptes Bendns, etc.

Defositios or Warp, — Sib:, — In "Notes and Queries," in the "Geolo-
oisr" for December last, W. Nottu^fhara asks two questions, vii., 1st. Where
does the warp come fromF 3nd., How is it that theHumberandits tributariea
—the Trent, Ouse, Don, etc., are the only rivers in Great Britain that deposit
■■?
we take into consideration the fact that the Hnmber receives the

•■imp"i
When

40 THE GEOLOGIST.

drainage of nine thousand one hundred and seventy three square miles, of which
the Trent alone draws from four thousand five hundred square miles, the re-
maining four thousand six hundred and seventy-three square miles supplying
the Ouse, we may form some idea where part of the " warp" comes from.
What proportion nver-sediment from floods, etc., may supply, I camiot pretend
to say. Then we have the gradual wearing away of our Yorkshire coasts from
two miles east of Bridlington Quay to Spumt Point, which is a distance of
about forty-three miles. Along this coast we lose, on an average, six feet
three inches annually. In fact new roads have continually to be made in con-
sequence of the sea making such rapid encroachments on tne land, which, when
washed away, is taken up the Humber and constitutes another source from
which the " warp" is formed, and deposited upon lands up the rivers, etc.

I think your correspondent, W. Nottingham, will be able to draw from
these facts answers to both his questions. I believe that no other liver, or
rivers in England are situated under 'such favourable circumstances for making
the deposits called " warp" as are the rivers above mentioned. — Dear sir, yours-
faithfully, Edwabd Tindall.

REVIEW.

Mr. Tennanfs Mineralogical and Geological Colleclions,

We have received specimen cases of the two hundred, and three hundred
selected examples of fossils and minerals, accompanied by the very useful cata-
logue of ordinary British fossils, recently published by Mr. Tennant. These
collections are designed as an initiary means of instruction for students and
tyros. Nothing so much tends to facilitate and encourage the study of any
science as a ready means of access to the principal objects referred to in the
general descriptions and writings of authors. It is easy to accumulate speci-
mens of rocks and fossils, and to form expensive collections ; but it is not so
easy to form a limited and proper selection which shall at once illustrate the
chief facts of a science, and be of real service to the student.

Professor Tennant's well known intimate knowledge of minerals gives confi-
dence to learners as to the correctness of the naming of the specimens, and his
long experience in this class of rudimentary collections — ^first made by his im-
mediate predecessor, Mr. Mawe, more than fifty years ago — shows itself in the
completeness and perfection of the present cabinet coUections, in which, al-
though the samples of fossils and minerals are of small size they are ty{>ical]y
charact-eristic, and have every scientific advantage of displaying sufficiently
their characters with that essential one of condensed space. The cabinets in
which the coUections are contained are strongly and neatly made, and, whether
as useful and interesting presents at this season of gifts, or viewed in their
proper light of aids to the comprehension of elementary treatises on Geology
or Mineralogy, they are well worthy of the recommendations given to them by
Sir Charles Lyell, the late Dr. Mantell, and other eminent geologists, and in
which we readily concur.

THE GEOLOGIST.

FEBRUARY, 1860.

GEOLOGICAL LOG ALITIES. — NO. L

FOLKESTONE.

Br S. J. MiCKiB, F.G.S., F.S.A.

Time paasea away, &iid we all of Tia grow older and older.

daj by day the daylight lengthens or contracts, the air geta

or chillier, the skies brighter or Ueaker, and everything aronnd

impetceptably changes, it is only after the lapse of weeks that

perceiye the change.

Lign. 1. — Eaatwear Bbj, from Copt Point,

Tet Time never stays hia rapid coarse ; and in mid-life it is per_
lapa for the first time we stop in onr onward path to feel, for the
firat time too, we are not what we were.

YOL. 111. F

42 THE GEOLOGIST.

Years ago, when a child, I picked up shells and pebbles on
the Kentish strands. In school-boy days, with bolder hand and
surer foot, ofb have I scrambled o'er those white chalk-cliffs, or
clambered homewards for six long miles o'er sea-weeded rocks with
satchel loaded ftdl of fossils gathered from the slippery shores of
Eastwear Bay, were the dark-blue crumbling Grault daily yields its
crop of glittering fossils to the destructive battering of the salt sea
waves.

As the home almost of my childhood do I stiU look back to East-
wear Bay. On its flat and sanded shores are dotted innumerable
earth coHs of ever-working worms, o'er the bronzed and unctuous
fields of tangle and fucoids, and the barnacle-crusted rocks are
spattered myriads of tiny tube- worms (Spirorbes and Serpulae), and
thousands of patches of the matted and netted towns of bryozoans
(Escharas and Flustrfle). The rough waves wash up the almost
senseless bristled sea-mouse {Aphrodita acideata). Perriwinkles
cling to the overlapping algals, and troups of limpets at the recess
of the tide march down with solemn step and slow to browse in
the fields of the serrated ftici, retiring before its flood to fit
themselves fastidiously down again to their perches on the rocks.
Lobsters and crabs pass seemingly happy days in holes amongst the
bigger stones, while eolids, dorids, and other inhabitants of the deep
wade here ashore o'er smooth, or rugged paths to spawn.

The long line of undercliff, the Warren, stretches in romantic
beauiy its chains of hiU and dale along beneath the tail white cliffs,
that proudly lift their lordly crests five hundred feet above the sing-
ing waves below.

Who is there amongst us with heart so dead as not to admire and
delight in such a scene as this ? Who, from the fairest of England's
daughters to the sunburnt labourer, is dead to those charms of sense
and scene which ever- varied Nature ever variedly presents to refresh
the heart of the poor mechanic as thoroughly and as truly, as they do
the gentler and more exquisite sensibilities of those who have never
known a care.

" Come with me," says Lewes, in one of his beautifal * Studies,'
"come with me and lovingly study Nature, as she breathes,
palpitates, and works under myriad forms of Life." Come with me,

OEOLOOT OF FOLKESTOME — THE QAITLT. 43

too, and iovin^y etady Nature ; only come with me with a stouter
heart and bohler step, and let na Tentnre one essay into the myste-

Where shall we begin ? " Anywhere," says Lewea, " will do."
And truly so it will, for the geologist as well as for the oatoralist.

1%). l— The Wan-en, witb Eutwcnr Bay aad Copt Point, from the mumnlt of Abbot's OUfl.

We are already in the Warren. I remember it before it was spoUt
liy that great ugly gash of a railway-cutting, through which the fiery
locomotiTe whizzes like a Bmokiiig rocket fnriouely along. I re-
member it in ite solemn quietneaa ; and oft, as the snsuner'B glorious
Ban was placidly sinking in the west, have I wandered o'er its grassy
mounds, or along its bordering sands beneath, where

" The piawn-catoher wades tJirongh the shore-rippliiig wavea."

Beautiful indeed is that white land-locked bay in ite faiiy like

purity. Serenity itself is that solemn glassed expanse of level water.
How sweetly, too, the dying glories of the mddy sun tip the highest
peaks of chalky cliffs, while all below is shrouded up in solemn
shadow, save off at sea, where

" Bright gleam the white sailB in the Btont rays of even,

And Btnd Bs with silver the broad level main j

While glowing clonds floal; on the fair Ihce of heaven.

And the mirror-like water refleota them again."

46 THE GEOLOOIST.

The development of ArchfiBology has been very similar to that
of Gteology. Not long ago we should have smiled at the idea of re-
constmcting the bygone days of onr race previous to the beginning
of history properly so called. The void was partly filled np by re-
presenting that ante-historical antiquity as having been only of short
duration, and partly by exaggerating the value and the age of those
vague and confused notions which constitute tradition.

It seems to be with mankind at large as with single individuals. The
recollections of our earliest childhood have entirely faded away up to
some particular event which had struck us more forcibly, and which
alone has left a lasting image amidst the surrounding darkness.
Thus, excepting the idea of a deluge which exists among so many
nations, and therefore appears to have originated before the emigra-
tion of those same nations, the infancy of mankind, at least in
Europe, has passed without leaving any reminiscences ; and history
fails here entirely, for what is history but the memory of mankind.

But before the beginning of history there were life and indus-
try, of which various monuments still exist ; while others lie buried
in the soil, much as we find the organic remains of former creations
entombed in the strata composing the crust of the globe. The anti-
quities enact here a similar part to that of the fossils ; and if Cuvier
calls the geologist an antiquarian of a new order, we can reverse
that remarkable saying, and consider the antiquarian as a geologist,
applying his method to reconstruct the first ages of mankind pre-
vious to all recollection, and to work out what may be termed pre-
historical history. This is Areheeology pure and proper. But
Archaeology cannot be considered as coming to a fall stop with the
first beginning of history, for the farther we go back in our historical
researches the more incomplete they become, leaving gaps which the
study of material remains helps to fill up. Archaeology, therefore,
pursues its course in a parallel line with that of histoiy, and hence-
forth the two sciences mutually enlighten each other. But with the
progress of history the part taken by Archaeology goes on decreasing,
until the invention of printing almost brings to a close the researches
of the antiquarian.

To pursue geological investigations, we must first examine the
present state of our planet, and observe its changes — that is, we must

MORLOT — SOME GENERAL VIEWS ON ARCHiEOLOGT. 47

begm by physical geology. This supplies ns with a thread of induc-
tion to guide us safely in our rambles through the past ages of our
earth, as Lyell has so admirably set forth ; for the laws which
govern, organic creation and the inorganic world are as invariable as
the results of their combinations and permutations are infinitely
varied, science revealing to us everywhere the perfect stability of
causes with the diversity of forms.

So, to understand the past ages of our species, we must first begin
by examining its present state, following man wherever he has
crossed the waters and set his foot upon dry land. The different
nations which at present inhabit our earth must be studied with re-
spect to their industry, their habits, and their general mode of life.
We thus make ourselves acquainted with the different degrees of
civilization, ranging fix)m the highest summit of modem development
to the most abject state, hardly surpassing that of the brute. By that
means Ethnology supplies us with what may be called a contempo-
raneous scale of development, the stages of which are more or less
fixed and invariable ; whilst ArchsBology traces a scale of successive
development, with one moveable stage passing gradually along the
whole line.*

Ethnography is, consequently, to Archseology what physical geo-
graphy is t-o geology, namely, a thread of induction in the labyrinth
of the past, and a starting point in those comparative researches of
which the end is the knowledge of. mankind, and its development
through successive generations.

In following out the principles above laid down, the Scandinavian
savants have succeeded in unravelling the leading features in the pro-
gress of pre-historical European civilization, and in distinguishing
three principal eras, which they have called the Stone-age, the
Bronze-age, and the Iron-age.t

This great conquest in the realm of science is due chiefly to the
labours of Mr. Thomson, director of the Ethnological and ArcheBolo-

* Some naturalists see a correspondence of the same sort between embryology
and comparative anatomy, for they consider the hnman embiyo as passing during
its development through the different stages of the scale of animal creation, or, at
least, as passing through the different states of the embryos of the different
stages of that scale.

t The history of Danish Archaeology has been sketched by T. Hindenberg.
See "Dansk Maanedskrift," I. 1859.

48 THE GEOLOGIST.

gical Museums at Copeiihagen,* and to those of Mr. Nielssen, profes-
sor at the flourishing University of Lund, in Sweden.t These illus-
trious veterans of the school of northern antiquarians have ascer-
tained that Europe, at present so civilized, was at first inhabited by-
tribes to whom the use of metal was totally unknown, and whose in-
dustry and domestic habits must have borne a considerable analogy
to what we now see practised among certain savages. Bone, horn,
and chiefly flint, were then used, instead of metal, for manufacturing
cutting-instruments and arms. This was the Stone-age, which
might also be called the first great phase of civilization.

The earliest settlers in Europe apparently brought with them
the art of producing fire. By striking iron-pyrites (sxdphuret of
iron) against quartz, fire can be easily obtained. But this method
can only have been occasionally used, and seems to have been con-
fined to some native tribes in Terra del Fuego. J The usual mode has
been evidently that of rubbing two sticks together ; but, on further
reflection, it is easy to perceive that this was a most difficult dis-
covery, and must at all events have been preceded by a knowledge of
the use of fire as derived from the effects of lightning or from vol-
canic action.

The Stone-age was, therefore, probably preceded by a period per-
haps of some length, during which man was unacquainted with the
art of producing fire. This, according to Mr. Flourens, indicates
that the cradle of mankind was situated in a warm climate. §

The art of producing fire has been perhaps the greatest achieve-
ment of human intelligence. The use of fire lies at the root of
almost every species of industry ; it enables the savage to feU trees,

* " Ledetraad til Kordisk Oldkyndighed." Copenhagen, 1836. Published in
English by Lord Ellesmere under the title of " A Guide to Northern Antiquities,"
London, 1848.

t Nielsson. " Scandinaviska Nordens Urinvonare." Lnnd, 1838-1843.

J Weddell, " A Voyage towards the South Pole in 1822-1824." London, 1827.
P. 167.

§ Plouren's " De la Longevite Humaine." Paris, 1855. P. 127. Man, firom the
construction of his teeth, his stomach, and his intestines, is primitively frugivorous,
like the monkey. But the firugivorous diet is the most unfibvourable, because it
constrains its followers perpetually to abide in those countries which produce
fruit at all seasons, consequently in warm climates. But, once the art of cook-
ing introduced, and applied both to n.Tiima1 and vegetable productions, man could
extend and vary the nature of his diet. Man has consequently two diets : the
first is primitive, natural, and instinctive, and by it he is firogivorous ; the second
is artificial, being due entirely to his intelligence, and by this he is omnivorous.

HOBLOT — SOME OENEBAL YIEWS ON ABCOBOLOOT. 49

as it ftllows Civilized nations io work metals. The importance is so
great, that deprived of it man would perhaps scarcely have risen
above the condition of the brute. The ancients already were sensible
of this. Witness the fable of '^ Prometheus." As to their sacred
perpetual fire, its origin seems to lie in the difficulty of procuring it,
thereby rendering its preservation essential.

In Europe the Stone-age came to an end by the introduction of
bronze. This metal is an alloy of about nine parts of copper and one
part of tin.* It melts and moulds weU ; the molten mass, in cool-
ing, slowly acquires a tolerable degree of hardness — ^inferior to that
of steel it is true, but superior to that of very pure iron. We there-
fore understand how bronze would long be used for manufacturing
cntting-instmments, weapons, and numerous personal ornaments.
The northern antiquarians have very properly called this second
great phase in the development of European civilization the
Bronze-age.

The bronze articles of this period, with a few trifling exceptions,
have not been produced by hammering, but have been cast, often
with a considerable degree of skill. Even the sword-blades were
cast, and the hammer (of stone) was only used to impart a greater
degree of liardness to the edge of the weapon.

The Bronze-age has, therefore, witnessed a mining industry which
was completely wanting during the Stone-age. Now the art of
mining is so essential to civilization, that without it the world would
perhaps yet be exclusively inhabited by savages. It is, thereforci
worth our while to inquire more closely into the origin of bronze^

Copper was not very difficult to obtain. In the first place, virgin
copper is not exceedingly scarce. Then the different kinds of ore
which contain copper, combined with other elements, are either
highly coloured, or present a marked metallic appearance, and are
consequently easily known ; they are besides not hard to smelt, so
as to separate the metal. Finally, copper-ore is not at all scarce, it
is met with in the older geological series of most countries.

Virgin tin is unknown, but tin-ore is heavy, of dark colour, and

* Bronze is still used for oaatmg bells, cannon, and certain parts of maohineiy.
It rnnst not be confounded with common brass, which is a compound of copper
and zinc, mnch less hard, and appearing only in the Iron-age.

VOL. III. G

50 TH8 OEOLOQIST.

very easy to smelt. However fi^eqnent copper may be, tin is of rare
occnrrence. Thus the only mines in Enrope which prodnce tin at
the present day are those of Cornwall, in England, and of the Erzge-
birge and Fichtelgebirge, in Germany.

But the question arises whether previous to the discovery of
bronze, man, owing to the great rarity of tin, may not have began
by using copper in a pure state. If so, there would have been a
copper-age between the stone- and bi*onze-ages.

In America this has really been the case. When they were dis-
covered by the Spaniards, both the two centres of civilization, Mexico
and Peru, had bronze composed of copper and tin, which was used
for manufacturing arms and cutting-instruments, in the absence of
iron and steel, which were unknown in the New World ; but the
admirable researches of Messrs. Squier and Davis on the antiqui-
ties of the Mississippi valley* have brought to light an ancient civi-
lization of a remarkable nature, and distinguished by the use of raw
virgin copper, worked in a cold state by hammering without the aid
of fire. The reason of its being so worked lies in the nature of pure
copper, which, when melted, flows sluggishly, and is not very fit for
casting. A peculiar characteristic of the metal, that of occasionally
containing crystals of virgin sflver, betrays its origin, and shows that
it was brought from the neighbourhood of Lake Superior. This
region is still rich in metallic copper, of which single blocks attaining
a weight of fifty tons have lately been discovered. There was even
found at the bottom of an old mine a great mass of copper, which
the ancients had evidently been unable to raise, and which they had
abandoned, after having cut off the projecting parts with stone

hatchets.t

The date of this American age is unknown : aU we know is that
it must reach as far back as ten centuries at least, that space of time
being deemed necessary for the growth of the virgin forest<s, now
flourishing upon the remains of that antique civilization of which the
modem Indians have not even retained a tradition.

* Squier and Davis. — " Ancient Monmnents of the Mississippi Valley."
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Washington, 1848. It is one of the
most splendid archssological works ever published.

t Lapham. — " The Antiquities of Wisconsin." Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge, p. 76, 1856.

MOBLOT — SOME OBNBBAL YZEWS ON AJ&ORMOLOQY. 51

It is finally woriihy of remark that the '^ mound-builders/' as the
Americans call the race of the copper-age, seem to have preceded
and prepared the Mexican dvilization, destroyed by the Spaniards ;
for in progressing southwards, a g^dual transition is noticed from
the ancient earth-works of the Mississippi valley to the more modem
constroctions of Mexico, as fonnd by Cortez.

In Enrope the remains of a copper-age are wanting. Here and
there a solitary hatchet of pnre copper is fonnd ; but this can easily
be acconnted for by the greater frequency of copper, while tin had
usually to be brought from a greater distance, so that its supply was
more precarious.

Europe did not witness the regular development of a copper-age.
It seems, according to M. Troyon's very just remark, that the art of
manufacturing bronze was brought frt>m another quarter of the
world, where it had been previously invented. It was most probable
some region in Asia, producing both copper and tin, where these two
metals were first brought into artificial combination, and where also
traces of a stiU earlier copper-age are Kkely to be found.

An apparently serious objection might be started here, by raising
the question how mines could be worked without the aid of steel.
This, however, is sufficiently explained by the fact that the hardest
rocks can be easily managed by the agency of fire. By lighting a
large fire against a rock, the latter is rent and fissured, so as to facili-
tate considerably its quarrying. This method was frequently
employed when wood was cheaper, and is even practised in the pre-
sent day in the mines of the Bammelsberg, in Germany, where it
facilitates the working of a rock of extreme hardness.

That metal of dingy and sorry appearance, but more precious than
gold or the diamond — ^iron — at length appears, giving a wonderftd
impulse to the progressive march of mankind, and characterizing the
third great phase in the development of European civilization, very
properly caJled the Iron-age.

Our planet never produces iron in its metallic or virgin state, for
the simple reason that it is too liable to oxydation. But among the
aeroHtes there are some composed of pure iron, with a little nickel,
which alters neither the appearance, nor the qualities of the metal.
Thus the celebrated meteoric stone met with by Pallas in Siberia was

52 THE OBOLOOIOT.

found by the neiglibotirmg blacksmiths to be malleable in a cold
state.* Meteoric iron has even been worked by tribes to whom the
nse of common iron was nnknown. Thns Amerigo Yespncd speaks
of savages near the month of the La Plata^ who had manufactured
arrow-heads with iron derived from an aerolite.f Snch cases are
certainly of rare occurrence, but they are not withont their import-
ance, for they explain how man may probably have first become
acquainted with iron, and they also acconnt for the occasional traces
of iron in tombs of the Stone-age, if, indeed, this fact be well
established.

It is, notwithstanding, evident that the regular working of terre&-
trial iron-ore mnst have been a necessary condition of the commence-
ment and progress of the Iron-age.

Now iron-ore is generally foxmd in most cotmtries, bnt it has
nsnaUy the look of common stone, being distinguished neither by its
weight, nor colonr. Moreover, its smelting requires a nmch greater
degree of heat than copper or tin, and this renders its production
considerably more difficult than that of bronze.

But even when iron had been obtained, what groping in the dark,
and how much laboriously accumulated experience did it not require,
to bring forth at will bar-iron or steel ! Chance, if chance there be,
may have played a part in it ; bnt as chance only favoim. those priyi-
leged mortals who combine a keen spirit of observation with serious
meditation and with practical sense, the discovery was not less diffi-
cult nor less meritorious. We need not, then, be surprised if man
arrived but tardily at the manufacture of iron and steel, which is
still daily being improved.

In Carinthia traces of a most primitive method of producing iron
have been noticed. The process seems to have been as follows : —
On the declivity of a hill was dug an excavation, in which was
lighted a large fire. When this began to subside, fragments of very
pure ore (hydroxyde) were thrown into it, and covered by a new
heap of wood. When all the friel had been consumed, small lumps
of iron would then be found among the ashes. { AH blowing appa-

* Faillafl. — "Voyages en Bussie," Parifl, 1793, voL iv., p. 595. There was but
one mass of meteoric iron ; it weighed 1,600 lbs.

t " Smithsonian Contribntions to Knowledge," vol. ii., art. 8, p. 178.
X Commimicated to the author hj mining-engineers in Carinthia.

HOBLOT — ^SOMB GENERAL VIEWS ON ABCELfiOLOGT. 5S

ratns waa in this maimer dispensed with — on important &ct when we
come to consider how much its nse compHcates the metaUnrgical
operations, because it implies the application of mechanics. Thus,
certain tribes in Southern AMca, although manufacturing iron and
working it tolerably well, have not achieved the construction of our
oommon kitchen-bellows, apparently so simple : they blow laboriously
through a tube, or by means of a bladder affixed to it.

The Bomans produced iron by the so-called Catalonian process, and
the remains of Boman works of that dei^ption have been discovered
and investigated in Upper Camiola, Austria.* The Catalonian
forge is slill used in the Pyrenees, where it yields tolerable results ;
but it consumes a large quantity of charcoal, requires much wind,
and is only to be applied to pure ore containing but a very small pro*
portion of earthy matter, producing scorise. The process, in &ct, con-
sists in a mere reduction, with a soldering and welding together of
the reduced particles, without the metal properly melting. Accord-
ing to the manner in which the operation is conducted, bar-iron or
steel are obtained at wiU. This direct method dispenses with the inter-
mediate production of cast-iron, which was unknown to the ancients,
and which is now the means of producing iron on a great scale.

Silver accompanied the introduction of iron into Europe — at least,
in the northern parts ; whilst gold was already known during the
bronze-age. This is natural, for gold is generally found as a pure
metal, while silver has usually to be extracted from different kinds of
ore, by more or less complicated metallurgical operations — ^for
example, cupeUation.

With iron appeared also, for the first time in Europe, glass, coined
money — ^that powerfdl agent of commerce, — and finally the alphabet,
which, as the money of intelligence, vastly increases the activity and
circulation of thought,t and is sufficient of itself to characterize a
new and wonderful era of progress. From thence we can date the
dawn of history and of science, in particular of astronomy.

* Jahrbacli der E. E. Geologisclieii Beichsaustalt. Yieima, 1850, vol. ii., p.
199. Garinthia and Upper Gandolia formed part of the Bomaa province
Koricmn, celebrated for its iron.

t ** The circulation of ideas is for the mind what the circulation of specie is
for commerce — a trae source of wealth." C. Y. de Bonstetten. '* L'homme du
midi at l'homme du Nord." Geneva^ 1826, p. 175.

64 THE QE0L00I8T,

The fine arte also reveal, with the introduction of iron in Europe,
a new and important element indicating a atriking advance already
in the stone-age, bat more so in the bronze-age ; the natural taste for
art reveals itself in the ornaments bestowed npon pottery and
metalHc objects. These ornaments consist of dots, circles, and zig-
zag, spiral, and S-shaped lines, the style bearing a geometrical cha-
racter, but showing pure taste and real beauty of its kind, although
devoid of all delineations of animated objects, either in the shape of
plants or animals. It is only with the Iron-age that art, taking a
higher range, rose to the representation of plants, auiTnals, and even
of the human frame. "No wonder, then, if idols of the Bronze-age
as weU as of the Stone-age are wanting in Europe. It is to be pre-
sumed that the worship of fire, of the sun, and of the moon, was
prevalent in remote antiquity — at least during the Bronze-age, per-
haps also during the Stone-age.

The preceeding pages constitute a sketch, certainly veiy rough and
imperfect, of the developments of civilization. They establish, how-
ever, in a very striking manner the fact of a progress, slow, but
uninterrupted and immense, when the starting point is considered.
The physical constitution of man has naturally benefitted by it. The
details contained in the treatise of which the present paper forms the
introduction prove that the human race has been gradually gaining
in vigour and strength since the remotest antiquity.* The domestic
races also — ^the dog first, then the horse, the ox, and the sheep have
shared in this physical development. Even the vegetable soil has
been gradually improving since the Stone-age — at least in Denmark.
And yet there are persons who deny all general progress, seeing
everywhere nothing but decay and ruin, like that worthy specimen
of a Northern pessimist, who exclaimed — " See how man has
degenerated ; he has even lost his likeness to the monkey !"

• This agrees perfectly with the testimony of statistics. See ** Qnetelet snr
rhomme et le deYelopement de ses &ciilt^s." Paris, 1835, vol. iL, p. 271. This
work of first-rate merit is very near akin to archaeology. M. Qnetelet has just
published a new work, which wiQ certainly be even more remarkable than the
first, and which the author of the present paper regrets not to have had within
Ilia reach.

BOBEBTS — ^UFPBB SILT7BIAN GOBALS. 55

UPPBB SILURIAN CORALS.

A SKETCH BT

GEORGE 0. ROBERTS.

Coral-hunting in tlie debris of a Wenlock-shale qnaary ranks high —
to my thinking — amongst the pleasures of geology. And, indeed,
lias no insignificant place among its wonders. For to any one not
conversant with zoophytic life, it is hard to believe that the ragged
corals that lie strewn about the qnany, once held sensitive masses of
life — ^that firom every pore tiny arms waved to and fix) in the water
to entangle the lesser creatures they lived on ; and that the animal —
that sHght thread of jelly-like substance, filling each tube, was at
once a limb of the body and an independent creature, contributing,
while attached, to the general support, and being able, if severed
from the mass, to lead a separate existence and be itself the parent
of others. The Wenlock series of the Upper Silurians have been
rightly regarded as the metropolis of its zoophytic life, for both in
variety and number, corals culminated in the seas of that age. Of
these species, " so far removed from, existing ones as to be quite
imknown in modem seas, all, with rare exceptions, dying out at the
close of the PalsBozoic epoch."* I will essay a familiar sketch.

I adopt the nomenclature of M. Milne Edwards, whose valuable
memoir of Silurian corals, published by the Palaeontographical So-
ciety, is my guide and instructor.

True corals are called by zoologists Zoantharia ; and those with
which we have now specially to do belong to the order Anthozoa,
They have again been divided into cup-, and star-corals — Zoantha/ria
Tvgosa, and millepores — Z, tabulata. The first division may either be
simple — ^tenanted by a single polyp, or compound — ^the result of an
aggregation of polyps, the latter, as its name implies, must always be
the shelter and defence for a community. The animal itself was a

• «

Silnria," 8rd edition.

56 THE GEOIiOOIST.

simple gelatinons substance, having power of expansion according to
its wants, and being able to secrete lime from the ocean, and perhaps
to transmnte chemically other salts into lime, with which it built aroimd
itself a stony skeleton, a home to live in, and a defence from injury.
In accordance with the thread-like growth of the polyp, we shall find
these stony houses built up in most cases of tubes, through which the
animal extended itself, the open end or summit forming its communi-
cation with the outer world.

These tubes are in most species crowned with a certain number of
ridges, disposed like the rays of a star ; these took their shape from
the slender fishing arms of the polyp, and formed their protection.
The summit of the tube is called the calico, or cup, and the ridges
that radiate &om its centre are known as septa. The beautiM pat-
tern that covers the surface of a coral is r ,/ing to the preservation of
these star-like septa, and by the variation in their forms and number
combined with altered shape of the calico we distinguish species.
For in this tiny cup are printed more definitely than elsewhere the
characteristics of its inhabitant.

It is well to examine every piece of milleporal coral in three several
ways. First, look at its upper surface and note the form and con-
struction of its calices and the number, if any, of their septa ; then,
turning it sideways, observe whether the tubes of which these calices
are the termination are continued to the base of the coral, or die
away in its substance, and lastly, look at the under-surface, notice if
the baaal plate is free and unattached, or is famished with a pe-
duncle, or foot of attachment. But in describing the species, it is
best to begin with the cup-corals. The normal form of this first
great division of zoophytic life is that of a simple cup, produced by a
polyp which expends all its strength in the development of a single
calice. In some species, however, such soHtary polyps are aggregated
together, sometimes accidentally so, as in GyathophyU/wm artiaUattimj
usually found in groups of strongly- walled corallites, growing up to-
gether without interfering with each other ; and in several species of
cup-coral a peculiar method of reproduction — ^no less than " the life of
the parent being continued in that of the offspring," by buds grow-
ing out of the centre of its calice, gives a composite character to what
was before a solitary polyp. For the buds growing up and expand-

ROBERTS — UPPER SILURIAN CORALS. 67

ing, crowd npon eacli other's limits, and a mass of corallites is the re-
salt, whose base is the old parent coral, and whose upper surface is
covered by the star-rayed cnps of the children. AcerviiUma ammaa
is the commonest species of these family corals.

The polyps that formed these cup-corals grew from their base up-
wards, and were probably long livers, for a well-matured specimen of
CyaiJuyphyUumi Loveni will measure five inches in height, indicating
by the number of prominent edges that surround it — accretion-
wrinkles they are called — a long and chequered existence ; for when
these are regularly prominent, we infer the polyp led an active life of
development. On the contrary, when their irregularity forms annu-
lar depressions on the coraUum, these indicate the occasional repose
of the zoophyte from its work of extension.

The common species belonging to these cup-corals are easily
blown. OycUhophylhm Loveni has very prominent accretion-
wnnkles, while upon the sides of 0. (mgustwm they are but feebly
developed. O. pseudoceratUes has an oval calice, with only thirty-
eight large septa alternating with a like number of smaller ones ; the
two former species have sixty of each kind. Ovrvphyma 1/u/rbmcda is a
short, wide-mouthed species, with double the number of septa, and
has radiciform appendages, i.e., rootlets, attached to its lower end.
0. svhturhmata differs only in being taller, as its name implies,
having but eighty septa, and weU developed accretion-wrinkles. 0.
Uurckisoni is nearly aUied, but has vesicles, or bladder-like tubercles,
coming up among the septa. Then there is ChniophyUum Fletcheri
with a square calice ; Aidacophyllimb mitrattmi, a small turbi-
iiated cup, whose principal and rudimentary septa combined only
amount to sixty-eight, and Piyc}u)phylhmi pateUatimi, with one hun-
dred septa, and the border of its calice so much raised that the coral-
lum resembles the cap of a mushroom. These are all the simple cup-
corals we are likely to meet with in the Wenlock rocks. Among the
composite ones is the species I before alluded to, Gyathoph^llwm mii"
cvlattm, generally met with as a mass of tall slender corallites, so
thin-skinned that their upright internal lines of structure (costoe) are
clearly visible. Syringophyllrmi orgcmum is another, having star-
headed tubes of exquisite beauty ; and as a connecting link between
this and the next division of cup-corals, we have Acervularia luscu-

VOL. III. H

58 THE GEOLOGIST.

ricms, which resembleB the preceding in the development of the
inner walls of its corallites, bnt differs from them, and allies itself to
the next by its mode of reprodnction, which is exclnsively calicmal.
This gemmation, as it is called, is a very interesting and instmctive
feature. Gyathophylhmi trtmcahmi is a good example of it. I have
often picked np this coral in a Dudley, or Wenlock Hme-quarry,
in which the parent — a simple, but somewhat angular shaped
cup — ^has been smothered by the growth of young buds from out
its calice. Indeed, in many specimens I have seen, these un-
natural children have in turn borne young, and a tall turbinate
mass of corallites, with calices mis-shapen by crowding together,
has grown up.

The last division of the " cup- and star-corals" includes those com-
posite species that have a coromon basal plate, and grow by aocre-
tional development. Stromhodes typus is the best known. The
star-headed terminations of its corallites cover the sur&ce with ir-
regular polygonal figures, the value of whose angles would puzzle old
Euclid himself. This species has vertical internal radii, thus differing
fi^m its ally, 8, Mwxhisom, whose inner structure is completely vesi-
cular. Another species, S, PhUlvpsii, has elegantly shaped calices,
having their angles gracefully lengthened; while the perfection of
beauty is attained by 8. difflniena, whose surface, exhibiting no trace
of walls dividing the corallites, is covered with the most exquisite
septal floriations.

Nearly aUied by form of calice to the cup-oorals are the Fimgidce,
or "mushroom-corals," an outstanding group of which one genus only
seems to have lived in Silurian seas, TalcBocydus it is called, i.e.,
ancient circle. P. porpita has a quoit-like coraUum, thirty large
septa alternating with a like number of smaller ones, and a curved
peduncle-foot of attachment. P, prcBOcutus is about the size,
and not much thicker than a sixpence, has forty-eight uniform
septa, and no peduncle. P. Fletcheri is about half an inch high,
has a strongly curved peduncle, and well marked accretion-wrinkles ;
superior height gives it advantages, you see. But P. rugoms is
taller still, somewhat top-shaped, and has a small peduncle, oddly
turned up.

I have now to describe the milleporal corals, the second great

ROBERTS — UPPER SILURIAN CORALS. 59

division of Silnrian Zoantharia, differing widely from the cup- and
star-corals, both in shape and character. They are ail composite — no
single tube or cup could be a millepore, either in fact or by courtesy,
for the name implies the aggregation of a number of polyps having
more direct connection with each other than the cup-corals. In
shape they are both massive and branching. The first two genera,
Ediolites and FwvosUeSy are distinguished from each other by the ab-
sence of those septa in the latter that form such elegant star-like
discs as they fill up the calices of the former.

HeUolites, t.6., sun-coral, is so named from the sun-like appearance
of its calices. H. interaUncta has these caIices[closely set, and equal in
distance from, each other, the intervening space, called the comencky'
ma, being filled with polygonal cells. Upon the surface of H. Mv/r-
chi8om the calices are not closely set, and vary in approximation. H,
fnegaetoma is easiLy known frt)m either ; large, closely set, calices cover
its surfru^e, and what ccBnenchyma their nearness permits is made up
of square cells. All these are massive corals irregularly hemispheri-
cal in form, and having a basal-plate strongly marked with concentric
ridges. The branching HelioHtes are still more elegant. K, Qrcuyii
is rudely branched, and bears its sun-like calices on both surfaces.
The only known specimen of this species was found in the Wenlook
shale of Walsall, and is in the cabinet of its discoverer, Mr. Gray, of
Hagley. H, mordmata is decidedly arborescent in form, very
slenderly branched, and bearing calices, whose rarity is made out by
the extreme beauty of their form. This, however, is peculiar to
Lower Silurian rocks, and I only introduce it here to complete my
sketch of HeHolitic corals.

The genera Plasmopora and Propora differ from HelioHtes, mainly
in the appearance of their surfaces, the septal rays being prolonged
beyond the edge of the calice, and united to other rays which cover
the coanenchyma. In every species of these three genera the number
of septa contained in each calice is twelve.

Next come the Fa/vodtes, These have no intervening coenenchyma,
the coral being simply a bundle of tubes. The radiating septa of
their calices are only developed in one species, and that a rare one,
F, Hidngeri, F. OotMoundica is the typical form ; this has strongly
walled tubes, which, coming up to the surface, cover it with a cali-

62 THE GEOLOGIST.

With one or two ezoeptionB, the whole of the corals I have here
attempted to describe may be found within the limits of an hour
spent in any qnarry of Wenlock shale, or limestone. The few I have
omitted to mention have but sHght points of difference, and are ac-
connted rare ; but from a glance at this, every reader or collector
will acknowledge that the coral-polyp held no mean place among the
workmen of old.

CURRENT NOTES ON MINERALOGY, LITHOLOGY, AND

METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS.

By H. C. Salmon, F.G.S.

The October nmnber of the "Philosophical Magazine" contains a
notice, translated from Poggendorff's "Annalen," by Professor
Ghistav Rose, on the isomorphism of stannic, silicic, and ziroonic acids.
Stannic acid (Sn) forms the mineral GassUerite^ silicic acid (Si) is
Quartz, zirconic acid, which Rose considers to be 2r, has hitherto
been classed as an earth or oxide, as zirconia, with composition Zr,
or Zr. The mineral zircon, hitherto held to be a silicate of zirconia,
must now, according to this, be merely considered as an isomorphous
compound of one atom of zirconic acid and one atom of silicic acid
(Zr + Si). This mineral species has always been remarkable for the
variation of hardness and gravity in specimens frvm different local-
ities, which according to this hypothesis may be accounted for by the
unequal proportions of the two adds ; the heavier and harder speci-
mens containing the more zirconic acid, whose equivalent would be
481*20 compared with 384-888 that of silica. In the case of a variety
found in Russia by Hermann, composed of two atoms of 2<r, with
three atoms of Si (Zr^ Si*), the specific gravity was only 4*06, while
that of the mineral of the ordinary composition varies from 4'5 to 4'8.
Zirconic acid being thus established, and it being shown that
zircon may be regarded as isomorphous with cassiterite (the ordinary

SALMON — UIKERALOGICAL NOTES. 63

•

tin-stone or tin-ore), the former mineral is made, in the Profesor's
reasoning, a kind of middle term to prove the isomorphism of its in-
diyidnal components (silicic acid and zirconic add), with stannic acid.
He considers, in &ct, that silicic acid may ^sdrly be considered to be
already fonnd in the form of cassiterite, in zircon ; and believes it
would not be a matter for surprise to find stannic acid in the form of
quartz.

Dr. Gbnth's paper, in the September number of the " American
Journal of Science and Arts," on the " Occurrence of Gold" is very
suggestive. After the mass of vague verbiage with which we have
been inflicted on this topic, it is really refireshing to find a man who,
whether right or wrong, is at least possessed of a definite and com-
prehensible idea.

Dr. Genth mamtains that the gold found in veins and alluvial de-
posits has been carried there in a state of solution ; and he brings the
following instances to prove that, in those cases at least, such must
have been the case* K these are accurately stated, of which there
seems eveiy internal evidence, this certainly cannot be questioned: —

" a, Specimen fix)m Whitehall, Spotsylvania co., Va., shows gold
associated with tetradymite [telluride of bismuth], limonite [hydrous
per-oxide of iron], and quartz. The gold is crystallized in forms be-
longing to the rhombohedral system, and showing very distinctly one
rhombohedron, scalenohedron and basal plan ;* it is coating tetra-
dymite, and is evidently a pseudomorph of it.

" &, The tetradymite of the Tellurium Mine, Fluvanna co., Va.,
and the native bismuth from, the peak of the Sorato, in BoHvia, are
frequently interlaminated with gold.

"c, In the upper portion of the ore-bed in the metamorphic slates
at Springfield, Carrol co., Md., which near the surface consists of
magnetite [magnetic proto-per-oxide of iron], and at a greater depth
of chalcopyrite [copper pyrites] and other ores, films of native gold
have sometimes been observed coating the cleavage-planes of the
magnetite. On close examination it can be perceived that below the
^ of gold the magnetite is oxidized into hydrated sesquioxide of
iron."

In attempting to establish an hypothesis of tlus kind, the greatest
* These are the crystalliiie forms of tetradymite.

64 THE GEOLOGIST.

difficulty, as Dr. Glenth trolj says, " presents itself on inqTuring into
the nature of the solvent." The doctor believes the noble metal was
dissolved as terchloride of gold : — " If we remember that the decom-
position of pyrites produces snlphnric acid, which, in the presence of
the never wanting chloride of sodium and a higher oxide of manga-
nese, may liberate small quantities of chlorine, the most powerfdl
solvent of gold, we have at least a very plausible explanation."

Dr. Genth's doctrine is that the gold both of veins and alluvial de-
posits is derived from the adjoining rocks, where it exists probably
in a highly disseminated state ; from these rocks it is removed in a
state of solution, and precipitated in concentrated deposits in the
veins and among the alluvial debris. The rock in which the metal
most frequently occurs is diorite or greenstone [composed of ortho-
olase felspar and hornblende]. How it originally came into this
rock is not a question entered upon ; the main point being to prove
that the gold of alluvial deposits is not derived, as is usually sup-
posed, from the destruction of pre-existing quartz-veins, the fact
being that they are both equally derivative, the original source being
the neighbouring rock.

There are many considerations suggested by the mode of occurrence
of gold which weigh strongly in favour of such a suggestion. In the
first place, gold is continually found in alluvial deposits, in consider-
able sized nuggets, in districts where no veins are found. In this
case the usual theory is that the original upper surfaces, which were
rich in auriferous veins, have been removed by denudation, and that
the alluvial gold is the remnant of these. But this has the disad-
vantage of assuming an hypothesis, for which no good reason can be
given, that there is some peculiar law which limits the original pro-
duction of gold to the surface, and which is held, with a strange in-
consistency, by the same men who frdly recognize the more than
probability of other metals being derived from beneath. Assuming
that the gold is derived from the rock by solution, and that the veins
are mere depositories, we have at once at least a plausible reason for
the general occurrence of gold only near the surface. It is that the
solvent of that metal is somehow or other essentially connected with
the atmosphere ; so that although gold may exist at all depths,
scattered, highly disseminated through certain igneous rocks, it is

SALMON — MIHERALOOICAL NOTES. 65

onlj where these rooks are subjected to a certain atmospheric deoom-
posiiig action, by which the gold is dissolved, to be snbseqnently re-
precipitated in a highly concentrated state, that it is found in
appreciable quantities. This is strongly supported by the fact that
the finding of the gold-deposits is not limited to any arbitrary depth,
bat generally extends as &r as the effects of atmospheric decompo-
sition, and no lather.

The question of the origin of gold deposits by the deposition of
the metal from solution is of course connected with the larger ques-
tion of the origin of most veins, either of the metallic or non-metaUic
minerals, in a similar manner. Omitting Bischoff, who may be con-
sidered by some a prejudiced authority, there are many first-rate
German mineralogists who hold the doctrine of such an origin for
most mineral veins. This scientific infiltration doctrine must not,
however, be confounded with a vague mining notion to the same
effect, and which would refer such views to a connection with the
present drainage of the countiy, and without any reference to an
origia of the metals ; an opinion which sometimes takes a form as
loose as that expressed by the Roman poet : —

** Inqne brevi spafcio, qtiffl sunt effoasa reponit
Tempos, ineizhaQsti semraoB ftKr^fflitft metaJQi.''

No investigator on the subject of lithology has arrived at more
sweeping conclusions as to the origin of rocks than M. Delesse in his
^'Etudes sur le Metamorphisme." Although M. Delesse's labours
have been completed for more than a year, it is to be regretted that
no complete abstract of them has been yet presented to English
readers.* That memoir is too wide a subject to enter upon here ; but
a short reference to another paper, by the same author, in vol. xv. of
the '' Bulletin de la Society Q6ologique de France (p. 728), called
'' Recherches sur I'origine des Roches," in which he sums up the
conclusions of the investigations detailed in his " Etudes" may be in-
teresting to many.

* M. Delesse's memoir has been often referred to, and was particularly ably
SQinmed np by the President of the (Teologioal Society in his last anniyersary ad-
dress, which should be consulted by all who wish to read a oomprehensive re-
view of the recent inquiries on this subject.

VOL. III. I

66 THE GEOLOGIST.

Beferring to the agents whicli, in the interior of the earth, waj have
aided in rendering rocks plastic, or generally tended to the develop-
ment of minerals, he reduces them to four — heat, water, pressure, and
molecular action, attributing to the first only a comparatively limited
role in the formation of eruptive rocks.

After describing what he conceives to be the action of these
various agents, he thereon founds a classification of aU eruptive
rocks, according to their mode of origin, into the following divisions:

I. Igneous eruptive rocks.

n. Pseudo-igneous eruptive rocks.

m. Non-igneous eruptive rocks.

I. Igneous are those which have been reduced to a state of fusion,
or at least rendered plastic by heat. They are almost always
completely anhydrous, with a cellular structure and a rough feel to
the touch, their constituent minerals having a strongly-marked cha-
racteristic vitreous aspect; they constitute the rocks regarded as
eminently volcanic. As extreme types of this class he especially
refers to, trachyte and dolerite.*

n. Psevdo-igneoiis rocks are those that may have been reduced to
a state of plasticity partly by igneous and partiy by aqueous action.
Water, heat, and perhaps pressure may have combined to contribute
to this. Bocks of this class have sometimes a cellular, or even
scoriaceous structure; but their constituent minerals have only a
slightly vitreous aspect. They are hydrated, often containing
zeolites, and dividing into prisms or spheroids, and are generally
associated with igneous rocks in volcanic regions. As types of this
class he refers to retinite (pitchstone or phonoHte), basalt, and trap.f
These two classes represent those rocks usually called volcanic.

* Trachyte is a rock containing orthose and anorthose felspar, ferro-magnesiazi
mica, hornblende, and also quartz. By anorthose felspar is designated, in a
general way, aU the felspar species belonging to the sbcth crystaUine system.
Dolerite is an anorthose and ajohydrons lava, composed of anorthose felspar and
angite, with sometimes olivine, mica, and lencite.

"f Betinite consists of vitreons orthose felspar, of ferro-magnesian mica, and
also qnartz rather rarely, and always a large proportion of water, which may rise
from 10 to 100 per cent. Pechstein and phonolite are varieties of this rock.
Basalt principally consists of anorthose felspar, angite, and olivine, with some-
times protoxide of iron, carbonates, zeolites ; and accidentally nephehne, haiiyne,
zircon, oonmdnm, &c., forming a hydrated felspathio paste. Basalt has the

SALMON — ^MINEEALOGICAL NOTES. 67

nL The rumrigneaue rooks correspond to Lyell's plntomo rooks.
Their plasticity was due to the combined action of water and
pressure, heat having only played a yeiy secondary part in their for-
matioxL In them the constitaent minerals are devoid of the vitreons
aspect peculiar to the igneons rocks ; and their stractnre is rarely
celliilar, but, on the contrary, generally very compact. They are not
sssodated with volcanic rodcs, and are consequently attributable to
an entirely different mode of origin. As types of this class he selects
graniie, diorite, and serpentine.*

GondusionB such as these, so strongly opposed to many of our
preconceived notions, are not likely to be received in this country
with undue favour. M. Delesse on some points surpasses Bischoff,

Batne elementary oompoBiticm as dolorite, differing principally in the preaenoe of
a oertain quantity of water and volatile matters.

Trap, properly so-called, may pass into basalt, with which it is often associated.
An ioidinate relation exists between the two rocks, but heat only played a veiy
minor part in the formation of trap. Its base is anorthose fi^bspar, which is
generally the only mineral possible to be reoognized ; this is always hydrated,
often considerably. It is rich in oxide of iron, and often contains spathic car-
lx)natea. Trap forms the limit of the psendo-igneons rocks $ and altiiongh it is
intimately connected with basalt) it differs I thLik in haying been formed in a
lower teknperatnre.

* Granite, as a type of a large class of rocks, has almost the same mineral
composition as trachyte, for it contains qnartz, felspars, and micas; bat the
ot^ourrenoe and characteristics of these minerals are very different. Its quartz is
porticnlarly worthy of remark. In rocks of igneons origin this mineral is often
entirely wanting ; now, in granite, on the contrary, it is very abundant, amount-
^ to eyen a moiety in certain rocks, yet the total quantity of silicic acid present
18 not greater than in trachyte ; the greater abundance of free quartz being due
to the &cilities which the mode of origin of granite afforded this mineral of
''^P^rating itself from the magma. It must be borne in mind also that this
quartz is not only always crystalline, but also always hyaline. The study of the
felspars of granite is also yery instructiye. They areorthose and anorthose,
opaqne, or at most translucent, neyer yitreons, and always contain a certain
quanti^ of water, usually trifling in the orthose, but yaiying from 2 to 100 per
cent, in the anorthose. The consideration of the micas and other Tnineralfl of
^ rock are equally instructiye in showing its aqueous origin.

Diorite has a yery simple mineralogical composition, being essentially formed
of anorthose and hornblende, with, at times, protoxide of iron, sphene, ferro-
^''^^gneaian mica, and, accidentally, garnet. Diorite greatiy approaches granite
m its mineral composition. Its metamorphism is cmalogous, and the one may
pass inaensibly into the other. Diorite may be considered as formed under con-
ations intennediate between those that haye produced trap and granite.

Seipentine has hitherto, of all the eruptiye rocks, been the most enigmatical.
Its mineralogical characters are so weU known, that it is unnecessary to repeat
tnem ; but it is particularly distinguished by its large per centage of water,
t?^g from 13 to 100 per cent. In this rock all effects of heat haye entirely
^ppeared, and its plasticity can scarcely be attributable to any other causes
"^an water and pressure.

68 THE GEOLOGIST.

and indeed most modem investigators, in the sweeping nature of
the power he attributes to aqueous action. He may, in some degree^
exaggerate this ; but it is useless to close our eyes to the evidenoes
of the great revolution in opinion, which has recently taken place on
the Continent on the subject of the origin of rocks. The doctrine
of the force of pure igneous causes, such as students will find in
almost every English text-book, has now only a minority of sup-
porters in Germany and France. Wide differences of opinion, how*
ever, yet exist, which may be expected to give rise to prolonged
investigations and discussions.

The following epitome of some of M. Delesse's more general views
will give a notion as to the mixed nature of the causes to which
rocks owe their origin :—

" The problem of the origin of eruptive rocks is one of the most
complex in geology, and has given rise to interminable discussions,
in which the most opposite systems have seemed in turns to triumph.
These revulsions in opinion, sometimes very sudden, are to be attri-
buted to the exclusive importance attributed to one or the other
agents which have aided in the formation of rocks. In popular
language it is said that no two things can be more opposed than fire
and water ; but in nature no such antagonism exists, these two agents
often acting together. This should be always borne in mind in any
inquiries into the origin of rocks. When therefore we speak of an
igneous or an aqueous rock, we do not mean to restrict these terms
to their exact sense ; we must necessarily attribute to them a mean-
ing different from that of common language. When we say a rock
is of igneous origin, we do not necessarily say that it has been re-
duced to a state of fasion by heat alone : similarly, speaking of an
aqueous origin, we by no means limit the causes to the unique action
of water. In speaking, therefore, of a cause, it must always be un*
derstood that it is only referred to as the principal agent of forma-
tion. Of the causes referred to — ^heat, water, pressure, and molecular
actions—one may have played a preponderant, but rarely an exclusive
part. Molecular action, also, it should be borne in mind, must only
be considered as a secondary cause, for it seems to have been induced
either by heat, water, or pressure. Electricity itself, which accom-

PB0CBEDINQ6 OF GBOLOOIOAL SOCIETIES. 69

panies and causes this moleoolar action, seems to result from these
prunaay causes. As, therefore, on the whole, the chemical and
mineralogical composition of rocks varies little, and as it is easy to
see that one and the same mineral may have had, at times an aqneons
origin, at times an igneous one, we have no reason to be surprised if
it is not always possible to trace the rigid limit between rocks which,
at first sight, seem the most opposite, such as those engendered by
heat or by water."

PROCEEDINGS OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES.

Geological Society op London, January 4, 1860. — ^Prof. J. Phillips,
President, vn the Chair.
The following commimications were read : —

1. '' On the Flora of the Silurian, Devonian, and Lower CarhoniferoiiB Por-
mations." By Prof. H. K Goeppert, Por. Mem. G.S.

2. " On the Preshwater Deposits of Bessarabia, Moldavia^ WaUachia, and
Bulgaria." By Capt. T. Spratt, R.N., C.B., P.R.S., P.G.8.

3. "On thellhizopodal jFauna of the Mediterraneaa compared with that of
some of the Italian and other Tertiary deposits." By T. Rupert Jones, P.G.S.,
and W. K. Parker, Mem. Micr. Soc.

The authors presented an extensive table of the Species and varieties of re-
cent F&rdminifera from several localities in the Mediterranean (worked out
from material gathered and dredged by Capt. Spratt, Mr. Hamilton, Prof.
Meue^hini and other friends), and of the fossu forms from the Tertiary deposits
of Malaga (Spain), Turin, Sienna, Palermo, and Malta (communicated by Prof.
Ansted, Prof. Meneghini, and the Marchese C. Strozzi, or supplied from the
Society^s Museum) ; also the fossil Foraminifera from Baljik supplied by Capt.
Spratt, and those of the Vienna Basin as elaborated by D'Orbigny, Czjeck, and
Heuss. The recent Foraminifera, tabulated in eleven columns, were illustrative
of the range of the respective species and varieties in different zones of sea-
depth, from the shore to one thousand seven hundred fathoms, and of the rela-
tive size of the individuals, and of their proportional paucity or abundance.
Amojng the seventeen columns of fossil Foraminifera^ some were very rich in
SBecies and varieties, esjjeciaUy in the case of the Siennese clays, the Malaga
clay, and the Vienna basin. Aom the evidence afforded by the comparison of
the fossil with the recent Foraminifera, the Siennese blue clays of S. Cerajolo,
S. Donnino, S, Lazaro, and Coroncino were regarded as having been deposited
ill various depths of from forty to one hundred fathoms ; so also the clay-beds
of Malaga and of the Vienna oasin. A blue clay from S. Quirico was probably
formed m about two hundred fathoms ; a blue clay from Pescajo, on the con-
trary, was the deposit of a shallow estuanr. A sand from Pienza, and others
from Montipoli, CasterArouato, and San Prediano, contain Amphisteginay
and were probably depositea in from ten to twenty fathoms water. As the
^phUtegina appears now to be extinct as regards the Mediterranean, these
Amphistegina-beds, and others at Palermo and in the Vienna Basin, may be of
niiocene age. Another Siennese clay from Monti Arioso is of shallow water

70 THE OBOLOGIST.

fonnatioiL. From Turin some shelly sands, of pliocene age, were defined as
containing a group of Foraminifera similar to those now living on the western
shores of Itafy ; and the Palermo deposits are, for the most part, not very dis-
similar. The Heterostegina-bed at Malta, formed probably in rather shallow
water, is characterized by a species now absent from the Mediterranean. The
tertiary deposit from Baljik appears to have been a shallow water deposit,
characterized bj some forms peculiar at the present day to the Hed Sea ; a
condition that is also indicated by some of the Viennese deposits.

LivEBPOOL GEOLOGiCAii SOCIETY. — ^Thc first meetiDg of this society was
held on Tuesday, the 10th of Januaiv last.

Prof. Phillips, President of the deological Society of London; Prof. Ram-
say, Director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain; Prof. Jukes,
Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland ; Prof. Morris, P.G.S. ; and
S. J. Mackie, Esq., P.G.S., P.S.A., were elected honorary members.

The President, Henry Duckworth, Esq., P.KG.S., E.G.S., then read the
inauguration address. After congratulatinK the members on tiieir assembling
together for the first time as a constituted body, he proceeded to point out the
obiects of the sociel^.

The geology of Liverpool and its immediate neighbourhood was next
touched upon, and afterwards that of the surrounding country, especially of
North Wales, the President calling particular attention to the comparative
ease with which such deeply iuterestin^ localities as Church Stretton, Coal-
brookdale, and Ludlow — ^the portals of the Silurian svstem — ^might be reached.

The President then gave a resume of the progress of geological science during
the past year.

A paper was then read by the Secretary, G. H. Morton, Esq., E.G.S., " On
the Basement-bed of the Keuper Pormation in Wirral,* and the South-west of
Lancashire."

Literesting specimens of fossils and minerals were exhibited at the meeting
by various members.

[The abstracts of Prof. H. E. Goeppert, Capt. T. Spratt, and Mr. Morton's
paper will be printed ui the next numoer.]

NOTES AND QUERIES.

On the Lower Silueian Rocks in the South-East oe Ibeland, and
ON A Human Skeleton in an elevated Sea-Maegin. — ^Deae Sib^ —
lu the vear 184:0, when persevering in what was considered at the time a hope-
less task — ^that of searchmg for fossils m the contorted old schistose and slaty
rocks so extensively developed m the counties of Waterford, Wexford, and
Kilkenny — I at length discovered at Duncannon, in the county of Wexford, a
patch of rocks which I considered might be referred to the Llandeilo forma-
tion. Although the correctness of this view has been questioned, and it has
been broadly asserted that all the Silurian Bocks in the south-east of Ireland

• Wirral is the western extremity of Cheshire.

NOTES AND QUERIES. 71

are confined to the Garadoc group, yet I believe that it will be eventaally
acknowledged that the fossils from Duneannon are Llandeilo types, such as
Cdvmaie duplicata, Beyrichia complieata, Lingula attenuata.

All the Suunan moUosca from Doncaimon, except the black homj Lingula,
have a white silky appearance, in striking contrast to the dark matnx in wnich
thej are imbedded. This, I imagine, is owing to the shells having been at a
remote period slowly and partialjj^ calcined by the action of the heat from the
igneous rock in the vicinity.

The mineral character oi the rock also agrees with the Llandeilo flags and
dark-coloured schists so well developed in Wedes. I therefore wish to record
my view of the age of similar dark-coloured rocks at Duneannon, more espe-
cially as I cannot without great difficulty refer them to the Garadoc series, a
paten of which I discovered on the opposite shore of Waterford Haven. The
trilobites which I obtained there were lent to be described in a work on a
northern Lish county then publishing.

It is to be regretted that, in Portlock's Report of Londonderry and Tyrone,
the trilobites which I obtained at Kewtown Head are stated to have been dis-
covered by me at Tramore. The mistake no doubt arose from there being two
localities named Newtown Head, one near Tramore, and the other situated
between Passage and Woodstown, on the western shore of Waterford
Haven, which I folly explained at the time, but which was unfortunately lost
sight of.

Although a paper of mine, giving a brief account of these fossiliferous strata
liAd been read at a meeting of the Geological Society in 1841, the discovery of
those Silurian rocks has been erroneously ascribed to the Ordnance Geological
Survey in Lreland (Mem. Geol. Surv., Decade 2, pi. x., p. 4) ; and one of the
very trilobites which I had lent, has been dedicated by Mr. Salter (at page 3,
pl 7, decade No. 2), to the author of the work above alluded to, as its dis-
coverer. So far from the Government Surveyors having discovered the
fossiliferous rocks in question, they were wholly unknown to the Survey
^til I pointed them out to Golonel James, R.£., in the spring of 1841.
Well might the Surveyors pass them by, for they can only be- approached
^th an ebb tide ; and as they are ^uite level witn the shore, the adjacent
cliff being destitute of fossils, they did not attract notice till the publication of
"iypaper.

Eventually these rocks will be covered by the accumulation of the silt and
sand which are deposited at every tide, so tnat all trace of them wiU be lost.

Continuing my search for organic remains on the Waterford side of the
estuary, 1 was rewarded, as aw)ve indicated, with the discovery of lower
Caradoc rocks of limited extent, which, as I have related, are situated on the
shore at some little distance from the cliff at Newtown Head, near Woods-
town. Prom collecting fossils, I proceeded, in companv with mv son, Mr. T.
Austin, to examine the clay which caps the mass of trap ana other rocks
forming the headland. The clay which covers the rocks along the line of
section, with the exception of the quarry, where it has been removed for the
piirpose of procuring stone for road-mending, is continuous from Woodstown
Strand to Haheen Bridge, which latter is a small structure over the shallow
brook that runs down from the lugh ground to the south of Grook Ghurch and
Castle—both edifices in ruins. iSie rivulet, more to the south, is a mere rill,
that has cut its way rather deeply down through the clay. This clay is similar
^composition to the drift which covers a great part of the south-eastern district
of Ireland. When engaged in examining the clay and tracing the line of a
hed of cockles, which, with occasional breaks in its continuity, extends along
^e coast, and for a considerable distance inland, from Raheen Bridge to
" oodstown Strand, a distance of upwards of eight hundred yards, a bone was

72 THS OE0L0Q19T.

nnexpectedl; discoTered in the oliff.
On remoTing some of the anironiidiiig
ciaj, tbe bone was foand to form part m
n perfect human skeleton, vluch was
lying in a position parallel to the cockle-
bed, whicE bed was continnooB and
nnbroken on both sides of the hnman
remains. A portion of the skeleton was
rather below the line of sheila, while
the clay and cockles had entered the sknll,
and followed the aame linp as the shelly
bed on either side of it. It was also
quite evident that the incmnbent earth
had never been diaturbed from above
aince its upheaval; and the ck; is ao
perfectly d^, that bones mi^ht remaia
undecayed in it for an indeGwte period;
and the shells sre apparently all bnt
as fresh as those of the same speciea that
are d^ly caat on shore by toe waves.
A brief notice of this i£scoveTT was
read at a meeting of the Geological
Society in 1841, when the skull, with
the 9he]h in it, waa exhibited. The
cliff ia elevated abont forty feet.
The circumatance attracted at the time
less attention than a fact of the kind
deserved, but subsequent discoveries of
flint implements in the drift has convert-
ed what was at first considered of little
account into an important fact ; and
I have been urged oy my geological
friends to call attention to the suQect
in your widely circulated [periodical.
Explanation of the Section.

a. Clay ; the line near the top represent-
ing the bed of cockles.

o. Trap-rock.

e, OuMtzite, probably caradoc sandstone
alterea by contaet with the igneous rock
against wnich it abnts.

f, Caradoc-rocka, rich in fossils.

At d X ia noted the apot where the
human skeleton was imbedded.

Height of section forty feet ; horizontal
extent about eight hundred yards. In
the rough draft the vertical height has
been exaggerated, in order to exhibit the
stratified rocks more distinctly.

At the time the human skeleton was
diBOTcred, it was asked if any tradi-
tion existed in the country of a change
of level on the coast, but I have no
doubt that the entombment of the hu-
man remains and the cockles occurred

NOTES AND QUERIES. 73

long anterior to even traditionary lore ; and that too many generations of men
have passed away to preserve and hand down to the present day an account of
remote physical changes, which being local in their nature, and in no waj in-
teiferiag witli the requirements of man in a rude and barbarous state, hving
probably by the produce of the chase alone, would make no lasting impression
on his uncultivated mind; or it is quite possible that the adjacent district was
uninhabited, and that the bodv may have been transported from the interior to
the spot in which it was found, as three noble rivers — ^the Suir, the Nore, and
the BaiTow — ^unite their streams, and flow into the estuary above the village of
Passage, to the north of Newtown Head, where a wide expanse of salt-water
mingles with the confluent streams as they pass onward to the sea.

Tke changes indicated by the rather wide-spread bed of cockles point to a
period of time when the waters of tiie estui^ occupied a much wider space
than at present; whoi the sediment was accumulating to a greater depth
before the cockles existed and were destroyed, and the entombment of the
human body, than it did subsei^uentlv.

In connection with the remamis ot man occurring in an ancient raised sea-
bed, is the fact that so many flint implements have been found in the driffc,
which seemingly carries us bade to a period when Europe and the British isles
were inhabitea oy a race of savages, among whom the use of iron or other
metals was unknown; and who, strangers to the arts of civilized man, had
contrived to make those rude flint implements, which are now found in the
drift, to supply the wants of men in a state of nature, testifying to their
remote antiquify.

With respeet to the great antiquity of the human race, and considering our
method of computing time, the questions naturally arise — ^Are we ^oUy
wrong in our chronology? and. Are the Chinese and Egyptians in their reckon-
ing nearer the truth tnoD. I^e western nations? Every opposition will be
made to the proper solution of these questions by those who are averse to the
progress of science, and every ^ort to explain away the facts bearing on this
no^ important and interesting inquiry will be essayed by its opponents.

Some persons wholly deny that the chipped flints, or ** celts," which are
found in the drift are the work of human hands, and attribute their
peculiar forms to the action oi running water; others consider that they
are the producticm of some subterranean manufactory, which volcanic explo-
sions have sent forth rough cast, so that on cooling they became fractured,
and assumed their present forms. Others, again, beueve that frost had much
to do with shaping the ''langues des chats." Thus, heat, cold, Are, and
water are made to produce one simple effect — ^in short, anything, except the
more rational supposition that they are the vestiges of man's works ; a fact
tiiat is admitted by those whose opinions are entitled to much weight in such
matters. Whatever age may be finally assigned to the drift and the ancient
sea-margins, one ihing appears clearly established,- namely, that an aboriginal
race of men inhabited the earth prior to the superficial accumulations on parts
of its surface^ and long ere the noble savage had discovered the use of iron or
other metals, or the secret of their manufacture.

I found no novel theory on the discovery of the human skeleton in the
ancient estuanr clay, or the flint implements in the drift ; but I offer these
observations, believing that the two facts taken in connection with each other
will stimulate inquiry, and probably lead to a satisfactory solution of a ques-
tion highly interesting to man, and which inquiry may tend to establish the
truth — ^which is the chief end and aim of science. — ^T. Austin, Kingsdown,
Bristol.

QUEBT KESFECTING THE GEOLOGICAL GHABACTEBa OF THE GbAVELS OF

St. Achbtjl, &c. — Sm, — I do not consider myself to be a geologist, though for

VOL. III. K

74 TfiJB aEOJuO(H9T«

many jears I have read much on the Bubject, and listened to all I ootdd bear
upon it ; yet for want of practical out-of-aoors observation, I can but look on
myself as an amateur or admirer of the science, and not a professed geologist,
I dare say, therefore, in what I am about to write, I may commit some geolo-
gical heresies ; ueyertheless, I venture a few remarks upon a subiect that has
lately been much agitated in the geological world— I allude to the discovery
of works of human art, viz., flint-axes, &c., in the drift near Amiens, &c.

This discovery seems to be thought by some to upset the doctrine bitlierto
held of the recent origin of the human race on our globe, and I have even
heard it said that it upsets the Bible history of that event.

To me it appears that no such result can follow the proof (if the fact be
proved) of man's existence cotemporaneously with the deposition of the drift.
That might, indeed, carry the geological date of man's existence further back
than hitherto supposed, but not the chronological date of his creation — ^that is
if it be a fact established beyond doubt that drift is clearly a formation whidi
has been deposited prior to the modern deposits, as they are called, in which
-last alone remains of man and his works have heretofore oeen supposed to have
been found.

The supposed discovery of flint hatchets in the original drift would not vary
the chronological date of man's creation, but only prove that the drift, hitherto
supposed (from the absence of man's bones ana works of art) to be a pre-
adamite formation, is, in fact, post-adamite, and one of the modem formations.
At least that is the conclusion I should come to, and not that the period of
man's existence on earth is shown thereby to be at all niore ancient than
hitherto supposed, but only that the time of the deposition of the drift is not
so far back in point of time as it had been calculated to be*

I see no reason, therefore, for that fear which some have expressed lest the
investigation of the alleged discovery should unsettle men's minds as to the
truth of the Bible history of man's creation.

Now, sir, I have carefully read what Sir Charles Lyell said on this subject
in his address at the meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen, and[ all
that was said there, and since upon it by others, and I had almost come to the
conclusion that man was cotemporaneous with the mammoth and other extinct
animab whose remains are found in the drift, when I happened to read in the
"Times" of the 18th November, 1$59, a letter from Mr. J. W. Flower, who,
on the whole, seems to me, from an examination of the circumstances of the
case on the spot, near Amiens, to have arrived at the conclusion that man was
in existence when the drift was deposited there as a geolo^cal formation,
although he is still somewhat perplexed with certain dimculties that present
themselves to his mind.

The perusal of Mr. Flower's letter has, however, led my mind to a totally
different conclusion, and from the description contained in it of what he saw
and did, and of the circumstances of the case, I arrive at the result that the
particular place in the drift, where alone it seems these flint hatchets have been
disinterred, is an ancient Celtic tumulus.

It seems, from what I gather, that this drift near Amiens is not one con-
tinuous bed of gravel, but occurs in localities distant from each other; that the
gart of the spot in the drift where the flint hatchets alone are found is at
aint Acheul, and does not cover a space larger than a modem dwelling-house ;
the nearest point where the drift occurs again being at Saint Eoch, I think
two miles distant ; moreover, it is near Amiens, which in Julius Caesar's time
,was a weU-known Celtic town called Samara Briva. And Julius Csesar himself
teUs us the Celts were accustomed, in burying their dead, to bury their valu-
ables with them. It seems that the locm in quo is of an average height of
twenty feet, and forms the capping or summit of a slight elevation resting on

KOl'ES AND QUEBIEfi. 75

the chalk-^exactl^ Buoh a situation as both Celts and Scandinavians chose for
the tiinmli of their great warriors. Many of their tumuli are entii'ely formed
of stones heaped together, though most of them have earth mixed with the
stones. In Yorkshire we have tumuli larger than this at Saint Acheul would
seem to be — ^for instance, one near Braflrords and Wauldby Wood, which is
probably that in which Ivar Beenlose, the son of Reffuer Lodbrog, caused
mmself to be buried on the coast near the Humber, ana which Worsoe, in his
''Danes and Norwegians in England," mentions (at page 38) that William the
Conqueror caused to be opened. Another tumulus of greater size occurs
between Xewbald and Beverley, and others near f orkthoipe, between Driffield
and Hunmanby. The size, therefore, is no objection to the patch at Saint
Achenl being a tumulus in which these flint hatchets are found ; and, observe,
they are not found in the drift at Saint Eoch, nor in any of the other patches,
but tbe^ ought to be found throughout the whole of the drift in that locality,
if deposited along with the drift itself. Moreover, if the hatchets had been
broo^ht to Saint Acheul along with the original drift at the time of its deposi-
tion by nature, they would have been water- worn like the drift gravel itself ;
whereas they appear to be formed from rolled flints, but the worked part not in
the least water-worn, showing they were constructed since the wat^r-wearing of
the companion drift in which they exist.*

From a description by Mr. Mower, I entertam great doubts whether this
patch of drift gravel on the summit of an elevation about one hundred feet high
was deposited there at all by the drift forces ; but if it were so, the ancient
Celts may still have availed themselves of it as the covering, or tumulus of the
grave of one of their great chiefs. I much incline, however, to the opinion that
the natural rise of one hundred feet (the only one it seems thereatouts) has
been selected as the site of the tumulus, and the gravel brought at, or after
the funeral, from Saint Roch, and heaped over the body, for it is clear that the
raised materials of many tumuli in England have been brought from some dis-
^ce, and the labour of a whole tribe bestowed for a few weeks would suffice
to do that honour to the memory of their deceased chief at Saint Acheul. The
liigher a chief was in the esteem of his people the larger his tumulus, and the
greater the paLos bestowed on it. Some of these tumuli caUed by the Celts
crondechs, had a stone chamber within them for the corpse, and in them, too,
the mound was not unfrequently composed of stones instead of earth — ^see Sir
Bicbard Colt Hoare's work on the suWect, and Wright's " Celt, Roman, and
Saxon," at page 63 of which you will find it was always the desire of chiefs to
be buried in lofty situations. Sometimes the body was deposited on the ground
tod the tumulus heaped over it ; but in the Wolds of Yorkshire, the earth has
often been removed aown to the chalk, and there the body deposited ; and I ap-
prehend if there was an original deposit of drift gravel on tne summit of the
flJU at Saint Acheul, it womd be removed down to the deposit preceeding it, and
the body there laid, and then the gravel again heaped on it. But as I said be-
fore, it IS not improbable (as the patch of drift is only of the extent of a modem
dwelling-house) that it has all been brought from Saint Roch.

Stone hatchets have been found in British tumuli. Why not then in French
ones?

, I do not find any account of the precise sort of locality in which the Abbe-
ville hatchets are found ; but if they also are confined to particular spots in the
<^ift bed, and not found in aU parts indiscriminately, it would go far in my mmd
to establish the idea of those being graves where tne hatchets are found.

• Some specimens collected by M. Boucher de Peorthes, now by loan ot Mr. Flower in my
^^seBsion, I ^hinV are slightly water-worn. Some of these *' celts" may have been, manu-
jctored from flints taken directly out of the chalk j others, I am inclined to believe, have
°^ numnfactored from large gravel flintB.->E]>. GsoiioaxsT.

^8 ' THE QBOliOGIST.

The other portion of this deposit, which is not bo hard, contains melanise and
CyrensB resembling those from Charlton, together with oysters and fresh-water
miLssels with the nacre preserved. I have other shells from this deposit whic)i
I cannot name — one in shape resembles the marine mnssel.

I have not been able to make a section, but I believe that this bed is
situated beneath forty or fifty feet of clay. The sewer at this spot was nearly
filled up when I last visited it, but shells may be obtained from the heaps
thrown out at the side. I observed no pebbles or sand, which are so conmion
at Woolwich and Blackheath. I should feel obliged to any of your readers,
who may have visited this place, for information as to the position and correla-
tion of this bed, and also whether any remains other than shells have been
found there. A friend informs me that he has found the elytron of a small
beetle in the limestone. — Yours truly, 0. Evans, Hampstead. — Some few
spines and very fragmentary portions of fish have been collected. — ^Ep. Geol.

Supposed Traces of Iiuman Manttpactueb. — Sib> — ^The very interesting'
question which has been opened up lately by the discovery of implements of
human manufacture in the drift beds of Amiens, Abbeville, and other places
abroad, reminds me of a very curious reHc, apparently of an exceeainffly
remote date, which was stored up in the Museum of Natural History at Derby
when I paid a visit to that interesting collection, rather more than six years
ago (August, 1853). It was nothmg more nor less than a very antiqne-
fashionedsmoking-pipe, which had been found in connection with fossil bones
in undisturbed strata at a depth of sixteen feet or more beneath the surface of
the soil (if I mist^e not) in the neighbourhood of Derby. This reHc of a
bygone age was, from the extraordinary position in which it was found,
regarded by its discoverer as of very remote antiquity, and the placard which
was written over it to attract public observation was not unnaturally worded
^ Geological Problem." From the pencil memorandum I made in my pocket-
book, I find that it was accompanied by the following explanation in a letter
addressed to the curator of the museum: — "I send you a geological problem.
The accompanying tobacco-pipe was found in the Blue Band, the same stratum
that contamed the bones, &c. It lies sixteen feet deep, and is nine inches
thick. It has gravel above and below. The pipe is not of modem manufac-
ture. I hear that similar pipes have been found near Gainsbro'. — ^Yours, dear
sir, E. J. Jessop. To J. Jones, Esq."

Of course, if the undisturbed condition of the strata could be proved with
regard to this reHc, it could not have been used for the purpose of smoking
tobacco ; and if my memory serves me right, there was no appearance of olea-
ginous carbonization in the pipe which could indicate that it had been so used,
but possibly it may turn out that this rude instrument had been employed for
smoking some narcotic herb, for Herodotus makes mention of the fact that a
Scythian tribe were in the habit of exciting themselves by the smoke of some
vegetable production. It is not unlikely that the art of smoking was practised
long antecedent to the discovery of the " narcotic weed" par excellence. Per-
haps some of your readers living in the neighbourhood of Derby may be able
to give you further particulars about this alleged geological problem, or if not,
the mere reference to the finding of other human implements than the rude
celts of flint in positions evidencing great antiquity of deposit, may lead to the
mention of many similar discoveries in diflferent parts of the world. — ^I am,
Sir, yours very truly, Francis F. Statham, F.G.S., Walworth.

Implements in the Deipt. — From a note which I made at Beauvais, in the
sununer of 1858, 1 find that the museum of that city contains several speci-
mens of rude flint tools of the same kind as those found at St. Acheul. I made
a sketch of one of them at that time, to record the difference between these
and the ordinary celts, though I was then unaware of any difference in their

BBYIEW, 79

XI also noted some flint knives, and some othet thin catting impletnents
Bgular serrated edges, which I took to be prototypes of saws. In addit-
lion to these ante-celtic remains, their are seyeral instimces derived from the
contents of barrows of flint " urchins" being treasured up as sling-stones. I
heg to suggest an examination of the local museums where such remains may
be expected to occur, and a reference to the locality where found, if given. In
the museum of Le Puy, I saw one of the flint tools which M. Aymard subse-
ouently told me came from Perigueux, where a manufactory of tnem had evi-
oently been discovered. — S. R. Pattison.

The Discovbbjbb. op the Pteeaspis Bjbmains in the Lower Ludlow Bed
(" Geologist," vol. iii., p. 26 J. — We have received a communication from Mr,
J. E. Lee, of Caerleon, inclosmg certain letters from Mr. Lightbody to himself,
in relation to the discovery of tnese interesting fish-remains. It is manifestly
impossible for us to know the minutiss of every geological transaction, but it
is always within our province, and certainlv agreeable to ourselves to become
the means of correcting any of those accidental errors which will occasionally
occur. In the case of these Pteraspis remains, it appears Mr. Salter, in the
Aimals and Magazine of Natural History for July, 1859, has doubtless most
unintentionally committed the error of attributing their discovery to Mr. Light-
body, who forwarded them to Mr. Salter for examination and description,
instead of to Mr. Lee, who really found them in the " starfish quarry" at Leint-
wardine, when collecting fossils there in company with Mr. Lightbody. Errors
of this kind are much to be regretted, as tne chief reward of the labours of
provincial geologists is in their due appreciation and acknowledgement by the
special authorities to whom they communicate, lend, and often ^ve their most
prized treasures, and in the present case it seems to be particularly unfortunate,
as the specimen has been hberallv presented by Mr. Lee to the Jermyn-street
Museum, and duly acknowledged oy Sir Boderick Murchison to him.

Slickensides. — In the h&t number of the " Geologist," page 38, line 6, for
" George Hilliston" read " George H. Morton." See Note on Slickensides.

REVIEW.

Geology in the Garden, By Henet Elet, M. A. London : Bell and Daldy.

" Geology in the Garden " is a pleasing idea ; it suggests at once the simple
plan imd story of the book, but we scarcely thought when we opened it tlie
garden would have g^ven so wide a range — so much scope of subject available
lor so much instruction as Mr. Eley has made it convey.

Walking round his garden, one sees two prominent subjects of inquiry — ^the
Rravel ofthe walks, and the soil of the beds. The gravel derived from the
uints of the chalk contains microscopic and other cretaceous fossils, which of
course are fully described. Por the most part they consist of Foraminifera ;
and Mr. Eley's original observations and remarks upon that wonderfully diver-
sified class of simple rhizopods do him high credit for acuteness of investiga-
tion and perspecuity of explanation. The other topic — the soil of the beds — ^is
handled with considerable skill, and attention is admirably directed to the
powerful influences exerted by earthworms in assisting the waste by rainfall
and other denuding operations. One extract on this topic will bring a valuable
consideration home to manv of our readers : —

80 THB GEOLOGIST.

** As the wonns desert their old l)urr0W8, the soil sinks in and fills liiem;
«nd by this means a constant circulation is oontinned, the v^table monld ex-
tending itself downwards, while the 'dead soil' — ^that is, the pnrely mineral
matter — ^is brought up, and so the cultivable staple increases. If we examine
even the unmoved gravel in the pit, wherever it is not too deep below the
surface, we shall find that the worms are invading it, eating out the sand
l)etween the stones, running their excavations down in favourable pLtces,
plastering them, too, round the sides with the peculiar slime and earthy matter
with which they puddle them to keep out the wet, and leaving their excrement
in them ; thus gradually changing the colour of the mass, and making it fit for
the roots of the herbage above to strike into.

" It is believed to be a mistake, however, to suppose that the growing vege-
tation is supported chiefly by vegetable decay. A certain essential portion of
its carbon — ^that is, its vegetable matter — ^the rising plant, it is thought, must
thus obtain ; but it is dependent upon the atmosphere for its chidT s^ly>
having the power of elaborating carbon &om it by means of its leaves. What
ihe plant socially wants from the soil is minend matter; and this the earth-
worm keeps withm its reach, by oontinuallv transferring it from below upwards,
in a properly comminuted state. Every snower that falls washes away some of
this valuable matter, as anyone may see who will watch the rills which trickle
over the surface at the time ; and if the rain is heavy, it carries off a great
quantity of clav and sand. The unavoidable consecpience of this natural
operation woula be that the upper layer would consist chiefly of the coarser
materials, the larger grit and stones, which would be ill adapted for the sup-
port of the more valuable kind of herbage. But the earthworm supplies the
waste; and in this way is an agent of which geology must take notice;
for denudation and its consequences — ^the filling up of valleys and lakes, the
growth of deltas at the mouth of rivers, and the accumulation of strata on the
sea-bottom — ^would all go on more slowly if the worm did not bring up fine
matter to the surface for the rain to sweep off."

We have not space in this number to notice very minutely Mr. Eley*s book ;
and indeed it is not essential that in reviewing we should oescend into narti-
oulars. It will suffice then to add a plan of the work. From the flint-peobles
in his garden our author passes to a consideration of the Chalk formation and
the great physical changes to which the Wealden area of the south-east of
England has been subjected.

£i treating of the origin of those remarkable bands of silioeous nodules whidi
mark the upper beds of our English chalk, however, Mr. Eley throws no addi-
tional light, and leaves that difficult question as he found it.

Erom the physical events of this region we are passed on to the boulder-drift
and to still more expanded views of the general phvsicsJ conditions of our
globe itself. Then are so naively brought forward tne habits and operations
of the earth-worm to which we have so pointedly alluded. The concluding
chapter develppes the author's view that the changes indicated by Geoloey
reveal part of a fore-ordained plan for preparii^ the earth's surface for tne
occupancy of man. Eor ourselves we have derivedboth pleasure and instruction
from Mr. Key's book, and there are but few which it nas fallen to our lot to
*ead, that we could recommend to our readers so sincerely, or with so much
pleasure.

THE GEOLOGIST.

MAECH, 1860.

GEOLOGICAL LOG ALITIE S.— NO. I.
FOLKESTONE.

(ConUnued from vol. iii., page 45.)

Bt 8. J. Maokie, F.G.S., F.S,A.

Slowit the calm sea ebbs. Aa the pulse of the great ocean beats,
ila glassy ribbon-wftves flow swelUngly along in long thin lines,
and then drain rapidly away. Every now and then, with higher
Sffelling motion, one wavelet ripples iiirther in, leaving na doiibtftil
for a moment of the tide's recess. Bnt gently, surely are those
slippeiy rocks xmveiled, and on their smooth and purple flats the
glittering fossils lie.

UgD. 3,—Aiiimaiita Latiiui, From the Oault.

There, in their radiant iridescence in scores are pearly Ammonites.

i- laiutiu, A. epleadma, A. auritmy A. tuhercalaim, and the little

ribbed and everywhere bestrewn A. ;

VOL. in.

82 THE GEOLOGIST.

There hundreda of amber-like translucent Belenmitos (B. Lieteri)
protmde Uieir spise-like fonuB from the dark bine solid day.

lilga. i.—Amiiiniittt cariamu. Frnm the Ganlt.

Cnrled HamiteB, small mit-shaped Nncnlse (N. peeUnaia and N.
ovata), spiny BosteUariffl, Pterocera, and Naticffl, and black phos-
phatic caste of antiqae fomiB of crabs and pntwnfi, bbA little
stttd- and cup-like corals await your gathering. Everything to yonr

hand, resplendent as the sea has left them for you. Every here and
there tbe BmaUeet portion of some shell or crab reveals the untouched
treafiure buried nndemeath. Pick, trowel, knife, anything wHl dig
into that moist yielding day, or cut your treasure out. Patience and
care are all you want.

OEOIOGT op FOLSBBTONB — THH QAULT. 83

It v&a a treat indeed m mj yoathfttl times to see that " foasil-
btmk" imcoTered, and display ita myriad treasnrea. Sacks fiill of

l>eMitifQl foasila would repay yonr inter-tidal toil j bnt now, daily is
w^ restricted tract moSt keenly watched by searching eyes; and

lAgn. 7,—XoHeUaria ParUjUMii. From Ibe Oaalt.

'"^'^ every day becomes the harvest to be gathered. Not bo Copt
'""t : here, after winter stco'ms and snows, tons of the shivered clay

84 THE QEOLOOIBT.

are Uonched from time to time, and ofier to the searcher rich re-

Curions too, indeed, in its geographical range is this tenacions

belt of dark bine clay. For miles and milea the narrow band ex-

tends along, marked to the eye in winter by its moist and spongy
verdnre, in Bummer by the arid browns of its scanty herbage and its
cracked and fiseured soil. All along its coarse grow stunted oaksi

and ever and anon brick- works and tile-kUng, like si^al posts, stand
ont upon ita tract. AU round the chalk-hiUs, in their extended aemi-
drclfr-mnge, and ^ain on the Bhoree of the Gullic lands acrose the
"mitow Btraite," through Dorsetshire, through Cambridgeshire,
ever cat off from the white chalk hills by a green sandy belt (the
Upper Greensand), sometimes developed into thick conrsea of sand
*Dd firestone, as in Surrey and the Isle of Wight, sometimes only a
nuTov dark green bed meaenrable in inches, as in Eastwear Bay,
ud cnt off from the beds below — the Lower Greensand and Neoco-
nian— by a stratom still more remarkable in its dutraotors, value,
and origin.

Near the base of the Gault there streams along a single narrow
layer of broken casts of iai^ish ammonites.* Once measiuing the
distance from the baeemeat-bed above referred to, or, as for years I
have rather called it, the "jnnction-bed," with the handle of yonr
pick, or any other ready means, strike where you will along the en-
CTttted, or debris-covered face of the cliff, there surely will yonr pick's
point clatter against those hard and m^ed nodnlea. There they

t Benetiaaus, with a Bmaller pro-

ob THB GBOUWIBT. ^

are as sure as fate, and in one narrow seam. Not many in kind,
two, or at mofit three, are the species whose remaiug are thns spread
over geographical tracts, expreBsible only in sqaare miles. Myriads
of them most have perished to have formed this one tesselated floor
of tiis old CretacoonB aea. And here, gentle reader, is a myBteiy for
you to solve, or ponder on. Whence CMne these sharply broken
casts f Wliat current, or what force of ocean-wat«r spread them
like road-metal, as it were, o'er the old sea^oozeP

Bnt lower down again. I long to point yon ont that " jimctton-
bed." Mystery of all mysteries along this coast is the mysteiy there.
Bat there it is, solid and hard, abont eighteen inches thick, jntfcmg
out beyond the olay abOTO and sand beneath — red, yellow, brown,
and black — glittering with metaUio pyrites (snlphnret of iron) and
seamed with glassy crystals (selenite — anlphate of lime) there is that
cnrions conglomerate of rounded potato-like lamps of phosphate of
lime and son^gy gnarled bonghs of trees. The gnarly boughs do

tell ns something ; riddled through and through by Fistolana and
Teredo, they speak most eloquently of their stormy wanderings over
the sea. But those round phosphatic lumps, what do th^ teach us ?
"The sculptured stone, or the emblazoned shield often speaks
when the written records of history are silent. A grotesque carvingi
coat, or badge in the spandril of some old f^urch-door, or over the
portal of a decayed mansion often points ont the stock of the othei~
wise forgotten patron or lord. A dim-looking pane in an oriel
window, or a discolored coat in the dexter comer of an old Holbein
may give not only the name of the bene&ctor, or of the portrait^ bnt

QBOIrfMlT OF FOLKESTONE — THE OiULT. 87

tiao identify him perBonaUy hy ehowing his relatione to the head of
hia bouse, his oonnections and allianceB."

So with the geologist: when petrological oODditione, dhemioal
analysis, or microscopic iuTestigiition fail at first to give the due, we
ma; stall find the key to the solution of a physical &ct in the evi-
dence of some simple, even it may he some obecore thing. But the
ieij to the geological history of this valnable hand of mineral manure
has not yet been fonnd. There, however, is that narrow seam of

Lign. 11.— Oopt Point, from Hie Xaal Pier at Folkffilone Haibonr.
*■ SmU. d, SIzBOiin of phoephftHo CMta of Anmtmita SsneHamu, B, " Jiiw!liim-ttd,"
"UnpoKa ofaodaleB of phoapbate of Ume, with casta of Ammmilrm mamrnilarU uid gnuted
piMm of wood, ibOTod trr iWdo. O, Lomer gnemand. t, Btrntum of small phoaphatia
ia«tt <dAmmomla mammUorU, IhtbItm, and DenKUia.

fonnded nodnles, offering 40 per cent, of fertilizing phosphate, per-
Bistent everywhere with the ganlt itself. All ronnd the chalk-downs,
ID their range &om close by *i>iiH point on which now we stand,
t^>roa^ garden-like Kent, and post the charming matic hamlets of
heantt&l Snney to the bleak Susses coast have I, walking through
green refi«shing lanes and over stabbled fields, traced oat this fer-
bliong band. On the northern shores of Fnmce, between where &e
^w forsaken but once active port of Ambletenae presents its pierced
*>id mouldering pOes, and Wissant, the ganlt again comes out to
^v, and t^ narrow sombre-coloured junction>seam agtun is there.

88 THE aEOLOOIBT.

What is its history f Booes of fminuJa, we know, are formed of
phosphonts aad lime (phosphate of lime), bat not a trace, save
rarely a few teeth of aharke or tiny vertelnw of fiab, of bones <^ any
living thing of earth, or air, or sea is there— ao far aa we can see;
and yet there are tons and thousands of tons of what we only know
in an oi^anic form as bone-sabstanoe. There are the gnarled riddled
boughs of trees, charred into radiate Uackuess in the lapse of incom-
prehensible time, and these are rich in, nay, permeated, soaked, bo to
speak, with the phosphatic matter, for they offer to the chemist's test
ea much per cent, as these hard, black-brownish lumps. There are
broken phosphatic casts of the rough nigged Ammonitee mammUark

"Jnnotiaii- (pboepbMe <rf lime] bed."

vo, nnmbers, bedanbed and patched with phosphatic concretions, bnt
nothing else, save of shell-fish a few stray straggling Inocenuni or
Dentalia, which only occasionally oconr.

These phosphate-nodoles, ! should think, mnst have been derived
from some organic snbetance, the great accnmolation of which at
one horizon, however, is very remarkable. Conld the perishing oar^
cases of gigantic Ammonites, such as the A. mwmmUcma in its adult

GEOLOGY OF FOLKBSTOKK — THE GAULT. 89

state, or the myriad Bwanns of smaller oephalopoda hare famished
the fertOizmg phosphate ? I know of nothing to justify this idea,
imlefls the phosphatic pellets we not nncommonly find in juxta-
position with the little Belemnites of the ganlt are the shrivelled
bodies of the cuttle-fish, whose internal supports they were. That
which seems to me probable is that this remarkable band derives its
origin from the organic debris of a great ocean, very clear of mineral
sedimentary matter, during a long period of time ; or, that when the
alteration of physical condition took place, by which the sandy
deposits of the Lower Greensand were exchanged for the muddy
condition of the Gault, a deposition of organic d&yria took place,
derived from the destruction possibly of a part of the fauna of the
Cretaceous sea, by the influx of unfavourable currents, or from the
washing in to its area of some previous accumulation of the decaying
substances of some toastal region.

Be this as it may, the subjacent greensand, comparatively free
&om calcareous or argillaceous matter, indicates the clearnefiis of the
water in which it was deposited; and when the cessation of its
deposit took place, the mineral characters of the Guult shew that
it derived its origin from a very different source. Between the
periods of these two deposits is. it unreasonable to suppose an
interval of local quiescence and freedom from any of the wasting
operations which produced the sedimentary materiab of the Gault
and Greensand to have taken place, during which the organic matter
of the Cretaceous sea fell to the bottom, to, form in future ages a vast
store of mineral manure.

How unconscious of all this was the ornamented ammonite, sport-
ing in its glittering shell, or the teredo boring the drifting wood.
When we think how the dead and putrid things fiJling in the ocean's
depths in afber ages may be changed into bread — ^how rich in
treasme is the sHme and bottom of the deep ; when we think that in
the silent waters, dark and deep, myriads of toiling creatures were at
their busy work millions of ages since ; when we look through the
long vista of time, and contemplate the changes that probably have
happened to the Httle clot of earth that forms our muscles, nerves,
and bones ; when we think that the gay and scented flowers might
have been onoe the reftuBe of the deep, and that in the changes of
VOL. in. M

90 THB OSOLOGIST.

matter the very dregs of eaorth may become redolent with life and
beauty, onr thoughts turn in reverent homage to the great planner
and preserver of all things, by whose sometimes inscrutable, but
always benevolent laws, the order and endurance of creation is maiQ-
tained.

(To be cotUimted,)

ON THE SOUTH WALES COAL-FIELD.
By G. p. Bbvan, M.D., F.G.S.

As the season for active out of door geological work is now ap-
proachiQg, I propose to give a brief glance at some interesting
featares of the South Wales coal-field, in the hopes that pedestrian
geologists may be tempted to make it one of the scenes of their
labours. And they will be richly rewarded ; for, though coal-fields
generally give us an impression of a black, unsightly country, with-
out vegetation or anythiag pleasant for the eye to rest upon, they
are not all alike, and that of South Wales is as rich in beautifnl scenery
above ground, as it is in the precious mineral beneath. Glorious
hills intersected by narrow valleys and wooded dells, each washed by
its mountain-stream, and antiquities — ^in the shape of castles, abbeys,
cromlechs, and cairns, may tempt the tourist to whom geology does
not hold out sufficient inducement. It is in outward featares, which
I shall first touch upbn, that this differs so mueh from other coal-
fields, the basin being more clearly marked, and the underlying grits
and limestones, being more uniform in their development than inazry
district in Great Britain. Indeed, it is only in two places that the
regnlarity of the basin is broken, viz., between Newton Nottage and
the Mumbles, and at Llanelly, in Gaermaarthenshire, and then solely
because the coal-measures ran under the respective bays of Swansea
and Caemarthen. The basin, however, is not altogether round, bat
of an irregularly oblong shape, caused by the north and south
boundaries approaching each other towards Pembrokeshire. The

BEYAN — ON THB SOUTH WALBS COAL-FIELD. 91

canse of this, we are told,* has been a strong lateral pressure, acting
nneqnaUy, or meeting with unequal resistance, after the accmnxdation
of the Old Bed Sandstone, and probably of the Coal-measures, the
effects of which are principally seen in the counties of Pembroke^
Caennarthen, Glamorgan, Monmouth, Brecon, Hereford, and Wor-
cester; and not only has this pressure conduced to the outward
filiape of the basin, but^ as we shall presently see, to the peculiar
troughs and antidinalB within the basia.

Orer the greater portion of the district^ hill and dale succeed each
other with wonderful regularity, causing one valley to resemble the
other so much that it is frequently difGlcult for the stranger to asce]>
tain his whereabouts ; but this applies more particularly to Mon-
mouthshire. From the table-land of nullstone-grit and limestone on
the north, issue a number of small streams runniug due south to
the Bristol channel, at an interval of &om four to six miles. From
east to west we haye £rst the yalley of the Afon, followed by those
of the Ebbw Fach and Fawr (Little and Great Ebbw), succeeded by
the Sirhowy and B*hymney rivers, all of which converge, and have
their outlet at, or near Newport. We then cross the Ta£f into Gla-
morganshire, where a change takes place in the physical features.
There are stOl valleys and hills, but the valleys are broader and of
more importance, while the hiUs are more irregularly placed, and
grouped in more picturesque fashion. We have now two sets of
Talleys running in different directions : firsts that of the Taff with its
feeders of Aberdare and Bliondda, finding their terminus at Cardiff;
hut west of the Taff we find ourselves in the most mountainous
portion of Glamorganshire, in which the hills are of great height^ and
the valleys become mere dells: the principal of this set are the
Ujmn, the Ogwr, and the Afon, the two first of which find their
outlet at Bridgend, and the latter at Aberavon. Secondly, turning
to the north, we find that from, the same table-land which gives birth
to the Aberdare valley, issues the beautiful Yale of Neath, running
to the south-west^ an important alteration in the physiognomy of
the county. All the subsequent rivers foUow nearly the same ar-
i^angement ; for west of the Yale of Neath we have that of the Tawe

* Memoirs of the Geological Survey, vol. i., pa^ 224.

92 THE GEOLOGIST.

or the Swansea valley, followed by the Llonghor and Gwendraeth
rivers, which have their respective ontletB at Llanelly and Kidwelly.

In whatever portion of the field we make our observations, we
cannot help being at once struck with the effects of the enormous
denudation to which it has been subject. The great pressure, or
catastrophe, has been shown by Prof. Bamsay tohave probably taken
place at the close of the coal-measure period, and did not consist of a
number of detached efforts, but of one gigantic contraction. The
effects were to create tremendous flexures and contortions of the
strata ; and, if such are not always visible to us, we must remember
that the lower beds were saved from the shattering influence by the
immense super-incumbent weight of strata which has been long ago
worn away by denudation.

The greater part of this denudation happened in Tertiary periods,
and was almost exclusively the work of marine action, as Professor
Bamsay shows that fluviatile forces or atmospheric influences,
although doubtless contributing much to the general appearance of
the country, had but little power to cause such extraordinary effects.
We can well understand how it is that most of the tops of the hills are
crowned with hard rock, such as Pennant grit, having from this
cause been able to resist the denuding force of the sea. If we ex-
amine the measures underground, we at once see the results of the
pressure to which the field was subject. It is generally spoken of as
an elongated basin, or trough ; but the real fact is that-there are two
troughs running east and west, the smaller one being parallel to the
larger, and separated from it by a considerable ridge, or anticlinal
axis. The main trough contains by far the greater portion of the
measures, which of course basset north and south. The centre of
the big trough runs underneath Newbridge (Monmouthshire),
through the high ground into the Sirhowy valley, below Blackwood,
then into the Bhymney valley, which it crosses at Craig Penalltau,
and under the Gellygaer Hill, into the Taff Vale at Navigation.

From thence it extends to Llanwonno, and through the Bhonnda
valley, iato that of the Afon. Curiously enough, as far as Grellygaer,
the course of the trough underground corresponds closely with
that of the Taff- Vale extension railway above ground. Newbridge in
Monmouthshire is at the centre, or deepest part of the ferough ; while

BEYAN — OK THE SOUTH WALES COAL-FIELD. 98

Newbridge, in Glamorganshire, otherwise called Pontypridd, is
sitoated on the anticlinal axis, which has the effect of bringmg np
the lower measures at Maesteg iron-works in the Llynvi valley. It
is marked by the appearance of a rock termed the '^Gockshort
Bock,'* which consists of a bed, or beds, of sand, consolidated
together so as to form a qnartss-rock : by miners it is known in
Bome districts as " carreg," or " craig gwenith faen*' — ^the wheats
grained stone, and is important as being the only white qnartz-rock
in the field ; it is a serviceable guide to the relative position of
oertain beds of coal. Its course is from Baglan, near Briton Ferry,
to Gwm Avon, Maesteg, Braich-y-cymmer, across the Llangeinor
MoTuitaEQ, CiUely, and Newbridge, to the Eglwysilazi Mountain. We
find the trongh again, although wonderfally narrowed at the
western end of the field, at LlaneUy, Gaermarthenshire. The smaller
trough is directly south of the larger one, and in fact occupies all the
(distance between the great anticlinal axis and the southern crop of
the basin. As a consequence, the beds of the south crop are much
more highly incHned than those on the north. They are also of
,nmch greater thickness, showing a progressive tendency to thin-out
as they approach their northern limit.

The &,ults of the South Wales field are numerous, and often locally
extensive, though there are none of general magnitude like the
Nineiy Fathom Dyke. The largest fiiults are to be found in the
north-eastera part of Glamorganshire, running south-west fi^m
Merthyr, across the Gellygaer-hiU to Llancaiach, where it is one
himclped yards, so that the Mynyddswlyn-vein of [coal, which is
worked by level at TophiU, is obliged to be worked by deep pit at the
I^caiaoh Golliery, only a few hundred yards to the south.
Another great fault, runs westward from Trevethin, near Pontypool,
^ Blackwood, where there is a perfect chaos of faults, the appearanco
which on the Geological Survey's map reminds one strongly of
Bradshaw's Railway-map. The whole of the south crop is much in-
tersected by faults, particularly in the west of Glamorganshire and
Caermarthenshire ; but their small size prevents their having any
general interest. Nevertheless, it is highly important that even
small faults should be duly chronicled, for many instances might be
^corded where ignorance of existing disturbances has caused a

94 THS OSOLOGIST.

serious loss, and even min to a colliery proprietor. This is partica-
larly of consequence in the present day when speculation is rife, and
new pits and levels are opened eveiy month, often by x)er8ons
who have no practical acqnaintanoe whatever with mining affiurs.
It is, therefore, the interest of eveiybody having mineral pro-
perty to nse their best endeavours, not only to develope the know-
ledge of existing fanlts in the strata, bat also to correct present
inaccuracies.

There are few coal-fields in which the Lower Measnres can be so
conveniently studied, on account of the large area over which they are
spread, their extreme regularity, and the generally gentle angle at
which they crop out. This, however, does not apply so much to the
measures of the south crop. The Middle and Upper measures ore
by no means so generally to be found, owing to the extensive denu-
dation that has been shown to be carried on in subsequent ages to their
deposition. As they are chiefly found in Glamorganshire and Car-
marthenshire, I will first confine myself to the eastern or Monmouth-
shire 'district, embracing from the Pontypool valley to that of the
Taff. The mountain-limestone of the Blorenge forms the western
boundary of the coal-field, and is a prominent object for many a long
mile, commanding as it does views of the Old Bed which lies at its
feet, the Silurian upthrow of Usk, and the woods of the Forest of
Dean, with the Channel and the Somerset hills as a background to
as lovely a view as any in England. In abreak of the liiUp, through
which the Afon emerges, Pontypool is situated, a town with the
usual amount of busy population and dirt which is displayed in the
iron-work districts. Nevertheless, it is honourably mentioned as
being one of the very first seats of the iron-trade which was com-
menced in 1560 by an ancestor of the present Lord lieutenant, one
Bichard Hanbury, a worthy goldsmith of the city of London, who
used charcoal Aimaces. Charcoal was generally employed for smelt-
ing prior to the discovery of coal, and many of the neighbouring hills,
now bare, were evidently once upon a time covered with timber
which was cut down to supply the trade. At the time of Mr. Han-
bury's undertaking, the whole of the mineral property wafl let for
nine shillings and fourpence, the rented now showing a value more
like that of house-room in London.

SEVAN — ON THB SOUTH WALKS COAL-FIELD. 95

I vin not weary my readers with a full list of all the measureB
here, with their accompanying shales, sandstones, and ixon-ores,*
waSod it to say that there is an aggregate thickness of foriy-six feet
of ooal hetween the Pennant rocks and the millstone-grit. I will first
ran over the names of the more important seams, f(»r the purpose
of identifying them with those in other valleys. In no district in the
world prdbehly is there snch ahopeless oonfnsion of nomenclature as
regards the coal-measores ; one valley sometimes differing altogether
from the next in the names of what are precisely the same seams.
It may he easily imagined that difficulties may thns be thrown not
mertfy in the way of geological science, bat also in the identificatioB
of mfiasnres in different parts of the basin.

The principal seams at Pontypool are as follows : —

Ft. in.

Mynyddswlyn Vein 3 0

Troed-y-rhiw 2 0

Coal 3 0

New Vein 4 0

EedVein 2 6

Rock Vein 7 6

Yard 2 6

Meadow Vein 4 6

Stone Vein 4 0

The Troed-y-rhiw coal is the highest in the lower measures, and
oocnrs also at the base of the Pennant-rock ; there is, nevertheless,
a considerable amount of sandstone generally found between it and
the next vera. Its general thickness is not great, seldom above two
and a half feet, but in all the valleys it is much worked under
different names, owing to its accessibiliiy and its constancy of
position. Thus the Troed-y-rhiw coal of Pontypool is called at
AbertHlery the CwmtiQery or Tilestone-coal ; in the Gwm Game,
the Pontgwaithairam ; in the Ebbwvale valley, Noed-y-rhiw ; and in
the Ehynaney valley, the Brithdir.

Above this coal lie what in Olamorganshire would be called the
middle measures, but which in Monmouthshire is simply unproduc-
tive sandstone, known as Pennant rock ; at Pontypool it is about
eight hundred feet thick, and immediately above it Hes the only

* They wfll be found in the Memours of the Geological Survey, vol. i., page 174.

96 THB GEOLOGIST.

upper-meastire seam east of the Taff. The Mynyddswlyn-veiii^ three
feet thick, is the great vein from which the red ash, or home-bnming
coal is sent to Newport and CardifiT. It occupies a rather narrow
tract of country, mning east and west from Pontypool to the Taff.
The railway which goes across Cwmlin Bridge takes tis through the
vjery centre of this tract, which is very thickly studded with ooUeries,
and cut up with a number of small &ults A good idea of it will be
gained firom the horizontal section of the Qovemment Survey, No.
12, as it runs through the Cefu Crib mountain to crop out at Cred
Colynos, above Pontypool. It usually consists of a top- and bottom-
coal, divided by a varying amount of rubbish, or parting — ^for instance,
at the south-east crop of this vein, which is to be found at the
Penner colliery, near Newbridge, the division is thirty-three feet
thick ; but on the north crop, at Tophill, near Uancaiach, overlook-
ing the Taff Yale, it is only a foot and a-haJf ; so that the two veins
can be conveniently worked together. I append a section of this
coal as worked at the Mamhole-coUiery, in the Sirhowy Valley, the
property of Sir. Thos. Phillips: —

Ft. in.

Surface : 19 6

Rock 33 0

Clod 8 0

Thin coal (The Rider) 1 2

Clod 30 0

Rock 64 0

Clod 30 0

Coal (top) 3 0)

Clod 1 6 >Mynyddswlyn

Coal (bottom) 2 6)

The clod soon begins to thicken, even in the space of a few
hui^^dred yards, as does the coal itself.

From the measures at Pontypool several coal-plants have been ob-
tained ; but the most interesting fossil there is found in the iron-
stone, just above the Meadow- vein. It is the ProAuctus scahricfuhsj
the only Productus ever found in the true coal-measures, and as far
as I have been able to ascertain, the only specimens as yet found
in the district. Here they are very plenti^.

As we follow up the Afon and Frwd valleys we successively arrive

BE VAN — ON THE SOUTH WALES COAL-FIELD. 97

at Abersychan, Yarteg, and Blanafon works. At Yarteg, the ooal
thickens out to an aggregate of fifty-one feet, the Rock-veiii, which
is here called the " Droydeg"-vein, thinning to six feet five inches.
and the Meadow-vein increasing to seven feet. At Blanafon the
former is called the " Bydellog**-coal, a name which it keeps until we
enter Grlamorganshire ; while the latter is the equivalent of either the
Pwltaoea, or the old-coal, most likely of the first.

Here we turn the comer of the basin, and proceed eastward, the
measures rounding t*he Ganerew mountain into the Clydach valley.
Of this beantiftd dingle I need only mention that the scenery will
amply repay any visitor, being equal to many parts of Derbyshire.
Here, too, were the first specimens of the Stigmaria observed and
described by that intelligent old philosopher Lhwyd. Good coal-
plants can be easily obtained at all these works at the expense of a
little trouble, though it is always as well to apply first of all to the
underground agents, who are generally glad to afford information.
The valleys of the Ebbw having been already described in the
" GrEoLOGiST," vol. i., p. 119-124, I need not touch upon them any
^her, but pass at once through Nantygls, Beaufort, and Tredegan
into the Rhymney-valley- Along the whole of the road good
sections of the bottom-veins are constantly to be met with, and in
many of the "tips" are plenty of fish-remains and AnthracosisB
(principally A. agrcstis).

Above Rhymney Gate, in the bed of the river, is the most prolific
shell-bed that can be imagined, lying in the " Farewell' '-rock, just
above the miUstone-grit^ This is the horizon of the marine shell-
bed which runs from Beaufort into Camarthenshire, The principal
veins worked at Rhymney are —

Ft. in.

EUed 4 0

Equivalent to the three- ^

quarter coal of Nan- > Upper Four-foot 3 1

tygls and Ebbw- vale. )

Big Vein... 4 10

Equivalent to the Droy-^

bA^TeC^-[^-'- ' «

vale. )

Thee coals 2 4

VOL. III. y

98 THE GEOLOGIST.

Ft. in.
Equivalent to the Stone ^

vein of Pontypool and > Lower Four-foot 6 5

old coal of Ebbw-vale. )

YardVein 2 0

The aggregate being about ., 48 0

Many good fossils have been obtained from these measures, the
^* Filed codi" yielding numerous plants, as it does aJso at Blaina and
Beaufort; while many of the veins of iron-ore abound in shells,
principally Umo aquUvus and U, centralis, I must not forget to
mention a small seam of coal, seldom above two feet thick, which Hes
immediately above the " Farewell"-rock, and is the most constant
seam in the whole basin. It is known at the different works as
follows :

Ft. in,

Pontypool Little Coal 1 6

»Varteg Brass Coal 1 0

Blanafon Engine Coal 2 4

Nantygls Big Vein 1 6

Beaufort Big Vein 1 6

Blaina Little Vein 2 0

Ebbw-vale Bottom Vein 2 0

Ehymney Bough Pin Coal 1 4

Dowlais Lumpy Vein 1 3

Hirwain Knobby Vein 1 6

Onllwyn Cnapog Coal 1 6

Ynisoedwin Clas-vach Coal 2 6

In most of these plax^s it is characterised by fish remains, and, in-
deed, almost every specimen I have (from six or seven species),' have
been found in this coal, showing that they were not of mere local oc-
currence, but were general over the whole field at this period of the
coal-era. This will account for the fact that hitherto I have not
heard of any fish in the upper measures.

The scenery as we journey down the Sirhowy and Bliynmey
valleys is very wild and picturesque, and but Httle spoilt by the
collieries which, as a rule, are planted on the high grounds between
the valleys, working the Mynyddswlyn-coal. Of course no tourist,

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CABBONirBSOUS BRACHIOPODA. 99

geol(^[isfc or not, will quit the latter valley withont visiting the
castlwdty of Caerphilly, with its leaning tower, the most stu-
pendous rain in South Wales, which we are told contained within
its wills, at the time of the memorable siege in the reign of
Edward 11., " two thousand fat oxen, twelve thousand cows, twenty-
five thousand calves, thirty-thousand sheep," as food for the
garrison.

THE CARBONIFBROUS SYSTEM IN SCOTLAND CHARAC-
TERIZED BY ITS BRACmOPODLA,

By Thomas Davidson, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., Hon. Member of
the Geological Society of Glasgow, etc., etc.

(Continued from Vot, in., p. 25.^

Family Stbophomenidjs.

Thia family, which has been tenned Orthida by some authors, comprises
several genera and subgenera, of which Strophomenay Streptorkynchui, and
Ortkis alone have been found represented in Scottish Carboniferous strata.

Genus Obthis. Dahnan. 1827.

The genus Orthis forms a well characterized group, especially specifically
numerous and abundant in the Silurian and Devonian systems, is considerably
reduced during the Carboniferous period to appear no longer (?) in subsequent
staees. Two species alone have been hitherto discovered m the Carboniferous
rocks of Scotland*

XXn. — Oethis BJisupiNATA. Martin. PI. i., fig. 11-15.

Conehyliolithus anamites resupinatns. Martin, Petrif. Derb., pi. xlix, figs. 13«
14, 1809. Terebratula resupinata, Sowerby Min. Con., tab. 325.

In shape it is either transversely oval, or eUiptical, but varying greatly in
the convexity of its valves ; some examples are moderately convex, others gib-
bons, lience the specific denominations of resupinata, connivens, and gibbera,
which have been apphed to what we must look upon as variations of a single
species. The hinge-line is straight and shorter than the greatest width of tne
shell, with roun£d, cardinal angles ; each valve possesses a small area, of
which the ventral one is the largest, and divided m its middle by an open
triangular fissure. The dorsal vdve is always the deepest, and either regularly
and evenly convex or slightly flattened from the miadle to the front. The
ventral valve is slightly or moderately convex at the rostral portion, but be-
comes flattened, or even, sometimes slightly concave as it approaches the sides
or frontal margin. The beak is small, slightly prominent and incurved. Ex-
teriorly the surface is closely covered with fine thread-like rounded radiating

i ^^ JMJL. ■

100 THE GEOLOGIST,

strisB, whicli increase in number by intercalations, or bifurcations, at Variable
distances from the beaks ; and at intervals the strisB themselves increase in
thickness and prominence, giving birth to small hollow spinose asperities, or
thread-like tubular spines, which anient in number towards the margin, but
are broken close to the surface of the valves in the generality of specimens.
The intimate shell-structure is also perforated by innumerable canals, of which
the exterior orifices, in the shape of minute punctures, cover the entire surface
of the shell.

In the interior of the ventral valve, the dental plates extend to some distance
along the bottom of the shell, and between these a small rounded or angular
ridge divides the muscular scars, which thus form two elongated depressions
margined on their outer sides by the prolonged basis of the dental plates.
The occlusor leaves a small not always clearly defined impression on either
side of the mesial ridge, and it is probable that the larger impression named
divaricator, and marked (R) in our figures 9 and 13 of 0. Michelini, and 0. re-
supinata is apparently composed of two parts, the anterior, or central, being
the devaricator, while the other, the posterior, or lateiul^ which is paral-
lel may belong to the ventral adjuster ?

In the dorsal valve the fissure is almost entirely occupied by a mode-
rately produced shelly, or cardinal process, to which were no doubt afi&xed
the divaricator muscular fibres ; the inner socket walls are sometimes some-
what prolonged under the shape of projecting laminae, to the extremity of
which free spiral arms may perhaps have been affixed, while under this
shelly process, a longitudinal ridge, with a wide flattened space on either
side, separates the quadruple impressions of the adductor, or occlusor muscles,
these last producing two oval-shaped depressions, placed obUquely one above
the other, and separated by lateral ridges, branchmg from the central ridge.
Vascular impressions and ovarian markmgs are often clearly observable in the
interior of both valves.

Orthis resupinata has sometimes attained two inches and a-half in length by
rather more fiian three and a-half in breadth ; but the largest Scottish example
that has hitherto come under my observation did not exceed about one inch in
length, by one and a quarter in breadth.

This shell occurs at Gare, in Lanarkshire, at two hundred and thirty-nine
fathoms lower than the " Ell Coal," and three hundred and forty-one at Raes
Gill. It is found also in the same county at Middleholm and Brockley, near
Lesmahago; Canel Eig, East Kilbride; Netherfield and Gallow Hill, near
Strathavon; ana itobroyston, to the north of Glasgow. In Ayrshffe, at
Auchenskeigh, near Dairy; West Broadstone, Beith; Craigie, near Kilmar-
nock ; Cessnock, near Galston, In Dumbartonshire at Castlecary. In Stir^
lin^hire it occurs in several stages. At Balglass Bum, in the Campsie
mam-limestone, and Corrie Bum beds. It has also been collected in Airan,
at Charlestown, in Eifeshire, and at Scola Bum, in Midlothian.

Prior to concluding our notice of 0. resupinata, we must allude to certain spe-
cimens of a small Orthis, first discovered by Mr. Young, at Corrie Bum, and re-
presented in our plate by fig. 15. This little shell was for some time considered
by Mr. Young and myself as possibly a distinct species, but I am now dis-
posed to believe it a young:, or small exceptional shape, or variety, of 0.
resupinata, in which the area in either valve is unusually developed ; the stria-
tion of the surface of the valves does not appear to differ from that of
Martin's shell, and evidence of spines and tubercules may also be clearly
observed. We wiU, therefore, provisionally at least, consider this small shelt
with widely separated beaks as an exceptional shape, or variety, of 0^
resupinata.

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CABDONIFEROUS BRACHIOPODA. 101

XXin.— Orthis Michelini .*. L'Eveill^. Plate i., figs. 7-10.

Terehntula Michelini, L'Eveille, Mem. de la Soc. Geol. de !Prance, vol. ii., p.
39, pi. ii, figs. 14-17, 1835. = Spiri/erafiliaria, Phillips' Geol. of York., vol.
i, p. 220, pi. xi, fig. 3, 1836.

This Orthis is either circular or longitudinally subtrigonal, the greatest
vidth being situated in the frontal half, while the front itself forms either a
gentle outward, or a slight inward curve. The hinge-line is abbreviated, and
at times does not attain one third the width of the shell ; both areas are con-
sequeDtly very small ; but that of the ventral valve is the largest, and divided
by an open triangular fissure. The dorsal valve is moderater^ convex, with a
gentle depression towards the front, while the ventral one is very shallow,
sliglitly convex at the beak and along the^ddle, from whence it becomes much
flattened towards the margins. The depressions of the ventral valve and slight
conveiity of the dorsal one give to the shell a general depressed appearance,
which is one of the features by which it can be distinguished from U. resupi-
fiata. The beak of the ventral valve is small, slightly mcurved, and projectmg
bnt little beyond the level of that of the dorsal valve. The surface of the shefl
is ornamented by numerous small radiating thread-like rounded striae, which
rapidly increase in number by numerous intercalations, while from all these
little ribs numerous small hair-like hollow spines project, becominff more
closely packed towards the margins, so that, when alive, the whole sheu must
have been invested with delicate spines, no where exceeding a quarter of an
inch in length. Prof, de Koninck who, in 1843, first noticed the spiny in-
vestment, was of opinion that the dorsal valve was alone so provided, but I can
assure my distinguished friend that, although in the generality of specimens
the spines on the dorsal valve were the most numerous, I possess several ex-
amples which prove beyond doubt that the ventral valve was also so provided,
although generally not to the extent seen on the dorsal one. In addition to
the spines, the whole surface of the shell is covered with minute punctures,
which are the external orifices of the tubuli or perforations which traverse the
entire thickness of the valve. It will not be necessary to describe in detail
the markings observable upon the interior surface of the valves, as I have
done so for 0. resupinata, but a glance at the respective illustrations will suf-
fice to explain the differences in the species under description. These in the
ventral valve are evinced in the narrowness of the median ridge and less in-
chned slope of the occlusor muscular impressions ; while in the dorsal valve
the space occupied by the occlusor, devancator, and ventral adjustor muscles
is wider than in 0. resupinata ; there is also a singular impression at the base
of the fissure marked N. in the figure, and which is vdth some uncertainty
referred to the pedicle muscle.

0. Michelini is not a rare shell in Scotland. In Lanarkshire it occurs at
Langshaw Bum at three hundred and seventy -five fathoms lower than the
"Ell Coal;" at Brockley and Middleholm, near Lesmahago; Auchentibber,
Calderside, and PhiUipshiil, High Blantyre ; Capel Big, East Kilbride ; and at
l^broyston, north of Glasgow. In Benfrewshire, at Orchard-quarry, ThornUe-
^ank; Barrhead and Howood, near Paisley. In Ayrshire, at Boughwood,
West Broadstone, and Treehom, near Beith; Auchenskeigh, Dairy, Gold-
craig, and Monkredding, near Kilwinning ; Hallerhirst, Stevenston ; Craigie,
near Kilmarnock, and Cessnock near Galston. In Stirlingshire it is founcf in
several stages. At Craigenglen, the Campsie main-limestone and Corrie Bum.
In Dumbartonshire, at Castlecary. In Piieshire, at Charlestown and Limekilns,
^bove Queensferry.

* Anonim gtriata of Ure, " History of Eutherglen and Bast Kilbride :" 1793. PI. xiv.,
-. 13 and 14.

102 THE GEOLOaiST.

Genus Stbofhomena. Bafinesque. 1820.

This palsBOzoic genus appears to have been as mncli restricted in its vertical
ranee as was Orthis, for but a single species is known to me from the Scottish
Carboniferous strata, and no well authenticated example of the genus appears
to have beer observed in any of the subsequent periods. The shells of which
this group is composed vary considerably in shape and character, being
generally semi-circular, with a long straight hinge-line, the ventral valve being
either convex or concave, while the dorsal one usually follows the curves of the
other.

XXTY. — Strophomena ehomboidalis, WahL, var. anahgay Phillips. PL i.,

figs. 26-33.

Afumites rkomboidalis, Wallenberg, Acta. Soc. XJps., vol. iii., p. 65, No. 7, 1821.
= Producta depressay Sowerby, Min, Con., tab. 459, 1823 ; Produda anal-
ogay PhilHps' Gfeol. of York, vol. ii., p. 215, pi. vii., fig. 10, 1836. etc.

Of this species there are two well marked varieties, the first or typical
one varies somewhat in shape, but is more often semicircular, with a very
long hinge-line. The ventral valve is ffeniculated, or, in other words but sHghtly
convex or flattened up to a certain distance, and up to a certain age, when
the valve becomes suddenly deflected downwards at abnost right angles.
The margin is \indulated ; concave near the cardinal angles, it afterwards bulges
out to form in front another slight inward or outward curve. On the flattened
portion of the valve there exists a variable number of slightly undulating and
m-egular concentric wrinkles which turn outwardly towards the cardinal angles,
and thus foUow the marginal curves. The entire surface is also covered with
numerous thread-like racuating strisB, and a small circular foramen is generaliy
observable in the young, or up to a certain age, when it becomes obliterated
or cicatriced in the adult. The dorsal valve usually follows the curves of the
opposite one, and is similarly wrinkled and striated. The area in both is
narrow and sub-marginal^'with a small fissure in the ventral one, partially covered
by a pseudo-deltidium. In the interior of the ventral valve two diverging
teeth articulate with corresponding sockets in the opposite valve. The muscu-
lar impressions in this valve are margined by a semicircular ridge, continued
from the base of the teeth, and curving on either side so as to produce a saucer-
shaped Repression ; the occlusor leaves a scar on either sid^ dose to a small
median rioge, the devaricator filling on either side the anterior portion of the
cavity ; the ventral, adjuster, and pedicle muscles do not appear to have pro-
duced any very definite scars, but it is highly probable that an attachment for
these muscles existed in the posterior portion of the saucer-shaped depression
above described, from the fact that a small circidar peduncular foramen is also
sometimes observable at a short distance from the extremitv of the beak, and
which denotes that a pedicle muscle must have existed, altnou^h the foramen
became closed as soon as the animal found it could dispense witn the moonngs
required during the early stages of its development. In the interior of the
dorsal valve the cardinal process is divided into two lobes, and not connate with
the diverging socket-ridges. Prom the base of this a slight median ridge runs
down and separates the two pairs of occlusor scars, which are bordered by pro-
minent ridges. The vascular impressions consist of large primary vessels, which
run at once direct to a short distance from the frontal margin, when they be-
come reflected on either side to surround the ovarian spaces.

The second variety, or L&ot. dUtorta of J. de C. Sowerby (Min. Con., tab.
615, fig. 3) is more properly speaking a malformation of the Stroph. rhom-
boidalisy var. analomy ana in which the dorsal valve becomes convex instead of
concave ; but all tne other characters are similar to those of the typical shape,

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH OARBONIFBROUS BRACHIOPODA. 103

and the name diatorta should therefore be retained only as a varietal designa-
tion.

In 1843, Prof, de Koninck observed with justice that it was impossible to
distingaish the Silurian Stroph. rkomboidalis from the Carboniferous Si, analo^a,
and he united the two, as well as several others, under a single denomination ;
and although the generality of paleontologists have preferred retaining the two
as distinct species, they nave also admitted that it was scarcely nossible to
separate the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous specimens. Both varieties
have been found in Scotland; while the typical form has sometimes attained an
inch and a-quarter in length by two and a-half in breadth, and still larger indi-
Tidnals have been obtained in Enghmd and in Ireland. In Stirlingsnire the
tT[Hcal variety is found in the Campsie main-Umestone and Corrie Bum beds ;
voile the variety distorta occurs at Gare in Lanarkshire, at two hundred and
thirty-nine fathoms below the " Ell coal," and three hundred and forty-three at
Wajgsteshaw ; in Benfrewshire, at Davieland-quarry, near Thomliebank.

Stjb-genus Stbbptokhtnchus. King. 1849.

The shells composing this sub-genus are closely related to Strophomena ; they
are usually semicircular, convex, or concavo-convex, and externally striated ;
the ventral vsdve possessing a prolonged and oftentimes bent or twisted hosk.
Bat a single species and some varieties occur in Scottish Carboniferous strata.

XXV. — Stbsptorhtnchus ceenistria. Phillips. PL i., figs. 16-25.

Spirifera eremUiria, Phillips' GeoL of Yorkshire, vol. ii., pL ix., fig. 6, 1836.
Spirifera araehnoidea, S. senilis, and S. radialis of Phillips ; Ortkis Kellii,
0. cglindrica, 0. caduca, 0. granulosa (P), and 0. Bechei, M'Coy ; 0, SAarpei,
Portlock ; and 0. Fortlockicma, Semenow, appear to be either synonyms or
simple varieties of Sir. crenistria of Phillips.

The shells of which this species is composed are more often compressed and
semicircular ; the hinge-line straight, and either a little shorter or slightly ex-
ceeding the width of the shell at the proloujged acute cardinal angles. The
valves vary considerably in their curves and directions ; in some specimens they
^ both convex or much compressed, and straight throughout, while in other
examples the dorsal one alone is convex, or flat to a certain distance, when it
becomes deflected, and assumes a lesser or greater degree of convexity ; the
ventral valve being in the same shell convex at, and to some distance from, the
beak, nrhen it becomes slightly concave towsurds the margins, following the
curves of the opposite valve. The area in the dorsal valve is linear, while that
of the ventral one varies much in breadth and regularity on account of the beak
l)cing sometimes twisted more to the one than to the other side. The ventral
8fca is likewise divided by a triangular fissure, covered by a pseudo-deltidium.
Exteriorly the valves are ornamented with numerous strong radiating crenu-
lated strisB, of unequal thickness, which increase in number towards the margin,
while the interspaces are similarl^r and partially occupied by one or more smmler
longitudinal stnse. In the interior of the dorsal valve a strong hinge-tooth is
situated on either side at the base of the fissure, supported by small dental or
rostral plates. The muscular impressions form a saucer-shaped depression,
partialljr surrounded by a slightly elevated ridge ; the occlusor (A) occupies the
central portion, and torms two small elongated impressions, separated by a
*%htly elevated mesial ridge, and on either side are tne larger scars (K), appa-
rently eomposed of two parts, the anterior or central being due to the cuvanca
tor, wlrile the other or outer one would be produced by the ventral adjuster?
In the interior of the dorsal valve, the cardinal process (to which were affixed
the diyaricator muscular fibres) is composed of two testaceous projections.

104

THE GEOLOGIST.

The socket-plates are lar^e^ and partially united to the lower poi*ti4
dinal process. Under these, on the bottom of the valve, may
quadruple impressions left by the occlusor, and which occupy abc
of the length of the valve, and are arranged in pairs, divided by a siil
median ridge.

Many so-tenned species appear to have been created out of this znt
species, and indeed it is most puzzling and difficult to say how far
permitted to limit the extent of variation, but it has appeared, to
minute and lengthened examination of a multitude of English, Jri
and forei^ examples of these said species) that they all appear so
connected and linked together bjr intermediate and insensible ^a
shape, that one would not be justified, I think, in maintaining as dii
ought in reality to be united. In Scotland we find examples T^rhicl
referred to the Strep, crenistria, SL arachnoideus, St. senilis, St. ri.
St. Kellii, and of most of which representations are given in our
considering St. crenistria as the typical shape, if any of the other
retained, tney should be so simply as varietal designations. St. <
sometimes attained considerable dimensions, a Scottish example
sured three inches in length by four and a-half in width, and of this
(fig. 17) will be found in our plate, and the British Museum possee
gian example of still larger proportions. It is also a Devonian as
Carboniferous species.

Fig. 16 of our plate would agree with Phillips' original typical foi
crenistria. St. arachnoidem is a still more depressed condition of th<
while in the variety senilis the convexity of the ventral valve is mmsoj '
In St. Kellii the dorsal valve is more tnan ordinarily convex, with a
pression along the middle, while the ventral valve, convex at or about
oecomes concave towards the margin. The external sculpture varies
in different specimens, for it so happens that the lar^r radiating strid
times so close that there exists hardly space sufficient for a single
longitudinal striae, while on the contrary, in other examples, in the mtf
spaces, there is room for two or more distinct but smaller longitudin
and in this last category will be found located the S. radialis. If,
fore, we are to mamtain as distinct the so-termed species enun
at the commencement of this description, it will be necessary to create si
more, for it will be often most puzzling to know where to locate sev
those intermediate shapes which unite St. senilis and St. radialis to St.
tria, etc. The varieties crenistria and radialis were figured by David
his « History of Rutherglen and Kilbride :" 1793.

^i^. crenistria and its varieties radialis and senilis occur in many S(
localities. At Gare in Lanarkshire it occurs at two hundred and thir
fathoms below "Ell coal," and three hundred and forty-one at Raes Gill,
found also at Brockley and Middleholm, near Lesmahago ; Auchentibber,
Blantyre ; Hobroyston, north of Glasgow ; and at rhilipshill and Dai
quarries, East Kubride. In Renfrewshire, at Barrhead and Orchard-qi
Thomliebank. In Dumbartonshire, at Netherwood, near Castlecary. ^
shire, at Roughwood and West Broadstone, Beith ; Auchenskeigh, near
Goldcraig ana Monkredding, Kilwinning; Hallerhirst, Stevenston; Oi
near Kilmarnock ; Neathemewton and Moscow, parish of Loudon ; aad
dowfoot, near Drumclog ; also Gessnock, near Galston. In Stirlingshire^
found in several stages. In the Balglass and Mill Burn beds, the Ca^
main-limestone, and uorrie Bum beds. It occurs also in Arran and
In Fifeshire the varieties above enumerated, as well as St. Kellii have
found at Limekilns, above Queensferry.

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CARBONIFEROUS BRACHIOPODA. 106

Family Productidju.

In the second volume of the " Geologist" the characters of the ProducHda
have been fully described and illiistrated, we will, therefore, generally .observe
that this family has been divided into four genera, or sub-genera, Froductus,
Aulosteges, Strophalosiay and Chonetes, but that, as they all bear too natural and
intimate a relation towards each other, and that the characters brought forward
for separating or distinguishing the four groups above named are ot somewhat
questionable value or importance, I am disposed to consider that Aulosteges^
Strophalosia and Chonetes cannot be regarded as more than sub-genera or modi-
fications of Producttts. No calcified processes exist for the support of the oral
arms. In the Carboniferous rocks of Scotland Produdus and Chonetes alone
have been hitherto discovered.

Genus Productus. Sowerby. 1814.

Fifteen or sixteen species of Producttts have been found in Scottish Car-
boniferous strata, and which have been chiefly distinguished by their external
shape and sculpture, for of the larger number no interiors have been hitherto
procured. The interior details appear to vary but little, but there exists some
small marked dissimilarities in certain species, and in order to avoid unnecessary
repetitions, we wiQ at once notice their general features.

In Producttis the inteinal surface of the ventral valve is concave, a narrow
mesial ridge, originating, under the extremity of the beak, separates two
elongated ramifiea or dendritic impressions which are attributed to tne adductor
or occlusor muscle ; and almost on a level, immediately under or above, but
outside of these, there exists two deep longitudinally striated subquadrate im-
pressions, which are in all probability due to the cardinal or divaricator muscles.
Impressions referable to adjustor and pedicle muscles have not been hitherto
found, although Mr. Hancock is of opinion that adjustor muscles must have
existed and been arranged, so as to keep the valves adjusted to each other, and
thus to have acted as a substitute for the regularly articulated hinge, which is
certainly absent, if not in all (?) at least in the generality of known species.
The only points remaining to be noticed in connection with this valve are the
deep concave sub-spiral depressions visible in the interior of some thick sheUed
Producti, such as P, giganteus^ and hollows which were probably occupied by
the spiral arms.

The internal surface of the dorsal valve is more or less convex, sometimes
almost flat, and presents in the middle of the hinge-line a prominent bilobed, or
trilobed projection or cardinal process, whose upper surface having afforded at-
tachment to the cardinal, or divaricator muscle. Under this a narrow longi-
tudinal ridge, or septum, generally extends to about half (or more) of the
length of the valve, and on either side are seen the ramified, or dendritic im-
pressions which we consider to be attributable to the adductor, or posterior
and anterior occlusor muscles ; these are at times situated so close together on
either side of the median ridge, as to render the quadruple attachment not so
distinct as could be desired, but they are weU defined in some valves of Pro-
ductm longispinusy as may be seen by a reference to fig. 16 of our plate II. Out-
side, and m front of the muscular scars above described are the two " reniforra
impressions." Their surface is generally smooth; they are bounded with
ridges, and after dividing the occlusor muscles, proceeded in an oblique *and
almost horizontal direction, then turning abruptly backwards, terminate at a
short distance from their origin. There exists also in many species, but not in
all, two prominences, one on each side of the median ridge, and close to the
base of the muscular scars. The internal surface of Productus is covered with
inmunerable granulations and spinose asperities. The shell itself being likewise

VOL. III. 0

106 THE 0E0LOGI3T.

miiratelT perforated.* Exteriorly the Hurfaoe ia varionaly sculptured, md
Bparinglj or closely covered with hollow tubular apines. It was also dnriiig
the deposition of the Carboniferoua deposits that the greatest DimibeT of spedes
and inaiVidiialB previuled, for as many as fifty species are said to occor ; out it
is not always easy to distinguish certain forma which may after all be but
varieties of some of the better determined or charadmscd species. It is Teiv
desirable I o see the complication of species disappear ; and when a single weU
defined species is made to absorb one or half a dozen old sod mtrecogniiable
ones, it is a fafonr to science ; and our constant efforts should tend to remove
useless names from the nomenclature, and seek the points of similarity with
even more assiduity than the difTereDces which we are prone to exaggerate in
the constant desire to create new spedes.

XIVI.— Producthb oioiKTEDS.f Martin sp. PL v., figs. 1-4.
Jnimilet giffanietu. Martin, Petrif. Derb., ^ xv., fig. 1, 1809.
This shell varies somewhat in shape according to age and specimen, but a
usually more or less transversely ova^ and dilated at the sides. The hinge-
line is atraif^t, and generally exceeds m width the otho' portioua of the sheL
It usually possesses no hii^e^area, bat in some exceptional specimens there ex-
ists a ruaimentary one, especially in the ventral valve ; no teeth or so4^ets ever
existed for the regular articnlatmg of the valves, lie ventral valve is very

Lign. B. — Product1i4 ffiffOTlttiu^t
A, InteriOT qf tluj DoTBal Valve, B, Interior of the Veni™! Valve, with tLe
UivBlves. D, Hinge-line of.* ; J, cardiim]

dneor j r, tUvarical

impreBaions j *, hinge ai

occupied 1^ tlifl vffOti

' ForBynomBBandmorBampledettiilBOnBll Uiat pertaina to UiBBpecioB of Prodnctni oon-
iltProf.deKjHuiiok'»aK»llBnt "Monogn^hie desGBnrBBPnrfnctoaetChoneteB.'' LWm

t MemjooedbTUromhis-HiBloryotHnaiCTglanBiidEaBtKUbriile:" 178S. PneeSlS,'"
s Anomiffl EoWnata.

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CARBONIFEROUS BRACHIOPODA. 107

oosrex or gibbous, the cardinal angles being ^nerally prolonged or extended
in the shape of auricnlate expansions, semi-c jlmdrical^ enrolled, and mdu^y,
or more or less abruptly separated from the gibbous portion, or body, of the
sheU ; the beak is large, rounded, and often greatly incuryed, but not always
overhanging the hinge-Hne. This yalve is also either evenly convex or irregu-
larly, and more or less deeply farrowed, the surface being likewise covered with
a vast number of longitudinal flexuous striae, which vary somewhat in thickness
accordmg to age and specimen, three or four generally occupying the width of a
line towards the middle or margin of the shell ; these little ribs are also frequently
confluent, bifurcating, or sudlenk disappearing, increasing in number as ther
approach the marginal portions of the shell, and at short intervals giving birth
to short spines, or spinulose asperities, which were more numerous and larger
upon the auriculate portions of the valve. The dorsal valve is concaye,
generally following the curves of the opposite valve, somewhat concentrically
wrinkled near the ninge-line, and longitudinaly striated in a very similar man-
ner to what we have described for the ventral one. It will not be necessary
to describethe interior with any detail, since the general description already
given, as well as the figures of our plate, will sufficiently illustrate all the
characters ; but we may notice the great thickness of the ventral valve com-
pared with that of the dorsal one, which is usually thin. The ventral valves
of all species of Productus do not possess that extraordinary thickness which
admit of those deep subspiral hollows for the accommodation of the spiral arms,
which are visible m the present forms. The divaricator muscular scars are
here immediately under and outside of the occlusor ones, while in Productus
longiipimis and some other species, the devaricator impressions are almost upon
a level vrith the occlusor. ones. In the dorsal vaive the cardinal process
(which varies much in shape, according to the specimens and age of the indi-
yidutJ^ is usually trilobed, its Y-shaped upper surface is usually striated, the
other mipressions are clearly defined m the figure.

This is certainly the largest species of the genus at present known, some
En^Hsh examples having attainea six inches and two lines in length by eleven
inches four lines in wi&h ; and although no Scottish examples have, to mv
knowledge, attained similar proportions, some have measured five and a-hau
inches in length by nine or ten in width.

Productus giganteus characterises some of the lower stages of the Car-
boniferous system wherein Brachiopoda have been found ; thus at Braidwood
Gill, in Lanarkshire, it is found for the first time at three hundred and ninety-
seven fathoms below the horizon of the " Ell Coal."

In Stirlingshire it occurs in the Mill-Bum beds, Campsie. It was likewise
collected in the island of Arran, by Prof. Ramsay, and in red limestone at Close-
hum, in Dumfriesshire, by the late Dr. Eleming. In Edinburgshire, at Joppa.
In Haddington, at Cat Craig, near Dunbar. H Peebleshire, at Carlops, etc.

XXVn. — ^Productus latissimus. J. Sowerby. PL ii., figs. 8-9, and pi. iv.,

fig. 26.

Productus latissimus, J. Sowerby, Min. Con., vol. iv., p. 32, pi. 330, 1822.

The shells composing this species are very transversely elliptical or spindle
shaped, with a long straight hinge-line, and are completely deprived oi area,
the breadth being more than twice as great as the length ; tne ventral valve is
also very convex forming in profile more than a semicircle ; the beak large and
much incurved, while the passage from thp gibbous body of the valve into the
auricnlate expansions or ears is so gradual as to be more often insensible, and
does not appear in the many examples that have passed under my inspection to
have ever oeen so sharply separated, or defined, as is usually the case with P.
giganteus ; it is also much more transverse, or elliptical, thaji is the last named

108 THE GEOLOGIST.

shell, the dorsal valve being likewise extremely concave, and follows the Gorres
of the opposite one. The surface in both valves is coarsely striated, the
flexuous striae increasing irregularly by numerous intercalations, and giving
rise at short intervals to many small stout spinulose projections. The stria;
are also proportionably coarser and more spinulous than in the last de-
scribed species, and the shell itself much thinner. In the interior of the
ventral valve the muscular impressions appear to be located nearer the extremity
of the beak than in P. ^iganteus, and in tne dorsal valve there appears to exist
a difFerence in the detail of the occlusor muscular impressions, as may be seen
by comparing the figures we have given of the mterior of both species.
Productus latissimus does not appear to have ever attained anything like the
proportions of P. gigantetis, for the largest example I have seen did not much
exceed some two incnes in length by four and a-half in width.

Sowerby, Phillips, de Koninck, de Vemeuil, and the generality of authors
have considered the two sheUs, though closelv allied, to be separate species, and
I am disposed to coincide with their view, although some few palseontologists,
and in particular Prof. M'Coy states " positively that the distmctions do not
really exist ;" and it may be here mentioned that, although the two species are
occasionally found in the same strata and localities, more often the one form is
common, where the other is absent.

In Scotland P. latissimus is also one of the most characteristic species in
some of the lower stages of the Carboniferous system. It is found in Lanark-
shire at two different levels, thus, at Belston Bum it occurs at two hundred
and sixty-five fathoms below " Ell Coal," and three hundred and ninety-one at
Braidwood Gill, also at Brockley, near Lesmahago. In Renfrewshire at Arden-
quarry, Thorliebank. In Ayrshire, at RouSiwood and West Broadstone,
Beith ; Auchenskeigh, Dairy ; Goldcraig and Monkredding, near Kilwinning;
.Hallerhirst, Stevenston; Nethemewton and Moscow, parish of Loudon;
Meadowfoot, near Drunclog and Mullockhill, near Dairy. In Stirlingshire it is
known to Mr. Young but from the Craigenglen (Campsie) beds. In Buteshire,
in the island of Arran.

XXVm. — Productus semiretictjlattts. Martin. PI. iv., figs. 1-12.
Var. A., Anomites semireticulatus^ Martin, Petrif. Derb., p. 7, pi. xxxii., figs.
1-2, and pL xxxiii., fig. 4, 1809, = P. antiquatus. Sow., Mm. Con., voL iv.,
pi. cccxvii., figs. 2, 3, 4, = P. Scoticus, Sow., Min. Con., pi. Ixix., fig. 3, =
P. sulcatus. Sow., Min. Con., tab. cccxix., fig. 2, etc.

Var. B., or Martini, Sow., Min. Con., tab. cccxvii., figs. 2, 3, 4., 1821, =
Anomites productusy Martin, Petrif. Derb., tab. xxii., figs. 1, 2, 3, 1809, =
P. concinntes, Sow., Min. Con., tab. cccxviii., fig. 1.

This species has varied much in its general shape, and I entirely coincide
vrith Prof, de Koninck, while considering P. semireticulattis, anti^uatusy
Martini, concinnus, sulcatus, and I will add Scoticus, as simple variations
in shape of a single type or species, for which the term semireticulatns has
been adopted. These varieties are all so intimately connected by in-
sensible gradation, that it would often be impossiole to say to which
in particular certain specimens should be referred. Some pal8Bontolog;ists,
who do not retain as distinct species all the names above recorded,* would
however preserve several of tnem as varietal denominations ; but after
the careful examination of a multitude of specimens, I am disposed to retain
but two, and which for convenience will be here briefly noticed under separate
heads.

* There are other synonyms, bat which cannot be here recorded. In my MonogTaph of
British Carboniferons Biaouopoda ftill details will be fonnd.

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CABBONIPBBOUS BRACHIOPODA. 109

Var. A, Froducttis semiretieulatus, figs. 1-8, is transversely oval, or of a
roanded quadrate sliape, but it is also at times somewhat elongated, the hinge-
line being either rather shorter or as long as the ^eatest width of the shell. The
ventral valve is always gibbous, with and sometimes without a shallow longitu-
dinal median sinus, or depression, the auriculate cardinal exfjansions being
moderately developed but dearly defined ; the beak is wide and incurved, both
usually covered with irregjular concentric wrinkles, always lar^r and deeper
upontiie auriculate expansions, and the entire surface of the shell is covered with
numerous radiating longitudinal rounded stria, from which project at variable
intervals tabular spines of moderate length. The width of the striee, as well as
the interspaces between them, varies also according to the specimen, two or
more usually occupying the breadth of a line. The larger number are simple,
but others bifurcate here and there, and sometimes two or more (in rare cases)
will unite towards the margin, so as to form but a single rib, while others are
due to intercalation. Several ribs will also at times cmster together, so as to
produce an elevation, and thus giving the frontal portion of the shell a some-
what grooved appearance. The spines are likewise more numerous, larger and
longer in certain examples tliaa in others, but always most so upon the auriculate
portions of the valves. The dorsal valve is slightly concave, or flattened to
some distance from the hinge, so that a considerable space was left free for the
soft portions of the animal ; the external sculpture is also very similar to that
which has been described for the opposite valve. The ventral valve is thicker
than the dorsal one ; both become extremely thin and sometimes recurved
near their margin. The interior of both valves have been often procured, and
in excellent preservation, as may be seen from the figures of our plate, and we
win merely notice that in the ventral valve the occlusor impressions are situated
ahnost upon a level with the divaricator scars, and much lower in the valve
than for example in P. giganteusy etc. In the dorsal valve the occlusor impres-
sions are often beautifully sculptured, and the cardinal process is trilobed.

Froducttts semireticulatus has sometimes attained large dimensions, a Scottish
specimen represented in our plate has measured two inches three lines in length
by two and a-half inches in width, and it has elsewhere assumed stiU larger
proportions. P. sulcatus appears to be nothing more than a smaller variety of
the same, wherein the medi^ sulcus of the ventral valve is more than usually
deepened, and upon the lateral portions of the beak (close to the auriculate ex-
pansions) there existed sometimes, but not always, a somewhat elevated ridge,
with a row of rather large prominent spines. P. Scoticus appears to me to oe
undoubtedly a variation of shape only of the species under description, and not
of P. gigantetis, as has been supposea by some paleeontolo^ts. I have had the
loan of the original figured specimens for several months m my possession, and
both valves will be found represented in our plate.

Var. B, or Martini, figs. 10-12, is distinguished from the preceding one by
the great length and irregularity of its anterior prolongation ; the arched beak
is suddenly bent downwards in an almost straight line, giving to some speci-
mens a peculiarly elongated and geniculated appearance. The dorsal valve is
slightly flattened to some distance from the hu^e-line, when it closely follows
the curves of the opposite one. The thinness of the shell sometimes mcdkes it
liable to fracture at some distance from the beak, as may be seen in one of the
%ures; the lateral portions of the valve are likewise much dilated, with
numerous spines sometimes projecting from the auriculate portions of the
valve. The beak is concentrically wrinkled, and the entire simace is covered
with thread-like striae, which bifurcate sometimes several times, especially upon
the lateral portions of the shell.

This is the variety to which Martin in 1809 applied the specific denomination
of Attomiies producttts^ and of which Sowerby's P, condnnm is evidently only a

110 THE QBOLOQIST.

smaller variety or s^iioiiyin ; P. semireticulatus, and its variety Martim is one of
the commonest species of the genus we find in Scotland.

In Lanarkshire it jas been collected in several stages ; thus, in the parish of
Carluke, at Braidwood-meadow, it is found at three hundred and sevente^
fathoms below the "EU coal,'* three hundred and forty-three at Langshaw
Bum, three hundred and seventy-five at Mosside and Nellfield, three hundred
and ninety-one at Braidwood Gill. It occurs also at Brockley, Birkwood, and
Middleholjn, near Lesmahago ; Calderside, East Kilbride; on the east bank of
the Avon, near Strathavon ; and itobroyston, north of Glasgow. In Renfrew-
shire, at Arden- and Orchard-quarries, Thomliebank ; Barrhead and Howood,
near Paisley. In Ayrshire, at Roughwood and West Broadstone, Beith;
Auchenskeigh, Dairy ; Goldcraig and Monkredding, near Kilwinning ; Cessnock,
parish of Galston; Nethemewton, parish of Loudon; Craigie, near Kilmar-
nock. In Dumbartonshire, at Netherwood and Castlecary. Li Stirlingshire
it occurs in several stages, such as Crai^englen, Balglass Bum, Mill Bom,
Balgrochan, Campsie mam-limestone and uronstone, black limestone and shale
of South Hill (Campsie), Balquarha^ and Corrie Bum. It has also been col-
lected in Bute, in Eifeshire, and in the Lothians.

XXIX. — ^Pboduotus longispinus. Sowerby. PI. 2, figs. 10-19.

Productus longispinus, Sowerby, Min. Con., vol. i., p. 154, pi. Ixviii., fig. 1,
1814, = P. Flemingiiy Sow., = P. spinosus. Sow., = P. lobatus. Sow., etc.

The shell we are about to describe somewhat resembles P. semireficulatm,
but is always a much smaller species, and well distinguished by some of its in-
terior details. It is usually slightly transverse, but sometimes, though more
rarely, a Httle longer than vride, the hinge-line being about as long as the
greatest width of the shell. The ventral valve is convex, and at times gibbous,
with or without a mesial sinus, which, commencing at a short distance from
the extremity of the rounded and incurved beak, becomes wider and deeper as
it approaches the frontal margin ; the auriculate cardinal expansions are small
and slightly wrinkled, while the entire surface of the valve is covered with
numerous small radiating rounded striae, tolerably regular in their course and
respective width, but augmenting in number here and there by the means of
occasional bifurcation ana interwdation. A few irregularly scattered and very
long slender tabular spines project from some of the ribs, and are more numerous
on or near the auriculate expansions. The dorsal valve is concave, with a
small mesial rounded elevation towards the frontal margin ; its surface is striated,
as we have already described for the ventral one, both valves beins likewise
marked with smail concentric undulating wrinkles on the beak, and to some
distance from the hinge-line. Beautifully perfect interiors of both valves are
not very rare in certam localities. On tne concave surface of the ventral one,
two elongated conti^ous dendritic occlusor impressions project at times con-
siderably above the level of the valve, and inmiediately under but outside of
these may be seen the two large lon^tudinally striated subquadrate impressions
attributaole to the divaricator musde. A glance at our figures of this and at
the corresponding valve of P. semireticulatus will explain better than could be
done with words the difference in position occupied by these muscles in the two
species. The occlusors in the last-named shell are ahnost upon a level and longi-
tudinally parallel with the divaricators ; while in P. longispinus the divaricators
commence only at or close to the base of the occlusors. A difference in the
arrangement of these muscles occurs likewise in P. punctatus, and denotes that
the three species might be distinguished alone by the detaOs connected with
these interior arrangements, and hence the importance of seeking for the
interiors of those species of which we do not possess — the detached valves, or

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CARBONIPBBOUS BRACHIOPODA. Ill

their intenial casts, which are often quite as instructive. In the interior of the
dorsal yalve the cardinal process is proportionally large and trilobed, under
which a median longitudinal ridge extends to a little more than half the lenjgth
of the yalve, and becomes much elevated and thickened towards its extremity ;
on either side may be seen a pair of dendritic scars formed by the occlusor
muscle ; the reniform impressions are also well defined, and often much raised,
and the surface of the yalye is coyered near its margin with numerous spinulose
asperities; minute canals traversing the valves are also clearly yisible in the
shape of punctures^ especially upon specimens that have been slightly
weathered.

P. longispinus is a common Scottish species, but which rarely attains or
exceeds nine or ten lines in length by ten or eleyen in width, and it is quite
certain that seyeral so termed species haye been made out of accidental dif-
ferences peculiar to certain specmiens. I haye adopted the term longisfinus,
as it stands first among the s^onyms, and because I believe the species is
hest known by that denomination among British palaeontologists. P. Flemingii
was badly drawn and described from a very imperfect specimen ; while P,
lobatus is only a variety in which the median sulcus or farrow in the ventral
valve is deeper than usual, and is to P. longispinus what P. sulcatus is to P.
smiretieulaius, =, P. spinosus appears also to have been drawn from a specimen
of the shell under description, but wherein the median sinus has not been
developed. The original ngured specimens of all these so termed species were
kindly lent to me by Prof. Fleming, and of which figures will be found in our
plate. Some other synonyms will be recorded and explained in my larger
work, but which cannot be alluded to in the present memoir.

P. longispinus occurs in several stages. At Braidwood, in Lanarkshire, it
occurs at three hundred and thirty-seyen fathoms lower than the *' Ell coal ;"
three hundred and thirty-eight at Hallcraig; three hundred and forty-one at
^es Gill ; three hundred and forty-three at Langshaw ; three hunored and
fifty-four at Hill Head; three hunored and seventy-one at Kilcadzow; and
three hundred and seventy-fiye at Thommuir and Mosside, all in the parish of
Carluke. It is found also at KersegiU and Brockley, near Lesmahago;
Auehentibber and Calderside, High Blantyre ; Capel Big, East Kilbride ; the
east bank of the Avon, near S&athayon. In Renfrewshire, at Arden- and
Orchard-quarries, Thomliebank. In Dumbartonshire, at Castlecary. In Ayr-
shire, at Boughwood and West Broadstone, Beith; Auchenskeigh, Dal^;
Goldcraig, near Kilwinning; Craigie, near Kilmarnock; and Nethemewton,
parish of Loudon. In Stirlingshire it occurs in several stages at Crai^nglen,
Balglass Burn, Bal^ochan, the Campsie main-limestone, and Come Bum.
In Buteshire in the island of Arran. In Midlothian, at Dryden, etc. In Had-
dingtonshire, at East Bams, near Dumbar, etc., and is found also in Eifeshire

XXX. — ^PnoDUCTTJS cAKBONABius. Dc Koiunck. PL iv., fig. 14.

Productus carbonarius, de Koninck, Description des Animaux Eossiles du
Terrain Carbonifere de la Belgique, p. 181, pi. xii. bis^ fig. 1, 1843, and
Monographie du Genera Productus, pi. x., fig. 4.

Of this species I am acquainted with but a single Scottish example. It
measures ten lines in length by eleven in width. The yentral yalye is
somewhat transversely oval, gibbous and eyenly rounded, with small auri-
colate expansions, and a hin^e-line as long as the greatest width of the
shell. The external surface is omamented with numerous fine thread-like
radiating striae, tolerably regular in their course, and bifurcating but rarely
upon their anterior j)rolongation. From each rib projects, at short interysJs,
numerous slender spines, tne rib itself becoming tnickened at the spot from

112 THE GEOLOGIST.

where the spine originates. The beak is small, incurved, and covered *with a
few slight concentric wrinkles. In the specimen under description the dorsal
valve could not be seen, nor am I acquainted with its interior arrangement.

The specimen here described is stated to have been derived from the north
of Glasgow, and is preserved in the Museum of Practical Geology, in London.

XXXI.— Peoductus coea. D'Orbigny. PL iv., fig. 13.

Productus corUy A. d'Orbigny, Paleontologie du Voyage dans I'Amerique
Meridionale, p. 55, pi. v., figs. 8, 9, 10, 1842, and de ^oninck. Men. du

Genre Productus, pi. iv., fig. 4, and pi. v., fig. 2, = Producta eorru^
M'Coy.

The shells composing this species are usually longer than wide, and some-
times irregular in their anterior prolongation ; tne ventrsd valve is very convex,
regularly vaulted, and at times slightlv flattened along its middle ; the anricu-
late expansions are small, but crossea by several deep undulating folds, which
extend to some distance over the lateral portion of the valve, the beak being
small and much incurved, while the hinge-line is about as lon^ as the greatest
width of the shell. The dorsal valve is concave, following dosely the curves
of the opposite one ; both are covered with numerous longituainal slender
flexuous miform stri», while occasional smaller ones are implanted between the
older, at variable distances from the beak, and which become gradually wider
and wider, until they acquire the width of those on either side.

Hardly any spines seem to have adorned this shell, a few only being some-
times observable upon the auriculate expansions, and near to {he hin^line.
The interior has still to be discovered, and although the species has attained
largish dimensions in various carboniferous districts, no Scottish example I
have hitherto seen did much exceed an inch in length by something less in
width.

P. cora does not appear to have been discovered in many Scottish localities.
In Stirlingshire it occurs in three different but consecutive stages, viz., the
Mill Bum and Balgrochan beds, and in the Campsie main-limestone, and iron-
stone. In Renfrewshire it may be collected at Arden quarry, near Thomlie-
bank ; and in Ayrshire, at West Broadstone, near Beith.

XXXn. — Peoductus undatus. Defrance. PL iv., fig. 15-17.

Productus undatusy Defr. Diet, des Sc. Nat., vol. xliii., p. 354, 1826, and De
Koninck Monographic du Grcnre Productus, pi. v., fig. 3.

In Scotland this shell does not appear to have quite attained an inch in
diameter, is suborbicular and slightly transverse, the hinge-line being rather
shorter than the greatest width of the shell. The ventral valve is very convex,
with small auriculate expansions, while the dorsal valve is moderately concave ;
both are covered with numerous irregular, deep, concentric folds, or undulating
wrinkles ; and in addition the entire surface is longitudinallv striated in a very
similar manner to what we have described in the preceeoing species. The
transverse folds are very remarkable and easily distinguish the present species
from auy of the others ; they vary much, however, in their width, depth, and
number ': thus, upon some shells, sixteen or seventeen may be counted upon
either valve, while in others they do not number much more than half as many,
and would appear to have been wider and deeper in some smaller shells than m
the larger ones. But few spines appear to have projected from the ribs. The
interior of the valves have still to be discovered.

P. undatus does not appear to have been very abundant in Scotland. At
Gare, in Lanarkshire, it occurs at two hundred and thirty-nine fathoms below
l^e "Ell coal," and three hundred and forty-three at Headsmuir. In Stirling-

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CABBOKIFEBOUS BRACHIOPODA. 113

shire if occurs in the Mill Bum beds, and in the Campsie main-limestone. In
Dambartonshire, in the Castlecary limestone.

XXXm. — Peoductus scabbictjltjs. Martin. PL iv., fig. 18.

AnomUes aeabriculus, Martin, Petrif. Derb., pi. xxxvi., fig. 5, 1809. Producius,
Sowerby, Min. Con., voL i., pi. clvii., pi. mx., fig. 1.

This shell is mar^ally rotundate-quadrate, and somewhat wider than long,
the ventral valve bemg convex, with small flattened auriculate expansions, and
a ivide, but slightly deepened mesial depression, or sinus ; the hinge-line is
either shorter, or as long as the width of the shell, while the dorsal valve
becomes slightly concave, with a small median elevation, or fold, apparent only
in the vicimty of the frontal margin. The surface of the larger valve is closely
covered with numerous subregular striae swelling out at close intervals in the
shape of oblong tubercles, arranged somewhat irregularly in quincunx, and
from which project short curved spines ; the valves are likewise at times feebly
concentrically wrinkled, and the surface of the dorsal valve is marked witn
numerous small elongate, oval, tubercle-pits.

I am not acquainted with any good interiors of this species ; all I know of
the dorsal valve is derived from an internal cast in ironstone, from Jock's Bum,
in the parish of Carluke, and which shows that the cardinal process was bi-
lobed, and that a small median ridge extended from its base to a little more
than half the length of the sheil, tne muscular and reniform impressions were
very faintly marked, but appear to be similar to those of Productus punctatus.
The largest Scottish examples with which 1 am acquainted measured fifteen
Unes in length by sixteen in width, but the shell has attained much larger
dimensions m the neigbourhood of Dairy.

P. scabriculus is plentiful in ironstone, at Jock's Bum, in Lanarkshire, at
three hundred fathoms below the " Ell coal," three hundred and seventy-five at
Braidwood and Hill Head, in the parish of Carluke, at Brockley, near Lesma-
hago, and Rx)broyston and Moodies Bum north of Glasgow. In Stirlingshire it
occurs in several stages, such as the Craigenglen beds, Campsie main-limestone
and ironstone, and Corrie Bum. In Renfrewshire, at Barrhead ; Howood, near
Paisley; and Arden-quarry, Thoraliebank. In Dumbartonshire at Castlecary.
In Ayrshire, at Auchenskeigh, Dairy ; and West Broadstone, Beith. It has
also been found in Fifeshire and in the Lothians.

XXXrV. — ^Prodtjcttjs punctatus. Martin. PI. iv., fig. 20-22.

Anomites punctatuSy Martin, Petrif. Derb., p. 8, pi. xxxvii., fig. 6., 1809. Pro-
ductus, De Koninck, Monographic du Genre Productus, pi. xii., fig. 2 = P.
elegansy M'Coy, etc.

The shells of which this species is composed vary somewhat in shape from
being transverse, or slightly elongated; all are, however, more or less
rotundate-quadrate, with a hii^e-line shorter than the greatest width of the shell,
the auriculate expansions being fiattened, but not always clearly defined. The
ventral valve is moderately convex, with a wide longitudinal sinus, commencing
at a short distance from the extremity of the beak, this last being small and
incurved. The dorsal valve is but moderately concave, with a very slight
mesial elevation, which commences at about the middle of the valve and ex-
tends to the front. The surface of the valves are externally covered with
numerous sub-regular concentric bands, or ridges of growth, which increase in
number and breaSth as they recede from the extremity of the beak and hinge-
line, but in very adult shells they again become closer and closer as they ap-
proach the margin. These bands (m the ventral valve) are slightly raised to-
wards their lower margin, and are abmptly separated from each other by a narrow

VOL. III. P

114 THE GEOLOGIST.

smooth space, after which there exists a tolerahly r^nlar row of lengthened
tubercles, or slender shining tubular spines, and again, below these, the re-
maining space is filled up b j irr^ularly scattered, but closely packed smaller
spines ; all, however, overlap each other, and lie so dose to the yalye that
i^one of the surface of the living shell could be perceived. In the dorsal valve
the bands are slightly concave, but the same arrangement of {he spines is ob-
servable.* The shell in this species appears to have been thin, so that it can-
not be easily detached perfect irom hard limestone matrix, but from certain
shales weathered specimens can be collected with aU their spiny investment
completely preserved. The interior of both valves have been found. In the
dorsal one, the Cardinal process is very peculiar in shape, and bilobed, but the
muscular and reniform impressions do not differ materiaUy from those of other
species of the genus. In the ventral valve, however, the occlusor impressions
extended much lower in the valve than those attributable to the divaricator
muscle, and thus differ from what we observe to have been the case in P.
gigantetiSy P. semireticulatus, and other species.

The shell under description attains sometimes larger proportions than have
done anj of the Scottish examples that have come under my direct observation.
A specunen from Ayrshire h»s measured two inches and a-half in length by
nearly two inches in width.

Productus punctatus is not a rare Scottish fossiL It occurs at Langshaw
Bum, in Lanarkshire, at three hundred and forty tluree fathoms below the
" Ell coal," three hundred and seventy-five at NellAeld, and four hundred and
ten at NeUfield Bum ; also at Brockley, near Lesmahago. In Renfrewshire,
at Howood, near Paisley; Barrhead- and Arden-quarry, ThomliebanL In
Dumbartonshire, at Castlecary. In Ayrshire, at Roi^hwood and West Broad-
stone, Beith; Auchenskeigh, Dahy; Goldcrai^, KUwinning; Cessnock and
Nethemewton, parish of Galston. In Stirlingshire, at Craigcnglen, Mill Bom,
the Campsie main-limestone and ironstone, and Corrie Bum. fi has also been
found in the island of Arran and in Bute, as well as in the Lothians and Eife.

XXXV.— Productus pimbriatus. J. de C. Sowerby. PI. ii., fig. 27.

Prodtieta fimbriata, J. de C. Sowerby, Min. Con., vol. v., p. 85, pl. cccclix.,
fig. 1, 1823. Productus Jmbriatus, De Eoninck, Monographie du Genre
Productus, pl. xii., fig. 3.

This is a much smaller species than the preceding one, rarely exceeding an
inch and a-quarter in length by something less in breadth : its shape is longi-
tudinally oval, or ovate, the hmge-line being a little shorter than tne greatSt
widthof the shell. The ventral valve is very gibbous and greatly arched in
profile, with its beak much incurved, and regularly vaulted, the extremity
Deing attenuated, and overlying the hinge-line of the opposite valve ; the ears
are small and but slightly marked. The dorsal valve is either nearly flat, or
but very slightly concave. As in P.mmctattis, the surface of the valves are
externally covered with numerous sub-regular, concentric, prominent, bands,
which are in general more separate than in the preceding species. No example
I have hitherto seen possessed its outer shell and spiny mvestment in any thmg
like a perfect condition, but a fragment tolerably well preserved has led me to
conclude that the arrangement of the tubular spines did not materi^y differ
from that of Productus punctatus for there evidently did exist some smaller
spines under the row of larger ones, but which alone seem to have left

• In 1793, David Ure gave us a vefry good description of thig shell ; he states that both
valves are covered with small spines resembling hair, and so nomerons that a largish example
contains upwards of ten thonsand ; and that th^ lie so closely together that uie surfiaoe oi
the shell is entirely concealed fh>m view.

PBOOEEDINOS OF OBOLOOIGAL SOCIETIES. 115

elongated tuberdes on the surface of the casts. The burger spines do not, how-
ever, appear to have been quite so close together as in the preceding species.
Therefore, although P. Jlmdriatus possesses much simikrity in character to
P. punctaitu ; it may be easik distinguished by the elongated oval shape of
its Talves. P. fimhriaius is round at Hill Head, in Lanarkshire, at three
hnndred and seventy-one fathoms below the "£11 coal;" also at Middlehobn,
near Lesmahago. In Stirlingshire, in the Campsie main-limestone. In Ayr-
shire, at West Broadstone, %eith ; Meadowfoot, near Drundog; Cessnock,
parish of Galston. It has also been found in the Lothians and in Fife-
shire.

(To be coniinued.J

PROCEEDINGS OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES.

Geological Societt op London, January 4, 1860. — ^Prof. J. Phillips,
President, in the Chair.

"On the Flora of the Silurian, Devonian, and Lower Carboniferous Forma-
tions." By Prof. H. R. Goeppert, For. Mem. G.S.

The number of all the fossil plants which the author has described as belong-
ing to these formations (chieflj from Germany) amounts to one hundred and
eighty-four species : Alg», thirty species ; Caiaminefe, twenty ; Asterophylliteie,
4 ; IiHces, sixty-four ; Selaginefe, thirty-nine ; Cladoxyleae, four ; Noeggera-
thise, eight; Sigillariffi, six; Conifene, six; Fruits (uncertain), three. jProf.
Goeppert has seen only Al^» from the Silurian Bocks. SigUlaria Hausmanni
is one of the most interesting of the Lower Devonian plants mentioned ; and
Sagenaria WelfAeimiana, of the Middle Devonian. The Upper Devonian has
seyeial terrestrial plants. Of the Lower Carboniferous Flora, the following are
the most important and characteristicplants : — Calamites iransiHoms, C. Roe-
tuerit and Sagenaria Weltheimiana, Tne last name supersedes Knorria imbri-
cata.

"On the Freshwater Deposits of Bessarabia, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Bul-
garia." By Capt. T. Spratt, KN., C.B., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Capt. Spratt first referred to the many isolated patches of freshwater deposits
in the Grecian Archipelago and in the neighbouring countries, also around the
Black Sea, to which others have alluded or which have been described by him-
self as evidences of the existence of a great freshwater lake, probably of middle
tertiary, age.

On the borders of the Talpuk Lake, in Southern Bessarabia, are sections ex-
hibiting old lacustrine deposits containing similar fossils to those found else-
where Dv Capt. Spratt in the strata referred by him to the extensive oriental
lake of the middle tertiary period. Among these fossils are freshwater cockles ;
such as are associated with Dreissina polymorpka in the strata at the Darda-
nelles and elsewhere. After some search Capt. Spratt found similar cockles
living in the Yalpuk lake ; and from this evidence, and from the relatively dif-
ferent levels of tne old lacustrine deposits and the present Black Sea, he satis-
fied himself of the really freshwater condition of the old tertiary lake ; the
Black Sea area having been separated from the old lacustrine area of Bessara-

116 THS QEOLOaiST.

bia and the Provinces by a barrier at the Isaktcha hills which the Danube has
since cut through. Gapt. Spratt remarked that the lacustrine conditions of the
great area in Eastern Europe and Asia Minor where he has indicated fresh-
water deposits were probably interfered with by volcanic outbursts, which
opened a communication between the Euxine and Mediterranean, altering the
levels of the region, causing the formation of the great gravel-beds at the foot
of the Carpath£uis, and an outspreading of the brown marlv superficial deposits
of the Steppe, which are locally impregnated with mineral or marine salts, in-
dicative either of the influx of the sea, or of mineral solutions set free by vol-
canic agencies.

Capt. Spratt also described the older rocks, some probably of Triassic a^,
and others Cretaceous, which are here conformably overlaid oy the lacustrme
deposits. These he saw in the hills, south of the Danube, near Tultcha and
Beshtepeh; also at the Easelm Lagoon, where both Cretaceous shales and
marble containing Ceratites, &c., occur ; the latter at Popin Island. At Dok-
shina, a cape south of the Easelm Lagoon, the soft Cretaceous limestone is fall
of small InoceramL

These indications of Secondary rocks are intimately connected with those
further south, at Gape Media and Kanara, formerly described by the author.

LiVEEPOOL Geological Society. — Janimry 10, 1860.

" On the Basement-bed of the Keuper Formation in Wirral, and the South-
west of Lancashire."

After referring to the subdivisions of the Trias, he described the char
racter of the upper red and variegated sandstone of the Bunter forma-
tion, showing that it had suffered a considerable amount of denudation prerious
to the deposition of the Keuper. A bed of upper Bunter sandstone in Wirral
is found to be almost entirely denuded on the northern side of the Mersey,
only the faintest traces of it being visible. A slight unconformity seems very
prooable, but the surface of the Bunter is so eroded and uneven, that it is very
difficult to arrive at an exact and satisfactory conclusion upon that important
point.

The base of the Keuper is very uniform in its Hthological aspect throughout
the district, being a conglomerate or coarse sandstone containing quartz-peobles
and nodules of cmy. fa colour the bed varies, but it can tdways be distin-
guished by its hardness from the Bunter sandstone beneath. For these and
other minor reasons, the author of the paj^er stated that the Bunter had been
exposed to denudation for a long period pnor to the deposition of the Keuper,
and that most probably the s\mace of the former was dry land during the
time that the Mischelkalk was being formed in more southern and easterly
regions. With the exception of the well known footprints of Emydians and
Batrachians, not a trace of any animal or plant had been found in either the
Bunter or Keuper formations of the neighbourhood.

The examination of the three railway-tuimels under the town of Liverpool,

'and of other artificial openings, satisfactorily proves that the basement-bed of

the Keuper on the map of the Geological Survey is altogether misplaced, and

that that map requires correction, in order to render it an accurate guide to the

local geology.

NOTES AKD QUBBIBS. 117

NOTES AND QUERIES.

HiJMAN Remains neab Knasesbobough. — ^Deas Sm, — The accompanying
note may interest some of your readers, and will, I hope, receive elucidation
from some of your correspondents. — ^Yours truly. Homo Fossilis."

Near KnaresDorough, in a cavity of the limestone strata, twenty-seven feet
below the surface, remains of six human skeletons were discovered mibedded in
fine alluvial clay, which was covered with large water-worn boulders. This
cave, or fissure, is described as a natural cavity in the limestone rock, seven
feet wide, five feet high, and of considerable length; it conununicated with the
snrface by an irregular perpendicular fissure, wme enough to allow a fall-grown
man to pass. A small sprmg of water trickles down the side of this opening,
and is lost in the porous limestone below. The skull of a dog, and jaw-bone
of an ox were found with the human bones ; no vestiees of works of art were
observed. The provincial paper ("Harrowgate Herald," October, 1852), from
which this account is taken, suggests that these remains are of persons who
songht for refuge in this cave from their enemies, and being discovered by the
latter were stoned to death! An ingenious idea» certainly. One of the
skeletons is said to be of a young adult woman.

Slickensidbs. — Noticing, after the late thaws, in riding by railway to town,
as I have often done before, that the numerous slips of ^xm in the embank-
ments and cuttings presented at their planes of separation and slide smooth
and polished surfaces very like, if not indeed identical with, ordinary " slicken-
sides," I have thought a mere note of these conmion occurrences might con-
vey to many others that which they have seemed to suggest to myself, that
slickensides on the large scale might often be due to no other more complex
cause than the effects of wet and the natural sliding action of mere subsidence.
—Ed, Geol.

Suggestion bespectino Pbovincial Museums. — ^Among the valuable con-
tributions to science published by the Government Ordnance Survey, one is an
Essay on the Educational Uses of Museums, from the pen of tne late dis-
tinguished Edinburgh University Professor, Edward Forbes. In this essay I
fina the following passage.

" When the inquirer goes from one province to another, from one county to
another, he seeks first for local collections. In almost every town, of any size
or consequence, he finds a public museum ; but how often does he find any

5 art of that museum devoted to the illustration of the productions of the
istrict P The very feature which of all others would give mterest and value
to the collection, which would render it most useful for teaching-purposes, has
in most instances been omitted, or so treated as to be altogether useless. Un-
fortunately, not a few country museums are little better than raree shows.
* * * Curiosities from the South Seas — ^relics worthless in themselves, de-
riving their interest from association with persons or localities — a few badly
stnffed quadrupeds, rather more birds, a stufted snake, a skinned alligator, part
of an Egyptian mummy, Indian gods, a case or two of shells — ^the bivalves
usually single, and the univalves decorticated — a searurchin without its spines,
a few conomon corals, the fruit of a double cocoa-nut, some mixed antiquities —
partly local, partly Etruscan, partly Roman and Egyptian — and a case of
minerab and miscellaneous fossils ; such is the inventory and about the scientific
order of their contents." — ^Edward Forbes, on Educational Uses of Museums,
page 13.

118 THB OBOIiOOlST.

The state of things hsm referred to by Prof. Forbes, as a general mle wiQ be
foxmd more or less to prevail in museums established in towns that are xmcon-
nected with men distmgoished by their attainments in natural science. We
associate the museum at Newcastle with the names of Hancock, Alder, and
Hutton; that of York with Harcourt and Phillips ; Bristol with Gonybeare and
Miller ; Ipswich with that of Henslow. But many museums exist without the
funds for enabling their committees to maintain a permanent scientific office as
curator, and without the advantage of securing for their natural history collec-
tions that aid which is within reach of the museums at Newcastle, Ipswich,
and other places. In the matter of classification and the determination of
species, it is not enough to have the co-operation of those who are willing to

gve time and to work with hearty zeal. The indispensable element here is
lowledge, and knowledge of a kind which few honorary curators can reason-
ably be expected to have at their command.

Now, if that large class of provincial museums which have but very limited
incomes were able to take advantage of temporary competent professional
assistance in the arrangement of the collections they possess, the state of thbgs
referred to by Professor Eorbes need no longer exist. This plan, too, of tem-
porary curatorship has other very strong recommendations. It would ^ut
museums aU over the kingdom in friend^ and beneficiid communication with
one another, while a system of periodical visitation, especially if combined with
the delivery of lectures, would tend to keep alive the local spirit of interest in
these educational institutions, which in two many cases is now found to flag, if
not to lie altogether dormant. No man of real science going into a provincial
museum will look with disdain upon an Egyptian mummy, or iq)on the froit of
a double cocoa-nut, provided these objects are shown for a definite purpose,
and as forming part of a series. But that which ever^ man of science r^rets
like Edward Eorbes is that space and money can often be found for uese
things when objects of infinitely greater .value receive scarcely any attention,
or are even altogether ignored.

As it respects the sum total which museums throughout the kingdom have
at command after paying such necessary out-^ings as rent, wages, etc., if we
omit the Universitv museums and a few with incomes sufficient to enable them
to maintain men of scientific reputation as salaried officers, the amount collec-
tively may be roughlj estimated at £3,000. Now, although £3,000, if divided
by the number of existing museums, gives but a small sum to each, yet, if made
the most of, it would do a great deal for the accomplishment of those objects
swhich these institutions profess to have in view. £3,000 would more than
suffice to pay a staff of men of real scientific attainments, who should have
-their museum-circuits ; and with the surplus, ocean-beds might be made to give
up their treasures, and rich fossil-bearing districts be explored. But to do

J'oroes will more or less prevail, and many of these institutions be only theo-
retically what they might be practically — centres of instruction in science.—
E. Ghableswobth, E.G.S.

Gems ^h Pbecious Stokes dt Situ. — Sib, — Can you hdona me if it is
kno^ towhat geoloncal fomations diwoncU, mbies, sapphires, emeralds, or
.other precious stones oebng ? Have anv, or all of these been found m^',
and itso, are they from beds similar or oi different geological ages ?

I nresmne they cannot be considered as being en the age of the eravels is
whim they are usually found, but that they must have been detailed from
some stratum in the locality &om which the gravels themselves were derived.
Any information on these points will oblige, yours faithfully, Inquieeb.

NOTBS AND QUBfilBB. 119

Mahkaiiak RsMAiNa AT Bbuhjngton.-^Dbar Sn^-j-I recently found a
fossil Elephant's tusk, embedded in bouldered chalk, in a line with, and ^join-
log the commencement of the chalk near Bridlington. In conseauence oi the
^reat pressure of boulder and other drift upon it, it is much crusned ; in facl^
the longest piece is only six inches in length. There were other fragments in
situ several inches long, and very thick. Before I disturbed the tusk it
measured three feet nine inches, but when I attempted to take it out it fell intd
pieces. — Yours, etc., Edward Tindall.

Smoking Pipes peom the Excavations op the Subbet Dock. — ^Dear
Sib,— At Greenhithe, or Rotherhithe, near the banks of the Thames, where, for
several mouths last year, the workmen have been digging out a place for a new
dock, called the Grand Surrey Dock, they found, at various depths, a quantity
of clay smoking-pipes in a bed of undisturbed gravel, which bed of gravel ex-
tended all over tne dock, and the pipes spoken of were mixed in it here and
there all over all that area, at various depths — from twenty to thirty feet from
the surface. The pipes, sixteen in number, which have been brought to me are
all, with one exception, made out of different moulds ; there are not two alikcj
with the exception just made.

How is it, I would ask, that these pipes have been so distributed as to be found
at thirty-six feet below the present surface of the land in that locality ? by
whom were they made P and now long since?

The above Questions are of interest, and perhaps may throw some light
on the ancient nistory of smoking. I may mention that the pipes, with the
smaller bowls were found deepest down amongst the gravel^ and the dig-
gings were about from fifty to sixty yards from the Tluames. Some of the
pipes had stems five inches to six inches long, others shorter, all of them
more or less mud-stained and broken, but not much water-worn or scratched.
A tavern once stood on part of the site of this new dock, which had
foundations four feet below the present surface. This tavern was built pre-
vious to 1578, and under it, at a depth of fifteen feet below the founda-
tion, some of the pipes were found. — ^Edwabd Tindall, Bridlington, 2nd
Jan., 1860.

The Red Chalk op Yorkshibb. — ^Eor the last two years I have searched
for this particular coloured stratum on the western margm of the chalk-hills of
Yorkshire, and have found it in situ, in a few places, from which also 1 have
extracted fossils. Why I was first induced to look out for this coloured bed
was in consequence of knowing its existence at Speeton, and of seeing quoted
in Phillip's Manual of Geology, page 12, that Lister had found a species of
belemnite {B. lAsterit), while ascenoing the Wolds, at Speeton, Londesoro', and
Caistor, but always in a red ferruginous earth.

Mr. Wiltshire's paper, " On the Red Chalk" is admirably written, and well
worthy of the greatest encomium ; however, I find in it a few slight miscon-
ceptions as to the range of some of the Red Chalk fossils of our Wolds, to
which I will, with your permission, briefly allude.

In that monograph, page 6, it is mentioned that Young and Bird state that
"at North Grimstone tne coloured chalk seems to be wanting." Tliis, however,
is a mistake, or partially so, for I find it developed at a place not far from
thence, inmiediately above the Kimmeridge Clay. I also know of it at other
situations not mentioned by other geologists. At page 18 it is said that the
Terehratula biplicata is very conunon at Hunstanton, but is not known at
Speeton, and tnat the characteristic fossiLs of the Red Chalk at Speeton are
Terebratula semiglohosa, Belemnites mimmns, B. elongata, and at Hunstanton
Terebratula biplicata, Belemnites minimus, and Spongia paradoxica. Mr. E.
Tindall, of Bridlington, informs me that he has found at Speeton the follow-
ing fossils, namely, those figured in plate i., figs. 2, 4, 5 ; plate ii., fig. 4 ;

120 THE 0E0L00I8T.

plate iii., figs. 2, 3^ 4, 7 ; plate iv., figs. 1, 3, 4, 5, besides many others not
figured by tne Rev. T. Wiltshire. Hence we have fossils at Speeton similar
to what are found at Hunstanton. On the west of our Wolds, where I
have met with the Red Chalk, I have procured the TerebrcUtUa biflieata^
T, senUflobosay SjK>ngia paradoxiea, and Belemnites, etc. Hence we have in
Yorkslure what is found in Noifolk, and also what may be broaght to
light from Lincolnshire. The Terehratula biplieata is we characteristic
shell where I have searched. However, should any geologist doubt the
statement made by me, I shall be ready and most nappy at any time to
exchange a Terebratula biplieata for a fossil from any other formation.
Pebbles are also plentiful inland from Speeton. — ^Robt. Mortimeb, Fimber,
Yorkshire.

FiaB BY Fmctiow. — [A note to M. Morlot's paper, page 48.]--I have read
somewhere of the dry dead branches of trees crossing each other in a forest
taking fire by the see-sawin^ action produced by a strong wind. 1 do not
know if any such case be autnenticated, but if so, or if fire was produced by
the friction of dragging timber or felled trees over hard dry ^und, the
natural imitation of the effect by an untutored savage would certamlv he that
of artificial friction, or rubbing; and he would as certainly seiect light
thoroughly dry objects, such as sticks, for his purpose. Hence tnis rubbing of
sticks may have been just as, if not even more likely an accidental discoverj
as the striking of fiints or pyrites. — ^Ed. Geol.

Fossils fbom Gadtpobj), Dubhau. — Sir, — ^Would you oblige a beginner
in the science, and one who finds it difficult to obtain all the information he
might desire through books within his reach, by the name and species of the
fossils, the drawings of which are sent herewith. They were found on the banb
of the river Tees, near Gainford, Durham. I was struck with the similarity
existing between the larger fossil and those figured in your February number,
described by Jno. Tate, Esq., as anneKdes, ana named Eione moniliformis. At
the same time I felt unable to reconcile the idea of their worm-character, with
the branchings that seemed to exist, and which were shown more plainly in the
slabs as they lay, than in the specimens I brou^t home with me. One of the
drawings sent will illustrate wnat I refer to. There iJso seems to be a kind of
cirri along one, but the impressions are coarse, and rather indistinct, rendering
it difficult to depict it with accuracy. They occurred in fia^y sandstone slate,
I suppose it will be in the Carboniferous system. — ^Yours respectfully, South
Durham, Darlington.

These are the same kind of fossils as those described by Mr. Tate, and re-
ferred to by our correspondent, whose sketches of the fossils in question are
admirable. We refer mm not only to Mr. Tate's figures and descriptions, but
also to Mr. Hancock's account of similar vermiform fossils in the " Annals of
Nat. Hist." (December, 1858). We are inclined to agree with Mr. Hancock
that these markings have been produced by the burrowings of small crustacean
animals, forming ffalleries just beneath the surface, the roofs of which have
fallen in, leaving furrow-like and beaded impressions. The radiate or brush-
Hke form of marking mdicated by one of our correspondent's sketches would
belong rather to such galleries, or even to buriea fuci, than to annelidal
crawling-tracks.

THE GEOLOGIST.

APRIL, 1860.

GEOLOGICAL LOO ALITIE S. — NO. I.

FOLKESTONE.

By S. J. Mackib, F.G.S., F.S.A.

(Continued from page 90.)

What a sliding, slipping, torn, and rugged minons heap is that far-
famed Copt Point itself, with its ravines of shattered clay-splinters,
and its shivering peaks and promontories. How the rotten clay
breaks and cmmbles away beneath your foot-tread, and goes scat-

JAga. 13.— BelemUt€9Li§eeri, From the Gaolt.

taring down in mnltitndes of leaping, racing, bounding chips on
to the hard and sea- worn rocks below. Pyritons casts of Ammo-
nites, amber-like Belemnites, and phosphatic casts of Nucnlse, with
VOL. m. Q

122 THB GEOLOGIST.

their two prominent muscle-marks, strew the cindery-lookmg
groxmd ; while here and there, like homy flakes, are the thin aogalar
shell-pieces of Pollicipes.

Little £rom its present shattered state is to be got from the blue
clay at Copt Point, but it was a rare field for fossils in days gone hj,
when the weather was allowed, like the sea, to do its work. I well
remember one blustering autumn day, when equinoctial gales were
blowing hard and strong, stemming the fierce ** south-wester" all
along the rugged shore &om Dover to this point, where with eyes
red and half blinded with the cutting wind, seating myself on a block
of gault, and chopping with my hand-pick at what I thought were
bits of wood, until picking up a fragment in a little mass of day, I
found to my horror I had been innocently demolishing a nearly per-
fect crab. This incident to this hour fills me with regret for tihe
vandalism I so uncon&ciously perpetrated. I mention it, however,
not to perpetuate my misfortune, but to warn others to look doeely
to their work if they wish to get good specimens of those four or
five species of crustaceans which abound in this stratum. As they
are ordinarily sold by dealers, the carapace of the body and some
few segments of legs and claws are all that are ofiered to us ; but I am
satisfied that if care had been taken, very many of the now mutilated
specimens could have been extracted in a nearly perfect state, as
the limbs being long and tender, and generally slightly separated
from the body, they are, I believe, from the rough way in which these
fossils are usually extracted, commonly lefb unnoticed in the matrix.

Crustaceans of large size and lobster-like form occasionally occur ;
and one remarkably beautifdl specimen, probably an Astacus, or of an
allied species, was obtained from this locality some few years since
by Mr. S. H. Beckles.

As we proceed towards Baker's Gb.p, the Lower Qreensand gra-
dually uprises; down this gully a miniature winter-torrent — ^the
draining of the impervious gault-lands behind — cascades over jutting
rocks amidst the long rank sedgy grass, and trickles — ^now lost,
now bubbling up — amongst the sea- worn pebbles of the narrow
beach below. How ruinous the scene I Piles of huge half-
worn boulder-rocks, undermined and fallen out from the stony strata
and intervening sandy beds of the Lower Qreensand, which in a

GEOLOGY OP FOLKESTONB — THE GAULT. 123

greemsh-yellow mouldering cliff extends from hence towards the
Harhoiir ; great pouts and heaps of shattered clay, outslips of the
niUTowing wedge-shaped seam of gault above, line the cliff; while
forests of dank olive sea-weeds hang limp like drooping fringes over
ledges of rough massive rock and jutting ridges of the stony seams
as they outcrop through the clattmng simple, over which the foam«
ing waves, spurting and hissing in the cavities and caves formed by
the piled rocks, spatter their seething spray for ihe keen sea-breeze
to scatter like diamond drops of dew on all the damp and clammy
objects arouncL

On the Lower Greensand we do not purpose here to dwell, except
to say that although fit>m the hardness and compactness of ihe stone-
beds, the incoherent state of the sands, and the general friablenees of
the shells, its fossils can only be obtained in a fragmentary state.
They are, however, highly interesting; and any geologist who
wants work to do may usefully employ himself in making out the
Btratigraphical details and zones of characteristic fossils in the strata
of the uppermost division which ranges along the cliff from Copt
Point to the Harbour, and is continued to the westward of Folke-
stone in the beautifrd rugged cliff that scarps the high level grassy
platform of the Lees, on which the new and handsomest part of the
town of Folkestone is built.

In such researches the smallest fragment of a shell or bone, or any
other fossils, has its proper value, — I never want to teach people
to look for pretty or fine things, but by Qt)d's blessing to do usefdl
work, — in obtaining efficient results, which should be careftiUy com-
pared with the stratigraphical range of the like fossils in the lower
greensand deposits on the Continent and elsewhere ; the chief value
of such an inquiry being to determine the relations in time of the
various portions of the greensand formation with each other, or their
synchronism with certain portions of other Cretaceous beds in differ-
ent localities, and to increase our knowledge of the physical circum-
stances under which the lowermost members of the Cretaceous
Formation were accumulated.

But to return to those fallen heaps of purple gault. Damp and
wet with the rain and the spray, they are rich harvest-fields for the
g^logist. SpHt and crack those great unshattered lumps ; cleave

124 THE OEOI/OGIST.

them with yonr pick ; hresk ibem in their lines of lamination with
your hammer ; knock ihem of oat them lo pieoes how yon will, &£j
are teeming with foBsits ; every iresh enriaoe exposed Ib glittering
with the pearly iridescent nacre of crashed or flattened shells : nine-
tenths of the fossils, and even more, are in this compressed and
distorted state. Never panse in your work of destrsotion, for nbs(
yon leave undone in that way the sea and the weather will verj
speedily accomplish. The elements are certain to destroy all, good,
bad, or indifferent, matrix and fos^ : yon may save some glorioM
treaanres. Go to work, then, stontly, hut mind, only when the
ganlt is damp ; it is of no nne craddng and shattmng the hard grey
lamps dried in the snmmer'a snn. In the arid droughts of that
season yon may recline on those stony rocky mins, and listletiBly
cast pebbles in the sea, for the Instrons nacre of the shells will have
deasicated into the whiteness of mere carbonate of bme, and tho
intractable ganit will fracture into hundreds of little dice-li^
fr^ments, bat the fossils, tight-gripped in the hard and shnrnken
clay, can never be extracted.

Lign. U.—aolarlia* tmaiam. From the CftnK

It were glorious work, that work of destmction, if it were only for
the gratification of the eye alone in the resplendent show of the
scores of yellow golden crampled Inocerami and Ammonites which
every &esh broken purple surface exposes j bnt there are treasores
every now and then to be bf^ged, or basketed — for I always use ■
flBberman's basket, with a square hole in the lid, strapped over my
shonlder, as the handiest object for the purpose, and as the best both

OSOLOQT OP FOLKESTONE — THE OAHLT. 125

&r the prraerratitm of the foasila and for their eas;^ carriage. All
the foaaUa aire not cmmpled and distorted, and every here and there
are perfect Nncnlie, fine large AmmoniteB, often four to six inches
BcroBS, Sea-orcbine, Roatella/ria ParMneonii, Sohwivm conoideum., and
8. omahmi ; and now and then one meets with the rarer sheila, sacb
aa Seaia/ria Olementina, Mytilua, and pretty small Tnrrilitea.

Paasmg on to the weat aide of the town, we find the greensaod
clifls attaining a height of aboat one hundred and twenty feet, and
capped only hj a few outlying rusty patches of gaolt, and a atream

LigiL 15.— Lower GreenHfliid Cliff, cm t^e weet aide of Polkeetoafi Horboar, with CftpplDff
of MamnuUferouB Drift,

of mortar-like nodules, the weathered remnants of the "jonction-
bed," extending for abont half a mile beyond the Lees. Even this
capping has been denuded out &om the site of the Battery, at the
back of the Pavilion Hotel, tmd its place snpplied by a deposit of
white marl end flint-gravel, inoscolating with or thinning out nnder
a bed of brick-e^th. These deposits — the gravel, marl, and brick-
earth — have no connection with the gieensand on which they repose,
being altogether of more modem date and difierent condition, the
former containing the remains of mammoth, hippopotamns, hyiena,
Irish elk, deer, and oxen, and others of the great mammalia.

126 THE asoLOoiaT.

From the Lees the greenfiand-clifl* rangea westward, p
bold, ragged face, with jutting beds of w&rm greeoiah-yeUow etose,
glowing in the sun's bright beams, and looking raddier in tlieir con-
trast with the dark bushes of intenningled gorse and the tnfte of
thjme and other plants which grow from, eveiy sandj seam, A
prettjr walk it is on a summer's afternoon along the fooi^waj. Belon
is the tumpike-road and the great natural sea-wall of Mien rocks,
resisting still the buffets of the waves. There, too, below na iatlie
broad expanse of the British Channel, dotted with white sula of
freighted ships and fishing-boats, and streaked and olonded with the
paddle-foam of smoking steamers. Butterflies and moths flntter
amongst the rank herbage, and grasshoppers chirrup i^ng the ban^
that bars us from the level and fertile fields.

As we approach Sandgate, the pretty little village with its long
street of straggling houses and its round castle set in its ring of semi-
circular lunettes bursts suddenly on the sight. A charming Tien

lfl.-Bttndraie,

i^pper, Uie mla-diBtau«e behind Uie Tillam ot <uv nmn uiumuu. muluju. in uis irin»" - 1

thoKanUBhrse-bedflofHythe. ■^^•~-^

indeed it is from this abrupt termination of the Folkestone diffe. A
steep path, skirting a Martello-tower — ^for these round forts extend
for miles along the coast— winds down to the village beneath, at Hi*

r FOLKESTONE — THB QAULT.

128 THE OEOLOGIST.

back of whicli rise other cliSs of dark green irony water-holdiig
sand, that of the middle division, marked everywhere in its cootse bj
the prolific growth of sqniaGtacea and of ferns.

From Seabrook the limestones and rag of the lowest dividonof
the Greensaad rise towards Hythe, in a grass-covered cliS^ occasioiuilly
quarried for building and lime-boming, and gradually becoming
higher, until at I^mpne we look from another lofty headland OTer
the flat map-like country of the Marsh, with its lines of dykes and

I^gn. 18.—" Jill's Pipe." The Jnnolion oT the Lowei Greenoiaid uul Weald Otf-

water-courses. As we descend this promontory, past the stolwart
ruins of the ancient Boman castrom, we croBB what I believe are to
Neocomian sands, below the ragstone-beds, and a pret^ spring of
water, which streams away by a matic wooden gutter, marks the
junction of the sand with the impervious weald-clsy beneath.

GEOLOGT OF FOLKESTONE — ^THE QAtJLT. 129

Some readers may donbtless wonder why I have wandered all
along this pretty coast to Lympne's old ruined Roman castmm,
which may appear, perhaps, to them to be as little connected with
the Folkestone ganlt as the Mansion Honse with St. Panls. Never-
theless, there is some " reason in my madness.*' To the student
embued with the love of nature the science of geology offers at once
a sublime ««id unKmited expaiwe : he is in a transport of delight at
every step with the knowledge he obtains. Every new opening and
unfolding of the great book of the past overwhelms him with the
immensity of the ideas and reflections which arise. He has acquired
a new language, as it were, and can read the stirring stories recorded
in the ponderous volume. To the world, occupied with its cares and
trials, its anxieties, or its plea>sures, the volume hes open spread, but
few or none read the language in which it is written. So when we
isolate a locality, and attempt to teach its geology to the mass, we
must treat our subject as a simple story — as one simple incident in
the eventM past. We must have a oneness of purpose, a sturdy
truth, which however we may attempt to grace it, must be the lesson
we have to teach. I have read in some old Danish writer's tale of
one Trimalchio, who had his epitaph written on a sun-dial, that
everybody who consulted it might read his name. With worthier
purpose I hope to engrave some solemn truths on these pages, which,
gentle reader, form our meeting-place, and by as pleasantly as I can,
making a book of science one of amusement also, tempt you to come
where these truths may be read. " A fisherman must bait his hooks
to the taste of the little fishes, if he expects to catch them," and
philosophers will never succeed by dry and arid language in tempt-
ing those who seek for recreation and instruction after the labours
and duties of life. For such I write, for those who with elastic
tread and hearts lightened in hoHday time of their ordinary daily
duties are seeking recreation in the innocent study of God's works
and renovated health in the cool breezes from the sea ; these I pre-
sume not to know the geologic history of this blue clay band. For
their sakes it has been that I have rambled aU along the shore to
show them how the Grault forms one section of the great Cretaceous
group, of which those other strata, although so different in their
mineral character, form also parts.

VOL. III. ^

130 THE OBOLOOIST.

I have pointed oat also the capping of faric^-earth and ossiferonfl
marl on the West Cliff, to show to the inexperienced student that the
jnxta-position of strata is no proof of relationship ; but that beds of
earth lying together in prozimiiy may be far removed from each in
the dates of their formation, and indeed may belong to very different
causes and events. In this case, as in others, the fossils are the tme
medals of the past ; and here they teach ns that whiLe the cretaceous
rocks exhibit &om top to bottom the dominion of the sea in a remoter
age, the marls and brick-earth were not deposited until after the
marine sediments of the cretaceous rocks had been first raised into
dry land, and then denuded or worn away — sliced off — ^to the extent
of at least a thousand feet in vertical height ; and that while the
former group belongs to the mid-period of the earth's history, the
latter is of recent data, but just preceding if not coeval with the first
appearance of man, for the fossils it contains are those of the great
terrestrial beasts, with the remains of which in other places the flint-
implements and other traces of his works are found. Let us then
briefly tell the story of those events — ^it has been ofben told before,
but no matter, everyone has not heard it, and even those who have
delight to dwell upon it — ^and those ancient physical conditions with
which the geological history of the gaxQt is associated. The con-
secutive chain of events is as readily conceived as it is plainly to be
traced.

First, the old dry land of oolitic rock, with its thick umbrageons
forests, and its enormous river pouring into a delta — ^rivalling that of
the Ganges — sediments that formed the Wealden beds> sank gradually
below the level of the sea, and the great accumulation of the lower
greensand took place. The depression of the land still going on, the
finer deposit of mud reached higher on the sinking coast, and en-
croaching on the sands as they sank deeper and deeper beneath the
waves, the Greensand became covered by the Gault. The upper
greensand would seem to indicate a temporary elevation, or at least
a shoaling of the water. Again, a further sinking carried the once
dry ground to the depths of the ocean, where in the quietest calm of
the abyss lived those little Foraminifors, whose tiny shells chiefly
form the mountain mass of chalk.

The Portland-stone, on which rest the Wealden beds (of fresh-

GIBB — ON CANADIAN CAVERNS. 131

water origin), is covOTed hy its ancient soil, with the stems of the
trees erect as when they grew. This was the andent land, first
transformed into a delta, into which the old mighty river poured its
flood. Here lived the gigantic Iguanodon ; here the Pterodactyles —
winged lizards — ^flitted in the dnsky twilight ; birds waded in the
mud ; the hum of insects was heard in the air. All, aU the strange
beings of those ancient days have perished, and two thousand feet at
least of solid earth is piled above their tomb.

(To be eoiUinued,)

ON CANADIAN CAVERNS.

By GEORafi D. GiBB, M.D., M.A,, F.G.S., Member of the Canadian

Institute.

The prominent feature of a large portion of the province of Canada
is the presence of various limestone rocks belonging to the Silurian
formations. Until lately, the existence of caverns in these rocks, as
well as in those lying subjacent — namely the Laurentian of Sir
William Logan, was almost unknown ; as, with the exception of an
isolated account here and there, no regular description of any cavern
had appeared. Owing to the labours of the Canadian Geological
Survey, and of several private individuals, a number of caverns have
been discovered at distances remote from one another ; some of these
have received but a passing notice in the publications of the Survey,
and are not, therefore, useful as a means of reference. The present
communication, it is hoped, will supply that deficiency, as in it I
purpose to embody short descriptive accounts of all the caverns of
Canada which are known up to the present time. The details of
some of them are not so fiill as could be desired ; nevertheless, with
all the available sources of information within my reach, together
with personal observation in some, on the whole the general descrip-
tions may be relied upon as accurate, and as containing a correct
account of the particular geological formations in which they lie.

For convenience of description, it may be here stated that the
boundaries of the province of Canada are at the present time as
follows: — ^North by the Hudson Bay Company's territories, and
shores of James' Bay; on the west by Lakes Huron, Superior,
Lake of the Woods, Winnipeg, and Red River ; South by Lakes
Erie and Ontario, and the states of New York, Vermont, and New
Hampshire ; and to the eastward by the River and Gulf of St. Law-

132 THE OEOLOmST.

rence, the state of Maine, the province of New Bronswick, and the
eastern coast of Labrador ; the whole extending between the latitude
of forty-two degrees and fifby-five degrees north, and longitude
fifty-six and ninety-eight west.

The caverns of Canada may conveniently be divided into two
classes ; the first comprises those which are at the present time
washed by the waters of lakes, seas, and rivers, including arched,
perforated, flower-pot, and pillared rocks, which have at one time
formed the boundaries or walls of caverns, and aU of them unques-
tionably the result of aqueous action. The second comprises caverns
and subterranean passages which are situated on dry land, and so fer
as we know, not attributable to the same cause in their origin as
the first, or at least not apphed in the same manner.

In the first class are included the following : —

1. Caverns on the shores of the Magdalen Islands.

2. Caverns and arched rocks at Perce, Graspe.

3. Gothic arched recesses, Graspe Bay.

4. The " Old Woman," or flower-pot rock, at Cape Gkspe.

5. Little River Caverns, Bay of Chaleur.

6. Arched and flower-pot rocks of the Mingan Islands.

7. Pillar sandstones, north coast of Gkispe.

8. Niagara Caverns.

9. Flower Pot Island, Lake Huron.

10. Perforations and caverns af Michilimacinac, L. Huron.

11. The Pictured Rocks, Lake Superior.

12. St. Ignatius Caverns, Lake Superior.

13. Pilasters of MammeUes, Lake Superior.

14. Thunder Mountain and Pate Island Pilasters, L. Superior.

In the second class are : —

15. The Steinhauer Cavern, Labrador.

16. The basaltic caverns of Henley Island.

17. Empty basaltic dykes of Mecattina.

18. Bigsby's Cavern, Murray Bay.

19. Bunchettes Cavern, Kildare.

20. Gibb's Cavern, Montreal.

21. Probable caverns at Chatham, on the Ottawa.

22. CalquhounJs Cavern, Lanark,

23. Quartz Cavern, Leeds.

24. Probable caverns at Kingston, Lake Ontario.

25. Mono Cavern.

26. Eramosa Cavern.

27. Cavern in the Bass Islands, L. Erie.

28. Subterranean passages in the Great Manitoulin Island, Lake

Huron.

29. Murrays Cavern and subterranean river, Ottawa.

30. Probable caverns in Iron Island, Lake Nipissing.

PROCEEDINGS OF OEOLOQICAL SOCIETIES. 133

The majoiiiy of those in the first class are on a level with the
water, whilst the remainder are elevated above, varying from a few
to upwards of sixty feet.

In the second class the level varies, but nearly all are above that
of the sea, and, as will presently be described, none penetrate the
earth to a considerable depth ; but this may be foimd to be otherwise
as the explorations are continued. In none have animal remains
been found, excepting in one instance, and they were discovered
loose and not imbedded in stalagmite ; and so far as I am aware, not
a single object, such as a flint arrow-head or spear, used by the
ancient inhabitants of the country, has been observed. This circum-
stance may in some measure detract from the present communica-
tion ; that part of the inquiry has still to be worked out, as many of
the caverns have been but very partially explored, indeed some have
scarcely been examined and as several of them branch off bv means
of fissures and galleries, running from distinct chambers (most of
the latter containing stalagmite) we may yet hope for interesting
discoveries, particularly in that district of country in which exist the
huge caverns of Mono and Eramosa in the Niagara limestone rocks
of the Upper Silurian formation. The researches of my friend, Mr.
Sterry Hunt, of the Canadian Geological Survey, have shown that
these limestones are essentially dolomitic, and thus perhaps favour-
ably constituted for the development of caverns.

(To be continued.)

PROCEEDINGS OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES.

Geological Society op London, February 29, 1860. — L. Homer, Esq.,
President, in the Chair.

" On the Lower Lias of the South of England." By Dr. T. Wright, E.G.S.

The author first stated that the uppermost heds of the Lower Lias are those
containing Hippopodium ponderosum, and that the lowest beds are those with
Ammonites Flanorbis, overlying a series of strata containing Estheria, &c.,
which he separates from iLe Lias, nnder the name of the Avicula contorta
beds. The last rest on the grey and red marls of the Keuper.

Dr. Wright then proceeded with the description of the A. contorta beds, in-
cluding the " Bone-bed," having first enumerated the authors who have written
on these and the equivalent strata (Kossener, Shichten, etc.,) on the Continent.
The sections at Garden Cliff, near Westburv on the Severn, at Wainlode Chff,
at Aust Oiff, at Penarth, near Cardiff,, at Uphill near Weston-super-Mare, at
Culverhole near Axmouth, at Wilracote ana Binton near Stratford-on-Avon,
were described in detail as illustrating this series; and (jeneral Portlock's
section of these beds in the North of Ireland was also alluded to. Ferfen

134 THE GEOLOGIST.

Falonieiuis, Cardium Mkatieim, anH Avicula eontorta are the chief moUoscan
fossils of this zone.

The next group of strata are those with Ammonites Planorbis and Am. JokM-
stoni. Some of the foregoing sections expose these beds, such as those at
Uphill and Wilmcote ; but thev can be still better studied at Street in Somer-
setshire, where they haye vielaed so many fine Enaliosaurian fossils. These
beds are also well exposea at Brockeridge and Defford in the Yale of Glou-
cester, and at Binton in Warwickshire.

Isastraa Murekisona occurs in this zone, and Osirea lAamca is verr chara&
teristic of some of its lower beds. Ichthyosauri and Flesiosauri oi seTeral
species are found in this series ; the latter chiefly in the lower part. Of the
two known specimens of the PL meaacephalus, one was found in these beds near
Street, Somerset, and the other at WUmcote, Warwickshire.

The Ammonites Bucklandi characterizes the next higher group of strata,
which are also known as the Lima-beds. These are well seen at Lyme Eegis,
at the Church Cliff, and from the Broad Ledge to the shore, and yield several
species of Ichthyosaurus, also Am, Conybeari, A, rotiformis, A. angulatus^ A.
G^reenoughii, and A. tortilis.

The Am, Tumeri beds are next, and can also be studied at Lyme Eegis ;
they have yielded three species of Ichthyosaurus, Am, semicostatus and A.
Bonnardi belong to this zone.

The Am, obtusus beds succeed, between the Broad Ledge at Lyme and
Cornstone Ledge near Charmouth ; they apparently have no saurian fossils.
A, Brooki, A. stellaris, A, planicosia, and A. Dudressieri accompany A, obtusus.

The next zone is that of the Am, oxynotus, with A, bifer and A, lacunatus.
The beds with Am, raricostatus comprise, in ascending order, the Ammonite-
bed, the Hippopodium-bed, the coral-band, and the wyphsea-bed. This zone
is well seen near Cheltenham, at Lyme, and at Robin's Mood Bay in Yorkshire^
Am. armatus, A. nodulosus, and A. Qinbalianus belong to the A. raricostus beds.

Dr. Wright then pointed out that the Avicula contorta beds, like the K5ssen
beds, contam a fauna s{)ecial to themselves, and might as well be classed with
the Trias as with the Lias. They have a wide range in the South of Enghmd,
South Wales, the Midland Counties, and the North of Ireland. After some
remarks on the more important features of the several Ammonite-zones of the
Lower Lias, the author concluded by remarking that as Quenstedt and Oppel
had observed, the Middle Lias could be similany subdivided by means of the
Ammonites peculiar to its several stages.

Liverpool Geological Societi, March 13, 1860. — Thomas Urquhart,
Esq., in the Chair.

The Secretary, G. H. Morton, Esq., F.G.S., exhibited a number of scratched
boulders, and shells of several species collected by him from the boulder-clay of
the district. He showed how the boulders were connected with the grooved
and striated surfaces of the sandstone in the neighbourhood.

Thomas I. Moore, Esq., of the Derby Museum, exhibited Cetacean remains
from more recent local deposits.

The Rev. Henry H. Higgins brought forward his proposal for the arrange-
ment of the recent and fossu species, in the new Liverpool museum, in natural
history series, without regard to stratigraphical formations. The Secretaiy,
Dr. Collingwood, and most of the members of the society, advised a ffeological
aiTangement of the fossils. It was suggested that the Society shomd enrich
the valuable geological collection of the Royal Institution, which, with some
small additions, would assume considerable importance.

NOI'ES AND QUEBIGB. 135

Mabchestbb Geological Society, February 16.—0n this day the
members of this Society made an excursion to Burnley, under the direction of
the President, Sir James Kay Shuttleworth, Bart., F.G.S. After the dinner,
the President described the valuable seams of coal under the Gawthorpe estate,
and Mr. Pickup described the strata at the pit belonging to Messrs Thursby
and Scarlett at Spa Clough. Mr. Binney drew attention to the bed of Unio
robustm as being two hundred yards above the Habergham, or assumed Arioy
mine of PuU-edge ; whilst at Wigan the same bed was only fortv-seven yards
above the Arley-mine. In the dining-room were displayed Mx. Wilds* ex-
oeilent collection of fossil fish-remains from Full-edge, and shells from the
Lower Coal-measures, as also extensive and valuable collections of fossil plants
from the Burnley Coal-field belonging to Messrs Whittaker and Birtwell. Mr.
J. Mushen of Birmingham exhibited some beautiful casts of cystideans.

Ordinary Monthly Meeting, February 28. — A paper was read on " Over-
Winding m Coal and other Aunes," by Thos. Wynne, Esq., F.G.S.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Me. Page's Handbook op Geological Terms. — We have received a con-
siderable number of communications upon various points of pronunciation.
We have reserved these for a time, with a view to their publication together in
our next number. We hope, therefore, that any intended suggestions or re-
marks may be forwarded to us early in the present month.

Limestone Veins in Shale at the Base of the Old Red Sand-
stone.— Ser, — ^A few days since I observed some irregular vertical veins, or
thin dykes of dark grey compact limestone, crossing a nearly horizontal bed of
red shale in and. near the local base of the Old Red Sandstone, which rests un-
confonnably upon beds very seldom, and then but slightly calcareous. The
shale in which they were oDserved is separated from the overlying Carbon-
iferous Limestone by a considerable thickness of yellowish sandstone, of which
over two hundred feet is exposed. As these veins do not contain fossils, and
there is nothing else to show that the limestone was derived from organic
sources, while the thickness of the intervening sandstone is against the
suppositiDn that it was deposited by infiltration from the Carboniferous
Limestone. Perhaps you, or some of your other readers will say how
an occurrence so unusual may be accounted for. — I am, etc., A. B. W.,
Templemore.

BiBucAi* Chbonology of Man. — Sib, — ^In reference to the vexata questio
of the age of man on the earth as connected with the works of human art
lately found in Prance, one point of consequence has, I think, been hitherto
overlooked, viz., that we are not confined by the authority of the Bible to
the period of six thousand years for the date of man's creation upon the earth.
Phyres Clinton, in the appendix to his " Fasti Hellenici," mentions the fact
that most of our old Bible manuscripts vary much in their chronology, chiefly
in the duration of life assigned to the patriarchs before the Flood, and abo be-
fore the time of Abraham. So considerable is this variation that I believe I am
not far wrong in stating that twelve thousand, or even twenty thousand years

136 THE GEOLOGIST.

may be obtained for the period since man's creation from some of these manu-
scnpts ; and I believe also that Mr. P. Clinton stated that there was no pre-
ponderant rate of authority for the manuscripts which had been followed by the
authora of our Bible translation. The SeptuaMt translation, e,g.^ was founded
on a difPerent set of manuscripts ; and I think also that Josephus is said to
have had some quite different from ours. I write only from recollection, not
having the books at hand to refer to ; but I am sure oi this point, that on the
authority of some of the manuscripts of the Bible, a much longer period may
have elapsed than the six thousand years which are generally received. I con-
ceive that the possibility of such an extension of time mignt extend also the
probabiKty of man's having been coeval with even the mammoth. — I am, Sir,
Yours obediently, (The Rev.) S. C.

PiioviirciAL CrBOLOGiCAL MusBUMS. — SiR, — ^I was Well pleased to see the
remarks of E. Charleaworth, F.G.S., in reference to Ptofessor Forbes sugees-
tions for establishing "Educational Museums." I presume there, is scarcelj a
Geological Society in the kingdom but has a nucleus, at least, of a museum in
the shape of one or more cabmets of " specimens," collected from the Various
strata of their surrounding districts. What we students of Geolo^ now re-
quire is to have published in your excellent magazine a list of all the Geological
Societies of the kingdom, and a list of the specmiens collected in their separate
districts. There would be no difficulty in obtaining this information, ii you,
sir, suggested to the secretary of each geological society to forward to you a
short account of their local strata, &c., and the fossils found therein. By the
publication of such information, the readers of your magadne would become
acquainted with a circle of fossil districts, would know to what society they
should write for exchanges, or what spot to visit to enrich their cabinets or
local museums ; a friendly feeling would be generated amongst the various
geological associations, and considerable practical infomiation obtained. We
cannot expect that societies will give up independent movements since they
must be guided in some measure by local circumstances ; but if the teachers of
geologicgJ science would lay down a practical jjlan for the formatitin of pro-
vincial geological museums and mutual co-operation, I have no doubt but that
the various associations would at once act upon the suggestions. — ^Youre
faithfully, G. Horner, Glasgow. We concur in the desirableness of the publi-
cation of the lists suggested by our correspondent, and shall be obliged to the
various secretaries and members of institutions and societies for the necessary
information.

QuA^TERNART Geology. — ^Au mtcrcsting discussion occnrted at the ordinary
meetii^ of the French Geological Society, on November 7th, which is reported
in the Bulletin for January kst. M. Gaudry produced specimens which he
had recently dug from the diluvium in the neighbourhood of Amiens. He
stated that he had found axes nearly in contact with fossil mammalian bones,
together with small pierced balls, which M. Rigollet considered to be necklace
b^xis, but which dia not with certainty show traces of human art. In reply
to a question from M. d'Archiac, M. Gaudry said the axes were not all found
lying horizontally but at various inclinations and mostly together. M.
Desnoyers confirmed these statements having aided in the explorations, and
explained thai many of the implements were formed from rolled pebbles. He
considered the deposit to be a fluviatile one ; it contained, in beds of sand
interstratified witn the gravel, Cyclades, Ancylus, Paludina, and Limnsea, and
could not be dne to tumultuous causes. M. d'Orbigny cited an instance at
Bicetre of a diluvial gravel bed capped by a fluviatfle sand under the Loess.
M. Desnoyers explained the fluviatile character of the deposit by its occurrence
at the coimuence of a side valley with the Somme, and maintained that the
mammaliaii bones had been rolled, which M. Jourdam also stated was the case.

NOTfiS AND QUERIES. 137

M. Hebert referred to the well known discoveries of M. Perthes and the
labours of Mr. Prestwich, and others, resulting in the production of upwards
of a thousand implements from deposits certainlr quaternary, characterized bj
Elephas primigenius and Rhinoceros tichorintu. Me denied that they had been
su^quently disturbed, described them as covered by a red diluvial clay, with
broken flints usually unrolled, identical with the red diluvium of the neighbour-
hood of Pans, and that the brick-earth, or loess, was superimposed, ^t main-
tained that it is impossible that the flint implements could have been
introduced into their actual present position subsequently to the deposit of
the two last named beds. Doubtless the implements were not rolled as were
the bones. In all cases the axes Ue under the double mantle of the red clay
and loess, showing beyond all question that they belong to the antecedent
state of things. If then we admit with M. d'Archiac that the loess is the
result of a general deposit independent of the centres, whence the rolled
gravels with elephant bones have radiated ; that the great extension of Alpine
glaciers is subse(|uent in date to the loess, that the turbaries are more recent
still, we are obliged to conclude that the existence of man in the north of
france belongs to an epoch more ancient than the quaternary !

The identity of the brick-earth with the loess, the local chrracter of upper
gravels, require careful consideration before we accept this as the true place of
the first-art stratum ; but in the present state of our knowledge it may be use-
ful to call attention to the sayings and doings of our neighbours. — S. K. P.

Hetebostechka-bbd. — I saouid be much obliged if you could let me know
which is the *' Heterosteffina-bed*' at Malta mentioned in the paper read at the
meeting of the Greological Society, Jan. 4th, by Mr. T. R. Jones. — Yours truly,
F. W. HuTTON, Staff College, Aldershott. — In Capt. Spratt's notice of
the geology of Malta, &c., in the Geological SocaetVs Proceedinffs, vol. iv.,
p. 226 and p. 230, the "yellow sandstone is described as being fullof a "very
thin Nummulite," referred to also by Prof. Forbes as the " Lenticulites
mmpUmatusy It is this bed which is now known as the " Heterostegina-bed,"
auaMr. Bupert Jones has favoured us with the following remarks on the
subject.

''The thin Nummulite-like shell, found in the dark-yellow friable stone, is
not a Nummulite nor a Lenticulite. It belongs to the Heterostegina of
p'Orbigny ; a genus which is related to Nummulina and to Operculina ; but
it has its chambers subdivided, and is not symmetrical in its growth. The
yellow sandstone is the second ^eat stratum from the top of the Tertiary
series of beds at Malta, and is well seen at several places in that island and in
the diffs at Kanella Bay, in Gozo. Besides the Heterostegina depressa, D'Orb.,
this rock contains Globigerina buUoides, D'Orb., and a few other Poraminifers.
The Leniiculites complanatus of Basterot (to which the Maltese fossil above
mentioned has been erroneously referred) being really a very thin Operculina,
the name " Lenticulites" (which is inapplicable in other cases also) is disused.
Operculina is a sub-genus of Nummulina.

Dr. Wright has followed Spratt and Porbes in misnaming this Heterostegina
"Lenticulites complanatm" (Ann. Nat. Hist. Qter., vol. xv., p. 103, pi. 7, f. 4.^.
The latter name was given by Basterot to a large thin discoidal fossil Forami-
nifer froni Bordeaux, now well known as an Operculina, similar to such as now
exist in the sea at the Phillipines, Australia, and elsewhere. Operculina com'
planatat however, abo occurs at Malta, for Lord Ducie has favoured the
writer with a fine specimen in a very hard white limestone from that island."

On the Divisions op the Drift in Norfolk: and Suffolk. — "As 1
shall have frequent occasion to make use of the word diluvium," wrote the late
Br. Buckland, " it may be necessary to premise that I apply it to those ex-
tensive and general deposits of superficial loam and gravel which appear to

VOL. III. s

138 THE QEOLOaiST,

have been produced by the last great convnlsion that has affected our planet."*
Omitting any opinion upon the cause of those deposits, Sir Charles Lyell gives
the following definition of the diluvium : " Those accumulations of grayel and
loose materials which by some geologists are said to have been produced by the
action of a diluvian wave, or deluge, sweeping over the surface of the earth."!
More recent opinions upon the presumed agencies which have brought t(^ther
the heterogenous materiab fornung the gravel and clay beds, and deposited and
spread them over their present sites, have led to the adoption of the term
** drift," as more significantly expressing the modern views held on their mode
of transport. The " drift," therefore, includes the series of beds of gravel,
sand, loam, and boulder-day, or till, the latter being but a northern provincial
term for the former.

My late friend, the highly intelligent geologist, Joshua Trimmer, whose well
known intimate acc^uaintance with these superficial deposits, from an extended
examination, has given high authority to his remarks upon them, was the first
to adopt, if not to originate, their more defined division into " lower drift, till,
or boulder-clay," " upper drift," and " warp of the drift."{ My respected
friend afterwards divided his lower drift — till, or boulder-clay — into an upper
and lower boulder-clay ; founding this division upon what he and others had
observed in the Suffolk cliffs, at and near to Gorleston. During the many
agreeable gossips that 1 had with my late friend, I heard his views in relation
to the above-mentioned divisions, and as frequently combated them, from not
having obseiTcd anything in West Norfolk to warrant them ; and since my
residence at Yarmouth, after having repeatedly examined the cliff from Gorton
to Gorleston, and other localities, 1 have seen nothing to shake my scepticism
upon the subject. Trimmer wrote thus : " It appears that in the Gorleston
cliffs there are two boulder-clays, separated bv a mass of sand, which, on the
authority of Woodward, has hitherto passed for the * crag,' a term which has
now become as indefinite as that of * drift,' or * drifts.* The lower houlder-
clay is the tailing off of that so well known for its blocks of Scandinavian
origin, and which extends over the north of Europe and into the eastern side of
England. The upper boulder-clay is characterized by an abundance of oolitic
detritus ;" and he proceeds to say that, " the former overlaps the latter, with a
mass of sand interposed." §

It appears from the perusal of this cited paper that there were anomalies in
the structures of the superficial beds "which had perplexed" Mr. Trimmer;
it also appears that these perplexities were removed by meeting with (for
thus he wrote) " some boulders of gneiss on the beach ; and though during a
rapid examination we found none actually embedded, Mr. Gunn assured me he
had seen them in the cliff." || From having repeatedly examined these cliffs,
and having also dug into the so-called lower ooulder-clay, or till, without meet-
ing with a boulder of any kind in siiu, I cannot assent to the existence of two
boulder-clays — an upper and a lower.

Beneath the sand underlying the true boulder-clay a highly ferruginous loam,
stained in places black by decomposed vegetable matter, exists. Lito this bed
I dug to the depth of about five feet, and a trench, three feet by two, without
meetmg with anything but one portion of black flint, about the size of my open
hand, with its angles roundecC and pebbles and small angular fragments of

* neUqnse DiltLviaiin, p. 2. 1823.

t Glossajy in " The Principles of Greology."

t " On the Geology of Norfolk, Ac." published in the Jonmal of the Rojral Agricnltoral
Society of England, vol. vii., part 2. 1847.

§ '* On the Upper and Lower Boulder-clay of the Gorleston CliflBs." Quart. Journal of the
Geological Society, vol. adii. 1867.

li Op. cit.

NOTBS AND QUBRIE8. 139

flint, bat not a vestige of any primitive rock. This loam contains an abundance
of very small fracments of tertiary shells, resembling those from the crag, as
also does the sand above it. The boulders of gneiss met with on the beach by
Messrs. Trimmer and Gunn, we mav venture to believe, had previously fallen
from the boulder-day above ; and tnose seen by Mr. Gunn embedded in the
diff, I am disposed to think, were driven in and covered up by violent tides
prevailing on that shore, having first fallen from above, and been carried out to
sea by retiring waves. Neither after frequent iterations of long-continued ex-
aminations of the drift in West Norfolk ; the written reports of an intelligent
well-sinker upon the beds passed through in forty wells, chiefly in West Nor-
folk, with a few extending into the centre of the county ; nor from the ex-
aminations of Dr. Mitchell* have I been able to obtain any information that
would lead me to believe in the existence of two boulder-clays.

Both in the gravel-beds and boulder-clay throughout the counties of Norfolk
and Suffolk lai^ and small rolled masses of primitive rocks are ahnost every-
where met with, so that the occurrence of them on the Goriest on beach is to
be expected, and therefore they prove nothing towards the definition of two
boulder-clap there.

Recently I have taken opportunities of examining into the superficial strata,
from the <irift above the boulder-clay successively down to the chalk. In the
first instance at Lowestoft, where the upper drift, boulder-clay, with the under-
lying sand and loam have been opened ; uext at Gorton Gliff, where the boulder-
clay, with the subjacent sand, and the so-called lower boulder-clay are visible
in the cliff; then at Gorleston, where but a small seam of boulder-dav beneath
the v^table soil covers the under-lying sands, and where the loam beneath is
rarely visible; lastly, where a well has been bored down into the chalk.
Surely, in this last instance, had a lower boulder-clay existed, some indications
of it would have been brought to light.

The diagrams of sections (p. 140) will illustrate the above descri]itions, and
assist in the comprehension ot my view of the divisions of the Drift in Norfolk
and Suffolk.

To the north of Yarmouth, at Caister Castle, at Ormsby, and the neighbour-
ing villages which I have examined, the boulder-clay is again seen cappmg the
inferior drift-sands, it having been removed from them by denudation at the
embouchure of the three rivers, Waveney, Yare, and Bure, at Breydon Broad.
At Ormsby, in a brick-yard, the ferru^ous loam of the lower drift is met with
nearer the surface, not enclosing a smgle boulder. To the west of the sea-
shore, about five miles inland from Lowestoft and Gorton, and at Somerleyton
brickfield, also at Barnby and Eellough, near Beecles, the boulder-clay is seen
covered by the upper-drift, and "warp of the drift," of Trimmer. At Somer-
leyton, in the brickfield, a well has been sunk in the loam and sand beneath the
boulder-clay to the depth of forty feet ; and these beds have been opened hori-
zontally to nearly the same depth to procure brick-earth, without meeting with
a boulder of any kind, nor even a flint-stone of a size adapted for paving; no-
tliing but small angular shingle and pebbles.

In West Norfolk the boulder-clay lies for the most part immediately upon
the chalk ; but when a bed of sand or gravel intervenes, no fragments of ter-
tiary marine shells are to be found in it, as in similarly placed sands in East
Norfolk, the former bed lying beyond the western and northern margin of the
cra^ formation. The position of the boulder-clay near to the surface is shown
with surprising accuracy upon Smith's Geological Maps of Norfolk and Suffolk
bv the dark drab-colour used for designating the heavy lands in those counties.
If I may presume to suggest an alteration of my late esteemed friend's divisions

* " Ou the Drift, &c. ;" by J. Mitchell, L.L.D. Geological Proceciliiigs, vol. ui.. p. 2.

140

THB OBOLOOIST.

Souili.

Lowestoft.
Well.

N<n:th.

*»^»^m^^^^m—mmti^^m-^»^^t-——m0t~^^ttm,ti I I pn I

CoEioN Cuff.
a

Yarmouth-
WeU.

About a mile and a-lialf from the beach.

Lo'TESTOFT Well.

a. Upper drift.

b. Boulder-clay.

c. Lower drift.

a, Eerraginous loam and sands.

10 feet.

CoRTON Cliff.
a, Trimmer's warp.
6, Boulder^clay.
e, Lower drift.

a, Ferruginous loam, enclosing numerous frag-
ments of tertiary sheUs.

O
CM

Dunes*

Bseydon Mud.

Cng Drift

Crag.

IxKMkmClay.

35 feet.

*i^^>Mrt<b*i

Plastic day.

Flints.

Chalk.

K0TE8 AND gUEBIES. 141

of these BOperfidal beds, it will be into the following order, viz., upper drift,
boolder clay, and lower cbrift.

The Upper drift consists of beds of gravel formed of ronnded flint, sand-
stones, quartz-rock, sneiss, syenite, and granite, as pebbles rather than
boulders, accompanied with a greater or less quantity of ferrueinous sand or
sandy loam. In this division I include Trimmer's " warp of the drift," con-
sidering its formation but the termination of one lonff period of deposition,
diffusion, erosion, denudation, and re-arrangement of the materials, and lastly,
I conceiYe that by the surging of muddy waves, the final adjustment was accom-
plished immediately anterior to or jnst as that portion of the earth was emerging
from the water.

The Boulder-clay has a well-marked distinctive character in its great pro-
portion of oolitic and chalk-bonlders, all more or less rounded and scored ;
also in the almost entire absence of stratification in the bed. This clay occurs
either as a bed of blue, drab-coloured, or marly, clay, these modifications arising
from the predominance of the parent Kimmericlge, Oxford, and blue Lias-
clays, or the prevalence of the cla^s of the Inferior and Great Oolites, or the
superabundance of the detritus ot the Chalk with its flints ; for in this clay
houlders occur derived from all the oolites and from the various rocks'of the cre-
taceous system, with a comparative sprinkling only from the primitive division
of rocks.

The Lower Drift is found to be stratified alternations of sand, gravelly-
shingle, and ferrueinous-loam with angular fragments and pebbles of flint
embedded in it. The layers of shingle m the sand consist of very small frag-
ments of Tertiary shells resembling those of the Crag. I consider the period
during which these post-tertiary beds were depositing as one epoch ; but why
the a^ncy of icebergs ehoald nave ooeurred whilst the boulder-clay only was
depositing I will leave to other theorists to enunciate the reason.

The organic contents of the beds sunk and bored through at the Yarmouth
Brewery well are, first, in the £reydon-mud, Ostrea edulis, Cardium edule,
Tellina planata of Pennant, Tellina BtUhicat vsA Fedeti operculuris. In the
Lower-drift, what I am disposed to call in this instance Crag^ift, fragments
only of tertiary aheUs are found ; in what I have called the Crag in the section
Mvtilus edulis, Tellina BatAiea, and apart oidkBalanw, in what Mr. Prestwich
called, on his inspection of specimens of the clays, London and Plastic clays,
aud in whose opinion I fully concur, no shells or fragments of shells were met
with, or if any nave been found thev have not been preserved.

Judging from the products of tne Yarmouth Well, and also from those of
the w& sinldvigs and horizontal diggings at Somerl^ton, I consider it to be
established that there is not a second Doulder-clay in 'SaeX Norfolk or Suflblk.
A.S in some measure connected with the subject of this paper, it may be in-
teresting to your readers to learn whence the mammahan remains are so
constantly dredged up on this coast, and also what they are. The Oyster-bed
from which they are Drought up with the living oysters 1 have laid down in
the accompanymg section ; it occurs at from a mile and a-half to two miles from
the beach, and at a depth of about eleven fathoms. They consist of teeth and
bones of the skeletons of two species of mammoth, teeth of Hippopotamus,
heads of the male and female Megaceros Hibemicua — ^an atlas of the megaceros
with a TurrUella inoressfUa impacted in the canal of the vertebral artery, has
been met with, a horn-core of Bos primigenius, and one with a vertebra and
metacarpal bone of Boa loayifrons^ jaw with teeth of Bonus caballus, cervical
vertebra of a Grampus, and a lower jaw, without teeth, of a Walrus — ^the last is
in the possession of Mr. Owles of tms town, in whose collection, in that of Mr.
Xash residing here, and in my own, the above named fossils are preserved. —
C. B. Rose, F.G.S., Great Yarmouth.

142 THE GEOUtOIST.

Ekrata in Mr. Dc Noteh's Pafzb on the Oiaht's CitsnriT.-
Detir Sir, — Please to call attention to the foUowing typographical errors in lie
paper on the Causeway. Adj practical ^logist seeing hgn. 7, p. 10, called
"The Whin Dyke," would at onne perceive the error. So dyke of basalt eter
aasumed the appearance given in lign. 7 when Tertical, but it might if it aere
horizontal, when, however, the coiuums would be more regular than those
shown in the figure I allude to. The peculiar character of all trap-djkes is

Bilurian BtaM, Trap Djke. eiluriu SlUe.

their tendency lo columnarize at right angles to their walls, or oooliogsurbces;
while what may be termed joinit of »kri»king (a a) become very numraooa and
close at the edges of the dyke. In many instances the dyke at its aides de-
composes into a soft brown shale.

At p. 11 the allusion to lign, 7 refers to lign. 6. — Youis very tnd)',
Geo. v. Du Noteb.

Notes op Fossillfebocs Locautieb of ihe Old Res SAKDSioiri or
THE East of ScoTiAND.—Should any amateur geoh^ts, delighting m a
pedestrian excursion, relieveii occasionally by a little rail and steamboat
travelling, be desirous of viaiting the fossiliferous districts of the Old Ked
Sandstone of the east coast of Scotland during the ensuing season for rambles,
I think the following remarks may be of some service in the search ftn speci-
mens. The trip, by using a little despatch, will take about five or six weeks;
to go tliorouglily to work, and obtain a perfect knowledge of the localities, &c.,
would require at least five or sii months. However, 1 was not able to spare
more than six weeks, and during that time I visited all the most importaat
places of interest to the geologist in that part of Scotland, with tolerably fine
weather, and without beine overburdened with baggt^ but posaesaiug a very
useful and moderate-sized hammer (a small hammer is of no use in this dis-
trict) and a couple of stone-cliisels (lai^ and small) ; with these tools you cao
encounter a nodule of almost any size ; but the hammer itself will generally
prove suiQcient, unless the nodule breaks crossways.

At the end of these rou^h remarks I have given a list of all the Old Red
lishes found in Scotland, with the locality of each species ; this may be useful,
to enable the tourist to kuow what species are to be met with in the places be
visits. I have taken each place in the order I visited them, commencing with

Crohabty, the locality rendered famous bv Hugh Miller, as the ttrst ei-
amined by him in his researches on the Old Red Sandstone, nearly thirty jeaia
ago. There are many species found here, but rarely any in a remarkably good
state of preservation ; the most abundant appear to be the Bip/acaMtAm ilriaiMi
and a Cheiracanthus. Lai^ numbers of sea-worn nodules contaiuing the re-
mains of lisbes may be picked up on the coast at low water, especially after
rough weather ; these seldom contain anything very fine. I searcbed nearh »
whole day with very little success ; however, the next day I was more foi-
lunate in procuring several good specimens by digging some two or three feet
in one or two beds on Ihe shore containing the nodules. These were some of
the beds that Hugh Miller used to visit in his geological rambles. It is not,

NOTES AND QUERIES. 143

however, every nodule found here that contains a fish, or even part of a fish,
for which reason they ought to be opened on the spot, and it will oe found that
about 70 per cent, contain nothing of value. The fish here preserved are
generally of a black colour.

About four miles south of Cromarty is the Bum of Eathie, a locality often
visited by Miller. Just at the point where it enters the sea, and for one hundred
yards north and south of the bum, on the shore, numbers of nodules may be
found, hut of a much harder material and of much larger size than those we
have described. These generally contain plates of Coccostei, rarely other
species ; but occasionally a tolerable specimen of Glmto/epis may be opened.
These nodules are very much waterwom. A little fartner to the south are the
Lias beds, containing numbers of Belenmites, Ammonites, &c., which are also
found on the shore in water-wom nodules.

From Eathie I proceeded to Naien, which is about nine miles west of Elgin,
and is on the coast of the Moray Erith. Close to this town are Boath and
Kingstep quarries, in which may be found the remains of Bothriolepis, Astero-
lepis, &c., but in the most fragmentary form — all in detached pieces, separately
embedded. The matrix is of a very loose granular friable nature ; in colour
very similar to the rock at Scat crag. It is especially friable when wet ; but
the upper portion of the rock is of a more compact and close texture, and is
much employed in the neighbourhood for buildinp-purposes. This upjjer stra-
tum contains no fossils, although numerous cavities, round and oval in form,
of various sizes, from half an mch to four or five inches in diameter, and in
depth about a quarter of an inch are found in this rock. I could not, however,
detect any traces of orgaiiic remains in them, and they appear frequently to be
filled with a clayey material, which falls to pieces in laminae when taken out.

From this place I visited Lethbn Bab and Clune, inland places, about ten
miles from the sea at Nairn, the nearest road being through some splendid
forests of Scotch fir and beech, in which are presented some of the most beau-
tiful and variously coloured fungi I ever have seen ; some are of large size (six
or eight inches in diameter), and their fine pink, orange spotted with white,
purple, and other colours have a beautiful appearance in contrast with the
grass and green bog-moss in which they lie in profusion. A ride round about
this district is delightful at the fall of summer.

The fishes of Lethen Bar and Clune are enclosed in nodules of the same cha-
nicter as at the other localities, but of a harder and more compact texture, and
nearly round, similar to those of Gamrie, but much larger, and having a tinge
of red, produced by oxide of iron. They are embedded in great plenty in a
clayey material of a brownish-red colour ; it would be a mistake, however, to
suppose every one to contain a fish, or even a portion of one, although frag-
ments are in much greater profusion than whole specimens. When a nodule
contains an entire fish, a few gentle blows with the hammer round the edge
will cause it to split readily, d&sclosing, perhaps, a Pterichthys, with its arms
extended, and scales of red, blue, and white in brilliant contrast with the
matrix — entombed for ages upon ages, yet retaining its symmetry as perfect as
when first entombed in what was then a sandy but now a stony sepulchre —
appearii^ more like a painting on stone than the remains of an extinct and ex-
traordittMy fish.

Some species of fish found in the Old Bed Sandstone are almost always (the
exceptions being very rare) in a greatljr distorted state, this being probably
caused either by the stmggles of the animal, the contortions of the body after
death, or by the action of the sea on the sand after the decomposition of the
internal parts of the fish had tadcen place. The fishes most generally found in
this state are the Diplacantkus, Aeanthodea, and Cheiraeanthus ; all these genera
of fishes possess very minute scales and large well-marked spines. Perhaps

144 THR GEOLOGIST.

some of your readers will be able to account in some measure for the circam-
stance that such fishes with yery minute scales should be so much distorted,
while those with larger scales are not so generally distorted, the only exception
being the Glyptolepis. This fish, with Wger scales than most of the fishes d
the Old Red, is often found greatly distorted. In the Acanfhodes pusilltu
the head and tail are generally contiguous ; sometimes the fish looks as if tied
in a knot, and often as though in one roundish mass it had been crushed end-
ways. Some of the other species in similar manner have their spines protrud-
ing in all directions around. Such examples are not peculiar to this locality,
but are also found in other places. Some of the magnificent specimens in
Lady Gordon Cumming's collection contain two or three Pterichtkys on one
slab. Of the Pterichthys there are many species found here, some in a splendid
state of preservation, perhaps superior to those from anj other place whatever.
Elgin. — About nine miles from Elgin is Nairn, which is the best place to
stop at while visiting the Old Red Sandstone beds in the vicinity. Scat Crag
being about four miles distant to the south. I first went there. This locality
is well known for its large variety of interesting fossil remains, althoiigh
generally these are found m fragments. The matrix is of an extremely loose
and friable conglomerate of very coarse sand and pebbles ; the fossils (for the
most part detached scales, plates and portions of plates and teeth, &c., of
various species) are very plentiful, but the greatest possible care is requisite
in obtainmg them perfect from the matrix, tne fossils being as friable as the
conglomerate in wnich they occur, often crumbling in the hand with the
slightest touch. Large scales of Holoptyehius gigaiUeu8, &c., are to be
obtained here, nearly four inches in diameter, as are occasionally pieces- of

i'aws of Botkriolepis, &c., and many interesting portions of bones, supposed to
lave belonged to Pterichthys major. It has been recommended, as a means
of preserving these fossils from falling to pieces, to let the specimens remain
a short time m gelatine, and then carerally to <by them.

In the Elgin Museum are some very fine specunens from this locality, and a
very good collection of Old Red fossils. Patrick Duff, -Esq., of Elgin, lis also
a beautiful collection from this neighbourhood.

At EiNDBASSiE, about a mile from Spynie, and two and a-half from Elgin,
scales, scutes, and bones of Stagonolepis, &c., are found. This quarry is
not worked now, but good specimens may yet be obtained firom amongst the
heaps of rubbish lying about.

The hill of Spynie is about two miles from Eljgin, and is a huge mass of
sandstone. It is the place where the unique specimen of Telerpefon Elginense
was discovered, no other specimen of this reptile having been found.

At Sluie, on the Eindnom, a few miles from Elgin, many fine specimens
have been found, such as scales, teeth, plates, &c., of the several species found
at Naim^ Scatcrag, &c. : these also are in detached fragments. Some very
fine teeth of fishes of large size have been discovered at this locality, but are
extremely rare.

About seven miles north of Elgin is the Masonhaugh-quabrt, a place
famous for the footprints of animSs supposed to be reptiliwu Numbers of
slabs are to be found with such impressions, some of them small, about two
inches in length, vrith about an eight or nine inches stride between them ; others,
again, are of gigantic size, some impressions being fifteen inches in lend;h, and
ten in breadth, and exhibiting a stride of fuUy five feet. This is the omy place
in Scotland where these footprints are found.

Lossiemouth is about six miles north of Elgin ; the quarries there present
a light greyish white and yellowish stone, precisely the same in texture and
colour as the rock at Dura "Den, but containing only, as far as has yet been dis-
covered, bones and scutes of Stagonolepis and Hyperodapedan. As some

NOTfiS AND QUBBISS. 145

of oar eminent geolog^ts have of late been disposed to reg^ard this rock at
Lossiemouth as not bein^ Dart of the Old Bed Sandstone series, but as being
of the Triassic period, i siiould much like to know whether the Dura Den
sandstone is to be considered of the like age, instead of what it was lately sup-
posed to be, the upper old red ^ and if it would be probable, or possible, to find
the several species of the black beautifully preserved fishes, or any of them, in
either the upper or lower part of the strata^ containiag the bones and scutes, at
Lossiemouth, or vice versa at Dura Den, the white bones with the black fishes F
This has somewhat puszled me : the sandstones appear to me to be precisely
the same, but the fossils at present known are tot^uty different. Li the Elgin
Museum are some fine slabs, containing bones of Stagonolepit and Hyperoda-
pedoa, from Lossiemouth.

Tynet Btjkn fish-bed is about three miles east of Fochabers, which latter is
a few miles eastward of Elgin, on the east bank of the river Spey. The fish-
bed lies about thirty feet above the burn. The fishes found there are for the
most part in an excellent state of preservation, and are of several species.
They are found in flatter nodules than at the other localities, and are of a light

greenish grey colour. These nodules are imbedded in a greyish clayey marl,
om whidi they may be taken out in great numbers. They vaij in size from
half an inch to a foot in diameter ; one half of them not containing more than
a mere scale or two, especially the large ones. Some, however, contain very
fine and perfect specimens ; and in the very small nodules are found that extremely
minute nsh — ^the smallest of the Old Red fishes — the Acanthodes pu8illus\ but
I have sometimes opened above twenty without finding any trace of a fish.
However, in some oi the smallest, not larger than a shilling, I have found a
beautiful little fish, less than hsJf an inch long, with its characteristic spmes
beautifully preserved. The average length of this species is about one inch
and a half. On opening the nodule the fishes appear in beautiful contrast with
the matrix, being white, red, and blue in colour, similar to those of Lethenbar.

One (rf the rarest fish here is the Pterichthys, at least I found it so, for I
obtained only one or two fragments. The same also with the Coccostetts : this
fish-bed is now nearly worked out. His Grace the Duke of Richmond having
lately had a party of labourers engaged in laying Open a large section of it,
and very few specimens are now to be obtained. There is a bed lower down
the stream, known as the " Coccosteus-bed ;" but few specimens have been
obtained from it there.

The nodules at Tynet have frequently bands of crystallized calcspar running
across in several directions, sometimes only in one, ri^ht across the nodule,
causing it often to break in many places (see lign. 1). Many of these nodules

lign. 1.— Kodnle from Tynet, with seamB of caLcspar.

are found in the bed broken in two or three places, lying from half an inch to
six inches from it counterparts (see lign. 2). This is another reason for open-
ing the nodules on the spot as they are dug out, otherwise, perhaps, you will

VOL. III. T

146 THE GEOLOGIST.

leaye the best half in the bed, as the halves of the nodules are generally rounded
at the edges, and would easily pass as perfect nodides.

lign. 2,~Di^)ointed nodules, with the pieces lying apart in the roek.

Orossingthe river at Fochabers, and bearing a little to the left, we oome to
DipPLE. The fishes from thence are now found in nodules scattered over the
fields of the neighbourhood, the orimnal bed discovered by Dr. Malcolm-
son, about twenty-three years ago, oeing covered up with soil, and seem-
ingly quite exhausted of its fossiliferous nodules. These nodules have a
botryoidal form, and are of a deep red colour ; the fossils are entirely in frag-
ments, and very few. The rocks on the Dipple side of the Spey, seen from
Fochabers, near the bridge, are of a deep red colour, very hard, compact, and
granular in texture, and much used in the neighbourhood for building-purposes.

Gambie is about ei^ht miles from Banff, and forty from Elgin, ana is a ricli
locality in many species of fishes; some of them, especially the Tterichthfn
oblongus, are there in a very good state of preservation. The CAeirolepis
vraguB is rather rare, and many of the nodules contain what seem to be
coprolites.

These nodules are extremely hard and difficult to open, and have the fibrous
crystalline structure at the edges more distinct than those at other places.
They are of a brownish colour, the fishes as generally preserved being of a
darker brown. These nodules are embedded m the same kind of laminated
clayey marl, as in the other localities ; the bed containing them is situated
about a quarter of a mile from the sea-coast.

In many of the nodules the centre, instead of containing a fish, is filled with
small rhomboidal crystals of calcspar, abo with a dark brown bituminous matter
in a thin oily form.

BuBA Den is much more to the south than all the last-mentioned localities,
being about two miles from Cupar, in Fifeshire, and is celebrated for its finely-

S reserved fishes, which are all different from those in the other fossiliferous
eposits of the Old Red. Two new species have very lately been discovered
there, the Phaneropleuron Andersonii and Glyptoltjemua Kinnairdii.

Some of the slabs obtained from this locality contain a dozen or even twenty
fishes, but these are almost entirely of one kind — Uoloptychim Andenoniij a
species which well exhibits the peculiar characters of the genus. One of the
most interesting fish discovered nere is the Pamphrades Andersonii a fish much
resembling the Pterichthys. This sandstone is of a yellowish or greyish white
colour, similar to the rock at Lossiemouth.

Clashbinnie is nearly opposite to Newburgh, on the north side of the Tay,
and is the locality where that magnificent specimen of the Holoptychius nobi-
lissimus, in the British Museum, was found. Scales of PAyllolepis concentricuB
and Holoptychitis Murchisoni are also found here. The matrix is of a deep red,
while the fossils are of a whitish colour.

The deposits of the Lower Old Red in the Orkneys and at Caithness are

NOTES AND QUEBIES. 147

extraordinarly abundant in fish-remains of upwards of thirty species. The
fossil fishes are of a black colour, and some in a very high state of preservation,
but usually they are extremely fragmentanr. The fossils are not found in
nodules there, but are seen on the flags, or slabs, as they are removed from the
quarries. The stone is almost black, or sometimes brownish, and contains a
large amount of bituminous matter. In some places it is Quarried for the
manufacture of the paraffine-oil, which is obtained by simple distillation from
the sandstone slabs. This great amount of bitumen seems to be owing to the
vast quantity of organic matter contained in this sandstone. Many of toe slabs
have an oily appearance and a strong bituminous odour.

In the nei^uDourhood of Thubso are several quarries, where many fishes
may be foun^ as also near Staomness, in Pomona. In some of the sandstone
slaos are found small nodules ; these are formed by a nucleus of iron-pyrites.

In the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, at Bathgate, large quautities of
paraffine-oU is manufactured from the refuse bituminous minerab and rubbish
from the coal-pits of the neighbourhood. — James B.. Gjblegory.

List op Fossil Fishes found in the Old Red Sandstone op Scotland.

Aeanthodes pusillus — Tynet, Dipple.
Aciinolepis tubereulatus — Scatcri^, Findhom.
Asterol^is minor — Scatcrag.

Malnolmsoni — ^near Nairn, Scatcrag.

Asmusii — ^Thurso.

Bothriolepis ornatus — Findhom, near Nairn, Scatcrag.

favosus — Clashbinnie, Scatcrag.

Cepkalaspis I^elli — Glamis, Carmylie.
Cheiracanthus grandispinus — Orknev.

then.

microlepidotus — Lethen, Tynet, Cromarty.

- minor — ^Tynet, Moray, Orkney.

- Murchisoni — Gamrie.
■pulverulentus — Orkney.

Cheirolepis Cummingii — ^Lethen, Moray, Cromarty, Tynet,

r— Ii( "

curtus — -Lethen.
fnacrocephalus — Orkney.
Traillii — Orkney.
uragu9 — Glamrie.
velox — Orkney.

Clinatius reticulatus — Balruddery.

Coceosteus ctispidatus — Gamrie, Cromarty, Orkney, Eathie.

decipiens — ^Lethen, Tynet, Cromarty, Thurso,

decipiens— Lethen, Tynet, Cromarty, Thurso, Orkney, Dipple,
Eathie.

maximus — Lethen, Tynet.

mtcrospondylus — Orkney.

oblofigus — ^Lethen, Tynet.

pusillm — Orkney.

trigonopsis — Orkney.

Conckodus ostreo^omm — Scatcrag.
Coimacanthus Malcolmsoni — Scatcrag.
Cricodus incurvus — ^near Nairn, Scatcrag.
Dendrotm la(u8 — Findhom, Scatcrag, Moray.

strigatus — Findhorn, Scatcrag.

sigmoidetis — Scatcrag.

Diplacanthus crassipinus — Moray, Orkney.
gibbus — Orkney.

150 THE QEOLOOIST.

After allading to the single appearance of the Penta MuUeHi, confined to one
group consisting of two beds or zones, and to the frequent appearances of the
Gr^phoea that nrst occur with the Pertuiy and range upwaixls through more
than four hundred feet of strata, Mr. Norman alludes to the two groups of
Crioceras-zones, and to special ranges of other species, some of limited occui^
rence, some appearing at wide intervals, and some few of rather frequ^t
occurrence throughout many strata. All these particulars maybe found in
Dr. ritton's table before alluded to.

Mr. Norman also alludes to the re-occurrence of the wealden Lonehopteris
Mantellii in the lower greensand, found by Dr. Pitton in seven bands. At
Whale Chine in particular (at a distance of about five hundred feet from the
Atherfield beds) nodules of ferruginous sandstone, containing Panopcea, Car-
dium, Natica, Ammonites, &c., abound with the remains of this fern, associated
with twigs and branches of trees, all carbonized. Sometimes the fragments
and fronds are upwards of two inches long. The nodules are also scattered
along the shore as far as Walpen Chine, and a little beyond. Eragments of
coniferous wood, and remains of large cycadaceous leaves occur also in these
nodules. Mr. Wheeler, of Blackgang has found some good specimens ; but
the best that Mr. Norman has seen were collected by M. Saemann, of Paris, in
a block of red sand-rock, eastward of Blackgang Clixne. The iguanodon has
also been discovered, says Mr. Norman, somewhere in the same locality; but
not having been present when its discovery took place, I cannot state the
exact spot. From the character, however, of the matrix adhering to the bones,
I am confident as to their having been found in the upper portion of the lower
greensand. The teeth and portions of its skull, togetner with what remained
of its skeleton, were forwarded to the British Museum. Some other £ne
specimens of iguanodon-bones, from the same cliff, have been preserved at
Newport, and others at Ryde.

Mr. Norman further remarks that the occurrence of fossil wood, unperforated
by teredo in the lower part of the lower greensand, together with fern-fronds,
cycadaceous leaves, ana the almost complete skeletons of iguanodons, has led
him to think that these deposits were mainly derived from river-sediments not
far from an old coast-liue ; whilst the worm-bored drifted wood found higher
up in the series would seem to point to a more open sea for the place of the
formation of the beds.

Mr. Norman also reminds us of the re-occurrraice of the wealden Gatkaria
lA^ellii in the upper greensand, and of the. condition under which Peden quinr
auecostatm occurs four times in the Pema-beds and the " Cracfeers ;" reappears
nigher up, in a diminutive state (associated with some species of Natica, Ros-
teUaria, Trigonia, &c., that occurred in the " Crackers") in a hard grey gritty
sandstone between Cliffend and Walpen Chine; again occurs in the upper
greensand (at about twenty feet above the gault), in a rather diminutive form,
but much improved in appearance since last met with, more than three hundred
feet below. For the next fifty feet or so it occurs at intervals in the different
beds, and it gradually increases in size until it reaches the cliloritic marl, where
(as well as in the beds of coarse chalcedony and sandstone immediately
below) it attains its maximum size of about two to three inches lon^,
and nearly as much in width. Here its extreme growth is attained, ha
the next "bed, the " fossiliferous marl," it is agaiir diminished, being no
more than about half an inch long. It ,is still smaller in the lowe^ chalk
(grey chalk or chalk marl) ; and as the middle chalk of the locahty con-
tains no fossils, it is not met with until we come to the lowermost beds
of the upper white chalk, where it is associated with Spondiflus spinomSi
and is in a much more improved condition than when last seen, in the lower
chalk.

NOTES AND QITfiRIfiS. 151

JOSSIL ReKATKS PEOM TbRTIABY StBATA at PeCKHAII and DnLWICH.

— SiRj — ^Haying paid some considerable amotmt of attcEtiou to the works in
prog^ss for the Great High Level Sewer, on the south side of the Thames,
allow me to offer a few remarks on the fauna and flora discoverable in the series
of deposits passed through both in the open catting at Peckham and the tunnel
at Dulwich. No one can doubt their analogy to the Woolwich and Reading
series.

Eirst, then, at Peckham I have collected Paludina, and associated with them
what has the appearance of their opercula. The Pedudina-band is eight inches
in thickness, quite indurated, and about forty -five to fifty feet from the surface.
On splitting open these blocks, fine casts of Unionida, with fish-scales and
suines, are e&posed, amidst a perfect pavement of Paludina lenta. Here and
there a remarKable shell occurs, which seems referable to the marine genus
VoliUa ; but as true marine beds are in immediate contact both above and
below, it may be a derivative fossil. This hypothesis, however, is not borne
oat by their occurrence in the marine strata, or rather what may be considered
estoarine deposits. In these are great numbers of two varieties of oysters,
Ostrea tenera and Osirea edulina, MytiluSy Cyrena cunei/ormiSi Cerithiumy Mela-
nia inquinatay Turritella imbricaiariay and a very beautiful Area, at present un-
described. I must not omit to mention that the oysters have frequently
CtUyptrea trocheformis adhering to them. In your number for February Mr.
Evans mentions having discovered the elytron or wing-case of a species
of D^tisem, With the most careful scrutmv I have not found any insect-
remams as yet ; but I met with a portion of fish-scale, which at first sight
appears so much like a wing-case, that I was at the moment prepared to
indorse Mr. Evans' statement. Traces of lignite close up the Peckham
catakmie.

In the Five Fields, Dulwich, a tunnel-shaft introduces us at fifty feet to the
plastic day, charged with the remains of the Lower Eocene flora. I must refer
the geological reader to the admirable paper by Mr. Prestwich, published
in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. x., 1854, iUus-
trative of his researches in analogous deposits at Heading, and Mr. De la
Oondamine's, at Counter Hill. The plate which accompanies it figures speci-
mens identical with those collected by myself at Dulwich with one exception.
My specimens yield one form not figured by Mr. Prestwich ; it looks as if re-
lated to Ckmifera.

The genem reader may be interested to know that leaves of oak, maple,
poplar, and vdllow are abundant, associated with estuarine shells — Gyrena
deperdita and C. cunei/ormis ; and a new species occur, which I propose to call
Cyrena Bulwichienais. In some cases it was possible to take hold of the stem,
and lift a portion of the leaf from the clav. How interesting is the thought
that in this age we should be able to handle the autumnal leaves, maybe, of
forests that flourished during the unreckoned eons of the Lower Tertiary epoch.
These leafy remains sometimes form, as it were, a thin blackish carpet over
several square feet of clay-surface.

I believe this is the first time that remains of a fiora on an extensive scale
have been discovered within the metropolitan area of the London basin.
Apologsing for trespassing so much upon your space, I am, vour obedient ser-
vant, GhabijES Ejckman, Hon. Curator Lambeth Museum of Natural History.

P.S. Since writing the above I have seen a mammalian bone, highly charged
with iron pyrites, found in a greenish sand, below the leafj^ deposit ; and have
myself discovered a ventral scute of the crocodile, associated with drtfted
wood, bored by teredines.

Lettee fbom Mb. Salter on Majoe Austin's Papee on the Silueian
Rocks op Ireland, and on Me. Lee's Discoveey of the Pteeaspis in

154 THE GEOLOGIST.

what Mr. Selwyn has advanced ; but the last ground I worked in on that lead
being the outermost, or nearest the side of the lead, I again sunk through the
black drift, here twenty-five' feet thick, containing bkuckened wood and the
cones of the " honeysuckle" (Baniana), and " bottomed" in a stratum of stiff
bluish-grey clay, with very large boulders, which stratum was four feet thicL
I expect the Sprint Gully black drift and the drift of the black lead are of the
same age, as the ^ring Gully course has been traced to within a short dis-
tance of the bkck lead, which I conceive to have been the main watercourse of
that period ; indeed, the number of smaller tributary leads of dark colour join-
ing it, in the same way that small streams now fall mto larger ones, would inr
dicate that such was the case. Here also the course of dark dnft may be
easily traced by the black heaps at the surface in striking contrast to the hetfa
on each side. In following down the black lead we reach Slaughteryard Hill,
where the evidence at first may not appear so conclusive, but where, if the
facts aje carefully weighed, they will I tmnk, be found to supi)ort the former.

Standing on the level of the present Cresswick Creek, looking north north-
west, Slaughteryard Hill presents a steep escarpment of basalt, which has pro-
bably come from the north, as northward the basaltic plateau extends somd
miles. Southward it does not exceed two hundred yards, thinning out very
rapidly. Within one hundred and fifty yards are three leads — the eastern,
called the black ; the middle, known as the white ; and the western lead the
red streak — as far as had been determined at the time I left (1857) mmiiiig
parcel ; all three running from south to north ; all three overflowed by the
oasalt ; and sJl three above one hundred feet deep ; the deepest being the
western, i. e., the red streak.

Supposing, for the sake of argument, that the black, which is also the
shallowest, is the oldest, we have a period no doubt, judging from the thick-
ness of the deposit (twenty-five feet), extending over a consioerable time, cha-
racterized, it would appear from the vegetable r^nains, by extensive and lane-
continued conflagrations, succeeded by others, in which the utter absence of ail
igneous appearances prevails, succeeded in turn by an i^eous outburst, cover-
ing many sauare miles, with a basaltic overflow. On tne other hand, take as
the oldest the red streak — the deepest first, the white follows under certam
modifications ; then, when we reach the period of the black drift, and igneous
forces come into operation, it does not call for a great stretch of imagination to
suppose that the period was consummated by a grand outburst and overflow of
basalt. 1 am aware that in " Siluria," p. 492, Sir R. Murchison and others
account for the charred appearance of the vegetable matter, by showing that
such matter is cbured ana destroyed in Htu liy the basalt ; however true that
may be in other cases, 1 venture to think that had those eminent geologists
seen the vegetable matter in Spring Gully, where there is no baaalt, or other
igneous rod, or the evidence that there ever had been such, they^ would have
seen the inapplicability of the reasoning in this instanjoe. The black lead also is
black a OTcat way above, that is, much further south than the basalt. I)
writing the above I do not impugn the accuracy of the observations made by
Mr. I^lwyn and others, I simply desire to record what I myself observed in
the localities 1 speak of. 1 never worked elsewhere, and tlierefore these de-
tails are purely local ; still, if true, the stratum contaiiung the vegetable matter
is not the oldest. — 1 am, sir, yours truly, W. J. Morgan, Carmarthen.

RBTIBW8. 155

REVIEWS.

Creaium Redemptive ; a Coniribution to Theologieal Seiettee, Bj Rev. S. Lucas,

f .G.8. Hdston : K Guimack. 1858.

Although we rarely, and then but briefly, make any remarks on theological
topics in connection with geology, we by no means regard in an unfavourable
aspect the numerous treatises and works published with the view to bring into
comparison or reconciliation the passages of Holy Writ with the doctrines or
teacningjs of purely physical science. Such attempts are generally in themselves
venr praiseworthy, both for the incentive that causes them to be produced as well
as for the spirit m which most of them are penned. In the unpretentious work,
whose title heads tbese remarks, the order and incidents of Creation '.are re-
prded as exhibiting a spexsial design in special relation towards the appearance
of the Saviour and the redemption of man.

Pre-ad{lmte Man ; or the Story of our Old Planet and its Inhabitants told by
Scripture and Science, Lonaon : Saunders, Otley, and Co., Conduit-street.
1860.

As we have already said, we are by no means averse to books of a theologico-
Keological tendency. We know, alas, how much bad theology, and how much
bad geolo^ there is in them ; but we know, also, and appreciate the motives
of the writers, and as such books are usually upon topics m which the mass of
mankind take an interest they are likely to be, and indeed are, much read.
For our part, be they right or wrong, we like them to be read ; for out of the
numbers of this class wmeh have been written, there are many, very many, of

d quality, whilst of the inferior productions, surely there are but few in-
- which do not contain some appreciable amount of geological knowledge;
some germs of truth which by these means dispersed, may providentially some-
where take root in favourable soil. Hardly have geologists a^eed as to the
possible existence of men amongst the mammoths, tnan tne subject is regarded
in its theological bearing, and a volume, by no means unpretentious, is placed
on our table. The author of " Pre-adamite Man" writes incog, ; and although
personally we do not go the length of his views in respect to a double creation
of man — the extinction of a pre-adamite race, and the adding an eighth day to
the seven commonly accepted days of creation, we are not by any means dis-
posed to speak unfavourably of his book.

Undoubtedly he falls inito some errors in respect to certain former geolo^cal
phases and changes in the physicsd condition ol our planet ; but many of tnese
are popuhir errors which have been too long favoured even by geologists them-
selves. Amongst such is one especially requiring contradiction, or at any rate
considerable modification and restriction, namely, that granite always forms the
basis of the stratified crust of the earth ; that it is an inieous rock ; that it
was originally the first-formed crust, or pellicle of a globe of molten matter.
We have abreiady more than once in this magazine, as well as elsewhere, drawn
' attention to these fallacies. Krst, then, granite is at most only an eruptive,
not an erupted, rock in the sense only th^t it has sometimes burst, or been
forced through the consolidated stratified rocks reposing upon it. In all cases
granite has been formed under the dense pressure of a superincumbent mass,
and never at the open atmosphere of air or of earth-enveloping vapours, as

156 THS QSOLOOIST.

would have been the case bad it constituted the first disruj^ted pellicle of a
molten ^lobe. In the next place, we do not know that granite always is the
foundation-rock of CTery area. We do not know, moreover, in mauy, nay
most, cases, that it is che lowest rock, for human labour has never penetrated
through it, scarcely, indeed, even into it. Thirdly, there is no evidence to
prove it is an igneous, i. e., a fire-formed, or molten product. On the contrary,
the existence in it of numerous cavities half empty, half filled with water shows
that at most hot water or steam has been the active a^ent of the heat present
in its formation. Indeed, to us it appears that gramte presents none of the
conchtions which it should do of a fire-formed, or once fused rock. Its crys-
talline condition, considering the substances of which it is composed, seems
decidedljr against that theory, for taking one of its constituents, quartz, for ex-
ample, will anyone point out a single mstance of heat-melted silex that is not
vitreous, or glassy after fusion ; or a single instance, on the other hand, of a crys-
talline condition resulting from the action upon that substance of drv heat.
Take the felspar, and if you are anything at all of a chemist, will you tell us if
the soda, or the potash which it contains is now in the state in wmch it should
be if your gramte had ever been fused. All that it is allowable to state of
granite is that it is a condition of rock which has been produced at every geo-
K)gical period in the deep-seated regions of the earth immediately below its
stratified crust. The truth is, we do not know what is the fundamental rock
of the stratified crust of the globe, unless the old ^eiss be regarded as such,
and with it some of the oldest granites, not all granites indiscriminately.

We should also be inclined to take objection to some of our author's opinions
in respect to the physical conditions of the planets, although in others we
should be disposed to concur. Eor example, we should re^d the moon as
presenting to us a worn-out consolidated globe, not a world m a first or eYea
early stage of condition. If our own globe is presumed to have consohdated
from a vaporous state, it must first have passed through a liquid condition ;
and then the consolidation carried still further, earths and the solid materials
would be produced. In the process of time the balance of fluid and gas re-
maining as sea and atmosphere would be condensed also, and a solid worn-out
globe like the moon would appear to be the inevitable result.

The new doctrine attempted to be inculcated by our author's book may be
briefly given and best by a few short extracts from the early part (p. 24 et sea.).

After describing a period of desolation to which he beheves the world, aner
the destruction of the first human or pre-adamic race, was reduced, and for the
warrantry for which state of things he pleads the biblical passage, ''and no
plant of the field was yet in the earth, and no herb of the field had yet grown,
tor the Lord God had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was not
a man to till the ground." Our author continues,

" The new order of thinj^ is thus ushered in by a statement of the effects of
some great overturn or ruin which had extinguished the existence of the vege-
table and animal world, and had snatched from the earth the race of the sixth
day men." ♦ * * j'or " though on the sixth day God created man, male
and female, and blessed them, sayinp^, ' Be fruitful, and multiply and repdenish
the earth, and subdue it,' however fully that blessing may once have been re-
alized, now at least no remains of that race were anywhere to be found, 'for
there was not a man to tiU the ground.' And if ail ve^tation was thns
obliterated, and man extinguished, we conclude that the tnbes of the lower
animals must also have perished ; and that the earth, of whose creation and
furnishing we have read in the first chapter of Genesis, was at the period re-
ferred to m the opening of this succeedmg passage a desolate waste, wherein
neither plant nor animal gave token of the creative wisdom and power of God.
The dumb rocks alone retained the traces of a brighter era, but the remains

BEYIEWS. 157

they endosed pointed to a state of life and motion long passed awav, and the
baldness of absolute sterility and the silence of the grave brooded over aH.
» « « What a change is here ! The earth erst so green and brilliant is
now a wilderness, and man himself, the glory of creation, has been withdrawn
from the abodes he occupied on this once blooming world !

" The ruin is complete indeed, but we must believe it to be only temporary :
the world awaits a new development of its Maker's power, and the preluninary
movements towards a state of things more excellent than ever are next
announced (chap, ii., v. 6, 7), ' There went up a mist from the earth, and watered
the whole face of the ground, and the Lord God formed man of the dust of the
gromid, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of Hfe, and man became a
uving soul/ There is an entire difference here between the pre-adamite and
Adam ; the former we have seen starting into bein^ out of nothing, by a word,
complete at once in a twofold nature, and invested with power and dominion
over all the earth, and all the creatures that inhabit it : blessed by God, with
the privilege of spreading abroad his race, and subduing the earth in all its
redons to nis rule. This second man is in all respects a contrast to the first —
in ms origin, for he is not created out of nothing, but formed out of the dust
of the ground, from which he learns a lesson of humility and dependence.

* * * No plants or herbs, no leafy shades, no pleasant fruits at the moment
of his birth invited his admiration, or offered him sustenance. And lastly, this
contrast is manifested in his state, for he is not yet a king like the pre-ac^imite.

* * * It was not until some time after he had been launched into existence
and made to feel his wants — ^made, perhaps, to cry to God for^their supply —
that God gave him the happy home he needed * * in that garden eastward
in Eden * * not provided bj nature, but planted by God himself, having
been retrieved by special providence from the ruin that stiU pervaded the
world. ♦ * * In this favoured spot, as he looked he beneld the in-
stantaneous production, or gradual but wondrous development of * every tree
that was pleasant to the eye and good for food, the tree of life also m the
midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil.' * * ♦
His lot was to remain where God had placed him ; to partake of the bounties
provided for him ; to keep and dress the garden in which he had found so
pleasant a home ; and to praise and glorify the God who made him. ♦ ♦ *
His predecessor had all the world for his possession ; Adam neither enjoyed
nor coveted the same wide empire. * ♦ * His food was bestowed by
special grant. * * * He was not permitted to be idle, for the duty was
imposed on him of keeping and dressing his little territory (v. 15). Nay,
more, even this restrained freedom was still further limited, for even from
among the trees within his reach was one special reservation made. * * *
May we surmise that the earliest type of man had abused his freedom, and
that the Creator saw good to withhold from his successor the risk of a proud
inflation and a self dependence which had proved too much for him."

To this foUows the creation of Eve. " The six days' creation had brought
into the world a vast, but already extinct, array of animals ; * * but in this
new creation most of these types were * repeated in the new formed species,
generally of smaller and finer mould." The present animal creation, then, the
author regards as distinct from the previous one. And of Eve he continues ;
" The female of the sixth day had been made by the same divine process as the
male. They were both * created ;' * * but here in a very special manner the
woman drew her being £rom what had already been formed. She was not
modelled from the dust like Adam, but derived both her body and her life from
him. ' And the rib, which the Lord God had taken from the man made he
woman, and brought her unto the man.' * * * Her introduction to the

158 THE QEOIiOOIST.

world vas not like Aidam's, amid the ruffged rains of an ancient empire. * *
She had not seen Eden planted or peopled hy the Creator for her ; but when
Eve opened her eyes to the light of day, it vas among the bowers of Paradise.
* J^ * And while it was the first grand lesson of God to Adam that he
should rely on Himself directly and solely, to Eve he pointed out an earthly
head, under Himself, * * in whom she might repose ner confidence, * ♦
and apply in her necessities ; at once her guardian, her teacher, her proyider,
and her nusband."

As a discussive, although extremely speculatiye, book on a now popokor
and interesting subject, ''rre- Adamite Man" is worthy of perusal, although
we do not apprehend it will make many converts to the novel doctrines it
inculcates.

Archaia; or Studies of the Cosmogony and Natural History of the Hebrew
Scripture4. By J. W. Dawson, L.L.I)., F.G.S.

Of all the books of geologico-theological aspects which have appeared this
season, or indeed for many seasons past, ''Archaia," by Dr. Dawson, is the
best. In it he has given us the result of not only a series of exegetical studies
of the first chapter of Genesis, but also lucid observations on the numerous
incidental references to nature and creation in other narts of the bible ; the
entire work being a really useful digest of the cosmical aoctrines of the Hebrew
scriptures.

In the introductory remarks very beautiful allusion is made to that remark-
able serf-population that more than thirty centuries ago emancipated itself
from Eg;n)tian bondage, and after years of wandering desert-life, settled itself
on the lulls and in the valleys of Palestme, and whose migration is the most
remarkable in the annals of the world's history, not merely in its political, but
in its moral results. Those slaves thus liberated were no mean herd, but were
aspirated by a noble spirit and high hopes, and guided by a man of remarkable
perception and intellect, the great Hebrew law-giver, who has woven into his
grand historical and political composition a wonderful cosmogony, in which
the act of creation is simply but most grandly assigned to the One Deity — the
Creator and Preserver, and Lord of Hosts. It is this oonmiittal of itself to
certain cosmical doctrines and statements that has given rise to the collisioDS
into which science and scripture have been brought.

The difficulties and intricacies of the case have been boldly and firmly, at the
same time' honestly and honourably, looked into by Dr. Dawson ; and althoug:h
we are far from agreeing with him on all points, we advise the perusal of ms
remarks by all who are really interested in the identification of the sublime
views of tne bibUcal account of creation with the also sublime deductions of
science.

That our readers may see the value of the work, we give them the seouence
of the topics discussed. Beginning with the objects, ciiaracter, and autnority
of the Hebrew cosmogony, we are passed on to the general views of nature
contained in the Holy Scriptures, then to those remarkable incidents— -the
beginning, the desolate voi^ light, the days of creation, the atmosphere, the
dry land, the first vegetation, the heavenly luminaries, the lower and the higher
animals, man, and the resting of the Creator. Then follows a disquisition on
the unity and antiquity of man ; and the work is terminated by a chapter of
comparisons and conclusions, boldly drawn and as boldly spoken in an honest
but fearless spirit.

These conclusions of Dr. Dawson are thus summed up : "In the natural as
well as in the moral world the only law of progress is the will and the power of

RBvnsws. 159

God. In one seoae, bowever, progress in the organic world has been dependent
on, thouffh not caused by, progress in the inorganic. We see in geology nuuij
grounds for beLieving that each new tribe of animals or plants was introduced
jiist as the earth became fitted for it ; and even in the present world we see
that resions composed of the more ancient rocks, and not modified by subse-
quent mstnrbances, present few of the means of support for men and the higher
animals ; while those districts in which various revolutions of the earth have
accumulated fertile soils or deposited useful minerals are the chief seats of
dvilization and population. In like manner we know that those regions which
the bible informs us were the cradle of the human race, and the seats of the
oldest nations, are geologically among the most recent parts of the existing
continents, and were no doubt selected by the Creator partly on that account
for the birthplace of man. We thus find that the bible and the geologists are
agreed not only as to the fact and order of progress, but also as to its manner
and use.

"Both records agree in affirming that since the beginning there has been
but one great system of nature. We can imagine it to have been otherwise.
Our existing nature might have been preceded by a state of thmgs having no
connection with it. The arrangement of the earth's surface mi^ht have been
altogether different. Eaces of creatures might have existed havmg no affinity
with or resemblance to those of the present world ; and we might have been
able to trace no present beneficial consequences as flowing from these past
states of our planet. Had geology made such revelations as these, the con*
sequences in ration to natural theology and the credibility of scripture would
hare been momentous. * * * The questions would naturally have arisen.
Are there more creative powers than one P If one, is he an imperfect or capri-
cious being, "who changes his plans of operation ? ♦ * ♦ Happily for us,
there is nothing of this kind in the geological history of the earth, as there is
manifestly notmng of it in that which is revealed in scripture. In the scripture
narrative each act of creation prepares for another, and in its consec[uences ex-
tends to them all. The inspured writer announces the introduction of each
new part of creation, and there leaves it without any reference to the various
phases which it assumed as the work advanced. In the general view which he
takes, the land and sea first made represent those of all the following periods.
So do the first plants, the first invertebrate animals, the first fishes, reptiles,
birds, and mammals. He thus assures us that, however long the periods re-
presented by days of creation, the system of nature was one from the beginning.
In like manner, in the geological record, each of the successive coiiditions of
the earth is related to those wnich precede and to those which follow, as part of
a series. So also a uniform plan of construction pervades organic nature, and
uniform laws the inorganic world in all periods.

" We can thus include in one system of natural history all animals and plants,
fossil as well as recent ; and can resolve all inorganic changes into the operation
of existing laws. The former of these facts is m its nature so remarkable, as
almost to warrant the belief of special design. ♦ * ♦ The periods into
which geology divides the history of the earth are different from those of scrip-
ture; yet, when properly understood, there is a marked correspondence.
Geology refers only to the fifth and sixth days of creation, or at most to these
with parts of the fourth and seventh ; and the only natural division that scrip-
ture teaches us to look for are those between the fifth and sixth days, and
those which within these days mark the introduction of new animal forms, as
for instance the great reptiles of the fifth d^. We have already seen that the
beginning of the fifth day can be referred aunost with certainty to that of the
Paleozoic period. The beginning of the sixth day may with nearly equal cer-
tainty be referred to that of the Tertiary era. The introduction of great

160 THB GEOLOGIST.

reptiles and birds in the fiffch daj, synchronizes and corresponds with the be-
gmninff of the Mesozoic period ; and that of man at the close of the sixth day,
with the commencement of the modem era in geology. These. four great coin-
cidents are so much more than we could have expected in records so veiy
different in their nature and origin that we need not pause to search for others
of a more obscure character. * * * In both records the ocean gives birth
to the first dry land, and it is the sea that is first inhabited, yet both lead at
least to the suspicion that a state of igneous fluidity preceded the primitive
universal ocean. In scripture the original prevalence of the ocean is oistinctly
stated, and ail geologists are agreed tnat in the early fossiliferous periods the
sea must have prevuled much more extensively than at present. Scripture
also expressly states that the waters were the birth-place of the earliest
animals ; and geology has as yet discovered in the whole Silurian series no
terrestrial animal, though marine creatures are extremely abundant; and
though air-breathing creatures are found in the later Paleozoic, they are, with
the exception of insects, of that semi-amphibious character which is proper to
alluvial flats and the deltas of rivers. * * * Both records concur in
maintaining what is usually termed the doctrine of existing causes in geology.
Scripture and geology alike show that since the beginning to the fifth di^, or
Paleozoic period, the inorganic world has continued under the dominion of the
same causes that now regulate its chants and processes. The sacred narrative
gives no hint of any creative interposition in this department, after the fourth
uay ; and geology assures us that all the rocks with which it is acquainted
have been produced by the same causes that are now throwing down detritus
in the bottom of the waters, or bringing up volcanic products ftom the interior
of the earth. * * * Lastly, Iwth records represent man as the kstof
God's works, and the culminating point of the whole creation. * * * Man
is the capital of the column, and ii marred and defaced by moral evil, the sym-
metry of the whole is to be restored not by rejecting him altogether, like the
extinct species of ancient times, and replacing him by another, but by recastii^
him in the image of his Divine Biedeemer. Man, though recently mtroduceil,
is to exist eternally. He is in one or another state of being to be the witness
of all future changes of the earth. He has the option before him of beins one
with his Maker, and sharing in a future glorious and finally renovated condition
of our planet, or of sinking into endless degradation."

First Traces of Life on the Earth. By S. J. Mackib, P.G.S. London:

Groombridge and Sons. 1860.

This little book, designed to display as a simple but highly instructive geo-
logical lesson the first appearance of animated beings on our planet, as indicated
by the oldest fossils yet discovered, is now issued.

Emanating as it does from the pen and pencil of the editor of this magazine,
it would be obviously out of plaoe to review it here. We therefore content
ourselves with expressing the hope that it may be favourably received by the
public ; and that, m turmng the thoughts of its readers towaros this one event-
ful passage of the past history of our planet, it may become the medium, by
directing their minos to the study of the beneficent designs of the Eternal in
past ages, to the just comprehension of the aim and purpose of the great
creative scheme in which we are all acting our parts.

THE GEOLOGIST.

MAY, 1860.

ON CANADIAN CAVERNS.

By George D. Gibb, M.D., M.A., F.G.S., Member of the Canadian

Institute.

(Gontirmed from ]page 133).

1. — Caverns on the Shores op the Magdalen Islands.

On passing the interesting group of islands in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, known as the Magdalens, the observer is struck with their
beautiftil and picturesque appearance, which is suddenly presented
to his view. The cliffs, which vary in height, present equally
various colours, in which the shades of red predominate ; these, con-
trasted Yrith the yellow of the sand-bars, and the green pastures of
the lull-sides, the darker green of the spruce trees, and the blue of sea
and sky, produce an effect, as Captain Bayfield describes, extremely
beautiftd, and one which distinguishes these islands from anything
else in the Grulf. Such an agreeable picture it has been my own
good fortune to witness and admire. The striking feature in their
formation is the dome-shaped hills rising in the centre of the group,
and attaining a height of from two hundred to five hundred and
eighty feet. They are composed of the Triassic or New Red Sand-
stone formation, which forms their base, being surmounted or topped
by masses of trap rocks. The highest of the Magdalens is Entry
Island, with an elevation of five hundred and eighty feet ; its red
cliffs rise at its north-east point to three hundred and fifty feet, and
are what they have been described, truly magnificent and beautiful.
The soft and friable character of the brick-red cliffs forming the
shores of these islands, with their remarkable capes and headlands,
have in many places yielded to the force of the waves, and have be-
come worn into arches and caverns. This is more strikingly mani-
fest at Bryon Island, which is nearly surrounded by perpendicular or
overhanging cliffs, which are broken into holes and caverns, and fast

VOL. III. X

162 THE GEOLOGIST.

giving way to the action of the waves. From the same canse are to
be seen detached peninsular masses in a tottering state, which now
and then assume grotesque forms. There is something peculiarly
interesting in this singular group of islands, lying so isolated about
the centre of the great Gulf of St. Lawrence ; and curiosity would
be well repaid by a visit from one of the neighbouring ports. (See
outline of Bryon Island, plate v.).

2. — Caverns and Arched Rocks at Perce, Gaspe.

On the eastern coast of Guspe, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, there
is a range of limestone cliffs, which commence on the south-west
side of Mai Bay, at the perforated rock, called Be Perce, and thence
run in a north-north-west direction. Immediately south of these
cliffs, which are six hundred and sixty-six feet in perpendicular
height above the level of the sea, as described by Bayfield, are the
Perce mountains, the highest of which. Mount Perce, is twelve thou-
sand and thirty feet, and is visible forty miles out to sea.

The town of " He Perce," as it was called in Charlevoix's time,
occupies the shores of Perce Bay, running from Point Perce to White
Head. This writer mentions in the second volume of his " Histoire
de la Nouvelle France," p. 71, that Sir William Phipps, in his ex-
pedition against Quebec, landed at Be Perc6, in Sept., 1690, pillaged
the town and robbed the church.

A reef connects the Perce Bock with Point Perce. This remark-
able perforated rocky islet, which gives the name of Perce to this
locahty, is two hundred and ninety-nine feet in height, precipitous
all round, and bold to seaward. This islet and the island of Bona-
venture are considered outliers of the conglomerate rocks which
enter into the formation of the main land at Perce, the former would
seem especially to be a continuation of the range of cliffs on the
south-west side of Mai Bay.* The Split Rock is an almost in-
accessible mass of this strata, and stands up like a mall, in con-
tinuation of the limestone-cHffs of Barry Cape (Point Perce). It is
five hundred yards long, one hundred broad, and is remarkable for
the presence at its western half of two large holes or arches, through
one of which a sloop at ftdl sail can pass at high water. There is a
lateral arch at the north-east side, scarcely perceptible from the
water.

The perforations in this rock have been formed by the action of
the waves of the sea, the same cause which has in the progress of
time effected the disjunction of these outliers from one another and
the main land. From the present position of the islet, which lies

* Both islands are oompoaed of the great mass of conglomerate, belonging to
the lower carboniferons series, which here caps the Devonian rocks, and is made up
of pebbles of all the rooks, from the old Laurentian of the north shore of the Gulf
of St. Lawrence to the Devonian.— Professor Dawson's ** Week in Gtespe."
Canad. Nat. and G«ol. Oct., 1858.

GIBB— ON CANADIAN CAVERNS. 163

almost norfch ajid south, I am disposed to consider its northern aspect
as the oldest, the two arched openings at that side forming what
were once the entrance to deep caverns running into the rock
southwards, which in the course probably of ages has been washed
away by aqueous denudation. This view is strengthened by an ex-
amination of the intervening shores as they exist at present, which
are portrayed in the diagram (plate vi.) . It will be perceived that the
coast line of He Perce runs along to Bonaventure Island, with an
imaginary position of the land at one time between the south-west
part of the latter island and the shore at the Bay of Perce, at the
poiat where the cliffs commence at its southern third. This gives
the southern coast a semicircular course, with a low shelving beach
corresponding to that which now exists at Perc6 Bay on the one side,
and the western coast of Bonaventure on the other; whilst the
northern coast is rocky and precipitous, probably pierced with many
caverns, and gradually diminishing in height to the southward.

3. — Gothic Arched Recesses at Gaspe Bay.

The south-western shore of Gaspe Bay — from Point Peter to
Douglass Town, a distance of twelve miles — consists of a succession
of precipitous headlands, which in some places are two hundred feet
above the sea. Going southward from Seal Cove, a part of the cHffs
is composed of greenish-grey or drab-coloured pebbly sandstone, with
many beds of conglomerate. In these beds dark red shale-balls
exist, which yield to the weather and the beating of the sea, and
leave large holes in the cliffs. The conglomerate beds, which belong
to the Portage and Chemung groups of the Devonian or old red
sandstone formation, are described as harder and more resistant to
these influences and the irregularity in the wear of the rock, of which
the dip is at an angle of sixty degrees, produces recesses and arches,
giving the precipice the appearance of a piece of Gothic architecture.*
From Point Peter the land rises in undulations to the chain of moun-
taios, which lie about five miles in land. They attain to an elevation
of fifteen hundred feet, and sweeping round Mai Bay, terminate with
the Perce mountains, previously mentioned*

4. — The "Old Woman," at Cape Gaspe.

If a line is drawn in a north-north-east direction across Gaspe
Bay from Seal Cove, it will touch a remarkable headland, or finger-
shaped promontory of Gaspe limestone, called Cape Gaspe, which is
the termination of a ma^iificent range of cliffs, six hundred and
ninety-two feet above the sea. Close to the south-east extremity of
the Cape was the " Old Woman," or Flower Pot Rock, sometimes
called "Ship's Head" by the fishermen, and formed in a similar
manner to the Flower Pot Rocks of the Mingan Islands. It was a

* Geol. Survey of Canada. Report of Progress for 1844.

164 THE GEOLOGIST.

truly remarkable object, and described by Captain Bayfield as being
worn so small at its base by the waves, that it appeared astoniBliiiig
that it could resist their force or the pressure of the ice. It sub-
sequently'disappeared, and has fallen into deep water, it base having
become worn away by the action of the sea ; but for a long time it
formed a prominent object to the mariner. Boats could pass between
it and the Cape when there was no surf. The Graspe limestone of
the Cape is the equivalent of the Niagara limestone of the upper
Silurian formation. (See map, plate vi.).

6. — Little River Caverns, Bat of Chaleur.

From Cape D'Bspair to Little River, in the Bay of Chaleur, the
cliffs which form the coasts are composed of beds of conglomerate,
which belong to the lower carboniferous rocks already mentioned,
with a gentle dip to the southward. They have been described by
Sir Wm. Logan as very narrow, and consisting of nothing more than
mere patches of the rim of the formation. These have been saved
from the wearing action of the sea, which has carried off other parts,
by the presence of harder tilted strata at high-water mark. This is
well seen at the present time, for wherever the cliff is wholly formed
of the rough conglomerate, deep horizontal caverns have been formed
beneath by the action of the waves dashing against their base. The
cliff being thus deprived of support, great masses, cracked vertically
off fall in huge fragments, whicl^orm a temporary talus, of which
Sir William believes that it is possible the ice of winter may assist
other causes in effecting a removal.*

6. — ^Arched and Flower Pot Rocks of the Mingan Islands.

The Mingan Islands are twenty-nine in number and uninhabited,
they lie close to the northern shore of the Grulf of St. Lawrence, are
bold and precipitous on their north, east, and west sides, whilst they
are low and shelving towards the south. None of them exceed three
hundred feet in height, and ancient beaches and terraces are met
with in nearly all, far above the reach of the highest tides. The pre-
sent appearances of these islands are such as to indicate that at one
time probably hundreds of caverns existed at the base of the cliffs
and precipices of the Lower Silurian limestone rocks which were ex-
posed to the wearing action of the sea. The violent action of the
waves must have been nearly as great at one time as at present sub-
sists on the shores of the Shetland Islands, where huge caverns are
worn out of the hardest and most ancient rocks, which at the same
time offer a greater resistance than the soft limestones which com-
pose the Lower Silurian formation. The evidences of former sea-
caverns in the Mingans consist of many hundreds of columns of
various shapes and heights resembling flower-pots, and arched and

* GeoL Survey of Canada. Report for 1844.

.<-\

:l;ii PL V

! \/*

BRYON ISLAND,
ONE OF THE MAGDALENS.

THE "old woman."

CAPE GASPE

GIBB — ON CANADIAN CAVERNS. 165

perforated rocks. Although frequently seen by mariners and others,
the only account published of them is in a paper by Captain (now
Rear- Admiral) Bayfield, in the fifth volume of the Transactions of
the Geological Society, second series, wherein a plate is given of a
number of natural columns on the east coast of Niapisca Island.

These curious columns are met with in most of the islands far
above the reach of the highest tides, running along the ancient
raised beaches. A picturesque group is found on the west side of
Large Island, a mile to the northward of its south-west point. Here
hundreds of flower-pot and arched rocks stand up out of the rising
tide to heights varying from ten to fifteen feet on the flat limestone,
with breadths from a few feet to thirty or forty, widening at the top.
Many again are above high water mark; and many straggling
flower-pots are seen high up in the island, and with the succession
of raised terraces strilongly illustrate the relative levels of the sea
and land, when from fifty to sixty feet diflerent to what they are at
present.* A remarkable flower-pot rock is to be seen on the south-
west point of the Outer Birch Island.

According to Admiral Bayfield, most of them vary in height from
fifteen to thirty feet ; some even exceed forty feet above the plateau
of rock on which they stand. They are frequently arranged in lines
upon terraces of limestone, precisely similar to those which are at
present forming out of cliffs that are washed by the waves. This is
especially the case at the eastern end of Niapisca Island, where the
largest and most remarkable group of these rocks is to be seen.

It seems to me that there cannot be any doubt as to the manner in
which these curious natural objects have been formed, namely, firom
the effect of the waves at different levels, as we see the same process
going on at the present day. Great or small holes are broken by
the sea into the limestone cliffs ; these become larger and larger,
spreading in various directions, when the roof of the caverns gives
way, and leaves one or several pillars with a small base to support a
partially arched top. The angular irregularities of the upper part
of the pillar become worn away by the action of the sea and of the
elements, as the land slowly rises, and we have what certainly
resemble flower-pots, towers, and incomplete arches situated high up
above the influence of the tides, and formed as it were of horizontal
layers of limestone piled one above the other.

A section of Large Island was found by Mr. Richardson of the
Canadian Greologicsd Survey, to be composed of limestones of the
Chazy, Bird's-eye, and Black-river formations, exceedingly favourable
to the wear of the sea into arches and perforations. Most of the
other islands are formed in the same strata, the most northerly,
however — ^Harbour Island, consisting of the calciferous sand rock,
which lies immediately above the Potsdam sandstone ; whilst the
Diain land is composed of gneiss belonging to the Laurentian system.

* Geol. Survey of Canada. Report for 1856,

166 THE OEOLOOIST.

7. — PiLLAE Sandstones, Noeth Coast of Gaspe,

There is a small fishing station below St. Anne, on the Korih
West Coast of Graspe in the River St. Lawrence, which is called
Tonrette, from the occmrenoe of two piUars in the rocks of the coast
formed by the action of the sea. The deposits in this vicinity con-
sist of sandstones associated with bands of red and black argiUaceons
slates which belong to the Silleiy group of the Middle Silurian
formation. From atmospheric influences, the rock as described by
Sir. Wm. Logan* becomes fretted and pitted by deep holes or cells
of various sizes and shapes, with thin but well marked divisions
between them. The stone is soft, and appears to wear fast ; and
when the strata are vertical, or nearly so, the action of the sea
between high and low water marks cuts them into piOars thirty feet
in height, and four or five across, which, being sometimes smaller at
the base than the summit, produce a very picturesque effect in the
surrounding landscape. These pillar sandstones, as they are called,
occupy the greater part of the coast between Cape Chat and the
small settlement of Little Matan, where they disappear. Mr. Murray
mentionsf that they are displayed in considerable thickness near
Little Metis, and occupy the coast as far as the Great Metis River,
when red and green shales appear, which occupy the coast as far as
Rimouski. This rock has the same tendency to wear away into
pHlar like shapes, when the strata are highly inclined, and the same
kind of cellular fretted surfaces are observed to occur here as at
Turettes and Cape Chat. Somewhat similar natural objects are seen
on the south shore of New Brunswick, on proceeding from Dipper
Harbour towards St. John, in the form of deep chasms and hollows,
often separated fr^m each other by large grotesque columns. The
carboniferous limestone rocks here being of unequal hardness, yield
to the sea at one point, and resist it at others ; hence the rudest
figures and most unsightly pinnacles are placed according to the
taste of the most disordered imagination.

8. — ^Niagara Caverns.

Of the four spots in the immediate vicinity of the Niagara Falls
which receive the name of caves, but one only is present on Canadian
territory, situated a mile and a half below the falls, halfway between
Clifton House and the suspension bridge. It was at one time called
the Devil's Hole, but is now known as Bender's Cave, and is a
natural excavation in the finely granular magnesian limestone,
full of geodes lined with pearl spar, which here belongs to the
Niagara limestone formation, hence sometimes called geodiferous
limestone. A ledge of rock, twelve feet below the summit of the

* Geologioal Survey of Canada, Report for 1844.
t Geological Survey of Canada, Eeport for 1845-6.

GIBB — ON CANADIAN CAVERNS. 167

precipice forms tlie floor of the cave, which is entered by a large
mouth, is six feet high and twenty feet square ; the roof is uneven
and covered with damp mould.

There is another cave in the same formation, on the opposite, or
American side of the gorge, about sixty rods above the ferry, very
difficult of access from the steep and precipitous nature of the banks.
It goes by the name of Gatlin's cave, is fifteen feet wide and ten high,
and contains specimens of silicified moss. Neither of these caves are
looked upon as objects of interest, their formation I conceive to have
taken place at the time when the banks in which they exist were
overflowed by the falls.

The appellation of the Devil's Hole is now given to a notch or
indentation, said to be a hundred and eighty-five feet deep, half a
mile below the whirlpool, on the right or eastern side of the Niagara
river. It lays but a few feet from the main road, and can be looked
into from above ; it cuts through the Niagara limestone and shale,
and Medina sandstone. This has been magnified into a great chasm,
surmounted by projecting cliffs of rock, but it is not strictly entitled
to the name of a cavern.

There is a great hollow at the foot of the rock, between Goat and
Luna Islands, formed by the disintegrating action of the water on
the soft Niagara shale forming this part of the precipice, the
crumbling fragments of which have been washed away, leaving the
true Niagara limestone rock arching overhead ftiUy thirty feet beyond
the base, in a similar manner to Table Rock and its continuation
under the falls, which thus permits of visitors passing behind the
great sheet of falling water in both places. This great hollow,
known as Cave of the Winds, whose base is a hundred and thirty
feet from the projecting ledge above, is a hundred feet wide. Those
who have visited this interesting spot wiU, in common with myself,
no doubt remember the sheet of falling water in front, forming a
transparent curtain, dashing the spray with considerable force over
every part of the cave, and the appearance of one or more arcs of a
rainbow when the sun is shining upon it. The noise and turmoil of
the place, the concussion of the atmosphere, and the general disturb-
ance around, have appropriately given rise to the name which this
cavern enjoys,

9. — ^Flower Pot Island, Lake Huron.

The Isle of Coves is situated to the north of Cape Hurd, which is
the extreme point of the peninsula of the Indian Reserves in Lake
Huron. To the east of this island is Flower Pot Island, which is
chiefly remarkable for the presence of a number of insulated
columns resembling flower pots, consisting of large tabular masses
placed horizontally one upon the other, being broad at the summit
and narrow below. The largest of these is forty-seven feet high, and
resembles a jelly-glass, being worn small near its base, and enlarging
symmetrically towards the top. Many of them stand on a floor of

168 THE GEOLOGIST.

rock (composed of tlie Niagara limestone), which projects into the
lake from the lofty island which bears their name. On other parts of
the coast the rock is still wearing away by the action of the waves
into the same remarkable pillar-like shapes. Those which at present
exist have been formed in a similar manner to the Flower Pots on
the Morgan Islands, and the " Old Woman" of Graspe, having at one
time constituted caverns, as I have already described.

10. — Perforations and Caverns of Michilimacinac Island, Lake

Huron.

The Island of MichOimactaac is situated near the straits of the
same name, at the north-western part of Lake Huron, and is com-
posed of gypsiferous limestone and rocks belonging to the Onondaga
salt group of the American geologists. It is a hundred and fi%
feet in height, and its precipitous cliffs are broken into a number of
shallow and deep caverns by the action of the waves. One of these
perforates a projecting point of rock near its south-east angle, and
the general appearance of the coast is not dissimilar to that of the
Pictured Rocks, presently to be described, only that they are not on
such an extensive and grand scale. Besides these caverns, produced
by aqueous agency, three objects of natural curiosity, are visited by
strangers in this island — they are the Giant's Arch, the Natural
Pyramid, or Sugar Loaf Rock, and the SkuU Rock. The last of
these is noted for the presence of a cavern, which would appear at
one time to have been a place of ancient Indian sepulture, as num-
bers of human bones were discovered within it, and are even now
observed laying about its mouth. The entrance to the cavern is low
and narrow, but its dimensions are not very considerable. It pos-
sesses some historical interest for Canadians, from the fact that it
was in this cavern that Alex. Henry was secreted by a friendly
Indian after the massacre of the British garrison at Old Michili-
macinac, in 1763.*

11. — ^The Pictured Rocks, Lake Superior.

These are included in the present paper, although in the territory
of the United States, because they were celebrated among the French
Yoyageurs, who gave them the name of Les Portailles, The
Pictured Rocks (as they are now best known) continue for twelve
miles along the south coast of Lake Superior, about eighiy miles
west of White Fish Point. They consist of a series of lofty cliffs,
varing in height, but mostly of three hundred feet, and are com-
posed of horizontal stratified layers of grey sandstone, weathering of
different tints, which are the equivalent of the Potsdam sandstone,
a white quartz rock, probably overlaid here in some places by the
calciferous sandstone. All along this coast the fury of the wayes,

* See Henry's Travels and Adventures.

OIBB — ON CANADIAN CAVERNS. 169

increased by every north wind, has prodnced a wearing action upon
the base of the cliffs, scooping out arches and caverns, with over-
hanging precipices, towering walls, diversified by waterfalls,
numerous bays and indentations. Among the five great lakes,
there is no spot so sublimely picturesque as the Pictured Rocks,
which have been eloquently noticed by Schoolcraft. For miles all
these wonderful natural effects are seen by the traveller, their
character constantly varying as the destructive elements at work
throw down the overhanging strata in terrible ruins by the cavernous
destruction of their base. At a distance these rocks are said to
resemble^ delapidated battlements and desolate towers. In many
places the cliffs are nearly separated from the main land by extensive
fissures, or they are almost solely supported by rude pillars, which
form the divisions between numerous caverns, extensive enough to
allow of boats to sail through them. At the Daric Rock, near the
commencement of the pillared precipices, a vast entablature rests on
two immense rude pillars, which formed the boundaries of one or
more caverns. The action of the waves has completely excavated
the rock at La Portail, which permits at this point a series of heavy
strata of sandstone to rest solely on a single pillar standing in the
lake, and is slowly becoming disintegrated by the same destructive
action.

Schoolcraft thus expresses his admiration of the Pictured Rocks :
" All that we read of the natural physiognomy of the Hebrides, of
Staffa, the Doreholm, and the romantic isles of the Sicilian coast, is
forcibly recalled on viewing this scene ; and it may be doubted
whether, in the whole range of American scenery, there is to be
found such an interesting assemblage of grand, picturesque, and
pleasing objects."

12. — Saint Ignatius Caveens, Lake Superior.

The sandstone precipices of the island of St. Ignatius are described
as not running down to the water's edge. On some of the islands,
however, to the eastward, these cliffs reach the water, with fi?etted,
crumbling fronts, and the parts accessible to the waves are often
scooped into smaJl caverns, supported on low arches like those in
Grand Island, on the south shore of Lake Superior, but on a much
smaller scale.*

13. — Pilasters op Mammelles, Lake Superior.

There is a singular rock, named La Grange, upon the south end
of a low island, sixteen miles, S.W., from Grand Point, which rises
at once perpendicularly for about ninety feet, rent at the top into
rude battlements, and marked along its mural sides by deep pilasters.

* Geography and Geology of Lake Superior, by Dr. Bigsby, Tran. Geol. Soc.,
ser. 2, vol. i.

VOL. III. ^

170 THE GEOLOSIST.

It is a oonspicaotLS object for a great difitanoe, and resembles a tower
in ruins,*

14. — Thunder Mountain and Pate Island Pilasters, Lake

Superior.

Thunder Mountain, several miles long, rises from the eastern
angle of Thunder Bay, and is fourteen hundred feet high as measured
by Count Adriani. The west half of its summit is almost tabular ;
whilst the eastern half is irregular and hummocky, dipping suddenly
in round masses, into a lower but still elevated country. About the
middle of its south side, where the height is greatest, an immense
cavity, with steep woody acclivities, is scooped out of the body of the
mountain. The upper third of the elevation in the south-west is
occupied by precipices, fissured into vertical pilasters, weathering
orange red, and occasionally advancing in the form of large but-
tresses. These precipices are very extensive. The pilasters are
smooth prolonged perpendicular slabs, formed by the disappearance
of vertical slips of rock, at certain intervals.t

The tower-like eminence, fourteen hundrM feet in perpendicular
height at the west end of Pate Island, some miles distant, is flat-
topped, and its sides are faced with vertical pilasters resting on a
talus, like those of the Thunder Mountain. These pilasters hare
been compared to basaltic columns in the distance, with an apparent
but not real horizontal stratification. " In some places they have
fallen out, leaving hoUows like flues in the side of the cliff. In other
places single columns stand out alone, like chimneys; in others
again, huge flat tables of rock have scaled off from the face of the
wall."J Trappose greenstone is the prevailing rock from Thunder
Mountain westward, and gives rise to the pilastered precipices of
Fort Wmiam,

All the foregoing (Nos. 12, 13, and 14) are formed by the rocks
belonging to the Huronian system of Sir WUliam Logan, which
consist of slates, sandstones, limestones, and conglomerates, with
immense masses of greenstone interstratified. These repose uncon-
formably upon the Laurentian rocks. The Grange is composed of
greenstone, as well as many of the low islands of the Manunelles and
others, which have become hallowed by the waves into bowls, caves,
and small arches. Many of the rude colonnades are formed of por-
phyry, which plunge into the lake, or crown the highest summits,
and occasionally they are fissured. The paUisades of Thunder
Mountain are a greenstone trap.

In describing the geological structure of Maimanse, the most
eastern promontory on the shores of Lake Superior, Dr. Dawson of

* Geography and Geology of Lake Superior, by Dr. Bigsby, Tran. Greol. Soc.,
Ber. 2, vol. i,
t Idem.
X Agaasiz, Lake Superior, p. 93.

V'.^L '" Pi VI!,

MAIN LAND

l\^

SeaUorv ofBaeaH/.

REFERENCE.

THE

BASALTIC CAVERNS

O F

HENLEY ISLAND.

pOwjieoiL PoutU

*CAti£5

. iMILE

GIBB — ON CANADIAN CAVERNS. 171

Montreal, mentions that the shore for some distance is excavated into
many small caverns and ravines bj the waves acting on the tnfa and
mineral veins. Some of these excavations are stated to be at a
higher level than that of the waters of the Lake at the present

time.*

15. — The Stbinhaueb Cavern.

The mountains of Tomgarsnit, or the Evil Spirit, which are situated
in latitude sixty degrees immediately south of Gape Ghudleigh, the
extreme northern point of the eastern coast of Labrador, have been
described as rugged, barren, and black, and containing a huge
cavern which the Eskimos declare to be the habitation of the devil.
The only reference to this cavern which has come under my notice is
that by the Rev. Mr. Steinhauer, whose notes on the geology of the
Labrador* coast are published in the second volume of the Transac-
tions of the Greological Society (p. 488). However little is known
about it in relation to its extent and the formation in which it exists,
which is most probably Jjaurentian from the description of the rocks
on the eaat coast of Labrador, it seems appropriate to call it after the
name of him who first drew attention to it. This cavern is most
likely developed in the crystalline limestone belonging to the
Lanrentian rocks.

16. — The Basaltic Caverns of Henley Island.

On the southern coast of Labrador, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, is
Chateau Bay, recognised from a vessel in the oflfing by the high land
in the rear of it, and more especially by the two wall sided and
flat topped hills, composed of basaltic columns, which cap the sum-
mit of Castle and Henley islands, two hundred feet above the sea.
They somewhat resemble fortifications in the distance, and present
a picturesque appearance when approached nearer ; they shelter to
the south and east Henley, Antelope, and Pitt's harbours, whilst
Whale Island and York Point do so to the westward. Admiral
Bayfield describes the two last named harbours as perfectly secure,
and fit for the largest ships.

The geological formation of all the rocks and islands of the coast
of Labrador belongs to the Lanrentian system of Sir William Logan,
and are the most ancient yet known on the continent of America.
They extend from the north side of the Saint Lawrence from
Labrador to Lake Superior, and occupy by far the larger share of
Canada. They consist of gneiss, with interstratified bands of crys-
talline limestone, associated with layers of micaceous and homblendic
schists and quartzite. The colours of the rocks of this part of the
coast vary from red to grey, and were formerly described as
granite.

* Canadian Nafcnraliat and Greologist, vol. ii., p. 4.

172 THE OEOLOaiST.

Castle Island is composed of gneiss, in which is found a mixtiire
of a dark purplish grey felspar, fxisible green hornblende and grey
quartz, as observed by Capt. Campbell in 1827 ; the gneiss is capped
by over-lying amorphous basalt fifby feet thick, nine hundred and
ninety feet long, and two hundred and ten feet wide in its broadest
part, which is near the centre. This mass of basalt is supported by
an aggregation of basaltic columns, of which some reach to the
height of twenty-five feet. They possess the usual characters, are
vertical, in close contact, varying in size and the number of their
sides, and are jointed. Capt. Campbell determined their base to be
a hundred and eighty feet, with their summits two hundred and fifty-
five above the water. This is fifty feet more than is mentioned by
Bayfield ; but, as the columnar and amorphous basalt have perpen-
dicular sides, its thickness was made out by a plummet to be seveniy-
five feet, the feature of most importance in relation to the caverns.
The summit is fiat, and covered with moss and turf ; its shape is
oblong, and the columns pass all around it, and thus explains their
fortification-like appearance on entering Henley Harbour. The
island itself resembles a fish in shape, with a broad head, and having
a distinct tail, which forms Chateau Point. It is a little over a mile
and a quarter long, and a third of a mile broad at its northern part.
(See map, plate vii.).

Henley Island is situated to the north-east of Castle Island, from
which it is separated by a narrow channel leading into Henley Har-
bour, about a hundred and twenty yards wide, which is called by the
fishermen Castle Beef Tickle. The shape of this island is that of a
triangle, its most important side fronting towards the sea, and nm-
ning due north and south ; its southern side is hollowed out into two
bays, which leaves the south-western part of the island in the form
of a hill two hundred and four feet high, capped by the basalt as in
Castle Island, and possessing all the characteristics peculiar to that
island, with its pillars of flie same substance. The extent of the
basalt is about a fourth of that on the sister island, the width of this
part of the island containing it being about two hundred and seventy-
five yards. On that side only towards the sea (east) are the columns
visible ; but as three caverns are there present, it was looked upon
by Lieutenant Baddeley, R.E., as strong presumptive evidence that
these basaltic colunms traversed the mountain, a supposition which
it appears to me to amount to a certainty, on comparing the two
islands with one another. In these caverns (which must at one time
have been Fingal*s Caves in miniature) the colunms possess the
same regularity and juxta-position as they do on the outside. The
largest was found by Captain Campbell to be twenty yards
deep by fifteen yards in the middle; the floors were strewn
with the fragments of columns, and the sides were ornamented
by those which their removal exposed to view ; the ceiling was
as smooth as that of a room, but of almost an iron blackness.
The thickness of the amorphous basalt above was estimated
at from thirty to forty feet, its course on both islands is fit)m

OIBB — ON CANADUN CAVERNS. 173

east to west, the colxuzms to the westward are of larger dimensioiiB
than those to the eastward.*

The north-west side of Henley Island is bounded by Antelope
Harbonr, which is between it and the main land ; whilst sonth of it
lies the singnlarly-shaped Stage Island, which is low, and forms the
western boundary of Henley Harbonr. Within the entrance of Cha-
tean Bay is Whale Island, which again lies in the entrance of Temple
Bay. The basaltic columns of Henley and Castle Islands can be
seen from the east point of Wreck Bay, two miles and a-half to the
south-westward, and I think at one time they must have been united
with a continuation of the basalt from, one island to the other. (See
map, plate vii.).

The only other part of British America where basaltic rocks are
met with on a grand scale is on the shores of the Bay of Fundy.
The northern side of the large island of Grand Manan, three to fonr
hundred feet high, twelve mSes south of Campo Bello, New Bruns-
wick, at the enhance of the bay, is perfectly basaltic in many places,
and resembles large pieces of squared timber placed upright side by
side, with a perfection and beauty equal to the basaltic columns of
Stafia. Whole £a,9ades of oolumns have been broken off and carried
away by the sea.t Near the Old Bishop the basaltic colxmms stand
erect, and apparently support the precipice, having five and six faces.
A small unmhabited island at the entrance of the river Magaguadavic,
is covered with basaltic pillars of from five to nine sides, many of
them retreating into the sea. The celebrated cliffs of Gape Blomidon,
in Nova Scotia, four hundred feet high, are composed of new red
sandstone surmounted by crystalline basaltic trap, having a rude
colmnnar structure, and presenting a perpendicular wall along the
top of the precipice. For a general description of these cliffs the
reader is referred to Dawson's Acadian Gteology.

17. — Empty Basaltic Dtxes op Mecattina. (See Map, pi. viii.).

Among the most singolar peculiarities of the southern coast of
Labrador, is the occurrence of empty basaltic dykes traversing Great
Mecattina Island in a north-east and south- west direction from one
side to the other, as described by Admiral Bayfield. J This island,
composed of the Laurentian rocks, is about three and a-half miles
long, north and south, about three miles wide, and is five hundred
feet high at its centre ; it is through these granitic (P) hills that
the empty dykes run. These remarkable dykes, with the position
of the islands, in relation to the high land inside of Gape Mecat-

* Trans. Lit. and His. Soo. of Qnebeo, vol. i. In Lientenant Baddeley'a paper,
Castle Keep Bock is the name given to Castle Island, and Henley Island is erro-
neously called Saddle Island. There is a Saddle Island in Bed Bay, some miles
to the westward of York Point.

t Geol. Survey of Kew Bronswick. By Abraham Gesner, St. John, 1839.

X Sailing directions of the Gulf and Biver St. Lawrence.

174 THB GBOLOQIST.

tma, wbich is four or fire miles distant to the west nortih^
west^ are said to distiiigaisli it from any other land in
the Ghilf of St. liawrence. The nearest part of the main-
land, Bed Point, is rather more than two miles distant. Portage
Bay, which is on the east of Gape Mecattina — a long and singular
promontory of the mainland — ^nms in to the northward a mile and a-
anarter be^een steep and high hills, fissured in the same miumer as
Great Island, with a rapid river at its head. The high land of
Mecattina is seven hnndred feet above the sea, and stands directly in
rear of the harbonr of the same name. It is not exceeded in height bj
any other land between Bradore and the Mingan Islands. Its granite
is traversed from south-west to north-east by the same enormons ba-
saltic dykes as are fonnd on the Great Island. ** They cat completely
through the promontory into Portage Bay, ascending again on the
eastern side of the latter, till they are lost to view beyond the sum-
mits of the hills. In Dyke Island several of them are empty as low
down as the soiftoe of the sea, dividing the ishmd by immense open
fissures m such a way as to distmguish it from all others in the
neighbourhood. "

What strikes the mind with wonder in examining these dykes is
that the basalt should have become crumbled and worn away from
decomposition in such a manner as to leave them quite empty, thus
resembling more the character of fissures produced by an earth-
quake. That they are true basaltic dykes, however, is proved by
finding the remains of basalt in some of them, and by examining
the neighbouring land, which is comparatively firee from them, unless
in the places described. For if they were not these, we might expect
to see numerous rents and fissures over a less limited area than they
occupy. Similar phenomena are seen in many parts of Scotland,
but in a minor degree. The empty dykes of Mecattina are probably
the most extensive known, and I imagine assumed their present con-
dition when the land was submerged.

18. — Bigsby's Caveen, Mubrat Bat.

On the northern bank of the St. Lawrence, ninety miles below
Quebec, and six and a-half miles west by south fr^m Cape Eagle, is
the remarkable inlet known as Murray Bay, which is a mile and a-
half wide, and nearly the same distance in depth. At its head is the
rapid and unnavigable Murray Biver, which rises far in the interior,
and flows down through a beautifiil valley frx>m several small lakes
situated among the h3ls. At low water the bay is nearly dry, but
there is anchorage for vessels close under the high rocky shore, a
little to the eastward of the bay, as mentioned by Bayfield. The
western point of the bay from eight hundred to one thousand feet
high, is Point Pique, or White Cape, in which is situated Bigsby's
Cavern ; its eastern point is Point Gaze, or Les Ecorchis, and a little
further on is La Heu ; the way is directly opposite to Cape Diable,

OIBB — ON CANADIAN CAVERNS. 175

on the south shore, which is here ten and a-half miles across. (See
sketch, plate ix.).

The prevailing rocks around Murray Bay belong to the Lanrentian
fonnation, their gneissic character being distinctlv displayed in a
set of beds on the west side of the bay above White Cape, marked
by diversities of colonr allied to red, green, black, and white ; these
beds are described as granitic but very qnartzose, with some bands
among them possessing the aspect of a slightly micaceons quartz
rock. Among the beds is a large grained red granitic dyke, running
in general with their strike, which is north-west, at an angle of from
thirty to thirty-five degrees. On the east side of the bay, near Les
Ecorchis, the gneiss presents the aspect of a dark grey compact
slightly micaceous hornblende slate. It is here also cut by a very
coarse-grained dyke, running generally with the stratification, and
consistmg of quartz and opaque white felspar, while hornblende pre-
vails on each side of the dyke towards its contact with the gneiss.
Still further to the eastward, before reaching La Hen, there is a very
great white dyke of a similar character. "No interstratified bands of
ciystalline limestone belonging to the Laurentian formation are here
met with. The Potsdam sandstone, or white quartz rock, appears
above White Point, and at two spots at the east side of the bay. At
White Cape the calciferous sand rock is next observed ; it composes
the point which bounds the boat cove on the south. The beds here
are about twenty-three yards broad with a thickness of fifty-eight
feet, and the rock is described as a calcareous sandstone, possessing
arenaceous layers interstratified with occasional bands of limestone ;
the last forms the uppermost bed as well as a few at the bottom. In
some of the arenaceous beds translucent milky quartz-pebbles exist
as large as hens' eggs, thus constituting them into conglomerates ;
but the grains are generally of such small size as to give an oolitic
appearance to the rock : they consist both of limestone and quartz.*
Br. Bigsby found some of the nodules as large as a child's head. To
the west of the boat cove are two hummocks of the rock, forming the
blujff from which White Cape takes its name.

The conglomerate which thus composes the chief part of the preci-
pice of White Cape is described by Dr. Bigsby as in strata, more than
a foot thick, abutting against mica slate in various unconformable
positions. — " At the west end the layers are very thin, and are placed
vertically, with a south-west direction, in some degree of parallelism
to the contiguous mica slate. Near this they are contorted, until
gradually toward the centre of the range they become horizontal.
Here a singular disposition of the upper laminae is observed. They
roof a shallow cave in undulating lines, which descend gently from
above, and after curving upwards for a short distance, decline sud-
denly on the horizontal strata which constitute the lower half of the
sides of the cave."t (See sketch, plate ix.).

* Greol. Survey of Canada. Report for 1849-50.
t Amer. Jour, of Science, vol. v., p. 212. 1822.

176 THE GEOLOGIST.

This cayem was also examined hy Lieut. Baddeley, in 1828, wlio
describes* the sides and roof as coated in many places with a white
incrustation, having none of the crystalline aspect of stalactite, being
softer and more resembling analagons appearances on the roofs of old
brick or stone arches. It descends very rapidly for a few yards,
when it suddenly narrows to a mere crack, admitting the passage of
a boy or small person into a more spacious cavern, which had not
been explored.

Bigsby's Cave has been known for some years, and has been
noticed in some of the Canadian newspapers as, I believe, the Grotto
of St. Paul ; this is on the testimony of the B«v. Jos. M. Bellenger.
None of these accounts could I lay my hands on ; and as the first
notice of the cavern was fiom the pen of Dr. Bigsby, it seemed to
me quite proper that it should be called afber him. It is not at all
improbable that it has been i^irther explored, through the able
assistance of Dr. Eraser, of Murray Bay, and a more extended
account published of its interior; in the present, however, especial pains
have been taken to describe the nature of the rocks which exist in its
vicinity. In Murray Bay and on the coast below, the Trenton limestone
presents upwards of six nules to the St. Lawrence, and runs as many
up the Murray Bay River, with a general breadth of two miles.

Dr. Bigsby found a brown or black splintery slate often interposed
between the conglomerate and the dark limestone, which was plenti-
ful at the cave. The curvature of the strata at the cavern at the
west angle of Murray Bay and of the east shore of the Bay are
objects of interest, and furnish '^ an additional evidence showing the
temporary flexibility of rocks after consolidation, and their distnr&uace
while in that condition." At the mouth of the grand river St. Anne,
twenty-four miles below Quebec, Dr. Bigsby noticed three strong
seams of grauwacke form as many concentric arches in the face of a
naked and perpendicular bank, the outer of which is about eight feet
high, and twenty-two feet span, the surrounding shale observing the
same position ; and at the bridge of the river Jaques Cartier, thirty
miles above Quebec, there is a beautiful natural arch of blue lime-
stone of similar dimensions.

There are very few places in Canada to be compared to Murray
Bay for the beauty of its scenery and the surrounding features of
geological interest. Here can be seen an instructive assemblage of
the most ancient rocks, and an abundance of their characteristic
fossils, among which are fine examples of Orthoceratites, to repay
the zealous investigator. Slight shocks of earthquake are not nn-
frequent in this neighbourhood, and it is related that they occur nine
or ten times annually.

19. — ^Bouchette's Cavern, Kildabb.

This cavern was visited and first described by Colonel Bouchette
(Surveyor-General of Canada) in the report of his official tour

* Tran. Lit. and His. Soc. of Quebec, vol. i.

GIBB — ON CANADIAN CAVERNS. 177

throngli the new settlements of the lower province in 1824. It is
situated in the township of Eildare, abont thirty-five miles due north
of the city of Montreal, but the precise locality I have been unable
to determine, although from the description it may be close to the
village of the same name. The southern half of the township is tra-
versed by a broad band of the Potsdam sandstone, in continuation of
the same rock running in a north-east direction from the south-
western part of the township of Rawdon. That part of Kildare north
of this band is composed of gneiss of the Laurentian system, most
probably interstratified with some bands of crystalline limestone, in
which the cavern is developed.

It was about the year 1822 that two young Canadian peasants,
whilst prosecuting their sport of hunting the wild cat, pursued two
of their game, until entering an obscure hole a little above the bank
of the river, they lost sight of them. The more enterprising of the
two attempted to enter the aperture in the rock, at that time barely
sufficient to admit of his crawling into it, but without success. Pro-
viding themselves with lights, a second attempt was naore successful,
for " not only did they secure their prey (of which they have preserved
the skin to this day), but they discovered," says Colonel Bouchette,
*^ another of the many phenomena of nature, a description of which
cannot be uninteresting."
The following account is given in the Colonel's words : —
" I descended into the cavern by means of a trap-door, which has
recently been placed at one of its angles for the facility and con-
venience of strangers desirous of visiting this singular spot, having
as my guides two of the inhabitants of the neighbouring house, bear-
ing lighted tapers. The height of the cave where we entered is five
feet, from which angle branch off two caves, the lesser whereof is of
the following dimensions : —

Length 25 feet.

Breadth varying from 2^ to 9 „

Height ; 5 „

It bears about a south-east course from the entrance.

The other has in length 70 feet

Widthfrom 7to 8 „

Height, gradually increasing 5 to 18 „

" The increase in the loftiness of the cave originates from the
declivity of the ground part, which, at the north-eastern extremity,
is at least twenty-three feet from the surface. It forms nearly a
right angle with the first, at its south-western end, and an angle
scarcely obtuse at the other with another cave, whose

Length is 80 feet

Average width 6 „

VOL. III. Z

Height t> „

178 THE GEOLOGIST.

At the sonth-eastem extreme of this cave branches off another of
inferior size and consequence, bearing about a due south course, as
may be deduced from the angle it makes with the last described.

It is in length 20 feet

Width 5 „

Height 6 to 4 „

" At the outward angle formed by this cave with the preceeding
one, is to be seen a nearly circular aperture of about a foot and a
half in diameter, which leads to a cavern yet unexplored, the extent
whereof is not known with any certainty ; but conjecture and suppo-
sition will have it to extend two arpents — an astonishing distance as
a natural subterraneous passage. Summing the lengths of the
several caves above-mentioned together, we have a total distance of
a hundred and ninety-five feet of subterranity in the solid rock, offer-
ing a beautiful roof of crystallized sulphurate of lime, carved as it
were by the hand of art, and exhibiting at once the sublimity of
nature, and the mastery of the all-powerful Architect of the
universe." (See plan, plate x.).

From the foregoing description there would seem to be five different
caverns or galleries, and probably many more, if the fifth has been
since explored. Three of them branch off from the entrance in
different directions, whilst the remaining two do so at the tennrnar
tion of the central gallery. The roof throughout is covered with
stalactites, but as no mention is made of stalagmite, nor of the pre-
sence of bones, we are left to conclude that they were absent,
although the chances were much in favour of finding the latter, in
consequence of there being a free and unobstructed entrance into
the cavern.

20. — Gibb's Cavern, Montreal.*

This cavern, which is of humble pretensions as to size, is situated
in the Island of Montreal, and no account of it had appeared before
the one which I published in the ** Canadian Naturalist and Greolo-
gist" for June, 1858. My attention was first drawn to it by my
friend Dr. Robert Nelson, formerly of Montreal, and now of Kew
York.

The cave exists on the border of a limestone ridge, running in a
north-east and south-west direction, which skirts a number of farms
back of the main road at C6te St. Michel. Its dimensions aie
twenty-five yards or more in depth, with a width of two or more
yards. The latter varies a good deal and is somewhat irregular, but
the roof is considerably wider than the floor, which is covered with
water to the depth of some feet. A part of the floor will permit of a

* The association of my name with this cavern by a fiiend is my excuse for
retaining it here.

GIBB — ON CANADIAN CAVERNS. 179

footing, and when in the cave a person can stand npright, with
plenty of room to spare. The roof is composed of limestone, and
lined with a coating of stalactitical carbonate of lime, but from which
there do not project any stalactites ; some portions of the floor, how-
ever, contain stalagmites, a few specimens of which were collected.
No bones of animals were found, possibly owing to the presence of
the water. Their existence can only be ascertained by pumping the
water out, which may overlie a sort of breccia. The ridge, which is
composed of the Trenton limestone, here partakes somewhat of the
character of a hill, at the base of which is an opening leading into
the interior of the cavern. It was accidentally discovered some
thirty years ago on the occasion of a party of hahitans going out
hunting. The dog belonging to the party commenced to scratch at
the spot which forms the entrance, and suddenly disappeared ; the
animal had fallen into it, and his cries brought the hunters to the
hole in the ground. The opening was enlarged, and the party
entered by crawKng on their lumds and feet.

From the description of the cavern, it would appear that its origin
is due to upheaval jfrom below, producing a dislocation of the stratum
of limestone and the formation of a wide fissure, which may be found
ultimately to extend much farther than the distance given in the
foregoing account. The discovery of this cavern was looked upon
at the time as something very wonderful.

(To be continued,)

THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN SCOTLAND CHARAC-
TERIZED BY ITS BRACHIOPODA.

By Thomas Davidson, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., Hon. Member of
the Geological Society of Glasgow, etc., etc.

(Continued from Vol. iii., p, 11 5. J

XXXVI. — Productus costatus. Sow. PL ii., figs. 22-24; pi. iv., fig. 25.

Producia costata, J. de 0. Sowerby, Mineral Conchology, vol. vi., p. 115*

pi. dk., fig. 1, 1827.

This species appears to vary somewhat in appearance, but is usually trans-
versely semi-cylindrical, the liinge-line being at the same time the widest
portion of the shell. The ventral valve is very much vaulted, and usually
longitudinally divided by a median depression or sinus of variable depth. The
beak is small, and does not overlie the hinge-line, while the ears are of moderate
dimensions and clearly defined. Exteriorly the surface is ornamented with
numerous longitudinal ribs, which increase in number by means of occasional
intercalations ; certain ribs will also disappear before having attained the

180 THE GEOLOGIST.

margin ; while again two will sometimes nnite, so as to constitute bnt a single
rib. The costs are very often of unequal width, rounded, or flattened, and
sometimes will rapidly increase in width as they extend towards the margin:
concentric wrinkles are also observable upon the auriculate portions of the
valve, and a row of long tubular spines may be seen close to the cardinal edge,
as well as upon the lateral portions of the beak ; spines of smaller pro})oriions
project likewise here and there from the ribs themselves, while the longitudinal
costsB are closely intersected or decussated to some distance from the extremity
of the beak by numerous undulating concentric lines. The dorsal valve is con-
cave, but much flattened to some distance from the hinge-line, while the sculp-
ture is very similar to that visible upon the opposite valve. No interiors of
this shell appear to have been hitherto discovered, nor did it ever attain very
large proportions ; some Scottish examples have measured one inch and a-
quarter in len^h by about one inch and three-quarters in breadth.

In his "Monographie du Geme Productus," Prof, de Koninck placed
P. muricatus, Phillips, among the synonyms of the species under description;
but as the figure in the " Geology of Yorkshire" had given rise to some un-
certainty, I requested and obtained, through the kind medium of Mr. Dallas,
the loan of the original example, preserved m the Museum at York. It differed,
however, from the representations that had been given of it in the " Geology of
Yorkshire," by presenting a well marked median depression in the ventral
valve, but agreed very closely with certain similar shells found by Mr. Thom-
son at Cessnock, in Ayrshire, and of which fig. 25 of our pi. iv. is an example.
The presence of so many small tubular spines along the upper surface of all the
ribs is a character not observable upon the larger number of specimens of P.
costaius ; and from this character alone I should almost have been inclined to
separate the last-named shell from P. muricattts^ had not an undoubted example
of the first, in the collection of Dr. Slimon, exhibited a number of similar spines
along the surface of the ribs. P. costatus is not a very rare species in ocot-
laud ; it occurs at Hill Head, in Lanarkshire, at three hundrea and sevens-
five fathoms below "Ell coal;" also at Brockley, near Lesmahago. In
Stirlingshire, in the Campsie main limestone. In Dumbartonshire, at Castle-
cary. In Renfrewshire, at Barrhead. In Ayrshire, at Bx)ughwood and West
Broadstone, Beith; Goldcraig and Monkreadinff, near Kilwinning; Anchen-
skeigh. Dairy ; Meadowfoot, near Drumclog ; ana Cessnock, parish of Loudon.
In Buteshire, in the island of Arran.

XXXVn. — ^Peoductus YoTjyGiAnus. Dav. PL ii., fig. 26, and pi. v., fig. vii'

This shell is longitudinally very oval, the hinge-line bein^ rather shorter
than the width of the shell. The ventral valve is regularly ardied and without
any sinus, while the auriculate expansions are very small ; and the beak, which
is comparatively large, does not overlie the hinge-line, except quite at its
attenuated extremity. The dorsal valve is concave, and follows the curves of
the opposite one ; exteriorly the surface is ornamented with numerous small
rounded ribs, of which a certain number are due to intercalation, and from
which at short distances project slender tubular spines ; these appearing more
widely scattered in some specimens than in others. Undulatmg concentric
lines of growth are likewise observable, and in some specimens appear to have
been continued in the form of very thin and short concentric lamellifonn ex-
pansions, but which are on the greater number of specimens broken off close
to the shell, so that when perfect they must have presented a somewhat fringed
appearance. These lamelliforra expansions, which lie close to the surface,
appear to have been more strongly developed or displayed in the young shell,
and with age the striae became more rcgukrly marked, which leads me to sup-
pose that when quite adult the shell assumcci the appearance of the specimen,

DAVIDSON — eCOTTISH CARBONIFEROUS BRACHIOPODA. 181

fig. 25 ; but of that I do not at present feel certain. Mr. Young has seen ex-
amples of this shell from Lanarkshire, Benfrewshire, Ayrshire, and Fifeshire,
but it is nowhere (yet discovered) so plentiful as at Corrie Bum, where it occurs
in a thin bed of a white friable shale, above a coralline bed {Lithodendron
fasdcukUuMy Meming, = Idtkostrotion Martini, M-Edw.). It is found also at
Brockley, near Lesmahago, in Lanarkshire.

For some time I felt uncertain whether the shell under description might
not be the same as that to which Messrs. Norwood and Fratten had applied the
name of ele^ans ; but having received from Mr. Worthen and Frof . de Koninck
several typical examples of the American shell obtained at Chester, Illinois, I
soon became convinced that the Scottish species was in reality distinct.
Messrs. Norwood and Fratten have not, however, furnished us witn a charac-
teristic representation of their species, which is not evenly convex, but longitu-
dinally flattened, and even sometimes depressed along the ventral valve in the
many American specimens that have come under my observation ; while, on
the contrary, our P. Toutigiantts is always regularly convex and without mesial
depression ; it is likewise much more regulany oval, and the sides of the beak
do not fall perpendicularly upon the ears as in P. elegans, and, although dis-
tinct, approaches mostly to P. aculeatm of Martin. Mr. Salter assures me
that there are none of rrof. Hall's figares in the Iowa report at all like our
Scottish shell. I have, therefore, ventured to name the shell after Mr. J.
Youn^, of the Hunterian Museum of Glasgow, who was the first to draw my
attention to the species ; and I am indebted to Mr. Salter for the loan of a
specimen from the carboniferous limestone of Llangollen, in Wales, which may
be seen in the Museum of Fractical Geology.

XXXVin. — ^Feoductus ACT7LEATUS. Martin. Fl. ii., fig. 20.

Anomites aculeatm. Martin, Fetrif. Derb., p. 8, pi. xxxvii., figs. 9-10, 1809.
Productus id., De Koninck, Monographic du Genre Froductus, pi. xvi.,
% 6.

The shells composing this species are usually nearly circular, or slightly
longer than wide, the hinge-line being at the same time shorter than the
greatest width of the shell. The ventral valve is evenly convex, and without
sinus, while the dorsal one is very concave, closely following the curves of the
opposite valve. The ears are very thin and small, usuallj broken ; the beak
also, which is much incurved, does not overlie the hin^e-lme, except quite at
its attenuated extremity. On the exterior of the vaJves there exists some
irregularly scattered elongated tubercles, from which projected short adpressed
spmes, these tubercles being also sometimes so elongated as to produce the
appearance of ribs ; but both Martin and Sowerby were mistaten, as was
justly observed by Frof. de Koninck, when they stated in their descriptions of
the shell that the spines "pointed backwards, or towards the beak."
Numerous concentric undulating lines of growth may also be detected on
either valve. The interiors of the valves have not been hitherto discovered ;
and although the species does not appear to have ever attained large dimensions,
those known to me from Scotland did not exceed some five lines in length by
lour and a-half in width.

In Scotland the shell has been found in several localities. In Stirlingshire
it occurs in the Campsie main limestone and ironstone. In Lanarkshire it has
been found at CaJderside, Hig:h Blantyre. In Renfrewshire, at Orchard-
quarry, Thornliebank. In Ayrshire, at West Broadstone, Beith ; Craigie, near
Kilmarnock ; and Auchenskeigh, Dairy.

182 THE GEOLOaiST.

XXXEL— Pboductus spinulosus. J. Sowerby. H. iv., figs. 23-24

Froducttis spinulosns. J. Sowerby, Min. Con., toI. i., p. 154, pi. Ixviii., fig. 3,
1814. De Koninck, Monographic dn Genre Productus, pi. xi., fig. 2.

This shell is transversely semicircular, the hinge-line being nearly as long as
the greatest width of the shell. The ventral valve is regularly convex, and
evenly arched, without sinus ; the beak incurved, and not overlymg the biWe-
line, except (juite at its attenuated extremity. The ears are flattened, with a
few concentric wrinkles. The dorsal valve, which is very concave, follows the
curves of the opposite one. Externally the surface is covered with numerous
short spines, arranged in auincunx, and generally about half a line or so apart :
they on^inate from a small slightly elongated tubercle, which alone is usually

§ resent m the fossil. The interior arrangements are unknown, and the shell
oes not appear to have ever attained large proportions, some Scottish
examples that have come under my observation having measured seven and a-
half tines in length by nine in width ; and it is always easfly distinguished
from other Scottish species of Productus by its shape, as well as by the peculiar
quincunx arrangements of its slender spines.

In Lanarkshire P. spinulosus has been collected at NeMeld and Hill Head,
at three hundred and seventy-five fathoms below the " Ell coal ;" also Brock-
ley, near Lesmahago. In Ayrshire, at West Broadstone and Auchenskeigh,
near Dairy. Prof. Fleming's original specimen, which is figured on our plate,
was from Linlithgowshire. In Haddingtonshire, at Cat Craig, near Dunbar.

XL. — ^Productus mesolobtjs. Phillips. PI. ii., fig. 21.

Froducta mesoloba. Phillips' Greol. of Yorkshire, vol. ii., p. 216, pi. viL, figs.
12-13, 1836, and De Koninck's Mon. du Genre Productus, pi. xviL, fig. 2.

This shell is transverse, with a very long straight hinge-line. The auriculate
expansions project and form attenuated cardinal extremities, while the lateral
margins are rounded, and straight or undulating in front. The ventral valve
is very gibbous at the beak, and sometimes geniculated towards the front, with
a wicfe flattened or slightly concave sinus, interrupted in the middle by a
narrow median rib : on either side of the sinus a similar ridge or rib is present,
and another intervenes between these and the cardinal angles. On the five
ridges may be seen a few tubercles, from which projected small tubular spines.
The beak is of moderate size, and not overlying the hinge-line, except quite at
its attenuated extremity. The dorsal valve is concave, with a narrow median
groove and two slightly marked lateral ones : concentric lines of growth
are observable upon both valves. The interior of the valves are unknown ;
and the largest Scottish example that has come under my observation did not
exceed eight lines in length by thirteen in width, but the shell has elsewhere
attained large proportions, and can always be easily recognized on account of
its peculiar shape and character.

At Braidwood, in Lanarkshire, it has been found at three hundred and
seventy -five fathom below the " Ell coal." At Brockley, near Lesmahago. In
Stirlingshire, in the Glarat lime works or Campsie main limestone. It does
not appear to be a very common species in Scotland.

XLI. — ^Productus PUbTULOsus. Phillips. PL iv., fig. 19.

Froducta pustulosa. Phillip's Geol. of Yorkshire, vol. ii., pi. vii., fig. 15. 1836.

This shell is rotundato-quadrate, rather wider than long, with a straight
hinge-line, somewhat shorter than the greatest width of the snell. The ventral
valve is gibbous, with a wide shallow mesial sinus ; the beak being moderatelj
developed and incurved, but not overlying the hinge-line j the auriculate ex-

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CARBONIFBBOUS BRACHIOPODA. 183

pansions are wide, flattened, and clearly^ defined. The whole surface is covered
with nameroos somewhat irregular transverse undulated wrinkles, while
nomerous elongated pustules or tubercles are closely scattered over the entire
surface, and from which projected small adpressed tubular spines. The dorsal
yalre is but slightly concave, with a small mesial elevation or fold ; it is like-
wise ornamented with numerous transverse wrinkles and elongated pits in lieu
of the tubercles observable in the opposite one.

No Scottish interiors of this shell nave been hitherto discovered ; but Eng-
lish specimens show that the muscular and other impressions did not diifer
materially in detail from those of P. scabriculus and of others described in this
moDo^ph. P, pustulosus sometimes attained large proportions ; but the only
Scottish example I was able to examine did not exceed some eleven lines and
a-half in length by fourteen in width.

In Haddingtonshire it is stated to occur at Cat Craig, near Dunbar ; and
another example, labelled from the north of Glasgow,* is preserved in the
Museum of Practical Geology. In Stirlingshire a specimen was found in shale,
under the Campsie main limestone by Mr. G. Somervile.

Tlie sixteen species of Productus described as having been found in Scotland
form part of Prof, de Koninck's following groups : —

C Productus giganteus, Martin sp.

Stbiati < laiissimus, J. Soweroy.

(^ cora, d'Orbigny.

Undati undatuSi Defrance.

semireticulatuSy Martin sp.

Var. Martini, Sowerby.

castatusy J. Sowerby.

Youngianus, Davidson.

longispinttSf J. Sowerby.

earbonarius, de Xoninck.

spinulomsy Sowerby.

Semireticulati

Sfinosi < scabriculus, Martin sp.

(, pustulosusy Phillips.

PriiBRiATi ( puHctatus, Martin sp.

(, fimbriatus, J. Sowerby.

Capebati aculeatus, Martin sp.

Mesolobi mesolobus, Phillips.

It is probable that in time better and more abundant materials relative to
some few of the species will be discovered, and which will enable palceon-
tologists to determine more exactly whether one or two of those above
enumerated might not be mere varieties of some already recorded species ; and
again whether we are justified or otherwise while considering P, Martini as a
sunple variation in shape of P. semireticulatus.f Interiors of P. undatus.

* The exact Bcottislx locality from whence this specimen, P. earhonarkut uui 9p, pimgviU
were obtained appears to be unknown. These specimens, which have all the appearance of
Bcottigh shells, are labelled "north of Glasgow" in the Museum of Practical Geology, bat
were in all probability derived from some other portion of the country, for otherwise it would
be strange that no examples of the two last have been met with by any of the coUecUnv who
have explored with much care the numerous locaUties to the nortih of (xlasgow.

t Mr. G. Tate, as well as some other palaeontologists, seem desirous of retaining P. tenti-
reticulahis and P. Martini as separate species ; and Prof, de Koninck informs me that he now
feels uncertain whether the two should be considered as distinct. These shells have beoi
described separately in this monograph, as var. Bemiretieulatua and var. Martini ;^aaA may
therefore be retain^ as specific denominations by those who might consider sucn a thing
desirable.

184 THE GEOLOGIST.

P. eostatus, P. ToungianuBy P. ipinulosw, P. Jlmbriaiui, P. aeuleatus, and

F. mesolobusKCQ also desiderata, and which will no doubt turnup sooner or
later, and thus enable palaeontologists to complete the descriptions of those
well marked species.

Genus Ghonetes. Tischer. 1837.

As the character of the ^enus or sub-genus wiU be described under G, Ear-
drensis, we need not in- this place do more than to briefly observe that the
distinctly articulate hinge is the chief character by which Ghonetes has been
separated from Product us ; and that if those shells described by myself m the
Journal of the Geolo^cal Society as Chonetes comoides with strongly articulated
hinges belong in reality, as supposed by Prof, de Koninck, to P. hemispharim
(Sowerby), or to Productus at all, the regular articulation or non-articalation
of the yalyes could no longer be made use of as a character by which the two
groups could be distin^isned. There is also a slight difference in the disposi-
tion of the (quadruple impressions of the occlusor muscle in the dorsal valve of
Ghonetes, which may claim attention. Ghonetes, as well as Produettts, possessed
scattered tubular spines over its external surface ; but the disposition of those
along the cardinal ed^e of Ghonetes is one of its less important distinguishing
features. We may also remark that although the ^nend character of Fro-
ductus is not to possess deflnite area, fissure, or pseudo^ieltidium, these are by
exception present in some species of the last-naiQcd genus.

A great many so termed species of carboniferous Ghonetes have been recorded
in different works, but which could be most advantageously and properly re-
duced to a very small number ; and it has appeared to me that palaeontologists
have often forgotten that the ribs which ornament the species of this ^nus
were liable to become coarser or finer, fewer or more numerous, according to
the specimen or individual, as is the case with species of other genera.

Rightly or wrongly, I have reduced the Scottish species to two only,

G. Hardrensis and G, Buchiana. Prof. Bamsay mentions G. paptlumacea^
Phillips sp., with a point of doubt, as one of the shells he obtained in Arran;
but as all my efforts to obtain the sight of a Scottish example of that species
have proved ineffectual, it is probable that the species has not been hitherto
discovered.

(To be continued.)

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Geology or the Peovince op Auckland, New Zealaitd.— The
following particulars of the geology of Auckland, New Zealand, may be of
interest to some of our readers. They are condensed from the remarks of Dr.
P. Hochstetter, in a lecture delivered to the members of the Auckland
Mechanics' Institute during the past year ; and are the results of the geological
survey of those parts of the country which the Doctor has made.

Having completed his survey and a geological map of the Auckland district,
he chose the southern portion of the province for his further researches. The
country there is inhabited almost exclusively by Maories, and has hitherto
been almost unknown, both topographically and geologically ; the northern dis-

NOTES AND QUSBIGS. 185

tricts, on the contrarj, being better known, from the number of European
settlers in them.

Through the arran^ments of the General and Provincial Goyemments Br.
Hochstetter was enabled in a comparatively short ^ime to travel over and to
examine the larger portion of the province south of Auckland, extending as far
as Lake Taupo and the Tongariro Volcano, the bounduies between this pro-
vince and those of Wellington and Hawke's Bay.

The observations have, with the able assistance of Mr. Drummond Hay, ex-
tended from the east to the west coast ; and the numerous peaks and ranges
have afforded facilities for fixing with satisfactory accuracy, by means of mag-
netic bearings, on the basis of points previously nxed by the nautical survey of
Capt^ Dniry on the coast line, all the great natural features of this portion of
the country. A g^at number of barometrictd observations have am)rded the
means of ascertaining the heights of mountains and plains in the interior, which
can thus be calculated with accuracy by the aid of corresponding daily obser-
vations, taken in Auckland by Colonel Mould. Photographic and other views
of great interest have been taken ; and a large number of exceedingly valuable
sketches have been contributed by the talented pencil of Mr. C. Heaphy, for
fature publication in a geological atlas. Dr. Hochstetter acknowledges also
the assistance he has received from Mr. J. Crawford, at Wellington ; Mr. A.
S. Atkinson, of Taranaki ; Mr. Triphook, of Hawke's Bay ; Mr. H. T. Kemp,
of the Bay of Islands ; to the missionaries ; and to almost innumerable frienos
in Auckland.

The first striking characteristic of the geology of the province of Auckland,
and probably of the whole of the northern island of New Zealand, is the absence
of the primitive, plutonic, and metamorphic formations, as granite, gneiss,
mica-slate, and the like. ** I have been mformed by Mr. Heaphy," says Dr.
Hochstetter, " that these rocks are of wide-spread extent in the Middle Island,
forming mountain-ranges of great altitude, covered with perpetual snow, and
reaching in Mount Cook probably to thirteen thousand teet." The rocks of
these fonnations contain the principal metallic riches of the earth. Therefore
we cannot hope to find these riches developed in the highest degree in the
Northern Island ; but as other formations also contain metalliferous veins, there
may be found many mines worth working in the rocks I am about to describe.

The oldest rock 1 have met with in the province of Auckland belongs to the
primary* formation. It is of very variable character, sometimes being more
arffillaceous, of a dark blue colour — when decomposed, yellowish brown, the
colour generally presented on the surface — and more or less distinctly stratified
like clay-slate, at Maraitai on the Waitemata; at other times the siliceous
elementpreponderates, and, from the admixture of oxide of iron, the rock has
a red, jasper-like appearance, at Waiheki, Manganese Point. In other localities
it is more distinctly arenaceous, resembling the old sandstones of the Silurian
and Devonian systems, called grauwacke, at Taupo, on the Hauraki Gulf.

As no fossils have yet been found in this formation in New Zealand, it is
impossible to state the exact age. I am, however, of opinion that these argil-
laceous siliceous rocks will be found to correspond with the oldest Silurian
strata of Europe.

The existence and great extent of this formation are of considerable import-
ance to this province, as all the metalliferous veins hitherto discovered, or likely
to be hereafter found, occur in rocks of this formation.

To these rocks belong the copper-pyrites, which has been worked for some
years at the Kawau and Great Barrier, the manganese (psilomelan) at Waiheki,
and the gold-bearing quartz at Coromandel.

• The word primary is used throughout as an equiyalent term to our Palseozoic
VOL. III. 2 A

186 THE GEOLOGIST.

The sold which is washed out from heds of qunrtz-eravel in the liters and
creeks lowing down from both sides of Coromandei range, is derived from
quartz veins of crystalline character and considerable thickness, numing in a
general direction from north to south, through the old primary rocks which
form the foundation of the Coromandei range. In some places these veins
stand up like a wall on the summit of the range to a height of eight or ten
feet. The clay-slate rock itself is exposed onfy at the bottom of deep gorges
which form the channels of the principal streams. In ahnost all places it is
covered by large masses of trachytic tuff and breccia, of which the hills snr-
rounding the harbour of Coromandei are composed. The well-known " Castle
Hill," which can be seen from Auckland, is a characteristic example of the
trachvtic breccia formation. The magnetic iron-sand, which, in washing, is
found with the gold, is derived from the same source as all the magnetic iron-
sand of New Zealand, namely, from the decomposition of trachytic rocks.
Small veins of quartz of amorphous character — tnat is, not crystalline, but in
the shape of chalcedony, cornelian, agate, and jasper — are found in numerous
places on the shores of Coromandei. These veins occurring in trachytic rocks,
are quite different from the auriferous quartz veins in the primary formation—
a fact, I think, of much practical importance to state, to prevent the fruitless
search for gold where gold does not exist. All the gold-bearing gravel in the
creeks is derived, as I have already said, not from the veins in the trachytic
breccia, but from the much thicker and crystalline veins in the primary rocb.

The surface-deposit in those creeks is very rich, but, as compared with Aus-
tralian and Califomian gold-fields, of lunitea extent and depth.*

The coal beds at Coromandei occurring between strata of trachytic breccia
are too thin to be of any value, and as the coal formation is absent there is no
ground for hoping that a workable seam may be found.

The primary formation occurs to a more considerable extent to the eastward

of Auckland, in ranges on both sides of the Wairoa river, attaining an altitude
of one thousand five hundred feet above the sea, and striking from thence
northwards, over Waiheki and Kawau, to the Bay of Islands. In a qputherly

direction they extend through the Han^wera and Taupiri ranges, across
the Waikato, through the Ha£uri-mata and Hauturu range, paralld with the
west coast, to the Mokau district, where, at Wairere, the Mokau river falls in
a magnificent cascade over a lofty precipice.

The same formation occurs again in !the Rangitoto mountain on the Upper
Waipa, and west of Taupo lake in the Tuhua mountains. But the most ex-
tensive range of primary rocks is that which commences near Wellington, under
the name of Tararua and Ruawahine, and runs in a north-easterly direction to
the east shore of Taupo lake, under the name of Kaimanawa, in which rises
the principal source of the Waikato, there called Tongariro river. The ranee
continues from the shores of Taupo lake, in a north-easterly direction, to tne
East Cape, under the principal name of TewhaitL This lofty and extensive
mountain range — ^the true backbone of the Northern Island — ^with peaks from
six thousand to seven thousand feet, is entirely unknown. In this range the
plutonic and mctamorphic rocks, yet unknown in the Northern MancC ^»
perhaps, be found.

• Dr. Hochstetter washed a few buckets of surftuie-earth and gravel, at a creek pointed
out b;^ Mr. Charles Heaphsr, near Kine's Mill, at the Kapanga. Ever^ panfol showed scales
of thin gold, with small mtgments of quartz streaked and studded with veins and spangles
of gold. These " specimens," as they are called by diggers, show no, or very little, sign of
being water-worn, but are sharp and crisp fragments, as if they had been broken up on the
spot, or in the immediate vicinity. The qiiartz veins in the mountains should be thoroughly
examined, and when once the day has come that the Coromandei gold-fields are worked, the
attention of the digger should be directed as well to the hills immediate^ above any rich
deposits as to the alluvial workings below.

NOTEB AND QUEBIES. 187

Nearly ail the primary ranges are covered with dense virgin forests, which
render them extremely difficult of access. It must be left to the labour and
enterprise of future years to discover and develope the mineral riches, the ex-
istence of which appears to be probable, not only from the ffeoloffical charac-
teristics of the country, but also from some few specimens of leaa and copper-
ores that have from time to time been picked up by the natives.

It is remarkable that, while one of tne oldest members of the Primary for-
mation is found so extensively in New Zealand the later strata, as the Devo-
nian, Carboniferous and Permian, appear to be altogether wanting ; while, on
the other hand, in the neighbouring continent of Australia these members of
the Piimary period, together with plutonio and metamorphic rocks, constitute,
as far as we know, aknost the principal part of the continent.

A very wide interval occurs between the primary rocks of the Northern
Island and the next sedimentary strata met with. Not only the upper
members of the primary series are absent, but also nearly the whole of the
secondary formations. The onlj instance of secondary strata met with consists
of very regular and highly-inclined beds of marl alternating with micaceous
sandstone, extending to a thickness of more than one thousand feet — ^first
seen on the south bead of the Waikato, and afterwards met with on the
western shore of Kawhia harbour.

These rocks possess ^reat interest from the fact that they contain remark-
able spedmens of marme fossils, which belong exclusively to the secondary
period, especially cephalopods of the genera Ammonites and Belemtiites, several
species of the Belemnites belonging to the family of the Ganaticulati. These
are the first specimens of those ^nera which have been discovered in the
regions of Anstralasia. Both fossils have been known for centuries by our
ancestors in the Old World — ^the ammonite as the horn of Jupiter Ammon,
and the belemnite as the bolts of the God of Thunder; the latter, though
now first seen in the antipodes by Europeans, have long been known to tne
natives of Kawhia by a much less dignified name.

Secondary rocks may probably be found in some other parts of the west
coast, and occur, according to the Bev. A. G. Purchas, in the harbour of Ho-
kianga, but everywhere are of limited superficial extent.

The Doctor next speaks of the Tertiary strata which, under very various
characters, occupy a large portion of the Northern Island. The various
tertiary strata are found for tne most part in a horizontal position — a remark-
able fact, from which we may conclude that even the numerous volcanic
eruptions which took place during and after the period of their deposition had
not power enough to dislocate the whole system, but merely to produce local
disturbances.

The Tertiary pmod must here be divided into two distinct eras, which may
perhaps correspond to the European Eocene and Miocene. There is an older
lormation wlucn is found principally on the west coast, and in the interior on
both sides of the primary ranges ; and a newer one which may be called the
Auckkad Tertiary Formation.

It will probably be interesting to give some more minute description of the
different strata of the older of these rormations, as to it belongs the " Brown-
Coal" seams, to the discovery of which Dr. Hochstetter is indebted for the
opportunitv of investigating the geology of Auckland, and on the proper
working of which he believes much of the future welfare of that province
depends.

ihe Brown-Coal formation is of verv considerable extent both in the
northern and middle islands of New Zealand, and is everywhere of similar
character.
The Drury coal, in the Drury and Hunua districts, belongs to a very good

188 THE OEOIiOQIST.

"sort of brown-coal — to the so-called " Glanzkohle," with conchoidal fracture,
instead of the existence of different series of seams, one above the other, on
different levels. Dr. Kochstetter inclines much rather to the opinion that it
is the same seam, disturbed in its level, which occnrs at the different
localities. The average thickness of the coal seam may be estimated at five or
six feet.

The seam consists of three portions : the npper part a laminated coal of
inferior quality, one foot ; then a band of shale, two inches ; the middle part
coal of a good quality, one and a-half feet ; then a band of bituminous shale,
six inches ; the lowest part presenting coal of the best quality, two and a-half
feet. The bituminous shale accompanying the coal contains fosml plants,
principally leaves of dicotyledons. It is remarkable that no fossil ferns are
found in connection with the Drury coal-beds ; the more so as at another
locality, on the west coast, seven miles from Waikato Heads, only fossil ferns,
in a most beautiful state of preservation, are imbedded in gr^ argillaceous
strata, alternating with sandstone and small coal-^eams, pro^ibly of the same
geological age as the Drury coal.

The fossil gum found in the coal is a kind of ''retinite," derived &om coni-
ferous trees, perhaps related to the kauri, but it is by no means identical with
the " kauri-^m,'* which is only found in the surface soil in those localities
where there nave been kauri forests. The fossil guin and kauri-gam are very
different in their qualities, as the most simple experiments in their ignition
wiU show.

The thickness of the forest and the inaccessibility of the country prevent
our now ascertaining, in an exact manner, the extent of the Drury coal-field.
Still the existing openings show an extent of the coal-field sufficient to en-
courage any company to work the coal in an extensive manner.

A company, under the name of '* The Waihoihoi Mining and Coal Company,"
has been formed to begin the working of it.

The same kind of coal is seen agam on the northern slope of Taupiri and
Hakarimata range. At Kupakupa, on the left bank of the Waikato, is a
beautiful seam about one hundred and fifty feet above the level of the rirer.
The thickness of the seam there exposed is about fifteen feet; how much
greater the thickness may be it is impossible to say, as the floor has never
been uncovered. This is the seam to which the attention of the inhabitants of
Auckland was directed several years ago by the Bev. A. G. Purchas. Several
tons were at that time brought to Auckhoid ; but owing to various circmn-
stances, the chief of which was the native ownership, the hope of obtaining a
supply from thence for Auckland was abandoned. No better, position could,
however, be found for mining-purposes ; and the day camiot be far distant
when it will be worked to supply nielfor the steam navigation of the Waikato,
the main artery of the Province of Auckland.

Dr. Hochstetter believes that a coal-field of considerable extent exists on
the borders of the wide plains on both sides of the Waikato, between Taupiri
and Mangatawhiri, for which district, shut in on all sides by ranges, he pro-
poses the general geo^aphical name of ** The Lower Waikato Basin."

A third coal-field exists on the western and southern boundaries of the very
fertile alluvial plains above the junction of the Waipa and Waikato, whi(i
may be distinguished as " The Middle Waikato Basin" — the future granary of
the northern portion of the island.

The localities in which coal has been discovered are the following : — ^in the
Hohinipanga range, west of Karakariki on the Waipa ; near Mohoanui and
Waitaiheke, in the Hauturu range on the upper branches of the Waroa; and
again in the Whawharua and Parepare ranges on the northern side of Rangi'
toto-mountains.

KOTBS Am) QUERIES. 189

These comparative analyses will show that the Drury coal is similar to the

European brown coals in its three principal constituents :

Auckland Black Goal

Wood. Lignite. Brown Coal, and Anthracite.

Carbon 61*4 to 62*6

Oxygen t 48*0 ^'0

Hydrogen 6'0 6-6

660 to 670
160 e70
4-0 13-0

66*0 to 760

260 19*0

4-3 2*6

73*0 to 96-61
230 3-0
6-6 0.6

Aithouffh of entirely different character, and, generally speaking, of inferior
Talue to toe older coals of the Primary formations, there is no reason why this
kind of coal should not be used in New Zealand for the same purposes as a
similar brown coal in various parts of Europe, particularly in Grermany, where
it supplies the fuel for manufactures of all kmds, for locomotives and steamers,
and lor domestic purposes. Dr. Kochstetter stronglv recommends that any
company formed for the purpose of working the coal should also establish pot-
teries for the manufacture ot earthenware. Remarkablv suitable clays of every
necessaiT variety exist in the immediate neighbourhooa of the coal-nelds. By
the establishment of such works, the value of the coal would be made appa-
rent to everybody, and the manufacture itself, if properly conducted, could not
fail to be remunerative. It may be interesting to know that the far-famed
"Bohemian porcelain" is burnt by means of brown coal, from a seam of, in
some places, ninety feet thickness. While stating the uses to which brown
coal may be applied, it is necessary to warn against the idea that it is suitable
for steioners naving to make long sea voyages. The bulky nature of the
brown-coal will always prevent such steamers taking it on board when they can
procnre black coal. But, on the other hand, its qualities as a gas-producing
coal will render it valuable as an article of export.

Of the older Tertiary strata examples are found occurring in great regularity
on the west coast from Waikato to Kawhi. The lowest are argillaceous, the
middle calcareous, the iipper arenaceous.

The characteristics of the first clayey strata are a li^ht grey colour, very
few fossils, small crystals of iron pyrites and glauconitic grains, which give
these clay-marls a similarity to the gault and green-sands of the Cretaceous
formation in Europe. They are found on the eastern branches of Whain-
garoa^ ' Aotea, and iCawhia liarbours.

Of greater interest and importance are the calcareous strata, consisting of
tabular limestone, sometimes of a conglomerate nature, sometimes more crys-
talliae, the whole mass of which is formed of fragments of shells, corals, and
forammifera, interspersed with perfect specimens of terebratul®, oysters and
pectens, and other shells. This limestone, when burnt, makes excellent lime«
and may be wrought and polished for architectural purposes.

The Deds of limestone worked by Messrs. Smith and Cooper, in the Wairoa
district, belong to this formation, -as do also the rich fossiliferous strata from
the Waikato Heads towards Kawhia harbour.

Picturesque columnar rocks of the same nature, looking almost as if they
were artificially built of tabular blocks, adorn the entrance to Whaingaroa
harbour ; and the romantic (limestone) scenery, and the fine caves of the
Eakaunui river, a branch of Kawliia harbour, are deservedly prized by the
settlers of Kawhia Harbour.

The limestone formation attains its greatest thickness (from four hundred to
five hundred feet) in the Upper Waipa and Mokau district, between the Ran-
mtoto range and the west coast. It has in this country many remarkable
features-
No one can enter without admiration the stalactite caves of Tana-uri-uri, at
Hangatiki, and of Parianewanewa, near the sources of the Waipa, the former
haunts of the gigantic Moa.
Dr. Hochstetter says : " I went into those caves in the hope of meeting

190 THE OBOLOaiST.

with a rich harvest of Moa skeletons, but I was sadly disappointed. Those
who had been before me in the days of Moa enthusiasm naving carried off every
vesti^ of a bone. Great, however, was my labour, and not little my satisfac-
tion, m dragging out the headless and legless skeleton of a Moa from beneath
the dust and mth of an old raupo hut. The Maories, seeine the greediness
with which the ' pakehas' hunted after old Moa bones, have lone since care-
fully collected all they could find, and deposited them in some safe nidinff-place,
waiting for the opportunity of exchanging them for pieces of gold ana silver,
showing thus how well they have learnt Uie lesson taught them by t^e exam-
ple of the ' pakeha.'

The subterranean passages of the rivers in the Fehiope and Mairoa district
are highlv characteristic of the limestone-formation. The limestone-rocks, fis-
sured ana channelled, are penetrated by the water, and the streams run below
the limestone upon the surface of the argillaceous strata, underlying the lime-
stone. This explains the scarcity of water on the limestone plateau which
divides the sources of the Waipa and Mokan rivers. The plateau is covered
with a splendid growth of grass, and would form an excellent cattle run but for
the deep funnel-shaped holes which everywhere abound. They are similar to
the holes which occur in the limestone-downs in England, and on the Karst
mountains on the shore of the Adriatic Gulf, where they are called " dolines."

The third and uppermost stratum of the older tertiary formation consists of
beds of fine fossiliierous sandstone, in which quarries of good building-stone
may be found. There are whole ranges parallel to the primary mountains
which seem to consist of this sandstone, as, for example, the Tapua-wahine
range, about two thousand feet above the level of the sea.

Without a map on a large scale, it would be useless to enter more minutely
into a description of the various localities in which the different formations
occur. It may, however, be mentioned that limestone and brown-coal have
been found in places to the north of Auckland, in the districts from Cape Eod-
ney to North Cape.

The horizontal beds of sandstone and marls which form the cliffs of the
Waitemats^ and extend in a northerly direction towards Kawau, belon|g to a
newer tertiary formation, and, instead of coal, have only thin layers of Hgnite.
A characteristic feature of the Auckland tertiary formation is the existence of
beds of volcanic ashes, which are here and there interstratified with the ordi-
nary tertiary layers.

The volcanic formations, from their great extent and the remarkable and
beautiful phenomena connected with them, render the Northern Island of
New Zeahmd, and especially the province of Auckland, one of the most inte-
resting parts of the world.

Lofty trachytic peaks covered with perpetual snow, a vast number of
smaller volcanic cones presenting all the varied characteristics of volcanic
systems, and a Ion? line of boiling i^rings, fumaroles, and solfataras, present
an almost unbouncfed field of interest, and, at the same time, a succession of
magnificent scenery.

it is only throue[h a long series of volcanic eruptions, extending over Uie
Tertiary and Post-Tertiary periods, that the Northern Island has attained its
present form. It would be a difficult task to point out the ancient form of
the antipodean Archipelago, the site of which is now occupied by the Islands
of New Zealand. It is necessary, therefore, to restrict these remarks to a
simple indication of the events which have given that country the form it was
found to have by the South-Sea Islanders on their arrival, many centuries ago,
from the Samoan group — a form in all main respects the same as is now before
our eyes.

The first volcanic eruptions were submarine, consisting of vast quantities of

NOTES AND QUBRIfiS. 191

tracbytic lava, breccia» tuff, obsidian, and pumice-stone, whidi, flowing over
the bottom of the sea, formed an extensive submarine volcanic plateau. The
Yoicanic action continuing, the whole mass was upheaved above the level of
the sea, and new phenomena were developed. The eruptions goinff on in the
air instead of under the sea, lofty cones of trachytic and phonolknic lava, of
ashes and cinders, were gradually formed. These eruptions, breakiujB^ through
the original submarine layers of trachytic lava — breccia and tuff, raised them,
and left them as we now mid them, forming a more or less regular belt round the
central cones, and having a slight inclination from the centre outwards. These
helts I shall have occasion to refer to under the name of " tuff-craters," or
" cones of tuffs,*' or " craters of elevation.'* In the course of time the vol-
canic action decreased, and we must now imagine that tremendous earthquakes
ocenrred ; that parts of the newly-formed crust gave way and fell in, forming
vast chasms ana fissures, which are now occupied by the leJ^es, hot-springs,
and solfataras.

Thus we now find in the central part of the Northern Island an extensive
yoicanic plateau of an elevation of two thousand feet, from which rise two
gigantic mountains, Tongariro and Euapahu. They are surrounded by many
smaller cones, as Pihanga, Kakaramea, Kaharua, Kangitukua, Puke Onake,
Hauhanga. llie natives have well named these latter, "the wives and
children of the the two giants Tongariro and Ruapahu ;*' and they have a
legend to the effect that a third giant, named Taranaki, formerly stood near
these two, but quarrelling with his companions about their wives, was worsted
m combat, and forced to fly to the west coast, where he now stands in solitary
grandeur, the magnificent snow capped beacon of Mount Egmont (eijght
thousand two hundred and seventy teet). These are the three principal
trachytic cones of the Northern Island.

By far the grandest and loftiest of the three is Ruapahu, whose truncated
cone, standing on a basis of about twenty-five miles m diameter, attains a
height of nine thousand to ten thousand feet above the level of the sea, about
three thousand feet of which is covered with glaciers and perpetual snow.
Enapabu, like Taranaki, is extinct. Tongariro alone can be said to be active.
Dr. Hochstetter distinguished five craters on Tongariro, three of which are, to
a certain extent, active. Steam is always issuing from them, and the natives
state that from the principal crater, called Ngauruhoe, on the top of the highest
cone of eruption (seven thousand five hundred feet), occasional eruptions of
black ashes and dust take place, accompanied with loud subterranean noises.
It may be remarked that the shape of the cone is changing, the western side,
for instance, having, during the great earthquake at Wellington in 1854,
fallen in, so that the interior of the crater is now visible from the higher points
in the Tuhua district on the Upper Whanganui. The remarkable fact, that
snow does not rest upon some of the upper points of the Tongariro system,
whUe the lower ones are covered all the wmter through, shows that those parts
are of a high temperature.

There is an interesting account of an ascent of the highest cone of eruption
bv Mr. H. Dyson, communicated to the "New Zealander," 1851, bv A. S.
Thomson, M.D. Mr. Dyson, in 1851, and Mr. Bidwell, in 1839, are the only
Europeans who have ascended the highest cone of Tongariro.

The second active crater of the Tongariro system, at the top of a lower cone
north of Ngauruhoe, is called Ketetimi. According to the natives the first
eruption of this crater took place simultaneously with the Wellington earth-
quaie of 1854. From Taupo lake Dr. Hochstetter saw large and dense
volumes of steam, larger than those from Ngauruhoe, emerging from the Kete-
tahi crater. The Uikd active point on the Tongariro svstem is a great solfatara
on the north-western slope of the range. The hot sulphurous springs of that

192 THB QEOLOOIST.

Bolfatara are often yisited by the natives on account of the relief they ex-
perience in respect to their cutaneous diseases.

A grand impression is made upon the traveller by those two magnificent
volcanic cones, KuApahu, shining with the brilliancy of perpetual snow, Tonga-
riro, with its black cinder-cone capped with a rising cloud of white steam : tne
two m^estic mountains standing side by side upon a barren desert of pumice,
called by the natives One-tapu, and the whole reflected as by a mirror by the
waters of Lake Taupo.

Lake Taupo is twenty-two English miles long in the direction from Terapa
to Tapuaeharuru, and sixteen broad. It is surrounded by elevated pumice-
stone plateaus, above two thousand feet above the sea, and seven hundred feet
above the lake. The Waikato river, taking its rise from Tongariro, flows
through the lake, traversing the pumice-stone plateau on either side. In
accordance with the names already proposed for the middle and lower Waibto
Plains, the Taupo country wiU form the Upper Waikato Basin.

It is one of tne most characteristic features in the structure of the Northern
Island, that from the shores of Taupo Lake an almost level pumice-stone p|Iain,
called Kaingaroa Plain, stretches at the foot of the East Cape range, with a
very gradual descent to the coast between Whakatane and Matata. A plain
which, though now presenting a sterile appearance, will, I hope, at no distant
day, be converted into fine grassy land, capable of supporting large flocks of sheep.

In a similar way, a higher volcanic plateau, consisting of trachytic tuff and
breccia, and various other volcanic rocks, stretches in a more northerly direction
to the east coast, between Maketu and Tauranga, the farthest extremities of
which reach even to the Auckland district. On one side of Hauraki Gulf, the
Coromandel range is covered with trachytic breccia, and again, on the west
coast, the same rocks form the coast-range from Manukan to Kaipara. This
extensive plateau is intersected by many deep valleys, the sides of which are
characterized by a succession of remarkaole terraces. The same plateau is ^Jso
broken in many places by more or less regular trachytic cones, m>m one thou-
sand to three thousand feet high. If we take a wider view of the ffeological
features and the physical outline of these just described high plains ana plateaus
consisting of regular layers of trachytic rocks, breccia^ and tuff", we snail find
that the steep cones of Ruapaho and Tongariro rise from the centre of a vast
tuff-cone of extremely gradual inclination, tne basis of which occupies the whole
country from shore to shore — from east to west — Shaving a diameter of one
hundred sea-miles, and forming the largest cone of tuffs, or in other words the
largest crater of elevation in the whole world.

Intimately connected with the described volcanic phenomena of the actiye
and extinct volcanic mountains are the solfataras, fumaroles, and hot springs.
They are found in a long series, stretching across the country in a north-north-
east direction, from the active crater Ngauruhoe in the Tongariro system, to
the active crater of White Island (Whakari), occupying the chasms and fissures
already referred to.

There is only one other place in the world in which such a number of hot-
springs are found that have periodical outbursts of boiling water, that is in
Iceland, the well known geysirs of which are of precisely similar chaiwjter to
those in New Zealand. Although there may be no single intermittent spring
in New Zealand of equal magnitude with the great geysir in Iceland, yet in the
extent of country in which these springs occur, in the immense number of
them, and in the beauty and extent of the siliceous incrustations and deposits,
New Zealand far exceeds Iceland.

On the southern extremity of Taupo lake, at Tokanu, is Pirori, an intc^
mittent fountain of boiling water, two feet in diameter, sometimes reaching a
height of more than forty feet. On the opposite side of Taupo, at the northern

N0TB8 AKO QUB&ip^S. 193

extremi^ of the lake, hot-springs again are met with, and with a river of warm

water called Waipahihi, which, rising in the extinct volcanic cone of Tauhara,
falls, in a vapour-crowned cascade, into Taupo. Descendius^ from Taupo by the
oatlet of the Waikato, on the left bank, in the midst of a great number of
pools of boiling mud, is a fumarole called Karapiti, an enormous jet of high-
pressure steam, escaping with such force as to produce a sound like lettiu£-off
the steam from huge boilers, and to eject to a great height sticks, or theuke,
thrown in by the curious traveller. On the rieht bank is the fumarole of
similar character, called Parakiri. About twentv-nve miles below the outlet of
the Waikato from Taupo, at Orakei-korako, both banks of the rapidly-flowing
riyer are perforated, in more than a hundred different places, by fumaroles ana
boiliiig-springs, mostlv intermittent. Temimi-a-Komaiterangi, the principal
geysir, throws up its large column of boiling water at intervals of about two
hoars to a height from twenty to thirty feet. An immense volume of steam
succeeds each jet, and the water then suddenly sinks into the basin.

At Orakei-korako the line of hot-springs crosses the Waikato, and continues
along the foot of the very remarkable Pairoa range on the eastern side of the
Waikato. The almost perpendicular western side of this ranse is caused by an
immense ''fault" in the volcanic plateau, corresponding to a deep fissure in the
earth-crust horn which sulphurons acid, sulphuretted hvdrogen, sulphur and
steam are continually escapmg, while huge bubbles of boning ash-ooloured mud
rise to the surface.

From the same range the warm-water river Waikite takes its origin. On
both sides are deep pools of boiling water, on the margins of which we dis-
covered most beautuul ferns, hitherto unknown, one species belonging to the
genus K^hrolepist the other to the genus Goneopteris, These ferns are re-
markable not only for their elegance, but also from the peculiar circumstances
under which they exist, as they are always surrounded by an atmosphere of steam.
We now come to the well known Botomahana, the most wonderful of all the
wonders of the hot-spring district of New Zealand. Whoever has once had
the happiness to look into the blue eyes of Otukapuarangi and Te Tarata can
never forget their charms ; and whoever has stood beside the boiling surf of the
Ngahapu basin will always retaiu a vivid impression of its terrors. The ter-
races of siHoeous deposit on the shores of Rotomahana are unequalled ui the
world, nor is there anything that even bears any resemblance to them.

On the Eotorua lake the intermittent boiling springs of Whaka-rewarewa are
the most interesting. Waikite> the principal "ugawha,'' issues from the top
of a siliceous cone some twenty feet nigh, surrounded by several smaller gey-
sirs, mud-pools, and solfataras. At intervals, sometimes extending to manv
months, all these "ngawhas" begin to play tospether, and form a scene which
must be most wonderful and beautiful. The hot-springs of Ohinemutu form
agreeable bathing-plaees, the fame of which is already established. The last in
the line are the great solfataras on the pumice-stone plateau between Botorua
and Rotoiti, such as Tikitere and Ruahine.

All the waters of these sprinjgB are derived from atmospheric moisture,
which, falling on the high vofeanic plateau, permeates the surface and sinks
into fissures. Taupo, the axis of which corresponds with the line of the hot
springs, may also be considered as a vast reservoir, from which the lower springs
are suppUedf. The water, sinking into the fissures, becomes heated by the stm-
existing volcanic fires. Hieh-pressure steam is thus generated, which, together
with the volcanic gases, decompose the trachytic rocks. The soluble sub-
stances are thus removed by the water, which is forced up, by the expansive
force of the steam and by hydrostatic pressure, in the shape of boiling springs.
The insoluble substances form a residuum of white or red fumarole day, of
which the hills at Terapa round Eotamahana and the Pairoa consist.

VOL. III. 2 B

194 THB OBOLOQTST.

All the New Zealand liot-Bpriiigs, like thoee of Iceland, abound in sOica, and
are to be diyided into two distinct classes, the one alkaline, and the other add.
To the latter belong the solfataras, characterized by deposits of sulphur, and us
never forming intermittent fountains. All the intermittent spring belong to
the alkaline class, in which are also included tiie most of the ordmary horns
springs. Sulphurets of sodium and potassium, and carbonates of potash and
soda are the solvents of the silica, which, on the coolm^ and evaporation of the
water, is deposited in such quantities as to form a striking characteristic in the
appearance of these spring.

To enter more deeply mto the theory of these phenomena would be out of
place here. It may be, however, well to mention that numerous facts prove
that the action which gives rise to the hot-springs is slowly diminishing.

Ere long these hot springs will probably be visited by many travelers, not
only for the sake of their boiuty and interest, but also for the medicinal virtues
they hare been proved to possess. Already many Europeans have bathed in,
and derived benefit from, tne warm waters at Oruei-korako and Botomahana.

There is an interesting legend current among the natives in reference to the
origin of these hot springs. The legend, as told by Te Heuheu, the great
chief on the Taupo lake, is the following : — " The great chief Neatiroirangi,
after his arrival at Maketu at the time of the immigration of the Matnies from
Hawaiki, set off with his slave Ngauruhoe to visit the interior, and, in order to
obtain a better view of the country, he ascended the highest peak of the Ton-
gariro. Here they suffered severdy from cold, and the chief shouted to his
sister on Whakan (White Island) to send Imn [some fire. This the^r did.
They sent on the sacred fire they brought from Hawaika, by the tjmiwhas
Pupu and Ta Haeata, through a subterranean passage to the top of Tongariro.
The fire arrived just in time to save the life of the chief, but poor Kgaurnhoe
was dead when tne chief turned to give him the fire. On this account the hk
through which the fire made its appearance — ^the active crater of Tongariro—
is called to this day by the name of the slave Ngauruhoe; and the sacred fire
still bums within the whole underground passage along which it was earned
from Whakari to Tongariro."

This legend affords a remarkable instance of the accurate observation of the
natives, vmo have thus indicated the true line of the chief volcanic action in
this island.

Having described the older and more extensive volcanic phenomena of the in-
terior. Dr. Hochstetter proceeded to notice the later phenomena of volcanic
action in the immediate neighbourhood of Auckland.

The isthmus of Auckland is completelv perforated by volcanic action, and
presents a large number of true volcanic hifis, which, although extinct and of
small size, are perfect models of volcanic mountains. These hills, once the
funnels out of which torrents of burning lava were vomited forth, and after
wards the strongholds of savage cannibs£s, are now the ornaments of a happy
land, the home of peaceful settlers, whose fruitful gardens and smiling fields
derive their fertility from the substances long ago thrown up from the fiery
bowels of the earth.

Dr. Hochstetter*s geological map of the Auckland district shows no less than
sixty points of volcanic eruption within a radius of ten miles ; the variety of
which, together with the regularity of their formations, gives verv ^^
interest to this neighbourhood. The newer volcanic hills round Auckland are
distinguished from the older ones in the interior, not only by their age, but by
the different character of their lava, the older being trachytic, while the Auck-
land are all basaltic. The difference between trachyte and basalt consists in
the minerals of which the rocks are composed. Trachyte is composed of a mix-
ture of glassy felspar (sanidin) and hornblende : obsidiian and pumice-stone are

NOTES AND QUBBIES. 195

the lunul oonoonutanis of trachytic lava. Basalt oonsists of a minutely orys-
tdlke mass of felspar mixed with augite ; an admixtuie of greenish grains of
olivine is characteristic of basalt.

In order to gain a dear idea of the history of the Auckland volcanos, we
must suppose that before the period in which tne Auckland isthmus was slowly
raised above the level of the sea» a submarine volcanic action was ah*eady going
on. The products of this submarine action are regular beds of volcanic ashes,
whidi form highly interesting circuLir basins with strata always inclining from
within, outwards. Several striking examples can be mentioned, as the rupuki
Lake on the north shore, Orakei Bay in the Waitemata; Geddes' Basin
(Hopua) at Onehunga, and the tidal basm (Waima^ia) at Panmure. Pupuki
Lake, believed to be bottomless, has been ascertained by Captain Burgess to
be only twentjr-eight fathoms. The excellence of the soil of Onehunga and
Otahnhu is owing to the abundance of such formations, the decomposed strata
of which form the richest soil that can be met with. It is curious to observe
how the shrewder amongst the settlers, without any geological knowledge,
have picked out these tuff-craters for themselves, while those with less acute
powers of observation have quietly sat down upon the cold tertiary clays.

After the submarine formation of the tuff-craters, the volcamc action con-
tindng, the isthmus of Auckland was slowly raised above the sea, and then the
more recent eruptions took place by which the cones of scoria, like Mount
Eden, Mount Wellington, One Tree Hill, Mount Smart, Mount Albert, and
Baneitoto, were formed, and great outflowines of lava took place. Many
pecouar circumstances, however, prove that tnose mountains have not been
burning all simultaneously, for it can ea»ly be observed that some lava-
streams are of an older date than others. In general the scoria-cones rise from
the centre of the tuff-craters ^ (Three Kings, Waitomokia, Pigeon Hill near
Howick) ; but occasionally, as in the instance of Mount Wellington, they break
through their margins.

The crater system of Mount Wellington is one of the most interesting in this
neighbourhood. There are craters and cones of evidently different ages. The
result of the earliest submarine eruptions is a tuff-crater. The Panmure-road
trasses through the tuff-crater, and the cutting through its brim exhibits beau-
tifoHy the characteristic outward-inclination of the beds of ashes, elevated from
their former horizontal levels by the eruptions, which threw up the two minor
crater-cones south of the Toaa, one of which is now cut into by a quarry.
After a comparatively long period of quiescence, there arose from tne margin of
the first crater system the great scoria-cone. Mount Welling^n, from the three
craters of whidi large streams of basaltic lava flowed out in a westerly direc-
tion, extending north and south along the existing valleys of the country, one
stream flowing into the old tuff-crater, and sprecuoing round the bases of the
smaller crater-cones. The larger masses of these streams flowed in a south-
westerly direction towards the Manukau, coming into contact with the older
and kmg-before hardened lava-streams of One Tree Hill. The traveller on the
Great South Bx)ad will observe about one mile east of the ''Harp Inn," the
peculiar difference in the colour on the road, suddenly changing from red to
black, where the road leaves the older and more decomposed lava-streams of
Mount Wellington. The farmers have been able to avail themselves of the
the decomposea lava-surface, which is now beautifolly grass-covered, but not of
the stone-neld of the newer streams from Mount WeUi^on and Mount Smart.

The caves at the Three Kings, Pukaki, Mount Smut, Mount Wellington,
&c., are the result of great bubbles in the lava-streams, occasioned by the
generation of gases and vapour as the hot masses rolled onward over marshy
pUins. These Dubbles broke down on their thinnest part — the roof; hence the
way into the caves is always directly downward.

196 THE QEOLOOIST.

Examples of every gradation may be seen, from the simpie tnff-orater witii-
out aay cone, to those which are entirely filled up by the sooria-oones.
Especially interesting are those which may be said to represent the middle
state, in which there is a small cone standing like an ishmd in a hurge tuJF-
orater, and surrounded by either water or swamp. Perhaps the most perfect
specimens of this kind occur at Otahuhu, and near Capt^ain Haultain's estate.
Auckland itself is but over the centre of an old tuff-crater, from which fiery
streams once issued, and which has thrown out its ashes towards the hill on
which the barracks stand. In order to account for their various shapes, it
must be borne in mind that the cones of scoria were once higher, but on tbe
cessation of volcanic action they sunk down in cooling, and some have entirely
disappeared.

Tnat the Auckland volcanos were, in the true sense of the word, "hnming
mountains," is proved not only bv the lava-streams, which are immense in com-
parison to the size of the cones, but also from the pear-shaped volcanic bombs
which, ejected from the mountain in a fluid state, have received their shape
from their rotary motion through the air. That their eruptions have been of
comparatively recent date, ia shown by the ashes that everywhere form the sa^
face, and from the lava-streams having taken the course of the existing yalleys.
This is beautifully exemplified by the probably simultaneous lava-streams of
Mount Eden, the Three Kings, and Mount Albert, which, flowing through a
contracted valley, meet altogether on the Great North Road, and form one
large stream to the shore of the Waitemata. But many thousand years may
have passed since Rangitoto, which is probably the most recent oi the Auck-
land volcanos, was in an active state.

Many subjects of interest were passed over bv Dr. Hochstetter with onlycasual
remarks, such as the quaternary tonnationin tne Drury, Fapakura, andWaiukn
flats ; the basaltic boulder formation ; the alluvial formations in the middle and
lower Waikato Basin, and other places ; and the dianges which are now
going on.

The materials accumulated during his six month's sojourn in New Zealand
will require, he states, several years of labour to prepare for publication ; bat
we are led to expect valuable results whenever his work is completed.

Ancient Canoes. — Deak Sib, — There being now reason to oelieve that the
British Isles were tenanted by human beings who probably crossed over from
the great continent of Europe, the question of the antiquities of canoes becomes
highly interesting. Very primitive indeed are these ancient canoes which have
hitherto been found — simply a part of a trunk of a tree split and hollowed out
with rudely formed adzes of fiint, such as have been found in the cramioges*
in Ireland.

Seventeen such canoes have been found in the strata formed by the river
Clyde ; for an account of which see the lecture on Geology, given by his Grace
the Duke of Axgyll, before the members of the Glasgow Athen«um, in January
of last year.

Prom the fact of the canoes being found twenty feet below the surface, there
can be no doubt that they were entombed at a very remote period, for it must
have required a long time for those canoes to have become covered to that ex-
tent with the sand and sravel brought down by the river, in the waters of
which thay had sunk. Numbers of similar instances might be adduced of
canoes being found at considerable depths.

Of the canoes above alluded to, one is stated to have been found in digging

■»,*T?®?,ft® " ^^'"^^^fifa© of Antiquities of Stone, &c., in the Royal Irish Academy." Dublin

M. H.. Crlll.

N0XB8 AHD QUSBIES. 197

the foandatiQiis of St. Enoch's chucli, Glasgow ; another at the '* Tontine-
boiidiiigs," at the Gross ;" and a third in digginp^ the foundations of the new
prison. In the British Museum, the Museum of the Yorkshire Philosophical
bfxkkj at York, and in the collections of other societies, at Edinbunrh, Glas-
gow; Newcastle, ftc, will be found other examples. — Yours, Edwabd Tikdall,
Bridlington.

Yegbtabub Fossils in Flint, fto. — ^Will you be so kind as to inform me
in your ''Notes and Queries" whether any vegetable matter has yet been dis-
covered in flint P I have been anxiously reading any articles in the ** Geologist"
on fossils from flints, but find no mention of such. My regards were particu-
larly directed to the subject, by discoYcring embedded in red flint what appears
to be a portion of Corallina officinalis, as a living specimen would be called,
vith this difference, that the stem seems formed of minute threads jointed at
intervals. The fossil, though small, is quite distinct, and the terminal cera-
midia look like little pearls. The surface of the flint in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the coralline, if it be such, is of a chocolate colour.

I shall be much obliged if you will have the goodness to direct me to some
not expensive work on the Umestone and lower slate formations of Ireland.
—Very truly yours, A. de 8. M.

The flints of the chalk occasionally contain fragments of fossil wood, and
more frequently the spores of Algab, the so-called Spiniferites of MantelPs
"Medals. Oiher ve^table fossils are rare in the flints. Possibly the minute
Corallinarlike obiect in the flint referred to may be a Nodosaria, one of the
elongated beaded Foraminifera. We cannot call to mind any work treating of
the umestone and slates of Ireland.

Evidences op Ancient Ice-action nbak Liverpool. — Dbae SiB,---The
new red sandstone in this neighbourhood is usually covered with deposits of
hard day, containing rounded stones of all sizes, from that of a pea to those
five or SIX feet in circumference ; in some cases they are scratched and polished.
There are also beds of sand and gravel containing shells, which are generally
beneath the clay. The whole of these deposits are referred to the " Doulder-
cky," or "northern drift." It is assumed that the clay, sand, gravel, or
boulder-stones were all dropped from melting icebergs as tney descended from
more northern latitudes. I am not aware that we have hitherto had any other
evidence in this district than that afforded by the boulders, though tnat evi-
dence is very conclusive. During the month of May last my attention was
called to tlie subject by indications of ice-grooves and furrows on the high
ground between Parkhili-road and the Dingle. The sandstone-rock belongs to
tne conglomerate-beds of the bunter-sandstone. The strata dip ten decrees to
the east. The striated surface has been covered by nine feet of boulder-clay,
part of which was removed some years ago for bnckmaking. One specimen
exhibited the strongly marked parallel fines and deep grooves which ex-
tended across it. The surface from which it was obtained oips five degrees to
the north-east. The direction of the lines is north-west by north, or more
correctly, forty-two degrees west of north, allowing twenty-four degrees for
variation. About ten yards were at first visible ; but, by employing a labourer
to clear away some of the clay, at least twenty square yards have been observed,
and no doubt the same appearances extend over a considerable extent of surface
beneath the boulder-clay. If this worn surface resulted from the action of ice,
it must have been from the grounding of icebergs as they passed over the por-
tion of rock upon which it is found. In the valley "beyond Eastham the
boulder-day contains many fragments of red sandstone, which seem to have
been derived from the high land already alluded to, and afford further indica-
tions as to the direction of the prevailing currents of the glacial sea. — Geo.
H. MoKTQN, F.G.S., Liverpool.

198 THI OSOLOOIST.

Fossil Fruit r&ou Upfek Coal HaAarKas, meak BoL-r<nt.~^DBAK Sia,
— HATisg noticed jonr kindness in inserting anj remark npon pbeoomeua
which may have passed nnder the notice of jonr readera, I take the libertj of
making the following. The enclosed is a fniit I have obtuned from a qoanj
in the upper coal meaaurea, near Bolton. It occurred along with masses M
Trigonoearpum olmforme, Noegfferaliia, &c.,toget)itr with Calaiiiitei,.Siffilkri<i,
Lepidodeadron, and CalMia, &c. ; and the upper flag shales contain nuin««i]3
impressions of ferns, chielj Pecoptfti* loncUHea, Seureyierii, ftc. The hige

Lign. 1.— Large Fruit, from Uu Upper Coil KaaMorem, near Bedhn.

fruit is now in the possession of Mr. Binnej, of Manchester : it has six lobes,
which ascend from the base and meet at the summit, and it is laiver than the
usoal Trigoxoeajpum. Its appearance veer much resembles the Irnit of the
Zaini^ figured in vol. i. of Mantell's " Uedata of Creation." The smaller fmit

Ugn, g,— Small l^nit, bom th« 1Tpp«r Onal U

Bnuill Iiuit.

is about the size of a large pea ; it is much like the larger, but its lobes ii«
not so rounded ; it appears to be the votmg of the other. Ji any of your
readers have met vitu such an one, ana will let me know, or if you will ofibr
any remarks, it will oblige yours, Johk Tayloe, LevenshuW.

Geology o? Malta- — Sib, — Will you furnish, me with some information on
the subject of the deposits in the island of Gozo, off Malta?

The islands ot Malta and Gozo consist of Tertiary rocks. These wen
described in 1S13 by Captain Spratt, who with Lord Ducie has since prepMtd
a geological map of these islands. In the Proceedings of the Geologiul
Society, vol. ir., p. 225, &c., is an account of the beds found in the taluds,
namely, Ist and uppermost, coral-limestone i 2, yellow sandstone and blue
clay ; 3, freestone ; and 4, semi-erystalline Umestone. These strata lie for the
most part horizontally, though faulted and cnunpbd in some places. !b the
Benjemma Hills the four groups of beds have a thickness of about six hundred
feet. Professor B. Forbes' report upon the fossils accompanied Csptain
Spratl's memoir. Since then Dr. Wright has figured and describol the WQ

NOTES AND QUERIES. 199

Echinoderms of Malta in the Annals of Natural History, Snd series, vol xt.,
p. 101, &c.

Echmoderms are abandant in beds Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and are found also in
No. 4. sWks have left their teeth abundantly in No. 2; and remains of
other fishes are frequent in No. 3.

New Geological Wokks. — Can you tell me whether anything like a com-
plete list of all the works on geology published during the last year can be
procured ? Such a Hst would of course include new editions of old books,
such as the last of " Siluria^" Page's " Handbook," &c. And then with
reference to the "works of art in the drift ;" do you know of any r^sum4 or
analysis of this question ? It would be exceediiuny interesting to have the
whole eyidence collected, in order that one might study and compare the
various hypotheses at a fflance, so to speak. — H. D,

With respect to worxs of art in the drift, snch a work is in contemplation
by the editor of this magazine. Bent's Monthly Literwy Advertiser is sup-
posed to give a list of aHL new English books and new editions. We shall give
this topic further consideration, as to whether we can render the pages of
this magazine useful in this respect. No resume of the memoirs, papers, notes,
discourses, lectures, letters, &c., about the flints is yet made.

Pkesbbvation of Coal Plants in Cabinets. — Sib,~I have some
specimens of coal shale, which as usual bear upon their respective surfaces im-
pressions of Eems, CsJamites, &c. Several of the impressions being rather
mdistinct, I wish, if possible, to render them more apparent, but in such a
nuumer as not to injure them in any way. If I mistake not, I have somewhere
seen it remarked that this object may be accomplished by gently brushine over
the surface a weak solution of Canada balsam dissolved in turpentine ; out as
I am doubtful as to whether such be the case, I have ventured to refer myself
to YOU for the desired information. — Yours, &c., Amatoe NatuBu«.

Coal plants are very commonly much injured by collectors themselves, by
being washed in water. Specimens will of course get dusty in the cabinet, and
recourse is naturally had to water for cleansing them. Water is also fre-
quently applied to neighten the contrast of their dark ooally substance in
ordinary examinations, but the process of wetting is always ruinous to the
specimens. Appreciating the value of a proper means of preserving coal-plants,
we have submitted our correspondent's question to our fnend, Mr. S. P. Wood
ward, of the British Museum, who tells us that he finds it " necessary to var-
nish, in some way, the coal-shale plants, both for the purpose of mabnff them
more distinct at a little distance, and also to enable them to be sponged when
they get dusty.

" I have seen fossils varnished with Canada balsam at the Geolo^cal Society,
some years ago, but it never appeared to answer for any length of time. The
balsam got soft in hot weather ; dust adhered to it ; and after a time it was
always opaque.

" I am now trying some very thin and pellucid white lac varnish, of Kowney's,
which is soluble in spirits of wine. I usually endeavour to apply it the fossil
only, and not to the matrix ; and keep it so much diluted as not to make the
surface shine more than I can possioly help. This varnish is also useful for
protecting one part of a specimen while another part is being subjected to the
action of wet for the purpose of cleaning it."

Geology op Cornwall. — Sir, — As I intend visiting Cornwall this summer,
I should feel much obliged for any information you could give me through the
** Geologist" as to the nature of the strata in that county, more particularly
near Truro, or on the coast near the " Deadman" and " Gull" rocks, or " Ger-
ran's Bay," and what fossils are generally found there. — ^Yours, &c.. Delta.

The rocks of Cornwall are chiefly slaty schists, termed "killas," and granite.

200 THE OEOLOOIST.

with yeins of granite and porphyiy, termed " eLvans," &c. In the vaBejs
towards the sea are often thick accumulations of gravel and other aUuvial
matters, with peaty deposits, from which stream-tin is obtained. Bound about
Truro the schistose rocks prevail. The Deadman is composed of slate-rock,
supposed to be of Lower SQurian age, which reaches up to Pentuan, and yields
a lew fossils at Great Feraver, noHh of Gorran Haven. The quartz-iock of
the Great Cam vields also a few fossils, and some have been found at Porth
Caerhays. The fossils are chiefly Orthis and Trilobites.

REVIEWS.

Map of Skipton, By T. Cublet, C.E., F.G.S. 1860.

We have on a former occasion noticed one of Mr. Gurley's local maps, and
we are glad to find that he continues to append sections and details of geolo-
gical phenomena exposed in the works of which he has the direction. The
present map has been executed for the local Board of Health of Skipton; and
shows the unes of the new sewers and the position of the new water reservoir
and filter beds. The principal geological section given is along the line of
the main sewer, through the Castle to Storem*s Lathe, showing the carboni-
ferous limestone with its anticlinal axis and the superficial gravels, sands, and
alluvial deposits.

Amongst the numerous other sections exposed in the works in various other
streets and roads, we notice the occurrence of mammalian bones in peat, below
gravel, in that of Water-street ; of a shell-marl containing Physa ftmtam in
that of Thanet-street ; and a gravel containing boulders, some as much as three
and a-quarter tons in weight, in that of Newmarket-street.

The map is very nicely and carefully executed ; and the geol(^cal details,
from their reliableness, render it a valuable record of the lood stratigraphical
conditions.

A Comparative View of the Human and Animal Frams, By B. Watbbhousb
Hawkins, F.L.S., F.G.S. London -. Chapman and HaU. 1860.

The object of this work is to give a comparative view of the variations in
form of the bony skeleton or framework of those animals most frequently re-
quired by the artist, designer, or omamentist ; and most admirably, by judicious
arrangement and skilfulness of delineation is this end attained. Whether we
wish to compare vertebral columns, ribs, arms and fore-limbs, legs and hind-
Hmbs, or to study any individual or particular bones, in these plates we have at
once not only faithful portraits of the objects, but we find the attitudes of the
figures so thoughtfully posed, that we can carry the comparison at once even
to the different actions these bones or parts are subjectea to in the different
animals by similar movements. Thev show, too, more completely than any
plates we can remember to have seen, tne true archetypal plan of the vertebrate
skeleton and the subservient modifications it has undergone in its adaptation to
the wants and requirements of the various grades and classes of animab.

THE GEOLOGIST.

JUNE, 1860.

GEOLOGICAL LO C ALITIE S. — NO. I,

FOLKESTONE.

By S. J. Mackie, F.G.S., F.S.A.

(Gontimied fromjpage 131.^

Where now is tliat great ^nereal mass P Where now that two
thousand feet of ocean mnd and sand ? All round the rim of the
great Wealden area the basset-edges of that thick mass crop ont,
bearing on their cliff-like downs patches of red loam, gravel and
roimd flint-pebbles — ^remnants that mark the ravages of time and
physical forces npon the rock-beds of yet another age, in which that
great Cretaceons mass was slowly raised, bearing as it were on its
shoulders the ever-forming ooze, filled with the relics of other inter-
vening forms of life that reigned in that vast interval between the
Secondary period and onr own.

The story, then, is not half told ; and we must not panse at the
simple piHng by the tides and sea-cnrrents of the more than thou-
sand feet of greensand, ganlt, and chalk, and the Tertiary sands and
clays on these, but we must read on in the record-book that Nature
keeps, and glean other facts and other scenes from its stony pages.

Slowlj was the great Cretaceous mass heaved by some internal
power into a giant dome, some forty miles across. Slowly as the
intumescence of this vast mound increased and raised the upper
beds, the waves of the ever-active sea cut them into cliffs, and sliced

VOL. III. 2 c

202 THE GEOLOGIST.

them off, carrying awaj the debris to form the Tertiary mud and
sands, which in torn — ^uplifted, too, with the expanding ground-
were also partly sliced away, leaving the patches and remnants we
haye observed npon the summits of those chalk downs, which record
the first act in the long period of denudation associated with the uprise
of the Wealden tracts Slowly in this way did the sea do its antago-
nistic work, until the inner domes of gaolt and greensand were cnt
down to nearly level plains encircling one and another round the
central Wealden beds, which, like an island, stood out last in the
midst.

Nor is the story ended now. England and France were then
united lands ; no '^ narrow straight" separated two nations of emula-
tive men, but the hairy mammoth, the giant elk, the thick-skinned
hippopotamus, and other of the great beasts of that marvellous age
of gigantic forms which preceded and joined on to the age of man the
ages of the irrevocable past wandered across and lived and bred in
the forests, caves, or marshes of our land.

Slowly as the intumescence proceeded, there opened out wider and
wider a long fracture through the uprising land, up which the sea
washed daily and nightly, with high swelling tides, that, pent up by
the cliff-walls of the crack, eddied back at ebb with monstrous force,
and carved out at either end the tnangolar edentadons which still
form the openings of the British Channel. Sweeping round in their
eddyings as restrained by the ridge of land that formed the harrier
to their onward passage, these pent-up tides scoured the Wealden
plains, and strewed the bases of the downs with half-worn flints and
gravel. To explain this more fully I have drawn a rough sketch of
the English Channel, with the narrow neck of land which may be
presumed to have existed there during at least the early part of the
Pleistocene age.

We all know that the great tidal wave striking the land at the
Lizard Point, in Cornwall, parts in two, or bitiircates, one tide rush-
ing up the Channel, the other swinging round the whole extent of
the coasts of Wales, Scotland, and the East of England, until it
meets and collapses with the Channel tide, off Pegwell Bay.

In those geologic times to i^hich we have referred, the narrow
isthmus which stretched across from Folkestone to Boulogne baxredthe

GEOLOGY OF FOLKESTONE — THE GAULT.

203

OQirsrdpiogreBs of the waters ; the flood-tide striking against which
wonld bend over to one side, as indicated by the direction-arrows in
the lignography until the time of ebb, when it wonld flow oat with a
strong carrent, carrying with it the debris, and thns the caase of the

Idgn. 19.— !Ilieoretical Map of the Action of the Channel Tides in the Denudation of the

Wealden Area.

The outlines of England and France hare been adopted as th^ are now delineated on
ordinaiy xBSas, and no attempt at reetaratioa has been made. At the "peninsula" period
referred to tbe channel most have been narrower ; but the ontUnes of the coast would pro-
bibly hare so nearly approidmated to the present coast-lines as to render them sufficiently
accnrate for the elucidation of our theoretical Bx>eculation. The dotted curves indicate the
hourly progress of the tidal wave ; the interrupted lines with occasional arrows show the
chief direction and force of the tidal stream in flowing and ebbing, by which the denudation
of tbe Weald is presumed to haye been efltoted. The existing coast-line of the Wealden area^
the Boulogne coast, and the cUffs of Dover and Calais are indicated by fiaint shaded outlines,
as aie also the river-valleys, or cross-fractures of the Weald district, the central ridge of
which, or axis of elevation, is shown by the line composed of alternate bars and dots.

clean surface of the Weald and the general absence in the few snperficial
deposits of any organic remains, the denudation being a tidal one.

The cross-fracture ralleys on the soutti side of the Wealden anti-
clinal, or central ridge of elevation, would have afforded numerous
openings on the English side of the channel-crack, up which the pent
tide would have poured, and hence the reason why the greater denu-

204s THE GEOLOGIST.

dation of the Wealden area than of the chalk and other cretaceous
rocks on the French, or more solid coast.

Worn by the incessant beating of the waves and roshing of the
tides, the narrow isthmus, stretching from Folkestone to Boulogne,
that formed the last connecting link was broken throngh, and iihe
Channel tidal-wave passed on to meet its brother^wave, wliicli,
parted from it at the Lizard Point, had swept ronnd the British
Isles to face it again in the ^' narrow sea." The form and direction
of this old channel-crack maj even now be traced on any nautical
map by a pencil line mn over the marks of greatest depths, as noted
in fathoms for the sailor's guidance; and the degraded shoal-ridge of
the old isthmus may in like manner be perceived by the shallowness
of the soundings, noted in like manner.

The first evidences of the former connection of our island with the
continent of Europe were suggested by an old author on British
antiquities, one Bdchard Yerstegan. In his fourth chapter Yerstegan
treats of the " lie of Albion," and " how it is shown to have beene
continent, or firme land with Oallia, now named France, since the
fioud of Noah." After discussing the various contentions as to the
origin of the name Britaine, recapitulating the fabulous narrations
about King Brut, and giving his opinions on the ancestry of Britons,
he proceeds to the performance of his promise in showing Albion
" anciently to have beene firme lande with Gallia."

His notions of the first conditions of land and sea are very pri-
mitive, and highly tinctured with the ancient diluvial doctrines, and
of course Yerstegan goes back to the beginning, as all authors of his
age are fond of doing so. Antiquaries of that day attempted to trace
pedigrees back to Adam, and have been well characatured by Butler
in his "Hudibras" for their pains; and Yerstegan, the incipient
geologist, goes back to the first division of the waters from the diy
land, and argues as the waters were gathered together in one place,
" so consequently there were no islands before the flood of Noah."

His observations, however, on the ancient connection of the lands
on either side of the Channel are acute and perspicuous.

" That our Be of Albion hath bin continent with Gallia," says he,
" hath beene the opinion of divers, as of Antonius Yolscus, Domi-
nicus Marius Niger, Servius Honoratus, the French poet Bartas, our

GEOLOGY OP FOLKESTONE — THE GAULT. 205

conntriemen, M. John Twine, and M. Doctor Richard White, with
sundrie others ; but these authors, following the opinion one of the
other, are rather content to thinke it sometune so to have bin than
to lahonr to find out bj sundry pregnant reasons that so it was
indeed.

"The first appearance to move likelihood of this thing is the
neemes of land betweene Englaad and France — ^to use the modem
names of both countries — that is, from the clifs of Dover unto the
like chflfe lying betweene Calis and Bullin, for from Dover to Calis
is not the neerest land, nor yet are the soils alike ; the shore of
Dover appearing unto the saylers high and chaUde, and the shore of
Calis low and altogether sandie, and in like manner the English
shore towards Sandwich, which is more directly over against Calis
than Dover is, also doth.

" These difs on either side the sea, lying just opposite the one
unto the other, both of one substance, that is, of chalke and flint, the
sides of both towards the sea, plainely appearing to bee broken off
from some more of the same stuffe, or matter that it hath sometune
by nature been fastened unto ; the length of the said clifs along the
sea-shore being on the one side answerable in effect to the length of
the verie like on the other side, and the distance between both, as
some skilfrd saylers report, not exceeding twenty-four English miles,
are all great arguments to prove a conjunction in time long past to
We beene betweene these two countries, whereby men did passe on
drie land from the one unto the other, as it were over a bridge or
isthmus of land, being altogether of chalke and flint, and containing
in length about the number of miles before specified, and in bredth
some sixe English miles or thereabouts, whereby our countrie was
then no iland, but peninsula, being thus fixed on to the maine con-
tinent of the world."

In the quaint sententious language of this extract, so character-
istic of the style adopted by authors of the early part of the seven-
teenth century, there are many striking truths which the judgment
of the reader will at once perceive.

Desmarest, in 1753, in his memorable paper, read before the
Sodete d'Emulation of Amiens, repeated the evidences previously
brought forward by Verstegan, but carried them a step farther,

206 THE OEOLOOIST.

in definitely showing the ooinddenoe of the like forms of animals
and of yegeiation existing on both sides of the staraits, dwelling
strongly on the presence in both countries of certain noxious animals
which were not likely to have been brought over by man.

The investigations of Mr. Martin and Dr. Mantell, extended since by
other eminent English geologists, and the theoretical argaments of
upheaval and cross-fracture of the Wealden area by Mr. Hopkiiis,
have all strengthened and confirmed the conclusion of the former
uxuon of the two countries, which may now be regarded as thorottghly
established.

As it is not always easy to determine in the study of Nature the
why and the wherefore of all we see, bo masked as it may be by
transmissional fancies and obscurities, there may yet be a rudiment
of truth in most traditions. In morQ than oub case the investigatiofns
of geology have given something like a foundation in reaHty to tales
that were before considered only within the bounds of fiction. So
that at last we have even come to regard fiction itself as drawing
upon reality for its creations ; and popular superstitions as founded
on some original occurrences, or as illiterate transformations of not
untruthfiod deductions. The recent discoveries of fossil rehcs of
human workmanship lend still greater probabiliiy to the idea that
many of the old fanciful legends may have been based upon primitiye
factB or existences in very remote times indeed : and I think we
should not quite regard as an idle inquiry some researches into
the origin and bearings of the remarkable tales of losses of land
and catastrophes which for centuries have been correat alike,
with very remarkable coincidence, in Cornwall, in Wales, and in
Brittany.

Is it not indeed possible that the incidents referred to might hare
been far more remote in antiquity than the Armorican race fit)m
whom these tales have been directly handed down to us, or than the
Scandinavian tribes from which the Armoricans have been by some
antiquaries thought to have derived them. If primitive man was the
associate of the mammoth, why from primitive men should not have
come down to us the legend-mystified histoiy of the channel-fissore ;
and in the legendary losses of land may there not be some c»riginal
truthfdlness of reference, in remote antiquiiy, to some great catas-

GEOLOGY OF FOLS:ESTONE — THE GAULT. 207

trophe connected with its opening out. Is it impossible that in a
first or final upbnrst " forty miles which erst were land," should ^' now
be sea;" an:d the similarity of the Tnft.TnTnn.1iii.Ti deposits in both conn-
tries proves that the complete severance had not taken place during at
least the earlier part of the Pleistocene era, and it is therefore certain
that the final disruption must have occurred only immediately preced-
ing, if not actually within, the limits of the human era, as now
ante-dated by recent discoveries.

Bnt let ua now return again, after this digression, to the Gault,
and as we are at Lympne, we may as well vary our route, and get
baek to the Folkestone shore through the waving corn-fields and
" meadows green." On our left the chalk downs rear their grass-clad
slopes, brown .and arid — always with the same parched, hungry look,
wkether the woods and fields below are verdant in the emerald greens
of sprang, painted with the rosy hues of flowery summer, or golden
in the ft«tiimn's l»righter tints, when

" O'er the leayes before they feJl •
Such hues hath I^atnre thrown,
That the woodB wear in sunless days
A sunshine of their own«"

Even in winter they change not, and when the snow is on the ground,
the bare slopes of the chalk- downs stand out brown and arid just the
same as when the hot air vibrates and flickers in the estive sun-
beams.

Every now and then, in the plain below, are pits sunk in the super-
ficial brick-earth, and as we pass through Cheriton a tall conical
chinmey marks the site of a tile-kiln. The clay for the tiles is dug
out of the Grault, and round the pug-mill are scattered heaps of little
black phosphatic nodules and casts of shells and crabs, the refuse of
the washings.

(To he continued,)

208 THE GEOLOGIST.

NOTICE OF THE FOSSIL REMAINS OF A NEW FRESH-
WATER MOLLUSC FROM THE LOWER LONDON
TERTLiRIES.'

By F. E. Edwards, F.G.S.

In making the excavations now in progress for the formation
of the great South High Level Sever in the neighfaouribood e£ Pe<^-
ham and Dnlwich, the works have been canied throiigb a^sexieS' of
deposits, constituting part of the lower Lo]tdenrTcatitaKies,.i9td' difl-
tinguished by Mj\ Prestwicb as the '^ WoohnbhiOBA fieadybg aeries."
As I learn from Mr. Charles Rickman, >the.abib kBdw^aoA'cwfi^ of
the Lambeth .Mnsenm of Natural. Histosy:, Who has laboured assi-
duously in coUeoting the fossil remains fotrndtisi'them; thieve tdeposi^
at'Dulwich, at the depth) of twenfcjr-five feet fixmx ihesivfao^ com-
prise a bed of ^y sao^, «nd below this» at- a depthjof .abQm^.&rty
feet, and: intercalatnng a bed of olay containingt sheUs iaa»d ^.hsd of
OstretB^ a band of hard compact sandstone, very sli^itly. oailcareoQCiy ap-
parently idebiical with that at Lee, referred to by Mr. De laCosda-
mine as known there by the name of the ^\ cookie. " ' They oontain re-
mains of Ostrea tenera (Sow.), 0. puZchra (Sow.), O. BeMovadiui
(Lamk.), 0. elephantojms ? (Sow.), a jB^Orei»*ca somewhat Tesembling
Area (Bysso'drca) GailUcmdi (Bell.) from the Nummuiitio beds of Nice,
Gyrena cuneiformis (F6r.), C. deperdita (Sow.), G.cordata (Jlorris),
a new species of Gyrena^ which has been named by Mr. Rickman
G. Dulvnohiensis, Modiola MitchelU (Morr.) ?, a Unio doselj re-
sembling, if not identical with. Unto Solandri (Sow.),, another un-
described species of UmOy Gerithmm fun€Uiim\ (Mantv)> Mda/natria
melanoides (Sow.), moore generally known as Melania^inquinakki(iM»)i
Galyptroea froehiformis (Lamk.), a large and undetermined species of
Teredi/iuz (?), Pahidma lenta (Sol.), another large species of Faludina,
much like Pdkbdina aspera* (Michaud), from the freshwater lime-

* This is probably the species recorded by Mr. De la Condamine as P. J>^-
noyersi (Desh.) ; that species, however, appears to be more globose than the W-
wich shells.

EDWARDS — ON FITHABBLIiA BICKMANI. 209

stone of Rflley-IarMontagne, and otheor estnarine forms ; and also
masses of leaves of trees, and other yegetaible remams. Associaited
with i&ese are fonnd, sparingly in the day, bnt rather more plenti-
My in the sandstone ^band, the r^naitm of an midescribed spiral
shell, which were at first referred to the genus Voltday becaase the
imperfect casts, in which condition only they were then fonnd, pre*
sented a close resemblance to casts of the well known Bognor fossil,
Vokda dmudata. Tolerably perfect specimens have been since ob-
tained, and from these it appears that the colmnella is without
iihe plaits characteristic of that genns, and that the base of the shell
is roimded and entire, and without transverse furrows. The shells,
therefore, must be referred, not to the genus Voluta, but to some
land or fresh-water moUusc, belonging most probably to one of the
three families, AuiriculuUey AchaMnidcBy or Lvm/nMoB.

The shells are smooth and rather thick, and in their general aspect
present much of the character of the Auriculidw, and were there any
indication of transverse folds in the columella, they might fairly be
considered to be an aberrant form in the group (Auricvla, Lam.>
Qemda, Swains.), of which A. mms^MidoB forms the type. The
prominent character by which the shells of the AuriculidBe are dis-
tingoiahed is the presence of one or more thick, well-defined, trans-
verse folds on the columella, and this is, I believe, a constant
character : I do not know of any genus belonging to the fieanily in
which it is wanting, or evanescent.

The Achaimidcey as a family, are characterized by the truncation
of the columella; and they usually have the spire much produced, so
as to exceed the aperture in length. One group in this family — ^in-
habiting the West India islands and the adjacent parts of the
American continent, (Pol'^jphenms, Montf., Olcmdma, Schum.), in
which the aperture and spire are nearly equal, and to which the
Pec^liam shells approach more closely than to any other genus in the
family — is represalted in our Eocene &una by Achaima (Ohx/nMna)
costeUata of the upper fresh-water deposits in the Isle of Wight ; but
in this group the body whorl is much attenuated at the base, and the
columella is strongly truncated.

The distinguishing characters of the Linvneidai are the acute spire,
tihe wide aperture roimded in front, and the obliquely twisted

VOIi. HI. 2 D

210 THE QXOLOOIBT.

6oltiiaeUA. In one genus, however, OhiUna (Ghray), the conditions
of the spire and the apertnre are mnch modified ; the colnmella is
carved, bnt is without the oblique twist of the trae JJirmuBcu^ which is
replaced by one or more transverse folds. One lipeoiefi ilxilds group,
0. PehmUha (D'Orb.), closely resembles the fDSsilrixtqiiiesfiQn, in the
relative proportions of the spire and the apert!i)?e9:aiM.&fi[rgcn£9Dalionn
and aspect of the shell. In another sperieisj £k'.ffiMdi€A QG^'Orb.),
the 'transverse fold is almost obsolete in the yofong dtate, tiitd<]SBsmi(A
Beduosd in importance :in the matutfe' shellf wjifleotiie cfdAveie£ri^e
oohmiflila and the rounded^&oni^ ofytdxe'dhetti oonfdspondr inildi:ii^
Gi^i^eiPedsham fbssL The^^^ftiZmoittoe )datarifeodb l^dD^fiMKgi^tlks
inhabitants of the clear rmming shKomli litidr tiKBtftaoSlQUl^ifiiKl
Patagonia, habitats to which the occurrence pf Gflgmdina costellata
and of JSelix lahymitliica as Eocen^ fdssils, wbula prepare us, insbme
measure, to look for a livmg analogue of the form in question.

Externally the colum^^Ila pjC^tlie fossil shells appears to be straight
and simple, but in specimens, in which the inner surface is more dis-
played^iborerare vomdfmmBm a abght^iJml>T)e;7\9Ahq^it>vv^
I 'afe'k^dticSa, thei^fttf^, ' 6n''%^^ w9i6ie; ''tb'''<!J6n*dir^^1A^^^^ as

constituting an aberrant form among the LimnceidiBy partaking of
the characters of the true LimncBa and of ChUina, and to place them
between those genera under the generic name PUhareUa ; and I dedicate
the species to Mr. Bickman, by whom attention was first drawn to

species.

' >'J^c9r^l&t'(€hMu<i3bLair;^<^^Bholl ^ob^tsyJiiBdiaMiall; B||BinPBoMaode,}iBCire
br'lei^s^^tx)ft&eedt; ' Kper^mr& )dva]K>bioiig,' rbunded i ih/ibfMt^ snivzK^in^
^beyfld'*^/ { ceiteMftMa -stttaifeht^iob >veryi obli(j[uely> iiiihbed) atnflMlBiii^-
riotfyi^oufi^r Kpflimp^ aente; iimeortipthi^ >> y/' •<(. .

P. EieMncud (Bpecc^ to(#j)i-^Iiell inralobloQbg/smootih^/^ixe sub-
oonicai, shorty' v^Btrying 'in height am difiereak sf^ecxniMis ; whoris five
or six:, depressed on the posterior margins, and' obtoseiy angulated
on the shoulders. The sutarai edge is slightly thiekened, forming

filCEHAN— ON CTBENA DULWIGHIEKSIS. 211

a narrow, upright, ribbon-like band, pressed against the preceding
wHorl, and £debly crennlated by the lines of growth; in well
pieseired 'specimeiLa' the margin, immediately in front of the
sataral3batid^ pvesepsts two or three obscure concentric furrows. The
last whorl is; jsomewiuit attenuated towards the base; the apertore
is 6ntate^ivp.iQB3cidrdn;fir«i)mt, narrow behind, and^fveKy long, nearly
ecjipaSMg fotoi-'fifiis bf^^tJiffeiBtire: Isagth of the shell; the ooitameUft
18' obsebiady.'^nds 7ei|jp /oUiquefy' twisted^ aiid anteriorly ivijuuch
cnrv&d^rthe oifter^ili^osf'sUghlfy ardhed^- sunple, <an4;! sharp 'Hm* the
edg&;'Htoifm6rf<hpr9&|i6atbn0riy^ nah^nvv antaeioHy

eSose^jBa&eihi^^ sbdireflekedyfoiming^' sthgxdariidgei chi €he>ii6l^^
mellaiyJJAioflibnfttieoti^th the outer lip;) ; -' •■' ■ < • ' : -i :

would

' ^ ±iXPLANATION OF PLATE V.

PiTHABBiiA RiCKMANi. — Fig. 1. — Froi^t View. Fig. 2. — Back View. Fig. 3. —

this plate.

. :'>'ji;"'r:<j ,>^v'* >^T) .m'^ \ ..1 • ;» j'-. '• ,1 1 1 )'i' •:., '..1 'ti, ).-•...;

)-.i»tf.-j ■■ t 1. ifr , '■''■• ' ! I . • " .' * -•'•?■».. '•

■.■ijTL/f/, ; '.^ ' .•■ .N'. "V i i:. '.'■;:■; I'-i 1 •.•''.'•':. -i.i* ■ 1 . // 1 j
• •;'[/ • "ft >ii;vv if')il/-'-' fi! .'. ' ''/ /':' .:i f' ''•'.'li I'. ■• - •■ •».!-• -'i

" lENStS.

By Chaeles Rickman, Esq., Hon. Ciwj^r pf v^sipoflpetjh ^useiyp.

In a former communication~to ^e " Geologist," treating of the
fossil.'df&itda 'Hmj^ ^florajJdbserr^ ib> Loivierr^OMBO staftata padsed
throag^iat^IhiSveicMahd ..PeoUieM^'ilK the >'Q(»iBtimGtioB;(tf> tiljie X^feat

in a shelly conglamiwsfte.at ;Diilwicli, a new spedbs of the estuarine
genns Oyreffis^i^whiiih I pdropoaed'to ojall Cyrena^ihdwkM&ms, In
sinkmg < the sflauini' )shafb,. 0(7 a > depifli > -of fiffcy to sixty^ feei^ ' thb eon-
glomerate occurred in nodular masses in green shelly sand, inter-
calated with wedge-like bands of stiff black clay, highly charged

212 VHK eSOLOOIST.

with regetaUe remains ; bat on driTing the gaDeiy eastward the
conglomerate became regularly bedded, and attained a maxinmm
thickness of four &et, made np plentifiilly of the i^lls of Gyrem
mmeiformis, 0, cordaia, 0. DulmchiensiSf Melamia inqmnaifiy and the
new genxLS PUhareUa, now fignred and described l^ Mr. Edwards.
I annex a description of the distingnishing generic characteristics of
the Oyrena Ihthoichiendsy and, as an accompaniment to the %Die,
some of the prominent pecnliarities noticeaHe in the species.

Oyrena Ihdunchiensis (Eickman) ; Spec^ cbaJ^— rSJ^ell .elpngafcely
oval, transverse, inequilateral, posteriorly' slightly pi<6dli»6d, and
obscnrely truncated; umbones proniinent, tumid, ijiOTpd^^^
large, and of an oblong oval form. Tb^ 9sate:^ fscft!^^
on the surface numerous irregular and' - rather * de^^ i^neeiitnc
furrows, which become shallower as they cross th^ imffdfe, a
almost obsolete over the po^teripr extirenuiyr ,,T^o,4^U.f^oinfr
mented with irregular longitudiiial iMmds or rays d^nsdlwEF^disQally
eisrht to ten on each valve, but varying in number and 'IsifeMth in
different specimens. The shelly matter formjijig the.^Iopr^.^ux&ce
of these bands appears to havo been partioalarly edsoeptilde of dis-
integration, for most genqrally it is found to have lieen deicorilyosed,
leaving a perceptible ftirrow, corresponding with.^.r^y, J^ppressed
on the surface. 'The hinge laxnma ib mmohiiGiurved, ond^t^kid'Aree
divergent cardinal teeth, of ; which iSie 6en1;ral obe is ajghtly bifid,
and two unequal, compressed, lamelliform lateral teeth, strongij'
serrated. -

Size. — ^Length, 2 inches iand'l#12th; ihagldy<]iiinieii4mdr)5Tl2tlifi.

1 ■ I

E3tPJ*AJfATI0N OF PlATE T. .ft

Fig. 4.-^GrB3DKA DtTLWiCHnmsis.' Jig. >6.H^IiifaBniin0f MTT9y i^biinvingriJ^einBge

and muscular impressions. From sp9QimiQi»;'in tl»Q ^lUctio^i(^,F,JB. Ed-
wards, Esq.

' • ' ' ' , r' • ■ • t ( ' • I > ' . ■ ■ ' . I ' I

OIBB— OK CANADIAN GAVEBNS. 213

ON CANADIAN CAVERNS.

By George D. Gibb, M.D., M.A., P.G.S., Member of the Canadian

Institute.

(OonHnued from page 179).

21. — ^Probable Caverns at Chatham.

The greater part of the main road from Carillon to Grenyille, a
distcttoe of thu^en miles on the northern banks of the Ottawa River,
mns ever t^ Cateiferons sand rock of the Lower Silurian formation.
In many places tiie surface of the rock is exposed, and beyond the
village of Chatham, towards Grenville, and even in Chatham, for a
shM £staft»de,^ 1^ r^iiad-oonsiBts of the solid limestone rock« As the
smliis^ref tb&^rock is more or less rough or uneven, the road is an
nncomfortable one to travd. over in a wheeled vehicle. On driving
over that part of the rock just near Chatham, a tremendous loud
ntAibKbgtiidise^ i^ occasioned by the stage, which is not heard, in
oUierrsitrntion^- ^his hag been attributed to the presence of one or
mora.Jpge cave:pas situated beneath the road at tms place : and, on
making inquiry on the spot, I learnt thai a prevalent opinion has long
been entertained by ifbe coimtry people and many intelligent persons
in the ndgfaoarhaod, that a considerable cavern does ^zist in this
part, of the country in the place mentioned. On the many occasions
that I have driven over this road, the loud rumbling noise has been
invarialdy obferved by my f(^ow travellers as well as by myei^.
Sotk&i^Bkf^aa. bfnnamg linto l^e oaTBim may be.discoveir^d and il?£
Jayst^rg-fSoJye^- . The main road ip j elevated and is probably from
seventy to nineiy feet above the level of the Ottawa River.

22. — Calquhoun's Caveen, Lanark. ' •"

Thetlocahiy'afrthiL&tBurBm is in the nosHihern ooi'ner ,of.. the town-
ship of Lanark, in the county of the same name. Western Canada, on
the borders of the small river Mississippi, a branch of the Ottawa. A
small branch of the former runs into this township from the neigh-
hcmrin^ township of Bomsay, in a south- westerly direction from the
village of Belkmiyville. The cave was discovered in the autumn of
1824, by Mr. Colquhoun, the owner of the ground, who, when clear-
ing his land, came upon a hole at the foot of a tree, which was the
&^t indication of its presence, and his curiosity induced him to de-
scend and examine it. A notice of this discovery appeared in a
Canadian newspaper, in November, which was seen by Dr. Bigsby,
then in Philadelphia, who wrote to Lieut. Robe, of the Royal Staff

214 THE QBOLOaiST.

corps at Montreal, upon the subject. That gentleman immediately
visited the spot, examined the cave, in which were fonnd a nnmher
of bones ; and these, hj favour of Dr. Wilson of Perth, were all
brought to Montreal. - '> r . .r

The descriptioti of this cave is ^ven by I>f. B^bviti >^ A»iM' Jokt.
of Beiebce (vol. ix,, June, 1825, p. 354) in twft lettfeps to ^h* editor,
dated Philadelphia, February and March, 1925. :' His"idiSi>niution
was derived from Lieut. Robe.' The' ddT«m is tAoiftefrilKflotr the
sariaee; -^With which it oommUnicfttes by'ft '«Wt-df «haftii(#ip«BBag8
lef^itlg^^oWhwordg, mst larm eiioilgb'4^'tAdla{i'^t^>erat«lbw tff'«
man, ^ibiftwo feet Sireeindies'wiife^byoAft'fooi'atoieiiiitAM'htttad.
Thecav^ii^enty^ve'feetiteng'byflflfeeiB'lirABd) ■fliid^te'-'ftwi-fcit
Ugh iir-flift 'Middle,' gtadnrfly'lOvrW^ng St'eaolu ekd.- iit»4i*Be'Arf*nrf
ietfte to9iti^itWtfr*>wa the' -eitfranie^- *A»«'is'-'a*Biw*''(»rtKifeflt-hj
^!iC inches^ iDid'thei-^re'tiJcJ'Sitt^'to "ffCrUticff Iftiftb^e -p»wt|i^t«ni.
Theflooi' WM'66vtared'ifilJb-&tom0ntsof dkrkj3«lbTi^edi:erR^^
atone; of 'whidi'the-caive'itself&fbrnied^ viMut ^^I'meni'v^d'-rocf
trer6 "c<>ated 'Wilh- Bmall "tnjkmillu7 ^eoWeti^m' bli:<Siiic'^^^i'-^iw
Mt^'to^Wnbhip'tif 'LffilM-lrMin^l»Mi of 'ths'iIUUlBrtnt^rci^'cOMlRt-
iiig'bf'gn^a and int^tefe^fiAdfcuidsof fSTslidUuKiUBvesto^, tMl
have no doubt whatever that it is in i^me of tiie^'b^w&HiRtlitluicMM
ifl d^iTtAoped.' If ft bas<iu»t'''beeh iftu-aier ibv«ttigatsd> shKeSitvl'^s-
cov^, ' it iii(|bt'be> Wtrfh WltUdto'enlEi^ tii^fiMnMr^to.eUbebiify,
|i&rttoul^lf if it*^ liMnid'^ ezadiiia^a'<t«'eKtet(&Itt'acfai fiwUntiB-

wards.' ■■' -■ ■■''■.'■'.■■; ■■■'■■! i,-'ii-,.ti-J , •' ,<■ j-,/.', /M'lyi-,i(i :"

A quantity lof ^V^ bi<^ boDM; M'ft itate'shaJUvltovtli&t'dteetved
in gTaWyttt^^'vPer«>foa^ clo^r i& a,http^ee,ri>hnt'^ti9^Aiif; Qte

KJ^T^lare fMm'khme, rtakybtltedi w«r» MCtttMrdd amod^'^ie^debrU

6ftit«flo<)rr' <MtiR4ibei3(yBJebttii«dthat'tll^ a^idwlitar«&]c&thMe

remains belonged, most have been too large to have entered thiA^aave

ali'VB or whole. Ae no mention was made whether the bones were

encrusted with i^tMfi^iie, ' or fttfmed k htettSei, ' lirid ^iiresnmed such

appsai;anee8, di4 .flotie^fist. , ^I^ J

that thei bones werCj trahsimlited

exaifljw^on, a^d |desc|nptioii ; ti

any'-'pulaUsii^di notjpe, <^ iheja^ ffi

that th^ji were(^|eoi a^^eer.'in

haire fitJIen'in. tt'anyreniaJi

when discovered,' ti^ere' poul,d^ ,fc*

suuiosei ',.• '', I ' ', ,,.,,.,1 , ,, ,. ,.,,,,;, ,j, ,1 i |. -If. ,,. .■,',,( (.,., . t.

23. — Quartz Cavern, Leeds. ' .^^j.j'i. ■

This cavity is perhaps bprdly deserving of a, place in this paper,
but as it iHustrates, to a certain extfint, the formation 5f caverns 1^
explosions in pyritow veins, it', is no^ parsed ovev, altt)oiifi^4tB exis-
tence may now be quite forgotten. It is deeoribed in ".A.8k«t«ili f>^
the Topography and Geology of Lake Ontario," by Dr. Bigshy in the
" Philosophical Mt^azine" for 1829. He describes a district thirteen

GIBB — OK CANADIAK CAY£BNS. 215

miles west (south-west P) of Brockville on the high road to Montreal,
which for tbre^ miles consist of white translucent quartz in steep and
shapeless, ofben ruinous niounds, but still often belanying in its rents
a south-west direction. It is of a fine granular, passing into a
crystalils^f ^t^tctrp.' One of these eminences in the wo<>ds, half a mile
north of theif Qi^j t}urty toibrfy feet high, and near the easternmost of
two creeks ipodilrring Jtere, ha^ a vein of iron pyrites under the follow-
ing eBQf9i)[i«|^cfM»v Ab^^ tbe year 1811, a farmer was seeking for
hi9t0jQ9i^ ioc^ll^/.Wi^oiip, iO^ i97^n witlun a short distance r%)9L, this
spot^ ]ierif9A^<9i<id9n}^fif)lb%rtiied by. a tremendous ezpbsion« attended
by;(^i«li$9fQf)8ito«)fcfr4Li»;i^f»^hwrous pdours. On. visiting the seat
o]^di^«tb«iic&ihe ^p^'ij»e>fo^^k>wing appearances, which Dr. J^igsby
tlw»f^afMft)0»; — ^^^^ A) iKWfld^4«ftvi^ twelve fee^r.deep) and i^ pway
tangviui^«0iipkili^ so'^.hre^. with, its- ^Id^j? consisting. of ,irj^^.«ihat-
tar^j^pewiq, flip(^t*e4 ^tbfibi?«w» oaiie. of .iron^ and projfupely, covered
^w&l8^lffeUiwti.aJ^ jB?il|)hate.of aiuDWQ% hfw.its

fewerbpw^j&teddted with/^nwaes of iron pyyit^s. , [T^.v^in, w^ph
i8r!&ib]|^^'^^fg5al!d a^AidifMii^t ttiei bottom, is dpsofitied a^j^ighteen

in«bah>tJ»SR>'i mdii4mffi^mAGn< itacilf i into the .,qurrQ^^4?»g , qwrtz
robkg ,r!KW8oY«ihri»^j?'te'geetk,iammng»ed8jb a v^?y,b%}i^<^Prto

tte'dfcteiW!^KrfJi3Tp*i?!4'»tJrdta Iftidf . ■< j, .j.d^ , it--,.{../. *' i. . . , -.,,.

flh«rft99flrte ^9gmp.\ii£rdi mAf^fi^ ,b^)<5aUW).t^ tent mi^€^^.;w^^^? of
BTQdWlto,?dnd?»tiiwto<ifi>4h«iil€^ mwl^jof

Leediffiffld i^wa^hfe^iOPT^plftiSSS/wttw-^ tfeefpy^ 8t4,5a^y|5fW^affid
will therefore exist in the Laurentian formation, which is here closely
ftpprw^0drll^othftiBfj(lidamtsa»dfl^^ a white ^wrta rqcik,. ., , , ,

*^ 8Mfeiliirtphe8wtne»af i^y^. :T^ noticed (a a;pi«9p^#ai4,'ift Yenwnt
(vw^fAs^.-tiFmHa. fef/fSiaw5*ce>ifiwp Fiefe.} 1981)., awifiniithi^ p^mitiy
towkirdfotito^h^adjQlFrtbe Mi8s4)jiiti (W^^TifdiT^ls.of iQaft^s iiewis. and

*:'''// ?:Ofif d 'j'li -j'xl I'll! /'A- ',\).A-- -<•'.'// . " .■ . I .,[( ,'.•. ,1'Mi // -I,', '• '■

"^t 'Kiii]^^t6ii i$ wholly

i>^6Q^ a^toti*^' C^^e bn

^e^ee',; mi't^efpi^x be

interibi*.'""']^he ninestone

. itty cavernous, and Colonel

iionnyeastie

Poiiif tt^Myr

the year, loses itself suddenly there in a chasm.* The limesk)ti^< of
this locality belong to the Trenton formation, and are frequently
cavernous. ■ ■ - .

'" ' ' " ^5 and" 26, — ^itfoN6* AND Eri^osa CayMri^s. ' '"■ ' '

The* tii6tet extbtisivie caverns' whi^h ' have hithenrtx) been : discovered
in CanaK^^arefbttod in tnas^Ve and i^Hd beds* of bluish grey lime-

* Tran. Lit* and His. Soc., Quebec, vol. i., p* 65.

216 THE GSOLOGIST*

stone (oontaiiiizig great numbers of encrmites) belonging to the
Niagara group of rocks. The limestones of this formation eonstitate
an elevated plateaa at the Falls of Niagara, and nmning along the
sonth-west border of Lake Ontario for a short distaace, they form a
terrace which continues in a north westerly direction to Cabot's Head
in Lake Huron, and also of the Mamtonlin Islands. Mr. Mnrray has
shown that the locks of this poup heie form two separate and dis-
tinct terraces, the lowest is the most decidedly marked escarpment,
exposing strata below the cherty limestone bands which cap the
precipices at Flamboro West ; whilst the npper, composed of the
bituminous limestones and shales, rises more gradually in a succession
of steps, terminating at the summit in a vast extent of table land.*
The crest of the lower escarpment is formed of the massive beds of
encrinal limestone, passing below the cherty band just mentioned, aad
runs north from Fkonboro East, and they gradually increase in thick-
ness as they advance to the northward. Thus, in the seventh con-
cession of Nassagaweya, there is a vertical precipice of this encainal
limestone, from eigh^ to one hundred feet in height ; and in the
fourth concession of Eramosa, a branch of the river Speed mns he-
tween vertical and soUd calcareous diQs of sixty to eighty feet. In
Caledon, the river Credit is flanked by similar chfis one hundred feet
high, which meet and form a crescent shaped precipice, after ascend-
ing the valley, over which the river is precipitated in a cascade; in
the valley of the Nottawa, in Mono, the same character prevails.
Similar cliffs were observed in the townships of Mulmer and Notta-
wasaga ; and in the valley of the Beaver Biver, in Euphrasia and
Artemisia, the same limestone is described as one hundred and
twenty feet thick. If a line is drawn on the map almost due north
from West Flamboro to Nottawasaga Bay, (the most southern
boundary of the Georgian Bay), it will intersect the first six town-
ships named, although they lay in four counties. The two last
named townships lay a Httle farther westward, and form the extreme
western boxmdary of the county of Simcoe. A sqod view of the
UBper haJf of interesting pa^of the country is^ven in a sketeh
of the valley of the Nottawasaga, by Mr. Sandford Fleming in the
first volume of the first series of the " Canadian Journal," p. 223.

It is at the base of this limestone, the course of which has just
been described, that a great series of huge caverns have been dis-
covered, the roofs of which are studded with stalactites. The most
evtensive of those that were visited by Mr. Murray were what I shall
for the present call the Mono and Eramosa caverns.

The Mono Cavern is situated on the twelfth lot of the second con-
cession, east of the Hurontario Road, in the township of Mono, which
forms the south-west angle of the county of Simcoe^ on a branch of
the Nottawasaga river.

The Eramosa Ga/vem occurs in the fourth lot of the fourth con-
cession, in the township of Eramosa^ county of Waterloo, on a branch

* Geol, Surrey of Canada, Beport for 1860*51.

GIBB — ON CANADIAN CAVEENS. 217

of the river Speed, near Mr. Strange's mill. It extends under the
diff for between thirty and forty yards, and is about the same in
width at its month ; the roof, from five to six feet in height at the
entrance, slopes towards the floor inwards, and at the termination of
the distance specified, the space becomes insufficient to permit of a
man's body to pass, so that the extent of the cavern beyond is un-
known ; the roof and floor are studded with small stalactitical in-
crnstatidns.

The acdOTlnt given of theise two caverns is meagre enough, but
several others are known to exist, although they are not described ;
their diiHi^sions, however, are large, and it is probable that a dis-
tinct and ' Important series of 6avems pervade ajpiost the whole of
that liSttj 6f Ihe p^iiin^la of -^i^em Oanadia, Which is travto^cd by
the Nifi^Sril'SriteStones.^' It' lfi( highly important that the ttttentlon of
scieiil^^ jMi'^' CaiiAd^ f^6uld be directed to the subject of their
dis'ciJvfejf^ tii'd itivestigation, at 'We* same tirti6 making oar^ful seardi
fbrtK^T^y^dfan&lals:^' ' "' ' ■ ■' •" J - >

hi'ii ^^•^^CAyE.4]5[^,iN.,TH|: Bay Islands, Lake Erie.. '

Thfe^BJelifes* IsMhdsi iiwo in Attndbiei*, He^'i^ifte 'miles' to the south-west
of P6iM Kfef ^ttnd; at' the "western end of Lake JBri0,'«nd aare formed
of thy^fiftperibr'gik)tlp Of ^ti Bfeldetberg 6eriest)f rocksi which con-
stitttfe&^Me'fedse '6f the ©evottito system; '' In one of thes^ islands is a
cavern; ^JrMcfe is ' entered ' by 'a round hole, a yai*d in diaaneter,- gra-
dtttffly "^^Jteig for ^fty feet, when'it opens ittto> a' oireokr space,
one hh^dt^d' feet' in 'diameter, and seven feet high. The roof is
stadd^d^With'1b*bwn stalactites, frequently hollow, and seldom more
than ^iihree^tMhs of an inch thick, or longer tiiam thuBe inches.
The flooi* is Covered ipHth Stalagmite. This description was famished
to Dr. Bigsby when near this place in 1819, by Lieut. Dix, aide-de-
camp to the ' Anieriean General Brown.* Dr. Bigsby was shown
several conical stalactites from this cavern at Moy, opposite to De-
troit ; they were ten inches long, by seven inches broad at their base.
It seems to me not ftnprobable that this oave was much higher at
onetime, and that 'the greater part of the roof consists of a great
thickness of the staUictitieal carbona/fce of lime.

)■'

28.— Subterranean^ Passages in ' the Great Manitoulin Island,

' Lake Huron.

This very large an!d beaxLtiful island forming the nortJxem boundary
of Lake Huron, with a length of eighty, and average breadth of
twenty miles, is well covered with streams and lakes. A series of
hold escarpments run longitudinally through the whole length of the
island, and are described by Mr. Murrayt'Bfl varying from one hun-

* Jour, of Science and Arts, vol. iv. : 1828.
t Geological Survey of Canada, Report of Progress for 1847-8.
VOL. III. 2 E

218 THE GEOLOGIST.

4red and fifty-five to ikree liimdred and fifty-two feet in height above
the level of the lake. At that part of the idand near Manitonwaning
there is a lake of an hour-glass shape, possessing an area of fifty-five
square miles (the area of Qie whole island is siscteen hundred square
nules), associated with which there is a peculiarity, especially
described by Mr. Murray. He found that this lake was one hundred
and fifty-five feet above Lake Kurpn, and the '' qnestion of interest
connected with this lake, which constitutes its peculiariiy, is the
source whence it derives its supply of water." Mr. Murray found
but one smaU. stream to be its visible supply ; and although thus
receiving so scanty a tribute &om the surrounding country, it fur-
nished water for three large brooks, which fall from it to the south,
the west, and the north. These supply several lakes, ponds, and
streams, among others, Tecumseth Lake, the level of the water in
which was found in the early part of August to have been much
higher than it must have been in the spring or some later period.
This great island consists chiefly of the Niagara limestones; and as
this is known firequently to give subterranean passage to streams,
Mr. Murray thinks it probable that such a communication may exist
between these lakes, and that there may be others in connection with
them, and thus the water of Tecumseth Lake may arise fix)m the
drainage of a considerable part of the island.

It is possible that further investigation may develope some inter-
esting facts in relation to these subterranean communications, and
lead to the discovery of actual caverns. It is earnestly hoped that
the labour of investigation may be undertaken by persons residing on
the island.

29. — ^Murray's Gavebn and Subterranean River, Ottawa, (See

Map, pi. X.

This very singular cavern exists at the fourth chute of the Bonne
Chere river, one of the tributaries of the Ottaway river, recently ex-
plored by Mr. Mnrray, of the Canada Geological Survey. At the
chute a portion of the water turns abruptly off at right angles to the
general course, running northerly for about ten chains through a
great cavern formed in the Trenton limestone of the Lower Silurian
formation. Mr. Murray describes the cavern as naturally nearly dry,
except during freshets. Mr. C. Merrick, an enterprising proprietor
of the cave and its vicinity, has caused a dam to be thrown across
the main body of the stream, near the middle of the chute, which
isams a sufficient quantity of water through to convert the channel
into a mill-raoe, and the fall from the lower end is thus advan-
tageoualy applied to drive the water-wheel of his mill.* The strata
of limestone and shale exposed near Mr. Merrick's miU are in all
forty-six feet thick, and well charged with fossils, of which Mr. Bil-
Hngs gives a list of sixteen Trenton, four Black river, one Birdseye,

* Geological Survey of Canada, Report for 1863, p. 77.

— I

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CAEBONIFEROUS BEACHIOPODA. 219

and two of the Chazy limestone species.* The fossils are very
mtmerons at the mouth of the cayem and large flat exposure of strata
above the bridge close by.

It is a sonrce of considerable regret to me that a more extended
account of this very interesting cavern has not been given, with a
description of its interior, and where and how the stream disappears.
From other sources I learn the cavern is not only extensive, but likely
to branch off in several directions.

30. — ^Pbobablb Cavebns in Ieon Islands, Lake Nipissino.

Iron Island lays about midway between Duke's Point, one of the
Indian settlements at the western extremity of the Gbeat North Bi^,
and the French River, in Lake Nipissing, recently explored by Mr.
Murray. It is composed principally of the Laurentian rocks ; here
and there, however, the crystallme limestones of this formation crop
out, being frequently associated with iron ore. The beach near the
outcrop is strewed with masses of all sizes, fix)m great boulders
weighing several hundred pounds to small rounded pebbles not
larger than marbles. The limestone thus associated wim the iron-
ore is frequently cavernous, and the numerous crevices and smaller
fissures are thickly lined with crystals of blue fluor-spar and red
sulphate of barytes, or cockscomb-spar. As the cavernous ciystalline
limestones are here interstratified witl^, and cut across by, trap, often
assuming the concretionary character, it is probable some diay that
caverns maybe discovered in the elevated cHffs of the island.t

(To be continued.)

THE CARBONIFBROUS SYSTEM IN SCOTLAJSTD CHABAC-
TBRIZED BY ITS BRACHIOPODA.

By Thomas Davidson, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., Hon. Member of
the Geological Socieiy of Glasgow, etc., etc.

(CotUinued from page 184.^

XLIL — Chonetes Hasdkensis. Phillips. PI. ii., figs. 2-7.

Orthis Hardrensis. Phillips* Pigures and Descriptions of the Palaeozoic Possils
of Cornwall and West Somerset, p. 138, pl. Ix., fig. 104, 1841.

l^e shells composing this species vary but slightly in shape, being marginally
semicircular, concavo-convex, and about one-third wider than long. The ninge-
line is straight, and either a little shorter, with its cardinal angles rounded, or

* Greol. Survey of Canada. Beport for 1855.
t Geol. Survey of Canada. Beport for 1857, p. 154.

220 THE OB0L0OI8T.

somewhat longer than the greatest width of the shell, with rectangular or
slightly acute and extended, terminations. Both valves are provi<&d with
narrow sub-parallel areas, the ventral one, which is the largest, being divided
bjr a small nssure, nartiallv covered with a pseudo-deltidium ; whue in the
middle of the ventral one there exists a prominent V-shaped cardinal process.
The ventral valve is moderately convex, and flattened towards its auricolate
cardinal extremities. The beak, which is small and incurved, does not overlie
the hinge-line ; while the dorsal valve assumes in different specimens a greater
or lesser degree of concavity, and follows the curves of the opposite one.
Exteriorly the surface of the ventral valve is covered with numerous small
thread-like radiating strip, which increase in number by occasional bifnrcatioii,
or interstriations at various distances from the beak, so that as many as one
hundred and twenty ribs may be counted round the margin of certain specimens,
while at irregular distances small spines projected from the rounded surface of
the striae. Li addition to these, on each side of the beak there exists along the
cardinal edge from five to nine slantm^ tubular spines, which become longer
and larger as they approach the extrenuties of the cardinal edge. The surface
of the dorsal valve is striated as in the ventral one ; and minute perforations
or punctures may be perceived over the entire surface of the shell, and which
are the exterior orifices of the canals which traverse the shell, as in Productns.

In the interior of the ventral valve there exists a tooth on each side of the
small fissure, and which fitted corresponding sockets in the opposite valve,
while the oeclusor and divaricator muscular impressions are very similar to
those of Productns giganteus, but proportionately much smaller, as may be
seen by a glance at the figures of tne two species. Under the cardinal pro-
cess, in the interior of the dorsal valve, a mesial ridge or plate extends to
nearly two-thirds of the length of the valve, and on either side may be observed
two well defined oeclusor muscular scars, the four beinff comparatively larger
or more spread out than is generally the case with Proauctus ; while outside,
and in front of these, are situated the reniform impressions.

Chonetes Hardrensis is a small species, rarely attaining in Scotland ei^ht lines
in length by twelve in width. It varies, likewise, in the number of its stris,
and these are very much finer or coarser in some specimens than in others.

A small variety, which I take to be the same species (pi. ii., fig. 7), occurs
by millions in certain localities, such as at South Hill, Campsie, in a bed of
shale on the horizon of the Hosie limestone of the Carluke section; and are
associated with <S^. Vrii in almost equal abundance. The striationin this small
Chonetes is generally so fine that it can hardly be distin^ished without the
help of a lens ; and although it has been thought that this little form might
constitute a distinct species, I am still inclined to view it simply as a small
variety of C. Hardrensis.

The deternsdnation and study of the present species has given me much
trouble ; and although I have spent much time in the endeavour to arrive at a
satisfactory conclusion, it is not without some hesitation that the term Har-
drensis is here provisionally retained ; provisionally, because I am at present
unable to determine whether Phillips' Devonian sbeU is the same as that to
which Schlotheim in 1820 applied the denomination Sarcinulata, as Prof de
Koninck's illustrations of this last differ so much from those given by Prof.
Schnur and some other palseontologists. I am likewise uncertain whether
J. de C. Sowerby's Lept. sordida (1840) be really a synonym of the last-named
shell, or different from Phillips' Hardrensis, as has been stated to be the case
by some authors ; and lastly, because my learned friend, Prof, de Koninck,
who has paid so much attention to the species of the genus, maintains a dif-
ferent opmion to that here recorded, but not absolutely denying the possibility
of mine Doing correct.

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CARBONIFEROUS BRACHIOPODA. 221

Until within a twelyemonth since, or less, Scottish and other geologists had
been m the habit of distinguishing the Ghonetes we are now describing by the
name Hardrensis ; subsequently, from finding at p. 206 of the " Mono^phie
du Genre Ghonetes" that Prof, de Koninck had referred the shell, pi. xyi., fiffs.
10-11 of Ure's "History of Rutherglen, etc.," to D'Orbignj's C, variolaia, the
last-mentioned name was by many adopted for the species, and likewise so
labelled a{)on the tablets in tlie Museum of Practical Geology. With the desire
to arrive, if possible, at a correct identification, I forwarded sevend specimens
of the Scottish shell to Prof, de Koninck, in order to ascertain whether he was
satisfied that the shell in question really belonged to D'Orbigny's species, as
had been so stated to be in his " Monographic ;" and in answer I was informed
that he had subsequently determined that our shell could not be referred to
C. varioiaia, which last possessed finer and more numerous strice ; that the
Scottish shell occurred also at yis6, in Belgium ; and that he had intended to
describe it in the supplement to his " Monographic" by the name of C. altemaia.
1 must also mention that haying obtained nom Sir Eichard Griffith the loan of
Prof. M'Go/s various so-termed species of Ghonetes, it did appear to me that
several among them, such as C. sulcata, C. volva, C. aibberula, and one or two
others should be united into a single species, and that they were likewise
specifically undistinguishable from oar Scottish shell (P) ; but here again my
distinguisned Belgian friend disagreed with me ; for although he was prepared
to admit that C. volva, C. sulcata, C. erassistria, and C. gibberula snoiud be
united into a single species, he still considered his C. altemata-^wi Scottish
shell— as specifi^y distinct. I also received from Prof. Phillips the loan of
his four best and figured examples of C, Hardrensis ; and havmff compared
these with several of our Scottisn specimens, the result was that i could per-
ceive no differences in the shape, areas, and striation, so that I deemed it pre-
ferable to allow our Scottish Chanetes to retain the name Hardrensis until the
subject might be further discussed. But I am, however, unable to perceive
what led Professor Phillips to suppose that his species was provided with
" large cordiform muscular impressions ;" and in conclusion I must also observe
that although the ribs of C. variolata appear to be finer and more numerous than
is the case with the generality of specimens of C, Hardrensis, there does not
appear to exist much difference in the shape of the Scottish and American
species.

C. Hardrensis is found at Gare, in Lanarkshire, at two hundred and thirtv-
nine fathoms below '' Ell coal ;" three hundred and forty-three at Raes Gill ;
three himdred and fifty-six at Hillhead. It occurs also at Gapel Big, East
Kilbride ; Auchentibber and Galderside, High Blantyre ; Brockley and Middle-
holm, near Lesmahago ; and Eobroyston, north of Gla^ow. In Benfrew-
shire, at Arden- and Orchard-quames, Thomliebank. ji Stirlinffshire, in
various stages, such as GraigengLen, Mill Bum, the Gampsie main limestone,
Corrie Bum, etc. In Ayrshire, at West Broadstone, Beith ; Auchenskeigh,
Dairy; Goldcraig, Kilwinning; Hallerhirst, Stevenston, and Graiffie, near ]E[i-
mamock. In Haddingtonshire, at East Bams, near Dunbar. It has also been
found in Eifeshire and in the island of Arran.

XLin. — Ghonetes Buchioa. De Koninck. PI. ii., ^g, 1.

Chmetes Buchiana, De Koninck's "Description des Animaux Eossiles du
Terrain Carbonifere de la Belgique," p. 208, pi. xiii., fig. 1, 1843 ; and
" Monographic du Genre Ghonetes," p. 218, pi. xx., fig. 17.

The valves in this species are concavo-convex, and marginally semi-circular,
with a straight hinge-line as long as the greatest width of tne shell. The
ventral valve is mo^ratekr convex, and somewhat flattened near the hinge-line^

222

THE QEOLOGIBT.

where it forms small anriculate expansions. The area in both valves is narrow,
and divided in the ventral one oj a small fissure covered with a pseudo-
deitidium. The dorsal valve is concave, and follows the curves of the opposite
one. Externally each valve is ornamented with about fourteen simple ribs,
with interspaces of almost equal breadth. No cardinal tubes could be observed
or were preserved in the specimens under descripticm, which measured five
lines in length by six and a-half in width. The interior is unknown.

Of this elegant species I am acquainted with but a single example, wbich
was found at Gare, in Lanarkshire, at two hundred and thirty-nine fathoms
below "Ell ooal." Its identification with C. Bvchiaua is ^ven upon the
authority of Prof, de Koninck. It appears to be likewise rare m Belgium.

Familt Cbaniad^.

Genus Okaitia. iletzius. 1781.

The sheUs composing this remarkable and widely-spread genus vary much in
shape, although not much difference has taken place in this respect in time, for
some PalfiBozoic species can hardly be distinguished from more recent and even
living types. They are all marginally more or less circular or sub-quadrate,

Yentxad, or Attacihed YiklTe. Borflal, or Free YIdve.

tiign. 9.—0rcmia Ignab&rgenrit (var.). Oretaoeons.

o, Ocdnsar (Haacook) =: anterior adductors (Woodward).

r, Bivarioator (H.) »poat6tior adductor (W.).

vpt Yentral adjuster J^)

dp, dorsal a^ustor (H.) = protractor sliding muscle (W.).

f«, (P) Anterior eztremily of dorsal adiustor (H.).
p. Brachial muscle, posterior extremity (H.) — retractor sliding muscles (W.).
b. Brachial muscle, anterior extremity (H.) = retracter sliding muscles (W.).
n, Mesenteric muscle, destined probably to draw the alimentary tube backwards (? H.)
o. Ovarian (?) ; m, granulated margin.

rarely free, but generally attached to marine bodies by the umbo (when sudi
does exist), or by the entire surface of the lower or ventral valve ; and it is
from this circumstance that the ventral or attached valve varies so much in
shape and sculpture. The upper or dorsal valve is always more or less lunpet-
shaped, with a sub-central vertex, the surface being smooth or variously
sculptured by concentric or radiating strisB, or ribs, some sdso possessing a
spiny investment. There exists no articulated hinge, the Valves being kept
in place by a peculiar disposition of its muscles ; and althoufi^h the animal

DAVIDSON — SCOTTiaH CARBONIPBBOUS BRACHIOPODA. 228

has not been [hitherto completely investi^ted, we will give figures of the in-
terior of the valves, for the sake of explaminff the more recent but provisional
interpretation and names that have been appliea to the muscular impressions by
Mr. Hancock. But we must hasten at the same time to observe that the
interior appearance and shape of the muscular and other impressions are
very di£fierent in detail in certain species, although very similar in others. The
figures here given will however suffice to explain the general character.

Mr. Hancock, who at my request in May 1859 examined the animal of three
or four badly preserved specimens of C. anomala (the only specimens then to
be procured), has informed me that the impressions a are undoubtedly due to
the occlusor, r to the divaricators, and tnat when the former muscles relax
and the latter contract, the fluid in the perivisceral chamber will be forced for*
wards, and thus the vsdves will be opened a little in front, the action being the
same as in Lingula ; that v p\& due to what may be termed the ventr^ ad-
jostors, that these muscles form a scar dose to the outer border of the divari-
cator in the ventral valve. The other extremities of this muscle converge and
pass round the outer margin of the occlusor, to which they adhere ; but Mr.
Hancock could not exactly determine how they terminate, d p are considered
due to be the dorsal adiustors (?), one end of the muscle being attached to the
dorsal yalve, close to the outer border of the divaricators, the other most pro-
bably to the anterior process of the ventral valve ; although this could not be
satisfactorily determined, from the indifferent state of preservation of the speci-
mens, at any rate the fibres of this extremity were firmly united to the mner
border of the ocdusors. The brachial muscle has both its extremities attached
to the same valve (the dorsal) — ^the anterior end to the ventral process, the
dorsal dose to the outer marsin of the occlusor, with which it blenos its fibres ;
that the arms are fixed to these muscles, which perhaps may be named the
brachial. The mesenteric (») is a flat thin membranaceous musde, binding the
dorsal mysentery to the process of the hinge-margin, to which, according to
Mr. Woodward, the cardinal muscle is attached ; but we may hope that before
long Mr. Hancock will have been able to investigate anatomically some well-
preserved examples, which inay be dredged alive dose to some portions of tho
Insh and Scottish shores. The oral arms are thick, fleshy, and spirally coiled ;
the volutions are few, and directed vertically towards the cavity of the dorsal
valve, somewhat as is seen in Discina and other genera. We may also notice
that the brachial musde is very dosely united to the occlusor ; that it is diffi-
cult to distinguish the two in tne generality of specimens.
, Br. Carpenter has stated the structure oi the shell in this genus to be widely
different &om that of Brachiopoda generally, but as still conformable to it in
beinff penetrated by canals which are prolonged from the liiung membrane of
the shell, and whi(£ pass towards its extemalsurface, these differing, however,
from TerebratulsB in not arriving at that surface, and in breaking up intoi
iiunute subdivisions as they approach it.

XLrV.—CJBAjnA QUADRATA. M'Coy. PI. V,, figs, 13-21.

Orbicula quadrata, M'Coy, "Synopsis of the Carboniferous Fossilaof Ire-
land," p. 104, pi. XX., fig. 1. 1844

This species varies much in shape, on account of its mode of aittadmieiit,
which is by the entire sur^Eice of its lower valve ; but when quite reguhir, ia
marginally sub-quadrate, abnost circular, or slijghtl^ elongated^ oval: the
posterior edge being usually straight, or with a sl^ht inward eurrie,. while the
shell is at the same time vrider anteriorly than posteri(»:ly. The upper or free
Talve is conical, or limpet-Mke, the vertex being sub-central and cleaer to the
pQstenK»r than to the anterioff margin. ^E&temaily the surface ia madbed witk

224 THE GEOLOGIST.

namerons but irregular concentric striiB; or lines of growth, wliich ^
shell a somewhat roughened appearance. The interior of the attache
surroonded by a raised thickened border of moderate width, aii
the tubular shell-structure is sometimes clearly discernible. In each i
the disk, close to the posterior inner margin of the raised border, mi
two somewhat circular, slightly convex, and prominent — ^but widely sc
muscular scars ; while toward the centre of the disk two other proi
approximate muscular impressions exist, and which are at the same 1
what hollowed out along their middle. Mr. Hancock attributes the.
mentioned scars to the divaricator, while the central pair ar erefe
occlusor : the other muscular, ovarian, and vascular impressions w]
exist in the interior were not sufficiently defined in the present
admit of their being accurately described. The interior of the upi ^^
valve has not been Btherto discovered ; and none of the Scottish spec^^| ^^
have come under my inspection exceeded seven lines in length by
same in width.

The mode of existence peculiar to this as well as to other -5^_ ,
structed species is the cause of the great irregularity in shape assun^^^ %.
larger number of individuals ; for it was the habit of the young of thf
as of other species of the genus, to ^ themselve as parasites to all kinc
marine objects, and they were sometimes so numerously and closely
together, that their inoividual regular growth was prevented, from
can be easily understood that in such cases the animal must have 1
pelled to develope itself in whatever direction it could find availal
When first formed and up to a certain age the shell of the attached '
exceedinj^ly thin, and adhered so closel^r to the surface of the object to
was fixedl as to have reproduced all the inequalities of its suiriFace, but '
and from the shell acquiring greater thickness, these inequalities were ;
levelled. Nor is it an uncommon circumstance to find uie roughness
ture of the object to which the lower valve adhered likewise reproduc
the outer surface of the upper or unattached valve, in a very similar
what we find to be the case with certain species of oyster.

Although the Crania we are at present describing is far from
common in certain Scottish localities, it does not appear to have been nol
until the early part of 1858, in which year I received from a friend in
several examples of the attached valve clustered round fragments of
species of encrinal stems, and at a subsequent period bivalve and
valves were obtained in great abundance in other localities in Scotland,
to the shell of several species of Brachiopoda and other marine bodies.

It is no easy matter to distinguish certain forms of Crania : several species m
bear so close a resemblance to one another that I have felt somewhat em* Z^
barrassed how to determine that to which the Scottish shell should be refeirei *
Having submitted several examples to Prof, de Koninck, he assured me that it
could not be identified with his Crania (Patella) Byckkolliana^ but that it
might be the same as his Crania (Orbicula) truncata (?) It was not untill
had been able to study the original types and other examples of Prof. M*Co/a ^
Crania (Orbicula) quadraia (xindly communicated by Sir R. Griffith) that I ^
could identify the Scottish shell with the Irish author's species. i^

At Gare, in Lanarkshire, it has been found at two hundred and thirty-nine
fathoms below ''Ell coal ;" three hundred and forty-three at Lcuogshaw Bnm;
and three hundred and seventy-five at Kilcadzow. It occurs also at Auchen-
tibber and Calderside, High Blantyre ; Capel Eig, East Kilbride ; Brockley,
near Lesmahago ; and Eobroyston, north of Glasgow. In Ayrshire, at West
Broadstone, Beith; Goldcrajg, near Kilwinning; Cessnock, near Galston; and
on the bank of the stream f omillen, near Strathavon* In Kenfrewshffe, at

■ I !

; '-•' i "J. fO

•' !>i .11 V '. ;• !••' I'l*. '. .', W* 'Ii' .' (

' I ■>.; ■> t t • M' ,1 fi )•■• > ,•; J j) H t,
: ■ ' •»•> • i' ' I •,«■',. 'fi- -iii.'t ■■

';•.'. Inii; ,' -'. ' ■'»!' i.i: ■'.•»'lj ' m' I

! »' J. ^ -'-i

' J' '• j/ii / \iV-Ui'

. N

• I

s »

' '" 'Tl ,1 .; . ' ,:i ■} ' •• '• f.!., ■ ij

• ' ' ' •' '«| I 'ij .1 . i' '• ,' ' I i' ■,' ri!i ";"

• ' ■ ' 1 ■• J t I. ■! 1 ,'J . / •'! if - ,'• •

'' '•' / II mi; j'.'.. •' I'l, " !' • .' ■_.' '

DAViDBOM — SCOTTISH CA&BONI?EROUa BRACHIOPODi. 225

HoiTood, near Faiale}|; and Orchaid-qiiarry, ^omliebank. In Kimdlvi^t-

shire, in strata cropping out on the aes'shore near Kirondbr^t. In Stirhng-
shire, in the Balglass Bum be<ls, and in those of the Cunpsie nutin lime-
stone. Sec, and Cwrie Bum.*

f AMILY DtSClNIDA.

Genuj DisciXA. Lamarck. 1810.

The sheila belonging to thia genns areaBaaJlj circulikriOrlougitudLnalljovali
the larger or impenorated valve being conical, or limpet-like, with the «pex in-
clining towards the posterior margin. The lower valve is conical, □peroular,
M, or parti; convex, and ^perforated bj a narrow, oval, longitudinal eht, which
reaches to near the posterior margin, and which in recent species is placed in
^e middle of a depressed disc ; the shell being alwajs attached to marine
bodies bj means of a pedicle, and never by the substance of its abeU as in
CtBuia. The valves are onarticnlated, and kept in place b; a particular dis-
posLtion of musclea ; the occinsor and divaricator impressions bemg somewhat
similarlj situated to those of Crania.

Mncn has atiU to be done before the animal will have been compbtel; and
ntia&otor% anatomical!; investigated. The oral arms have been described b;
Mr. S. P. Woodward, in his excellent Uanoal, aa being carved backwards, re-
' ' '' ' ' ending in small apires, directed downwards

k the subjoined figure; and the on^ prooesa

In this diunnmuUo iroreBOiUeicra of Ihe aaimal of Disona, by Mr. woouwam, wo ™™m-
lli» <JSo labial sraa are displiiced teirarda, in order to ihow Uieir 8pii»l lanmnaluna.

which could possibly have afforded support to the arms is developed ftrom the
centre of the ventml valye, as in Crania. In recent species the shell is stated
bj Dr. Carpenter to be homy and minntely punctate, the tubuli being generally
arranged in fasiculi, so that their transverse section presenta a series of dot*.
DrrSratiolet believes, however, that the shell is not entirely composed of a
homy Bobstance, bat somewhat similar to that of Lingula, although the cal-
rareoas element is enormously greater in the last-named genus. The chemical

osition of the shell of Diacma haa been stated by Monsieur 8. Clocz to be

ir to that of Lingula, of which an analysis will be found further on.

compositii
simitar to

•InlrstandC. naJnrfaiafcund tttRahan'aBw, in Donegs]. Appears to be atare^ffl
in Kniiiah Oaiboniteroua strMa, a single lasmple having b«eo hltHerto foond gj^Jp.
C.MowB,UHolwBll.ne«rFrome. B o«™b also at Toinray, in Bd^um. andM TjtKXHirtto,
ilshama. inAmari™. It may likewise bo obserrea ili« njaayBpadM. of CjTMiotaret^
nnifbnnded with IKwiiKi, from the toot tliM it iB on™ veij aifflanlt to dlmin^idsh certato a^
Bpvcin when tlie InteriDr cannot be exumned.

226

tsa QSOiiOaisr*

. Discina appeatrs to >]^ve eb^t<ed^dtiH^'bbfiid6t^tk^ ent^ {|^«Le»>«f Mumm
and Mesozoic periods up t6 ^b "piftiSldtS dajf ;^^ftlid'^iiB f^yobfttalb HM^t amonl
was not at any period the ialmtmtitf Tf rs^idiep water, for all tiie recent
species of Lingua ai^}!^ci^^r>j^se 9Qefu,e^wi^)^,^-^omy shell, have pie-

Prof.. Su^^:;-

#> WM,.H9,,OPiiWPeac,io nave aescenaea aeeperuuin

Recqat ^.|»sfl4^rac)H(?j^p%,, ;p?{i§n^,gf|^af , Vi^^; "^^^

OrlnetUa

thi^ podtetidii ]^bTt2dk=;^$^ ]^t^er^t)ilih^^ei''tl(tf^«lLe acM^m: one. ^IPhelafgcr
or £re^ VaM i&''b6nt$dk!;'^^'ljibi;;^6t££]s^/i^d:yb«6 c)if^ieis')dtBvybt;i^(l&0pttfltd
^eap%'>o^\^,)m^ 'p{t$^(y^bet)#«ek'ty> octiite; xa^^ipcsieinr

margin, Mriri^^i^/klM» Wh^ ^^vmd^i«lKcw(«f c|te,i^ilfedi Ifhesiu^

lisdjaifc^ slagiUTicoiteTe

towairds fK^M^i''^^ki'H^& ^i o^tlft^fbl^liM^^nboisye
elevated ctliif (if -^ii^gifi, WWgl^' ^ia^id&fi|feifl'^ii^lth«pfajttti« «* libe valte to a
variable di^ap^'fr^^^t^ §^f^id^'klg&.'< ^ Tlii^^iit^i^^ils pfttHse^onMiiiientid
with nniifie^s Mi^^#epi^m
flattened ' inffWi^HJe^.' <■ 'TO' 'l^f^itfcft^^Qift^^l^^b^etiJjWtiiwtofi (*famiii>. while tie

aoout six^lin

Ijnji^: ifi b'lnnff t>T/".v-77oJ

out SlX-lines. uiui^ m vrn-um Tyiffr-yroi

1 could' rigrcfBVfe^t^v'iBd^^giwri

fiomD. T^mii^^MEiM^tSy^^s

of the las^'i^aMiiy^^lB; I'^^iyodtf'IM^GSi^e^hat^ilimi]^

every dcj^'^ ^M^irfibiiNj^^irf'^*^^^ detJtewfetfii&elipto'tlwt ei-

treme *'mMM^fettP-M^telii,'^^a«fe<^^ li am tiierofere

quite dipSa m4(M€t\ '■^'m^'^^^ a«^et^i6«fflfiitt*htoth« .€»Bsto

Z>. cw^r^/i/kMIfflfc^^'^/^attf^femf^t^-^fo ^l)kVtoep?for'when.ihe

outer suim(^^, ^ th^^^ ilaeMto>sM !r^eilt^'i<#ii^ ibl^is4N3eit<tdil&iig«e, tetnet

is generaHk'4^t^y»i^ ^iitUf'-Hd^^ ^^mhhix^> cowttiiferie and

to believe that Phillips' shell was smooth, while that of Portlocts was concen-

Dmmi^mtma is at^ecaBfiLonn^peei^s i«i, :<}eitaiQtpCQl)t^[^9$il||f -u OCtmrs
" ^ " * " sewiii^fAec

i^^W) htttidrcd

all in i)i%ppi&i'ht:S0M^^':i$^'m^ .1^?-

hago ; AiucheB^bbetf and ^Ualdersiide; HigtitE^iyife '; \ 2^^. 0Mi^ 'jS&i £i^ ^'

bnde. J^ Jl^i^^t^to'g at 'AMeft4^^«J%i ThoipnHebaBfc^^^ at

Craigei^W ; aid ia tU© Bakcoctea Glen W^on^, 'M- ■ .%' Aliei(Mr^ at Craigie,
near Kumai^nbok ; Ce&SR^l:, parisit of Gakton; ana Net!yr£dl4 /^Pi^Ar Swa-
avon. In iFifesBr^ at'Stmthtetojif^^tv Att^ M In-Hftddi^jtoBshHC, at

* Identical specimens are fonnd ib Pilce and Adfuns oonntcyj HHnbis^ Axnerica.

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CAKBONIFJEUOUS BEACHIOPODA.

227

Gat Gaig, near XHmhi?. , It oefinrpolsp Ji^iEdiobwg^l^xe, aod along the Ber-

appears
of other

to be moi«f,ij?sgi(j^^ tpau what fa gr^vaient aiApngiSe gfenwL-.^

genera and species of BracKapboa. "'1%% theWfire, vj^lY bftettnp easy matter
to distinguish aiS^ cWcUvfletiBnhlld^^dme fos^^^ Occurring

indMTer^t^^^enim^W v,^.

The SAell of Lingola is thin, equilateral, usually longer tnan wide, and
broadef a« tU^ mnfl thasfi at'%h!e'beal&,'iUt^hia!m)likm^iSDre <M?^k•s pointed,
while fhe^Wft4 ^H^'ii<^y!fttrii!^Ilt'/bf with* tr 'sli^h^'iiiwaM or outward
cunre. TUe^^ is idsb' s/ulseqtiiyidy^^ ^ ekti^dbii^ of Iftieiwik of the dorsal
valye is somewhat more elongated and pointed thsifr'thait of i4dii'iyentnd one.*
The GliU!J^^Bwd^hBhtf.'ti^ striaited.

Hie valVto aj» -nitiamj maderjaiely .oqw/^x, ,*n4 g^n^^y . deepfiit or most
derated to^toi^ihe.btiaki a»di heopmc^^wii^ ^iJ^n^d^ a9 .their ^pproacli the
front. Thfe absM. ^ttbe ctolcsri ,¥alw. is- likw^ ^iJJ\^ifi^ fluj^to qlp^ to, but not
contiguous .whjihe'lroiimdiri.jiiNtigiA^ i^,b^».^4 bvi.ii^h^clj character the

When adi^ tJ»,Miwilvea:.»oC..tofi[iJa jw^fl? f%Wfjlj (ffap%.,?^f pap^ ond, con-
tigw)UB o%otonig,tibeifteik<iral:»}ftl1gi|^/;>l:m^ ilfte,ai^?nrt,fiouH.,^t,i^s.ifil^ by the
action of ocfctiji»»ii»de(|jpl9^,.toi; .4iajf t^gBWi:^^ nor

does there esisi^jtjf 4rtiqilatiW thejfalvj^i .b^ing k^^pt m ,pl9i5ij^^)y/th,e means
of a com^catbL^yatewib of i^gi^leik'to he^^ri|^f^.,di^c^ea- . ^i1]ie,,^mmal was
ahK) proTidddjiKWi)a^v«ijr!l€|ngt.)p8di(\te,pf '^5^^ was

chiefly atlliciked:jlxi;tbQiim»e« ^py§j,^tiji^d,i^.tV t/^^kipf ^^ft yW^^I valve ;
and whenvaKF^i/idMbot ii^Jit ft?e^. (fel^lJMj WsA rl>>PpeDjl| .^aj^e^ ihaving been
found at low- water buried in sand. ^,, I

The intitttetB)sbelMrufitfti«;af l^^ ^r^^flf^^f^wVwJJjT.&r. Carpenter;
and we wilfctherefcaeoIll^,tefsn;tft^Pp♦>Gfi#lo^;§^djM^ recent

observations. i13iQfif8t(dMm$^44»i^W^9|tat^.ui9;^.£!^e^^ two

distinct elfemeniteif1teloj»jl)euig;bqr9y> th^ijojl^ipi si^,;,,t(^#jtkiyy^i^ disposed
in kycrs, ol: tihiii Jamii^ whiQb^>s«i^(^di;6^h;,Qtiiej[.a^ ^^jn the con-

Tex Buifaoe df ^'-^tife^^^em^wpv,^^^ 9Pfl i;mg,ppii^yf;.^hat these
layers haT)diu»iiftheffffHriC{.thio)6)^^ the. (1|^f(^0ji^ ,9j^^.be^)g thiq^est on and
near the T^qcKalNrnd^ whitotitei(]3^l^|C9F^>f^oJB>o|:^.^.towfff exterior

aarfiiee ; andi^i'iofUto th0 b^ruy .laQfjer^ ^^q.qatjl^^y it0i!m,ed Qi paJ»Uel fibres,
without trafi»ofij^Tfa(^tipi(gjjtheltft»tf<BI5Ptt8,jOi^e^ by, ^multitude

ci miauto etofkb^drecsAHtiglthopie of thi»!iTfi:^V^W<l^'t .^- ^-^M^Oez has ljls£-

* Anatomists appear to differ as to the names by which the valveB shoim be designated ; it
bQiAS well to. mention those that are synonyms. The 8n6rM!8tfiB tlie dorsal
l^it!M^'''Hfl|(Mdk;''et«^^^'taHeiAI8i^ GMtti^li^ ^ valva droite, Vogt.

PriTrfeor:Wo<^vnw4r^N^P^^.; m^fSP^Wl' Qtr^laolet;

ion%at if oui i^es. of tipie talvek were to be
^iitd ipdiHeAoT.- >fii'th^ firoaitttA'pkpet we will

etir^UetC^rmnNidUigeith^ %re new to British palae-

taken' pom^fieffl*^ lJomon,Qfp?. '(»atioiet'J?[ "tibtiitfy pubUahed

UnlMA'amUiTii^^dfM^ to

ito tiifi^Uflti&gu^i^l^ ymj^aTiflinnniKtfor wbeju|^ hioiiom: he has

Inuxame re^eardhes. Tor xLetrals conc6ni<
Mbl^'mb^btg iiMdia^^-aCtlTier, "W6'

anatina :'*
Zoologioal
Bociety :" 1836. As well asinDatidsoiTd "GeheranntMttuction;" ttialp. i;: 1858. B. P. Wood-
ward's "Mannal of the Mollnsca : 1864. But especiaJly to the magmfloent memoir bv Han-
cock, "On the Organization of the Brachiopoda," Trans. BoyalBoc. : 1868. AsweU as to
Gratiolefs most important and exccJUent memodr, *'Stadfis Anatoouqaes sor la Lingola
anatina," in the " Journal de Conchyliogie" for Jauuary and April, 1860.

TbbrlangeiBt'ia wem
=3 Valv8 gKOshef T~
chnisned, tnat'm^'shi

•f- X lia.'vv 9f|Q^<
ofotolOTifts^SrS
niematr t>n ^abtc jged

GoniiBned DQ^
in^tl:^ anixni

228 THE GMOLOQISI,

wiw ihown that the.ralves 9E L.inSjt^ ]i^lifl|).-,4^e4,(t| ]LOQ i(!!gif)t»„e»Bim(<x
lOOpatts /,'',' '■". .^ r'.'i. i- I'l'i I,'-"--'. .r*i I' ■'■■'' ■I'T'i'' 'h'>'ii(

OaS««Ue■rflito^-;iv:■■?!,;;?^ll■7:;^v;;;:.::^■!!.(?.;7?.^;]",«^6ff

,-.; 'Ditto ■'.'■.i-»*?tiw«ia^« Wii';;;:i'j;i.;:v:'; ..:.';:' ..^"i'flS

Tliii distu«iusbQd..l'ixiM!fa:^ehenjltnbBtmvUti'OiiiMiee'tiid« ^Aal'^^eDo-

(igual»ed ipitliA aoviksiofiiUieiLeilidcHtriat'U ^tt<as4o-4ktrtesS'0f''&mcta, u

la Uie intrenofiiD^ittmiVEiWMtki^ >beiMtii K>UiviiW M^tttt&dt^'kiii) other
iinpreasicnui,-WlUi*rtl^bLt^i:p^iE09it4laBi^ EtiouIdibaMMWr^iuHt^; bntit
would be qut of fkM lv(o«lTB{td<eHtn imto>i vii^uiMb^tuiMi«^Jcat>d«3ttiptkni of

,;,i. "111,. .-.Vigjtir^hni ■■■:' .,.. il ■>niii">.'Vii'^\M.\MV ■

DAVIDSOK — SCOTTISH CABBOKirKKOUS BBACHIOPODA

229

the ammaP itSiStf -lA i teiriotf ' '^cltii^etj^'fle^btfei 'to fossil species.' We wiU
therefore briefly place before the reader a few details only concerning those
musdes wl^li-paye left recognizable impressions in thf^,ii^ftri^io£ ithe valves.
It must al^^^b^ observed that although Mr. Woodw^j[M)r.)HftDdook, and Dr.
Gratiolet a]^d;hers agree as to the shape and position Qfrti^Qs^^tMl^millScles, thej
do not inten)^^ ihe functions of some of t^ese ex^^j^jf^^lie samfiliMliner, and as a
ninnber of ^^eS have been appliedf^j tfe^|Rpq,J^,^amer*itticle, the first
thing to dcy^y^l^be to place before the reader nffures ,showi?ig tkeiiriosition of
the nnpressions and "the synonymous terms that have been employe^ and such
win also ^^i^ ^fL9fi«Mi|^|(iofiidQ»xAaiig iliaedscahi^30irli(»'d'^gUttoc^ at the
figurea wili e^l#9ii9r b^]ntha«cmild)'io(B^doBb% ] * ;'^

The magcT^;,i^yM^|Q(ji3^.mti9W »ppBtteE4ilpiinilhei''udtf1dculdled^ diyj9i<^n«
of the Brachiopoda than in articulated gMi9m;iIiFh[^eu4^
^ddirf(7tio]yft^,4;^n|j| '^iJ^li;ef itinaiAb ioUow A(^t>iiiai(b6bll^»^ by mi.

The anterior occlusors " are a pair of stout muscles, of about equal thickness
throughout ; they pass from tne ventral_valve, one at each side, in front of
the visceral mass, and m^iin^ Joi^^ajittd -^^ they ^ to be attached

to the sides of i^a&^Mierss: niX^e oi
length of the shellj^im the anten^ margin,
pressed, and hav&lpeir sj^^^^^^sdl^^t

The posterior ohflusj,
from valve to vWv<
phiced a little
pair; and the d^
of the latter."

The divaricat^^^ff^ffiOXJLgh \tOTii^fg^
bioed. It is shoi
perivisceral chai
attachments imm(
circular form, arc]
nature."

The central adr

one-third the
extremities are com-

, and go directly
extremities are
of the anterior
tie' behind those

muscles com-

extremity of the

and having its

1^^ have a semi-

.ting its double

ijiratihEdve by fine
4 close together,

tan
iwints between tU
one on each side
muscles, they di
towards the dorsal^

immediately within thepErietfesof the body.*
The external adjustors .fi^avAie from the ventral^ vaTte, at the outside of the

order of these

they go, ascend

qn^ on each side,

posterior occlusors, and in QQflf^^ with4ie»i^»A^rhey7Me at first pretty stout,
but oijipassiiiig Qu
insertea int6xhi^f

Jjwari

J05)£ii3T

^% ' oabhn-oiq :f.Te^/fx)o77 .)^'fo1oi;hf»fi iono,tm? --- ; jf-jooniiH .-rcanhoo 're.-- '-: 'l ,«

side aitamjTj^^i.tnft^tber/ /i(AA!il^jicifmna9ip^sii'ts(^

terseo^«aoh t)tl%<^9^gte'(Wi6f>ielSi% W

is as la^g6 t^Mf^Mm^^^

ventral valv^iabout ii(idhr^lyet!>9i^«e»^e a/i!it:^i*k)t'^0<;cludtyr.

From^ tWs iJ^|;]^^;g|^;.|l|^ft^^

reaching the loppcisiiie sider 0£'itEe diiR&tilrva^ineJ has'*the^oth«t iiend^^serted into

the ktter, iriattedia^flvitdt'l^^^ W t^^ ^tfeiinal and

central adjus^brK of uie same siie. Aiii^potinis m-^ox^^ the three

muscles are pressed so close together, that they appear, at first sight, 'as only

230 VfflS (»0£OOI9C

one. The two i^poeHe^tetior a^oitoiB taketiiieif «%tii fix)BL>1iieiiglit
of the ventral TuvlBiOOiiBidewblyapttlrt^ boAibptiixsf tfiett^doseitiD the lateial
pahetes of tfae'bbdji^'Otie Golj a Ittlcl fn^ a£brapo& oii tlie dntannter^ and ike
other a short distance further forward. They converge Hft^ecppeMtntethe
viscersJ maas, and sloping forwardL one on eacLside of the single muscle, irith
the alimeiltky tnb^mre^h^tr(;tU^ isbbnd'eo fh^^ii&hti&Mhi^mi left side
of the donfad nd«e, diaMt^ i(tittfn)diQ9&'af fthv/eicfeniaLtod Qeotefli\aiy«stor$.
inierefotei aid ithbipQint thm ^ itfar Icnmnfttiona i oft. foitir vixauAcB ht dose can-
tact," '.>^'!."'>"^"*:ij'i»ji i^(»(f e*J-'cijiii ' -jil

The peduncular muscle ** haa its insertion immediately within the nmbo of the
Tentralviiv^,'«i<!'<feWhMath^df<rj^^ .Wi)ir.O ..jj

:r is a line indic^ng attadi^^fitf ^he^pO^Hb^ porietals.

There ai^Kaonie iitkeriumadcis, tiifcra»>mFX^^
the surface ioffithefiUeU, sriMiio6(rej)BiieilQ(Ofe Wei<dir£e^ed^^)bilt^]lflw ti^kttke

reader has' (had i|he nimfiB^ sinpei vw poaitkni! tAi tik^jnnadb^ ^Ifoaed^ it iM
be nedessvj ltd nocntibnilisibriEifljn a&l^ifedsifaldivhiit aredshdr ft«j^|K)«ed[ Sanctions,
and forthiiti pili)M)8ew6iiiiUr»pavtidi:^lj\iaent^^ tibctifeiral^f Mm» Hmoock
and Dr. Ghitokt^ aaiihetr arettibaia^lfliexBiwibttrthaYsn^
animal with the greatest attention. ' In order to ^yoid the po^ibility of error
upon my batt; t rtititteiit^d th^ivi^ i^fliadivea ''a&to^i^ ^Wld^f transmit
me their ^Mi, tMyMfMTif^ titf# ttoi^<«b^ '^^ JAiAJic^n-oa^f

According ;t(^Mr« Hat»90ck/ thi» /iigatim^siyoi tlhte-vanaaa mtmiieB^ sa^ be
shor^ d^sctiibed)ftd fbU9W|)c^-*>-i r <'/r>.'r,- i.{\\^-y.<^ ,r^. ^\K<^\•^^^ ^■\^^^^^i

"The 'iftto^49^f«fr{ili«tt)heiahiel)-]^^ .ti»^aj¥K}i«^ th^ con-

tract the umbonal regions of tne vuVes are approximated,^ and .fibpapftssiM
ferwajrd tbfl fli)idftn)t£e)pevi#i«eeml'dfai»ib«i/tl^ separated

*' The primai|y> fwaettion i9f , tha tlMe''tBii9i0i^'m^m$pns'kMi^j the yalns
opposed to each other, or, in Q|h^,if0ri^'j^j»4iiwit)tb€f9i'ft) $li dli Ibis lespeot
to compensate. for the deficiency of a hinge ^d condyles. When in fall action
and in cb^peirSda' witli thfe Wtiibr/afif div£ritji6^i tfiy^Se^*e aadst in
closing the valves. The adjusters are tUe sliding muscles of those authors who
brieve iil'iih^ %li9i«^lof ilb«>V{dVie«Mtt»«r^>ettbb>^1Jer.^ ^-T^ oecksors

have had'«4lii«il»ir fiftieth wiirtidd'lo'thtetti: '>'''- • ''i'^'i)*! '-^'It no.]

The pedtmckliafr^^ii^b iaiitsi^^'th^'^flheU t6vthe^'^mld(^%df>ltas|^
the powir-^of ««otfbg*thtefbr*ae*ti^dfi>the iatter.*^^" '^^ '^J • • -^ah ihh (

Some doubt exists concerning the homology pf the^a^^^tlsiiiM^^usoles (in
Lximda>;- bUt'MK Btoib^dt'hastiOt/ e)t^r^(^^^s«i^t^>t^pMilttK^^ the point,
he ttiOv^4t ^Vk^^^hsilt'^lkQ^'iimiAb^'^o^^^^ and tin-

articiikt^'d(^ei*a d^-Bt«M:)il^ b ready to

admit tk^')M m&y^}m i^imy^kx^Hlm:, andy if' so^'he^w^lli^^ottliowever be
dispoded)it6 dhAii^^tli^liai^es/; fol^^i)i^l)idth'dli4i(^S''4^^fii%btiM^df rfhese mosdes
is to adjtLsi?' the vaJt^ai. ' Ifi^^y^ieeesbary tO'k€?eji^5ft«?feW-tew ihey arewrf

hoittoJogOlftl. -^ '''''"''■ ' ijiiii' til >f"i} i-f')'i.|7A .< .I'.iiji.i aijjri'j') in

We wmmdw^git^'I)!'.' Gi«ati(il€A^S''dest*np«ioiii!>f t^ tTtheaiuscdes,

aaodfor tthe 'a^listano^ ^of <the' i%^yder1Mi^i'<H'an(]oetc^''t^ been added

aaoa lor 'we 'assiswmoe 'oi <i;ne ' rea««r usar. "jitmaoeK^ ^rtsmm nave*
wit^n braK^^t^r'"-^' -"^^ a^ltYJ >i\' 'U< ii<,rr,j. i-iA-ii-f. jAt iii b'»/

TEUES [DlVABICATGRS],

a, SiffmlUftdms vciioHr-^t . etiergetically dra^^ing t6gefti& the valves in
their whole length. , , .

DAVIDSON — SG0TTI8B CASSONUVROnS BRACHIOPODA. 231

b^ AUBra^imatoti9th'^**-'WbBatlSkt ^x)6ad^ii0twwst.^oqDin»t, tkexBaelves alone,
they ckse (#iSBt^dikMih ko^dmA mifiqrit,(g!»<^rJift)iu^ post-

ad«ioteuTB.tcQBiliniJ3t Blon^ ihoy^ 4dos9il)tofl3leU ;fUinoali<i(^{d(Mjrrl»lii^ and

fluid to floK toimads Ite'^aiNiisjiahdiibcnifeqRtoitly eiBxl^ BtepgLj^iiit^ aid ai iht
action of the " nmscles post addncteurs."

n H,-' '• Wf -31(1 If iflti'// /fMtf:! 1)0/ 1 1 'tf rf,.ih')>"fi ;^t;vi:i( •• A^9.\va^ -^^Aav-n^^nvV _

3.— MuscuEs OBUQUEs'TBAN8v^^AJCt|:i^7;r^ j!ffuf9;^f,U^ CuvntE

b, AlterWith^wiM}»}*dfm!ltca4 lbrli«XB^>pOoitiibB ,iisbw;)iMi}obi t^l the
sapetior («id4nd)$:'<lhei'ingid;^iMLsokneai^^ ^p^'^'^iBB^iniroiidtfab^dpposit&side
of th6iit&]Kotov|M|jrft natkfeaiit dBi^td(kc'blN|eitailh0(fk^(^'Bmbdii^ the ex-
tent «f iiirhl&b Jcshodid adib knd^'iif i|7rbe{/riiji;hir(toiineasi^^ doable cifosa
musidfl t/iiisbilAf^wSts^^ ^e^^Hte a^ifttil^ijo tbe left,

Antebo-posterieubs [g(!i?J3:#i^ ^^ iS^T|i]?ia^,/4^u^g;p^],

b, Alternatwe action. — Supposing always the-m^ies^ibi't ^eb(t!!id>'^Talte as a
fixed;poMt,4iie[^^^g9fOMl^f o^l»SHatiittti^^ upon

the inferior ^dorsal) valve, make it slide backward. The muscles "ant^po*-
p()steH0iir^/^i«ftingf|MUi lieriftf3intibatft:i|^dii^if)^4terk]^ make it

slide 'fbfwaCra. i>^fB ^\y)Um\/{n(\'\i\ -nj; -^M/If.v 'xn 'io '^n )ji>o'i Ij-.;; uimif

ol^e^Muiili»o^^tlie''¥^htv)»ide^ l)ii6«r^tfmt»'}Arould evi-

dea%=ooirifexfiiii46t(rfr<fe3ije»©f(jte^i^0iib^ nr ,in /idto iioii) nt

OiiW.meBd^e«f als^,y»grj|tigji^ef.^^^.t^^ f.J^^ejItoiMj efl^ (adinst)

the body upon the pedunde, and tb»tiiv)1j^ipy«^ xtiw felfc't^iAH^if^t aotion^
m tl^e•^eQ#fc|iapfl^.b»fJQ^^i^^}t^g,th^f(.J^ ,tf^,i^^p;i|^i9»t% ol the

peduncle to ebb into the body; -[.{B^ 4gi?q^ftc$.jWKJWif^V.^IW» thci^iorder of

tneg|)^t-ppi4M^i$pP*0({.t U, ^•^^iAoc{\{n\ -Jilt J3if}r,-j<)0 TOO r:f^i>') fHj/()i»

agroei

resjcK^inff *^flje4){b^»;f]S*C{iiiMi^ oyQ9|^,(ei^kely to the

notK)i^rf,jbi^,flJi4i8gi^f.)^^y8i)ir^iHI ^^yfi(^^iyi^|ii»?p 9iyef,^(*lotb0r by the
aid Q{.tbe<^t|^^9l,{|^^tl^tp?<.ialidiP9 iiWffll^ftof,,ffiQ94llwdf[)s,fa (th*>ry first
propound/^ WC)^^^ .b^v/cstithat- tfie cross

disposition of certain muscles, whether from behind forward, oir ^iwhethet

froBgfcrighJb tt|hJ#ftjh]§fQld4fjl^(.<^19hto^^

ixm ym^m^^h^^Mmo^ ,y(5s^te,^jl^(,th^)jgimttltftjieQu4,iOontraction

of all thexvi8tew»te;{o«Mwtjl jtiftfe; th^^Qbli^pWi^^TOU^el«s .ti»i|8,veijsely r crossed

of Cu?i#r, l^ij'jli»];twtesi>l)lisp^[poi^tcror8|)it§p^

were employed in the sliding action of the valves. Mr. Hancock o« ;the oth^

hand observes that in Crania, where the muscular system is arranged after the

plan of Un^la^^ihidti^ti^s^^f^ sUdil^^iiao^fcine^,' AiKd tMi Mri lAioais Barrett,

* Acco{rclingioJUv..S. F* Wop^ifPfld, lingnla woiUd poepeBS apedifde mnflde; tbree addnc-
tor muscles, the posteifor pair eomnined; two paiii^ of retractors, tlie posteiior pair unsym-
loetrical, one of tnem dividing ; and two posterior sliding mnscles.

232 THE GEOLOGIST.

who has seen CratUa alive, has distinctly stated that " The valves open hy moT-
ing upon the straight side as on a hinge, without sUdin^ of the valves ;" bnt
it would he out of place and presumptuous were I to awell anv longer upon
this controversed question, my ohject naving been attained if I nave been able
to lay before the geolo^cal and palfeoniological reader the views of two
such eminently distinguisned anatomists as Mr. Hancock and Dr. Gratiolet and
no doubt time wiU prove which is the correct interpretation ; for now that the
question at issue has been made known, it will not be difficult for soooe ob-
server, who may happen to be where Liugula is found alive, to notice whether
or not the valves do slide upon one another. We will now conclude the Utile
we had deemed necessary to say of the animal by observing that the oral arms
are not supported as in many of the articulated genera by a more or less com-
plicated system of lamellie ; that they are fleshy, with their spires directed in-
wards towards each other.

After having assembled and compared with much attention a very great
many specimens of Scottish Carbomferous Tiingnla, I could conscientioasiy
admit or distinguish but three — L, squami/ormisy L. Seotica, L, mytiloideg—iisi-
withstanding that palaeontologists believe in the existence of a Ixrge number.

XLVI. — LiNGULA SQUAMIPOBJUS. Phillips. PL v., fig. 30^5.

Lingula squami/ormis, Phillips' " Geol. of Yorkshire," vol. ii., pL xi., fig. 14,

1836, = Z. Portloeki, M'Coy.

The shells composing this species are longitudinally oblong, one-third, or less,
longer than wide, with sub-parallel sides, and broadest towards the anterior ex-
tremity ; the frontal margin assuming either a very slight inward or outward
cunre. The anterior pomon is gradually curved on either side ; the beak
bein^ rounded, or but slightly angular at its extremity in the dorsal valve, with
a thickened margin, tapering pointed retrally at its termination in the Yentnd
one, which is consequently so much longer than the ophite valve. The ^alfes
are sh'ghtly convex, but somewhat depressed aJong their middle. In the dorsal
one there exists a small apex close to the rounded margin of the beak, and from
which usually radiate three small rounded ridges, separated by shidlow suld
The external surface in both valves is covered with numerous fine concentric
striae, or lines of growth, giving to the shell a beautifully and delicately sculp-
tured appearance, for the minute plications of growth succeed each other vith
much regularity, while some stronger lines or interruptions in growth are pro-
duced at variable distances. The internal muscular impressions are well
defined in some specimens, especially those produced by the occlusor and ex-
ternal adjusters of Hancock.

This IS a common species in certain Scottish carboniferous strata and
localities, and can be distinguished from its congeners by shape and sculpture,
although the Silurian Lingula granulata of Phimps approaches it nearest both
in shape and sculpture ; this last is, however, usually less elongated, and does
not present those radiating ridges, which are generalW but not alwa^rs observ-
able in the carboniferous species. In his work on ^British ^Palaeozoic fossils,
Prof. M'Coy concludes his description of L. squami/ormis by stating that " the
wide, short, oblong form of this species easily distinguishes it from the others
in the upper Palaeozoic rocks, the more elongated narrow oblong species, well
fi^ed in Portlock's 'Geological Report,' tab. 32, fig. 6, under this name,
might be called L. PortlocU (M'Coy), its proportional width is only 55-lOOth
in the long, and 60-lOOth in the short valve ; but specimens connecting the
narrow ana the wider varieties are so numerous that I could not admit the two
extremes as distinct species, besides which, Phillips' original example is per-
fectly similar to many of the Scottish examples of tne species, but was not very

DAVIDSON — ^SCOTTISH OABBOKIFBBOUS BBACHIOFOM. 233

correctly fiffuredinthe " GeoHogyof Ycnilutoei," «nd nuiy^thus hftve led some
to doubt md identity. < .PluUips'. specimeaai,^ ^fhkh may beseen in the British
Muisemn^ aiid/9£>, wbuob I pos9e98 a.b«autii[iAl4^fkwiag, {or.fbiQb.IaiQ indebted
to my yadnfidiiod diatioguished &i^y Mri 3.,iP. Woodwai:d,.cp];u»ii^t^,of a shell

and coiu^ei»ar^ lOr raibbev tbe>^.Qll'is,9<i»fIly;.dividedjb0t^eeq,i1^e,two sides of
the s^ln»iiUei^Milh£dk)fl$Ml0r ^{/,i]^mi4}im'.iift!d.tj:^ the

sheUi8rei«a0^e^lM>i])()»W^)9bov8)'iE)?gu^ €jonoe«»iliri<>/Bi^j»i! /^ixftilw^ to those
above descidbedi^ jbtili ^einhen^, /«% Ivn^^ijtredjilwe^^ q{' l^poim^^^iajQdriradiatiiur
stiu& . ThctOAdi^enisrJUe^kiitf^i tb^ diturkr;aAd pyriitoimA'it.wiU pe figurea
in my largfe/fefflrfc. 7/^fipii|»v/S<j<rttish^mples>io£ M .9Qnmifvrm»- ltfvv^§ attained
thirteea Injife mAti^^k}^^ R»di*fiw i|»,\ndtW With*; gPI^??flftiy of spe-
dim\& arer^^mftUer^; aadij^hfi j^hfeHi iift r nrwy oflft^ UmA • leWwdo W i^nstone

nodjilefli., 0 f^^niq-. t[-.|fr .{f///- n[<^\\ -yu- /;)][• ri.iir ' ■.;ll'.,ri;l 't(. nrnv./. •

In Lanarkshire it occurs at Baes Gill, at three hundrBdrand^lori^iOQe laUiomB
bdoa^ **Wi eoat^'^nihilreeihimdr^nidifiKMiirdeat HiUiiCbmig^itiuDBe hundred
and seftenieen' WjiBvaidwQcid\'GliIl ; -"tfaredionilidrbd land' )fi£ty-«foBffiili Lan^haw
Bom ; it i]^'lQiBnd\ ^oNaA^ !BBaU fi^^'NiioRp- Lesfiday^j'j In- [RfinfeeNirskire^ at
Orcluffid-qiami h^Choniihidbazik/Mitin 'BiiiiiftarfHnusftkfV'flib.t.Nd^ near

Castleearv. in Stirlingshire, in the Mill Bum beds, Campsie main limestone,
and Gorne^lSudi! bedsi J It^^lii^sb fotiM(«if}<Bii^pbriggi^^ihre^/Kiiles north
of Ghvsgow., In Haddingtonshire, , at. Cat. Craig, , near Dunbar. In Edin-
burghsMre, U 'W^dfe (wkt^^^^

!on)'; ' and Ob6^s also in

Bute, Fifeshire, and the l^rWfck^hire' 6o^t:\ ' ''''' '

ilr-'jjio ^jiiioidc /lli:iii),ij ipjifol /jjid-iD-i ,c >i W :uifi>^()<|;.'i;'» ^^jj >/

) D' r.-'/ili ff'-'jli'' ,'M/ I, Tilt . j;iii..i;'. j; i].i;;i)!f;' .'.•' ; -lil

ThissheU'isio^'adileiongated-tnaDgukr^hape, inperii|g atthe;beak^ slightly
ronnded ]at^fiaib^»anAj in mmt:>Ti I%e vahrealai»A%litiy eonveiq liuij)mudi ooin>
pressed, while itodJsntke'au^aKse i^i£x>yerUtvith nunraixmsiiopmiieLooncentrio
striae, with stii^Wideti&K|;4iendl^ int^spapesl ri'l?his reniarkB^iiefiBpedieteis easily
distiftguishefl byiti^niaimitlar ishafbaBdi <^aj)etu«g<gid» and/ peajarpas/treE as by
the ddicate ^CKulbttireivhiokiadQDiis. iki' s^aoej /Ip ^hnpeiutiiapprQaches to
certain ei<Ms^io]mesaimpks of JPfailHp)9!:i^ kuu&ftfae Garbeniferous

and ^huria»<8^eoies caimot be confo)iinded#) nLi ifi^toAVa/isp^haplsitlsB largest
Scottish C8aJkMiifeEoii8)i9peoiea>i6€.the'genilts hithertd disoove^d^ mniMeTeral: ex-
amples havdiineslanred'fiit^ewiineisialBii^ and
a fragment ii>i^cfl\fiweiajn«<rfji^raetioal'GteobEy <khbfe,tftiiiiJli|yger pro*
portions, ^erinfepribrilite jaioti i)effiBi^ i fbuitdqnnv ani intenial
cast obsoai«rLingal&-likie hidifMViyfT^fTf 'ifTf^l^woff (in«,ymlfliT^wna-CTmnMa f inftpM be
perceived. .>[i)ujiiiill "to ^'\o^<ii\\^

This JAxi^iiS^ikmWU GaM, ^ IilMft¥kah^, iH^^imi htiiidr^d^aiid tiirty-nine
fathoms hmir'^^m^^^Wit^Cf^^m^'^om^S^^ y^'bfe^ttikujdwn toa

friend in CkriJukft'tel^^ptisaidi^ €rf'i^^b!»tVyWii:t. My^^alt^fitldii^was; lloweter.

wgow*, m' Deds ttpoi . . ^

examples wefr^e^ 'iprbcured by Dr.- SSinKini' frofti Hall 'Hill; Ancherfiyth, and
Goalbuni, Leisid^u^, aboiit thre^ hjDjmdred^fatbofiiis! below ''Ell boal; " ^

* I possess \Qaoiai: Atilcndoaa' IMg«|a fipm the VoiMico. sandstoneof ih«'lVai0 of ^t. Orobt,
Hameeoia, wbie^4» .afeoted by Mr^ wortheyx to be &»^ loldest kp^awti^AmetioEm spae^es of the
genus. In shape it is very aunilar to X. Scotioa, but differs ih)m it m. sculptu^^ as well as in
the convexity (tfitfivalres. ■ ■ •• '^ '• -

t This sbeD has been known fbr many years in Scotland' as a' Posidononiya, but'bf which
genus it does not poesess the character,

YOL. III. 2 G

234 THE OE0LOOI8T.

XLVIIL — ^LniGULA hItiloibes. Sowerby. PL v., figs. 3843.

Lingula mftiloidet. Sowerby, "Min. Con,," tab. xix., fig. 1-2, 1813, = Zi«-
gula elhptica and = L,parallela, Phillips* " Geology of Yorkshire," ?oL iL,
plate xi., figs. 11-15 andri7-19, 1836.

This shell appears to vary in sha]3e, but is usually more or less regularly
elliptical or ovate, with its greatest width either towards the posterior or an-
ienor extremity. Its sides are also sometimes nearly parallel and rounded in
front, but both front and beaks are in other examples about equally and regu-
larly elliptically attenuated. The valves are generally convex, and most
elevated edonff tne middle, where there exists likewise a flatness, wh^ch becomes
gradually wider as it extends from the apex of the beak to the front, the lateral
portions of the valves sloping rather abruptly on either side, while the surfiace
IS marked at intervals by a greater or smaller number of concentric lines or
ridges of growth. The snell under description has been referr^ to Sowerbj's
L. mytiloides, because several of the specimens were exactly similar in shape to
those figured by Sowerby, in 1813, and from it having appeared that L. paral
lela andZ. elUptica were only slight variations in shape of the Sowerby shell (?).
Some paheontologists will however, differ with me in this conclusion, and may
prefer retaining L. mytiloides and L. parallela as separate species, and 1 shonld
be glad to adopt their views if they can point out the characters by which the
two can be distinguished.* L. mytiloides has usually a glossy appearance, and
was probably when alive of a bright green colour ; it is also a conunon Scottish
species.

In the parish of Carluke, in Lanarkshire, it occurs in the slaty ironstone, at one
hundred and sixty fathoms below the "EE coal ;" two hundred and thirty-nine
at Gare ; three hundred at Mashock Bum ; three hundred and thirty-seven at
Baes Gill, Braidwood, and Langshaw Bum, etc. ; three hundred and seventy-
one at Kilcadzow. It occurs likewise at Hall Hill, near Lesmahago ; Capel
Ei^, East Kilbride; Calderside and Auchentibber, High Blantyre; Bishop-
briggs and Bobroyston, north of Gla^ow. In Eenfrewshire, at Orchard-
quarry, Thomliebank. In Ayrshire, at West Broadstone, Beith. In Stirling-
shire, at Craigenglen, and Corrie Bum. In Eifeshire, at Craig Hartle, etc. It
hasalso been found along the Berwickshire coast: and at Marshall Meadows^
three miles north of Berwick, a very elongated variety has been discovered by
Mr. Tate, and for which he proposes the designation of L. eUmgcUa,

XLIX.— Spulikekuta laminosa. M'Coy. PL v., figs. 8-9.

Cvrtia laminosa. M'Coy, " Synopsis of the Carb. Eossils of Ireland, p. 137,
pi. xxi., fig. 4, 1844. Spin/era id., "Dav. Br. Carb. Mon., pi. vii., figs. 17-22.

This form is generally sub-rhomboidal, with convex valves, the lateral por-
tions of the shell being regularly curved, with acute cardinal extremities : the
hinge-line is as long as the greatest width of the shell. The area large, tri-
angular, and divided by a fissure of moderate width. The beak is smul, and
not much produced above or beyond the level of the area. The mesial fold in
the dorsal valve is broad, more or less elevated, and without ribs, while the
sinus in the ventral valve is wide, and of moderate depth ; there exists also on
the lateral portions of each valve from sixteen to twenty narrow radiating ribs,
intersected Dy closely disposed, sharp, concentric, undulating kminie.

This species evidently exists in Scotland, although no perfect example with

* At page 888 of his Histoiy of Britifih Animals," while deseribing Linoula t^tOoida, Dr.
Fleming refers to Tire's plate xvi., fif . 6, as probably belonging to the speciefi in question, bot
I am convinced that this is a mistake, as tne shell there represented is Aur from zeeemUing
any Lingnla with which I am acquainted.

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CABBONIFEROUS BEACHIOPODA. 235

its shell entirely preserved has hitherto come under my direct observation;
fragments showmg the beautifully sculptured surface may be seen in the
Museum of Practical Geology, and which are stated to be from coraline limestone
north of St. Monace, in Eneshire, and some casts have been likewise obtained
by Mr. Tate, at Lammerton, in argilaceous sandstone, a little above the Lam-
merton coal, and of which a specimen will be found represented upon our plate,
as well as a fragment of shell showing the scidptured surface. Sp. Utminosa has
some points of ^ resemblance to Spiriferina cristata, var. octoplicata, but it is
readily distinguished by the greater number and comparatively smaller ribs, as
well as by other peculiarities.

We have now completed our catalogue of the Brachiopoda hitherto
discovered in the Scottish. Carboniferous system ; and although the
results of our researches are no doubt very imperfect, and that the
subject will require a far more lengthened investigation, still every
effort has been made to lay before the reader as complete a mono-
graph as the material and observations at present assembled would
permit. Time and continued researches will no doubt enable
palsBontologists to correct the errors here inadvertently committed,
as well as to determine those points which we have unavoid-
ably left as unsettled, or provisional, and especially so with re-
ference to some few forms, of which we did not possess sufficient
material.

The Scottish Carboniferous strata have therefore furnished us with
about forty-nine or fifty species, among which may be noticed many
of the most general and characteristic forms of the system ; but many
other species that are common in England and Ireland have not been
discovered in our Scottish strata, among these we may mention Spi-
r if era striata, 8, Mosquensis, 8. jplanata, 8. triangularis j 8. convoluti,
8. msptdataj 8. distane, 8, triradiaUs, 8* mtegricosta, Gyrtina s&ptosa,
C. carhonaria, Athyra expamsa, BhynckoneUa acummata, R, renifomds,
B.flexistria, B. angtdata, Chonetes comoides, G. papilionacea, Prodttctvs
striatm, P, srib-loevis, P. plicatilis, P. Jmmerosus, P. tessellatus, P. mar-
garitaceus, etc. Although I have no expectation that our Scottish
list wiU ever be very materially increased, still with diligent search a
few more species may perhaps in time be added to those with
which we are at present acquainted.

Belgium is very rich in Carboniferous Brachiopoda, and possesses
a certain number of species that have not been discovered in Great
BritaiQ ; and with the view to ascertain which were common to Scot-
land and to that country, I fumifihed Prof, de Koninck with a list
and figures of our shells, and requested him at the same time to
&nunge our species which were found also in Belgium into his
respective faunas of Vis^ and Toumay, and have been favoured with
the following tabular view : —

THE QEOLOaiBT.

Prof, de Koninok further obeervea that oat of our forty-nine Scotr
tish Bpecies, twenty belong excliiaively to his &TUia of Via4, five only
to that of Tournay, while eighteen woiJd be common to the two,lrat
that he doea not know where to locate my Froductms Ymingwiem.
Spirifer Garluhieneie, and Lingida Seotica, as they have not l»en
found in Eelginm, nor does he know where to place the lA'ngvk
squamifomm, L. mytiloides, and Biseina natida, so that in ft general
way some thirty-eight or forty of onr species have been fcnmd »t
Via4, while twenly-three occnr also at Tonmay.

It may likewise be observed that although some of onr Sootfcli
species might vie in size with those of England and Ireland, yet aa »
general rule Scottish sheUs of the CarboniferanB period are much

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CARBONIFEROUS BRACHIOPODA. 237

smaller,* but not the less interesting on that account, and are in
many instances far more perfectly preserved than any similar species
hitherto noticed from other countries, so that we have been enabled
in several instances to complete the descriptions of the characters
both internal and external, which were but imperfectly made out in
our larger work. In a very interesting paper by Mr. MoAndrews on
the comparative size of marine mollusca, it is clearly proved that
"although the size attained by mollusca may be influenced by various
conditions in different localities, as a general rule each species attains
its greatest size, as well as its greatest number in the latitude best
suited to its development." Much has, however, to be learned
relative to the habitats and distribution of the British Carboniferous
species, and correct lists of those peculiar to each horizon, zone, or
stage, have still to be drawn up, as well as those that partake of
a larger or more restricted vertical range ; and indeed, when prepar-
ing my monograph for the PaleBontographical Society, I found that
the information I could obtain upon this very important subject was
so scanty, and often so unsatisfactory and contradictory, that I was
obliged to confine myself almost entirely to the working out of the
species, which had themselves been thrown into much confiision, on
account of the multitude of erroneous identifications or mis-naming
prevalent in almost every British public and private collection, while
the nomenclature was likewise most heavily burdened with a vast
nmnher of synonomous and useless denominations. It could not^
therefore, be expected in most instances that local enquirers could
ftirnish that correct information relative to the distribution of the
species in their particular districts until they had become familiar
with the characters of the species themselves ; it would have to a
certain extent been just as if we were to expect that a person could
read fluently who was but very imperfectly acquainted with the
iiame and shape of his letters ; but it is to be hoped that before long
that important information will be forthcoming, and which no one
could ftirnish or work out so well as those who reside in the localities
where the fossils are found. The difficulty and perplexity I so often
experience in the identification of specimens and species should deter
niany who may be even less experienced than myself from too hastily
supposing that a shell which may not be familiar to their eye is
really new ; for in order to ascertain whether a species is in reality
so, a very considerable amount of research is required, a research
Diany cannot undertake, from the want of books or means of com-
parison. I would, therefore, urgently impress upon the minds of
young palaeontologists the very great importance of caution, and not
too hastily or highly consider as new what they might not be
acquainted with, otherwise the science will become so burdened with
synonyms and useless denominations that it will deter many from

• Conditions arising from food and climate no donbt modify form and size, and
modifications of form not amomituig to malformation might arise from diseased
condition.

288 THE GEOLOGIST

prosecating a Btady wbicH would from its oomplication have lost all
those charms whidi Nature lays open to the studious mind.

A oorrect section of the British Carboniferous System, with a list
of the species peculiar to each zone or stage, as weU as of those which
possess a greater vertical range, is, as we haye already stated, a great
desideratum, and is a subject well worthy of the attention of the
geologist and pakdontologist. Such an investigation is being earned
out by Doctors White and Oppal, Prof. Suess, Mr. £ugene Desloiig-
champs, and others with reference to the Jurassic strata ; and the
others systems have been likewise to a greater or lesser extent
similarly investigated ; but the Carboniferous one (which is so &r
spread and so important) appears to have been in reality less com-
pletely and carefolly studied with respect to the distribution of its
species than almost any other ; although we possess many valuable
works by several of our most eminent geologists and paleBontologists
in which the system and fossils have been minutely described. Two
great helps which recent species afford are almost entirely precluded
&om the palaoontologist, that is to say, the power of being aiUe to
anatomicaJly examine the animal, and the absence of that coloratioB
which is often of so much assistance in the discrimination of recent
shells ; and when we reflect how vivid, beautiful, and varied most
have been the tints which once adorned the now black and dingy
fossil, we ave delighted when, by some fortunate accident, some re-
mains of that colour is faintly preserved upon a shell which has, for
almost countless ages been concealed from the sight of man. The
interiors and well preserved internal casts should likewise be care-
fully collected, for upon them aro impressed many s%ns which can be
interpreted by the experienced palseontologist, and lead him to re-
cons^ct and describe many characters in an animal of which no
living representatives may at present exist.

In the first pages of this paper, we endeavoured to give some brief
and general idea of the principal divisions into whidi the Carbon-
iferous system had been divided, as well as some details regarding
that of Scotland in particular. Since then, Mr. Geikie, of the
(^logical Survey of Scotland, has kindly transmitted to me the
annexed tabular view of the Carboniferous series of the Lothiana^ and
which appears to be nearly the same as in iAie western districts. In
the Lotluans, the Brachiopoda range only in that portion of the
system, or section, which corresponds to the Carboniferous limestone
of England, some species ranging from the top to the bottom of this
division, but the greater number appear confined to the lowar lime-
stone series. IdngtUa mytUoides is stated by Mr. GeikLe to be in the
Lothians Gharacteristic of a zone about the middle of the Edge Coal
series ; but more information may be expected as soon as the Survey
shall have published the results of their careM and assiduous labours.
Mr. George Tate, whose knowledge of the Carboniferous system is
well known, has, at my request, favoured me also with a note upon
his "TweeC^an group," which we will here transcribe, as it will explain
the views of that excellent observer, as developed relative to some of
the oldest beds of the system in Berwickshire and Northumberland.

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CABBONIFEROUS BRACHIOPODA.

239

TABTTLAB VIEW OF THE CABBONIFEBOnS SYSTEM IN THB LOTHIANS.

ISngliftli MilLrtcme') Boslin Sandfltone
Grit / or "Moor Rock"

o
e

1^1

BnrdieHonse
XimiesUme

n uiJ niiin-LiL

UJLU'IXJ

BCC

W ■ ■ >■< UlLfcLl.1 l-L'fcH 1. If

-r—'*-^-* ■»■■■■■■ I 1

I-

240 THE GEOLOGIST.

" The Greywacke rock, now the Cambrian system of Sedgwick, or
Lower Silurian of Mnrchison, forms the Lammermnir Hills, wHch
range through Berwickshire &om east-north-east to west-south-west.
On these rocks rest nnconformably the upper beds of the Old Red
Sandstone, which again are conformably overlaid by the Carbo-
niferous formation. The beds of this fonnation in Berwickshire are
connected with those of Northumberland, and then, we find it dis-
tinguishable into four groups, which thus succeed each other in
descending order : " 1, The Coal-measures ; 2, Millstone Grit ; 3, the
Mountain-limestone ; 4, the Tweedian-group.

*^ 1 and 2. Neither the Coal Measures nor the Millstone-grit ex-
tend into Berwickshire ; but it may be here observed that the term
Coal Measures is objectionable, because both the Millstone-grit and
the Mountain-limestone contain coal-seams, though not so iidck, so
good in quality, or so numerous, as in the Newcastle Coal-Field.

"3. The Mountain-limestone spread over a large areaiu Northum-
berland, but a few only of the lower beds appear in Berwickshire,
and they form a very small portion of the county. On the south
side of the Lammermuir they occupy a narrow strip along the coast,
&om the mouth of the Tweed to a little beyond Lamnferton Sheil,
and on the north side of the range they overlie the Tweedian group
from the Cove harbour at Cockbumspath to the northern extremity
of the county at Dunglas Bum. Brachiopods and other fossils,
characteristic of the mountain-limestone, occur in these beds.

" 4. In 1856* I applied the term, " Tweedian-group" to a series of
beds lying below tiie Mountain-limestone. They form, as I then
stated, the lowest portion of the Carboniferous formation, lying below
the Productal and Encrinal Mountain-limestone of Northranberland
and Berwickshire. They consist of grey, greenish, and lilac coloured
arenaceous shales, interstratified with sandstones usually yellowish
or white slaty sandstone, and thin beds of argillaceous and magnesian
limestoneSe Lepidodendra, coniferous trees, and Stigmaria fdcoides
occur in some parts of the group, but there are no workable seams of
coal. Scales and remains of fish, ModiolsB and Entomostraca are
tolerably abundant in some beds : but at Tweed Mill, species of
Orthocerata and Pleurotomaria are associated with coniferous trees.
The group is specially marked by the absence of Brachiopoda, which
are very abundant in the overlying mountain-limestone — generally
freshwater or lacustrine conditions are indicated : there is no
evidence of a deep sea deposit, and in the rare instances where we
find undoubted marine remains, they are accompanied with land
plants, which show that the deposit was formed in a shallow estuary.

* TranfiactioiiB of Berwickshire Club, vol. iii., p. 172.

(To be continued.)

THE GEOLOGIST.

JULY, I860.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE SEA.

By S. J. Mackib, F.G.S., F.S.A.

No man is right at all times, says the common proyerb, and Geologists
are not always exceptions to the role. Granite has been looked
upon as the " back-bone" of the earth's crust, and fire or deeply-
Be&ted internal heat has been supposed to have ^ed an ancient
unknown kind of rock into its present compact and crystalline state,
while although now scarcely anything more than, at most, hot water
wiQ be allowed as an agent in the structural change. The older
geologists inyoked on all occasions when great effects were to be
produced most terrible commotions and catastrophes, just as melo-
dramatists bring in blue fire and demons. Nature is, however, a
most methodical business personage. Sedate and steady, she takes
quietly and methodically everything with which she has to do, and
keefw her accounts properly by double entry. If you draw on her
on the one hand, inunediately she pays into her bankers on the other.
Nothing goes down on the one side of her aecoimts but instantly she
makes some entzy on the other.

If the sea now-a-days is salt, depend upon it " Old Ocean" is
charged for that material somewhere in Dame Nature's ledger.

This, perhaps, is a humorous way of getting at a curious question.
I have been asked it more than once, and being asked has often set
me thinking —

Was the sea always salt P

VOL. III. 2 H

242 THB 0E0L0GT8T.

I put the question by itself, and having put it, there I leave it. I
do not even say that I shall answer it ; but as I have sometimes
thought about it, what I have thought, and so far as I know what
others have thought about it, I will just put down, as much, perhaps,
for the benefit of the reader as my own.

Let us go back at once to the time when the dry land first appeared.
Was it the " salt sea" then aS now ? Or were its waters firesher,
Salter, or of other kind ? Were the waves as rough as in our own
stormy seasons, the winds as variable or as strong before the first
snow-flakes fell as they have beeti since P Did those winds ia
sportive play catch up into the dry air the dust-grains poimded by
battering breakers from the adamantine rocks, and strewn along the
shores P Was the "v^aste of land by sea and air as rapid then, or
faster, slower than its present perishing and degradation? Were
the mechanical actions, now most active, as active then, or were
chemical changes quicker then or more assistant to the attritive
powers P

. Is this to get into dreamland P Are We rivalling the baseless
visions and imaginings of the old physicists in such inquiries P Or
are they real sensible queries which it is the business of science to
answer p

Harder questions have been put for scientific solution, and have
been answered ; simpler, and not answered yetw
, No man must study geology without a bold heart and patient
endurance ; he must be a good soldier in the caude of science, or he
is unfit for a geologist. With old and deep-rooted prejudices to com-
bat ; with doubts, and contradictions, and ancient fallacies to do
battle against ; himself often on weak and slippery grounds, he mnst
be beforehand prepared for many reverses, many changes of positions,
many retreats and abandonments of theories and deductions, content
alone in looking forward to the elimination of truth in the end, and
regarding every defeat as a victory, if it lead him to higher grounds
of advantage and securer positions of future progress. Many modi-
fications of former theoretical conclusions have already taken place,
and more must foUow.

The natural method of investigating ancient physical phenomena,
and of considering their results and efi)^cts by a strict comparison

MACKIB — THE GBOLOGT OF THE SEA. 248

with present and historically recorded influences, so admirably and
widely propagated by the philosophical Lyell, has undoubtedly been
carried to the extreme by unreflecting votaries of our science, in the
attempt to identify the phenomena of remote geological ages with
those going on now around us. As in chemistry, there are two ways
of determining the composition of a substance — analysis and syn^
thesis — ^the taking to pieces and the putting together, so in nature
there are universally two ways in which physical influences may
operate — separation and (xmMnation, One substance liberated by
chemical action under one condition may combine with another sub«
fitance in another condition, and a third element may thus be
liberated which might bring another influence into play from which
other combinations and other liberations would follow, so that in the
endless changes which are capable of thus being eflected, we might in
the lapse of time find Nature still adhering to fundamental physical
laws, but working in quite an opposite, or at any rate a very
different, manner, to the identity thoughtlessly or in the heat of
enthusiasm anticipated or presumed.

But to return to our first question. Was it the briny ocean that
ebbed and flowed around the primordeal gneissic island-tracts, and
washed and triturated the sand- granules and clay-atoms of the
'* Bottom-rocks," which formed their strands ?

To set methodically to work to answer this we must begin at the
beginning ; we must get, if we can, at some idea of what the first
crust of the globe was like, and what first produced the sea. One
man of high note as a geologist and chemist has done something for
us on the first point. Mr. S terry-Hunt, a gentleman connected, with
the Geological Survey of Canada — a country where the greatest
development of those old primitive rocks is displayed — ^has made use
of the opportunities of his vocation to investigate the chemical con-
ditions of those most ancient known strata, and has given us as a
conclusion of his researches, that in the primitive crust of our planet
^' all the alkalis, lime, and magnesia must have existed in combina-
tion with silica (quartz) and alumina (clay), forming a mixture which,
t)erhaps, resembled dolerite, while the very dense atmosphere would
contain in the form of acid-gases all the carbon, chlorine, and sul-
phur^ with an excess of oxygen, nitrogen, and watery vapour." These

244 THB GSOLOOISt.

dednetfionB are of course based upon diemioal data ; and wbeth^ we
accept them literally or not, it is probable that something yeiy like
this state of things did exist at the remote period referred to, ftod we
may therefore accept them as data to proceed upon.

Next, then, comes the question how the first sea was formed i
Naturally, we should think, in the sequence of events incident on the
natural reMgeration or cooling of our planet. After the oonsolidft-
tidn of the first cmst of the globe, we should naturally exgeci that
the condensation of the atmospheric vapours should succeed. Hence,
ihe first rain-fall should have produced the first ocean. Was the first
ocean, then, of fresh water ? Wait a while. Let us look at both sideB
of the case ; for this rain-fall, perhaps long continued, most haye
fallen, if our assumption be right, on what would be practicallj a
globe of dolerite. And what, then, would be the result ?

Mr. Steny-Hunt will help us again. He wiU speak, perlu^ ia
the concise language of science — a language unintelligible often to
the mass, because it is a *' short-hand," so to express it, wliioh pre*
sumes and requires a considerable amount of knowledge on the part
of the reader, but which, in the sentence we shall quote, is, we think,
sufficiently intelligible to all.

" The first action," says the investigator referred to, ^' of a hot add
rain falling upon the yet uncooled crust, would give rise to chlorides
and sulphates with the separation of silica ; and the accumulation of
the atmospheric waters would form a sea charged with salts of soda^
lime, and magnesia."

Chemical deductions carried still further bring us to another staga
" The subsequent decomposition of the exposed portions of the
crust" — ^those not covered by the primeval ocean — " under the influ-
ence of water and carbonic acid, would transform the felspathic po^
tions into a silicate of alumina (clay) on the one hand, and alkaline
bi-carbonates on the other ; these decomposing the lime-salts of the
sea, would give rise to alkaline chlorideB and bi-carbonate of lime,
the latter to be separated by premutation, or by organic agency, as
limestone."

In this way, then, we arrive at the continued formation of chloride
of sodium, or common salt, in the sea, as also of the manner in which
the siliceous (fiinty-sandstones, quartz^rock, &c»\ cakaceons (hin^

MAGEIE — THE GEOLOOT OF THE SEA. 245

stones), and argOlaceons (clays, shales, Ac) ingredientB of onx
earth's crust were generated.

We are now brought to that age of remote granitoid or gneissic
rocks which are the oldest presented to ns at this hour of the ancient
primeval strata. These, as it is as well to call by a general name,
we shall term by their Canadian title of " Laurentian." These are
the rocks which constituted the first dry land above the water — ^at
least are the oldest rocks of which any traces remain.

Now gneiss, in broad terms, may be stated to be regenerated, or
at any rate modified granite. Its constituent minerals are the
same ; the like three ostensible substances are there — qnartz, felspar,
and mica. Quartz, one need scarcely say, is one form of silex, or
flint ; and mica is a compoimd of alnmina, silica, potash, iron, and
fluoric add. It is, however, the felspar which possesses the chief
interest in our present speculations. Felspar has an alkaline base,
either soda or potash. Naturally, therefore, felspathic rocks are
primarily separated into two sorts — soda-felspar and potash-felspar ;
the other alkali, the volatile ammonia, while linking itself with clays
and argillaceous earths not entering into any combination, affording
a felspathic product of the two bases, soda and potash, as they occur
in granitic and gneissic rocks ; the former only exists in a soluble
state, the potash in its combination producing an insoluble result.

No one could describe every purpose and all the phases of even
any ordinary object at once, and still more to do so properly we most
devote something to other objects to which it may be perhaps even
only remotely related, or with which it may be only casually
associated.

If we sdected a watch, for example, it would not be suf&dent to
explain that it was an instrument for measuring time, on the
principle of an xmcoiling spring checked in its rate of nnfolding
by a httle toothed bar of steel ; the inquiring mind would naturally
ask for farther explanation, and we should thus be led into mechanics
to explain the principles of the action of the mechanism ; into metal-
lurgy and jewellery to explain the value and requisites of the
materials employed ; we should be carried on to clocks and3)endulTmi-
motions; and finally onwards still to the general history of the
methods of measuring the passage of time, £rom candle-burning and

246 THE OXOLOOIST.

Band-nmning to modem chronometersi lever-watclies, and io tlie
delicate hijoiLX not larger than shillings, mann&ctured at this day in
the famous old dty of Geneva*

So it is in investigating any one subject of geological histoiy. So
mingled do we find it, so associated with other topics, as to be only
tmriddled or comprehended by very extensive and very different
investigations.

Look at that little rill issuing from the base of the chalk-downs,
and trickling onwards to the green meadows, That riU has filtered
through the chalk-rock, and few of ns need a chemist to tell ns
that the crystal-looking water contains a large amount of chalky
matter, for the evidence is plain in the incrustation of the bits of
sticks and other objects in its rippling course ; but still we want the
chemist's art to know that it is carbonic acid gas which enables the
water to dissolve out that chalky matter from the solid hills, to hold
it in solution, and that it is when the water liberates some portion
of that gas into the atmosphere that the water becomes incapable of
sustaining the whole of its chalky load and the encrusting sediment
is deposited.

So other waters and other springs issuing &om other reels, and
in other countries, contain other materials in solution according to
the nature of the substance they permeate, as witness the natron-
lakes of Egypt, the carbonate of soda springs of Carlsbad and Yichy,
the siliceous waters of the geysers, and the ordinary calybeate and
medicinal springs.

Now for ages upon ages throughout aU time since the diy land
has peered above the sea has the percolation of water and the issning
of springs taken place ; from the hour when the first rain-drops fell
unto the present have the dissolving and re-combining, the undoing
and re-forming processes been going on. What has been taken from
one place has been carried to another. What has been taken from
the land has been given to the sea.

When we consider all the vast amount of clays mingled with the
other strata in the earth's crust has been originally derived from the
decomposition of the felspathic minerals of the old gneissic rocks, wo
perceive by comparison at once the importance of the part which the
alkaline carbonates formed in the decomposition of the aJkaliferons

MAOKIE — THB GEOLOGY OF THE SEA. 247

silicates or felspars must have played, as they still continue to do, in
the chemiBtry of the sea. Hence the analyses and study of the per*
colating waters of the remaining areas of those ancient gneissic and
bottom-most sedimentaiy rocks must be one of the chief points in the
elncidation of our question, Was the sea always salt P

Another point of interest still remains, namely the study of the
present constituents of those old primeval rocks. If water dissolves
out certain substances from them, and the dissolution has been going
on for ages, it follows there must be a diminished quantity or absence
of certain soluble materials, and by consequence a proportionate pre-
dominance of insoluble, in the residue of which their present consti*
tution consists.

The yellow com waves its golden seed-bearing spikes in the
Bommer's breeze, and the harvest is reaped and stored into bams ;
but the farmer in the inclement days of winter spreads his fields with
maniire, and ploughs and Arrows the soil, opening and turning it
up to the rain, the firost, and the air.

And why ? To replace that which the com has extracted, and
that the elements in their chemistry and powers may manipulate
fresh substances required for another crop.

K we analysed the soil before the crop was grown, would it
be the same as after the crop was reaped ? Assuredly not, so if we
analyse the ancient rocks after ages of loss of certain original
ingredients by the incessant dissolving action of percolating springs,
they would shew, as we have remarked, a poverty of some sub-
stances and a superabundance of others. Thus it is that while
we find the potash small in quantity in alkaline and saline waf/crs, we
find it locked up in superabundant proportion in orthoclase and other
indissoluble forms in the constituent rocks of the earth's crust, while
soda, which we find abundant in alkaline and saline springs, is
observed gradually to diminish in quantiiy from the oldest granitic
and gneissic rocks through their regenerated materials in the paleo-
zoic, secondary, tertiary, and recent eras, becoming less and less as
their periods of formation approach our own.

These conditions and results are readily and mutually explained
by the soluble substances found in mineral-bearing waters, and by the
actual constitution of the residue of the rock-mass. So the double-?

248 THB eSOLOGl&Pft

entry in Nature's acooonts satisfies ns of the correctness of our oon-
elnsions ; and we mnst always find the double-entry if we wish to
verify onr speculations — they are of no reliance without*

Kow the springs issuing firom clay strata are characterized by &
predominenoe of bi-carbonate of soda with the bi-carbonate of lime
and magnesia, for the atmospheric waters charged with carbonic
acid gas, in percolating the rock-masses, remove i^ soda, the lime, and
the magnesia, leaving behind the silica, alumina, and potash; and as
the clays become more and more sandy and permeable, the actixm of
the filtering waters will be greater, while the finer and compact days
resisting the penetration of water, wiU retain their soda, lime, and
magnesia. On these principles the chemical compositioii of th&
ancient sediments must have been throughout all geological periods
constantly changing, and hence it is when we examine the consti-
tuents of the ancient rocks, we find them, where preserved under
favourable circumstances, containing much soda, the reverse of which
is observable in similar more modem formations ; and ancient as aro
those old Laurentian rocks, they were doubtless derived from the
ruins of other rocks in which the proportion of soda was still greater.

And it is from the detritus of the felspar-constituents of those
old primitive rocks all over the globe that, finom the paleozoic era to
our own, the alkaline waters have been derived by which the rock-
constituting silicates have been carried down to the sea in the fona
of carbonate of soda to be transformed by the chloride of calcium
(lime) parting with its chlorine into the chloride of sodinm, or
common salt, while the carbonic acid was liberated firom the soda to
combine with the calcium, whence the formation of carbonate of lime
in the same water, the mechanical deposition and segregation by or-
ganic agency of which have given rise to the great masses of lime-
stones we find intercalated at various epochs with the other strata
of the earth's crust.

Out of this investigation we derive another conclusion on another
point, namely, that the decomposition of rocks is naiuch less rapid
Tiow than in primeval times, because the soluble soda-silicafces are less
abundant, and because the quantity of carbonic acid, so powerfial an
agent in these changes, has been diminished by the formation or
various limestones and of coaL

HOETON — GEOLOGY OP THE STONESFIELD SLATE. 249

Let ns in conclnsion examine the nature of the waters which now
impregnate the great mass of lower palaeozoic strata in Canada.
According to Mr. Hnnt in them '^ oiQy about one-half the chlorine is
combined with the sodium (common salt), the remainder exists as
chlorides of calcium and magnesium, the former predominating, while
the sulphates are present oiQy in small amounts."

Comparing the composition of these waters, which may be regarded
as representing that of the ancient palaeozoic sea, with our modem
ocean, we find, as we have already theoretically inferred, that the
chloride of calcium (lime) has been replaced by common salt (chlo-
ride of sodium), a process involving the presence of carbonate of soda
and the formation of carbonate of lime.

Let us now finally return to our question, Was the sea always
salt ? K what we have deduced be correct, we may answer that the
first ocean was one highly charged with various salts, chiefly chlo-
rides of calcium and magnesia ; that, with the continued action of
atmospheric waters bringing down carbonate of soda to the sea, a
chemical process has been constantly carried on, by which the
chlorides of calcium and magnesia have been gradually but con-
tinuously diminished, and the quantity of chloride of sodium, or
common salt, proportionately increased, and consequently that the
saltness of the sea is greater now than in its ancient state, and has
been constantly increasing &om the remotest times unto our own.

ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE STONESFIELD SLATE AND

ITS ASSOCIATE FORMATIONS.

BY WILLIAM S. HOBTON, OF LIVBEPOOL.

Thebb are, perhaps, few spots richer in the " time-hallowed memo-
ries of the past" than the old town of Woodstock, near Oxford. In
its immediate neighbourhood once stood a royal palace, where, as the
readers of Scott will doubtless remember, many of the scenes in one
of his novels are laid. The site of this ancient fabric is now occu-
pied by the more stately pile of Blenheim, the princely residence of
the Duke of Marlborough. In the park there is a spring still termed,
in allusion to the legend more or less familiar to all students of Eng-

VOL. III. 2 I

250 THB GEOLOGIST.

lish hisidy, Bosamoiid's well. At the distance of a few miles only,
memorials of our Celtic ancestors exist in tlie form of tumuli,
embowered among the venerable oaks of Wychwood Eorest. It is
not, however, our present intention to linger amid the many historical
associations of Woodstock, deeply firangnt with interest as they are,
but proceeding at once to onr object, we invite onr readers to accom-
pany ns in a geological ramble to the village of Stonesfield, situated
m its vicinity, at a distance of between three and fonr miles. By fer
the most agreeable portion of onr road traverses the picturesque
slopes and luxuriantly wooded glades of Blenheim Park: leayiug
these behind, we soon arrive within sight of our destination. As we
approach the village we perceive it to occupy the sides and summit
of a somewhat elevated ridge of land, and our attention will notM
to be arrested by the numerous precipitous piles or mounds of gray
stones surrounding it in every direction, and fix)m long exposure to
the weather simulating at a distance much of the bleak and rugged
aspect of natural cliffs and storm-beaten crags, but, as we discoTer in
due time, they are in reality the gradually accumulated refuse of the
slate pits we design to visit in the course of our excursion. Before
ascending the hill into the village, the tourist, especially if at all
interested in antiquarian pursuits, may profitably devote a short time
to the examination of a Koman villa, although but few traces of it
exist beyond a portion of its tesselated pavement, for the protection
of which a rude hovel has been erected. This relic of that distant
era when Britain was a province of the Boman empire, and this
sequestered vale of Oxfordshire, the summer retreat of some wealthy
citizen of the " Eternal City," is naturally suggestive of the reflection
that the object of our visit to Stonesfield is in order to examine the
records of an antiquity so remote, that even the far-receding vista of
Boman annals affords no parallel by which a comparison may be insti-
tuted— an antiquity so vast that the very existence of the human
race furnishes no chronology adequate to express the distance of a
period so deeply enshrined in the dim eternity of the past. Let us,
then, invoke the aid of geological science, which alone can roll back
the strong barriers that have so long walled up the sepulchre of that
ancient time, and reveal to its disciples the various mysterious forms
and phases of life that prevailed during an age of which the historian
takes no cognizance, and whose only archives are engraved on those
" tables of stone," some of whose quaint inscriptions and marvellons
heiroglyphs, as embodied in the Lower Oolitic rocks of Stonesfield,
it is our present task to examine, and as far as practicable to
decipher.

Strangers who visit this village almost invariably have one or other
of two queries proposed to them by its inhabitants, either " Do you
want a few thousand slates ?" or " Do you want any fossils ?" The
products thus alluded to form the principle support of the villagers,
and are chiefly obtained fix)m the slaty fissile bed occurring at the
base of the Bath, or Qreat Oolite, that being nowhere developed ou
so extensive a scale as at Stonesfield, although present in some other

HORTON — GEOLOGY OP THE STONESPIBLD SLATE. 251

localities, Sevenhampton, near dieltenhani, and Colley Weston,
Northamptonshire, is thence denominated Stonesfield Slate. This
bed of slate, although not exceeding six feet in thickness, is of con-
siderable local value for roofing-purposes ; and, indeed, all over
Oxfordshire more or less of Stonesfield Slate may be observed on the
roofs of the houses, churches, and other buildings. It contains some
pebbles of a rook very similar to itself, which, as Sir C. Lyell
suggests, may have been portions of the same bed broken up and
subsequently re-deposited, and when first raised is very compact, but
after having been exposed to the action of frost, readily divides into
thin laminsB, and in that state is dressed witb the hammer, and pre-
pared for the market. UnHke its equivalent formation in Grloucester-
shire, the Slate is not exposed in open quarries, but worked by meaas
of well-like shafts penetrating the overlying Oolitic strata, and vary-
ing in depth fix)m thirty to sixty feet, according to the level of the
STurfaee-ground. Although the Stonesfield Slate will receive the
largest share of our attention, yet these overlying beds, which are, in
descending order, the Combrash, Forest Marble and Bath Oolite
demand a brief notice that perhaps will not be deemed out of place.
Below the Stonesfield Slate a ferruginous bed of Inferior Oolite may
be observed at the base of the hiU in the adjoining parish of Fawler.
This, since the time of its discovery (February, 1859), has been
largely quarried for iron-ore, and found to contain a considerable per
centage of that metal. At a distance of about four miles from
Stonesfield, in the same direction, near Charlbury, the Lower Lias
was exposed some years since by a cutting of the Oxford, Worcester,
and Wolverhampton railway, and yielded some beautiful specimens
of Am/monUes plcmicostatvSf Fleurotomaria Anglica^ and other Liassio
fossils.

The Combrash presents itself in this district as a hard, coarse,
flaggy limestone, with thin bands of brown marls and clay, and when
in a state of decomposition famishes a valuable soil for agricultural
purposes. It may be studied to advantage in the neighbourhood of
Witney, more especially at a quarry on tbe side of the Woodstock
road, where fine specimens of Pholadmnya Murchisoni (?) are abun-
dant, associated with a species of Nautilus (N. inflatus ?), Ammonites
discus, A. Herveyii, and another species too imperfect for identifica-
tion; also Terebrahda mazillata, Ga/rdiwn dissimile, Oresslya pere^
gnna, and Isocwrdia mimmm. This pit has also famished some
interesting sea-urchins, Nudeoliies dnuatua, N, chmicularis, and a
few finely preserved examples of Holectyjms d&pressus ; also a soli-
tary specimen of Glyphia rostrata, a crustacean allied to the lobster.
In addition to the above, from some shallow openings on Curbridge
Conmion have been collected Trigonia costata, T. impressa, Lima
gibbosa, Astarte elegans, A. exca^ata, Modiola plicata, M, hvpa/rtita,
with Terebrcutvla ohovata, a shell that is very abundant in this locality,
and highly characteristic of the Combrash, and very rarely a beau-
tiful species of searurchin, Acrosalinia hemicidaroides. The Forest
Marble derives its name from the adjacent forest of Wychwood,

252 THi OBOLOGiar.

whore it is largely developed. Several sections are well exposed at
the quarries near the Witney Cemetery, where its upper portion con-
sists of a dark-coloured bed of clay containing RhynchoTidla condnna,
Terehrattda digona, and T, maadllaia, with spines of Cidans, and
joints of Pentacrrnites. This clay is divided about the centre by a
thin band of slaty sandstone, which, although not equal to the
Stonesfield Slate for the purpose, is capable of being worked by the
hammer into a rough kind of roofing-tile. This Forest Marble slate
recalls vividly to the mind the condition of the ancient OoUtic sea
by whose agency it was formed, the surfaces of many of its slahs
being strongly ripple-marked, and covered with the valves of small
Ostrea9, E<hynchonella9, and comminuted fragments of other shells,
with here and there a perfect specimen of Pecten lens, or P. vagmiSf
and occasionally a small sea-urchin, Diadema depressa. In one
solitary instance the writer was so fortunate as to obtain from one
of these slabs a specimen of Acrosalenia, much compressed, but still
retaining its long, smooth, pointed spines attached to their sockets, a
condition in which Echini are very rarely met with in this op any
other formation. These beds of clay and slate are succeeded by a
thick stratum of coarse sheUy limestone, containing portions of coni-
ferous drift-wood, and but few organic remains of any kind, with the
exception of Lima cardiiformis and imperfect Terebratnlse. At
Stonesfield the Bath Oolite consists of a soft white limestone, suc-
ceeded by a stratum of hard compact fissile ragstone passing down-
ward into the true Stonesfield Slate. The upper portion is very
fossiliferous, and contains several forms of life which seldom occur
in the lower division. These are chiefly some interesting corals
ThanmastrcBa LyelUi, two species of IsastroBa, and some others, asso-
ciated with a flat species of sea-urchin, Chjpetis MuUerii, and mnch
more rarely a beautiful Hemicidaris as yet unnamed. This bed also
contains a variety of shells, among which may be enumerated Astarie
elegans, Terehratula maxillata, ^erincea Endesii, N. melanoides, Livia
cardiiformis, and a species of Chemnitzia, G. Hamptonensis.

This division of the Bath Oolite may also be studied at Witney,
where it has yielded some interesting fish remains identical with
those of the Stonesfield Slate. At Minster Lovel, and other places
situated on the Cheltenham road, many cuttings have been made in
this formation, chiefly for the purpose of procuring road-stone, for
which it is, however, but ill adapted. A quarry situated by the road
side, near the Minster turnpike, has furnished some instructive speci-
mens, chiefly the palatal teeth of fishes, with fragments of bone and
scales ; these are found in an insulated condition, and are confined to
a thin stratum of brown friable marl, forming the summit of the
section.

The second division of the Bath Oolite, both in lithological compo-
sition and organic remains, is so nearly allied to the underlying slate
that we shall prefer studying them in connection with each other, and
regard them both as belonging to one and the same period, rather
than treat of them as two separate and distinct formations. A com*

HOETON — GEOLOGY OP THE STONESFIELD SLATE. 268

plete list of tlie fossils of these beds has not yet been formed, pro-
bably because there is no complete collection of them in existence.
Perhaps the Oxford Greological Museum contains the finest series,
chiefly collected by the late Dr. Buckland, who paid frequent visits
to this village, and with whose memory the formation under review,
rendered classic by his labours and fame, will ever be associated.

Let us now proceed to glance at these products of the slate-pits,
and it will be seen that they comprise a marvellous variety of
organic remains ; for, besides plants, insects, reptiles, and mammalia^
indicative of dry land, the Crustacea, shells, and predaceous shark-
like fishes of the Oolitic ocean are likewise represented in the
catalogue.

We begin with plants, and notice one marine form, a branching
fticoid, or sea-weed, Halymenitea ramulostis. Among the ferns that
once flourished on that ancient shore, whose dark impressions are
presented in beautiful relief on the light grey of the slate, we find
the deUcate fronds of Sphenopteris (8. cysteoides) and Hymeno-
phyllites (H, macrophyUa), together with the broad-leaved tribe
Tseniopteris, one species of which (T, viUcda) is identical with the
form found in the carbonaceous shale of the Lower Oolite on the
Yorkshire coast, in the vicinity of Scarborough. The beautiful
CycadacesB, of which the Zamia of New Holland gives an existing
example, are represented by such forms as PaJseozamia (T. ^ectmata,
P. ixmna), Zamites (Z. lanceolaims) ^ and Pterophyllum (F, comptum,
P. ndnm). The three last»named species occur iflsewise in the Scar-
borough oolite. There is also a singular reed-like leaf, as yet unde-
scribed, about twelve inches in length by one in breadth, destitute of
a mid-rib, and with nervures parallel with its edges. The small
extreme branches of coniferous plants are among the frequent fossils
of the slate. One kind possesses aflinities with the yew (Taadtes),
but most of them are more allied to the cypress, and have received
the name of Thuytes (TJmytes cupressiformis), with three other
species. Of the fruits of these conifersB there are several varieties,
one kind in shape and size not unlike the berry of the yew, some of
its more perfect examples still retaining their outer integument, or
husk.

Examples of ajiother species are termed by the quarrymen " plum-
stones," to which, in truth, they possess a resemblance. There is also
a fine Zamioid fruit, with the scales attached to the axis (Buchlcmdia
squamosa)^ and others that appear referable to large pine-like trees ;
these at present receive the merely provisional title of Carpolithes.
Besides these ferns and coniferous plants, there is likewise a small
one, whose delicate yet distinct impressions are apparently very much
akin to those of the moss family. Neither the roots nor stems of any
of these plants have been found at Stonesfield ; from this circumstance,
and that of their occurLog as detached leaves and twigs, we may reason-
ably infer that the place of their interment was not the spot on which
they grew, but that they were drifted from some shore probably
lying at no great distansce.

254 THE GEOLOGIST.

Leaving the vegetable kingdom and ascending to tliat of the ani-
mal, we find in these beds bnt few zoophytes, these organisms being
chiefly confined to the npper division of the Bath OoHte already
mentioned. The Annelida are represented by a small serpnla, and
the crostacea by a small lobster (Ohfphia rostrata), and a small spe-
cies of crab (Eryon) not yet named. Faint but nnmistakable relicB
appear of that department of ianimal life nsnaUy regarded as the
most frail and perishing, namely the class of insects ; nevertheless,
the remains of primeval beetles and dragon-flies are preserved in the
fossil state. The most frequent specimens of this kind are the elytra,
or wing-cases of beetles allied to the Buprestidse, or PrionidsB, races
which abound in warm, but are not excluded from temperate, climates.
The Oxford Museum contains the wing of a neuropterous insect
allied to the dragon-fly, most elaborately described by Dr. Buckland,
and likewise the hind-leg of a species of Gorculio, exhibiting the
peculiar adaptation for leaping.

Having noticed the insects, the Mollusca, or shell-fish, now claim
our attention, and we remark their number to be ccHnparatiyely
limited. The Brachiopoda are represented by two species of Rhyn-
choneUa (i2. concmna and B. ohsoleta). Among the Monomyarian
bivalves may be enumerated three species of GrerviUia {O. acuta, G.
suhcylindrica, and G. ovata), three of Lima (L. vmpressa, L. dupUcata,
and L, prohoscidea), two of Inoceramus (/. ohliquvs and L amygda-
hides), two of Pinna (P. ampla wid P» ctmeata), three of Pecten
(P. lenSf P. cmnulattis, and P. vagans), one of Pema (P. rtigosa), and
several species of Ostrsea, the best defined of which are 0, (wumwih
and 0. Sowerhii. The IDimyarian bivalves also comprise several
genei-a distributed as follows : — Two species of Modiolk (M. pUcaia
and M, vnvplicaia), two of Pholadomya (P. aciUicosta and P. Murchi'
sordid), two of Trigonia (T. Moretonii and T. ^wlpre««a), the latter
being highly characteristic of this formation, and occurring in great
abundance, its opened valves completely covering the surfaces of
many of the slates; one of Mytilus (M, subloevis), one of Cardiuin
((7. actUa/ngvltim), also a species of Uiiicardium and Mya cakei-
farmis (?) The Grasteropodous xmivalves include Akuna> ir^ida,
Faiella rugosa^P, Bomeri (J), two species of NaMca, one of Adceonma,
one of Turbo, and a small Nerita, which often retains veiy distinct
traces of the black and yellow bands of colour that adorned its shell.
The Cephalopoda are represented by but few species, and individually
they exhibit an equal paucity of numbers ; we may, however, enu-
merate Belemnites fudformis and B, Beasmus, associated with NandUus
Baheri and Arrmumites gracilis, with the cast of another Ammonite,
too imperfect for identification.

Still ascending in ,the scale of animated beings, the fossil fishfes of
Stonesfield come under our consideration. The greater nmnber of
these have been described by Agassiz, and constitute a large and
extremely interesting group, although rarely more than fragmentary,
and chiefly represented by the teeth, scales, and " spears,'' as the
workmen term the ichthyodomliteS; with a true rendering of the

HORTON — GEOLOat OP THE STONESFIELD SLATE. 265

Greek name. These parts are so characteristic, and preserved in
such a degree of perfection, as in most cases to admit of correct
reference to the families and genera. The species are all extinct, and
belong to the Placoid and Ganoid divisions of the four great orders
of fishes established by Agassiz. Of these there are but few living
examples, as the fishes that inhabit the seas of the existing period
belong, "with a limited number of exceptions, to the other two orders,
Ctenoid and Cycloid, which were not introduced trntil the Cretaceous
epoch, an era when the more ancient Placoids and Ganoids had
already begun to decline. The Placoid fishes of the Stonesfield
Slate are referable to three families, namely, the Cestraciontidae,
Hybodontidae, and Edaphontidee. The Cestraciontidse are repre-
sented by species of the genera Acrodus^ Asteraccmthiis, Strophodus,
C&ratodus, LeptacaMJms^ Nemacardhvs, and Pristobcanthus, The
teeth of this family form their chief characteristic, and under the
name of Palates have attracted much attention from palaeontologists.
These palatal teeth are fiat and oblong, or quadrangular in shape, and
often beautifully enamelled. Beneath the enamel, the surface of
which is frequently worn away, the body of each tooth is composed
of a strong mass of bone. In some species not less than sixty of
these teeth were embedded in each jaw, forming a kind of tesselated
pavement, which constituted a most efficient apparatus for crushing
the shells of Crustacea and moUusca, probably the principal food of
these fishes. The Gestrdcion Phillvpi, a shark that inhabits the Aus-
tralian seas, presents the only known analogy to the extinct Acrodi
and Strophodi of Stonesfield. The palatal teeth most frequently to
be met with in the slate are those of Acrodua leiod/us, and sometimes
measure one and a half inches in length by three-quarters in breadth.
These, from their resemblance in form and colour to contracted
leeches, they are regarded as such by the workmen, who are seldom
without an analogy for any fossil they may ofler for sale to the
stranger geologists who visit their pits. Indeed, so far is the wis-
dom of philosophy transcended by that of these unlettered sages,
that in cases where the mere scientific observer can only perceive the
most ordinary fragments of stone or slate, these village savans can
frequently succeed in demonstrating most clearly to their (xwn satis-
faction the presence of strange creatures that, like man, must have
been most fearfully and wonderfully made, if they had ever been
possessed of existence. Unfortunately, however, for the theories of
these gifted men, all such specimens are invariably declined with
thanks by those visitors possessed of the slightest knowledge of
palaeontology. Many amusing instances of these attempts at restora-
tion might be related ; we merely aUude to them in order to convince
those who are comparatively young geologists, that a certain degree
of caution is requisite in their purchases of specimens from the
quarrymen.

The Hybodontidae are represented by various species of Hybodus,
chiefly recognized by their striated teeth, which are sharp-edged and
well adapted for cutting. Many varieties of these are found at

256 THE QEOLOQIST.

Stonesfield, the more perfect specimens in some instances retaiiiing
the serrated sockets by which they were inserted in the jaw. Pine
specimens of the defensive fin- spines (Ichthyodorulites) of these
Hybodi are sometimes found. These singular fossils were atone
time regarded by naturalists as the jaws of fishes ; they are now,
however, ascertained to be the defensive weapons of sharks, the sup-
posed teeth that in some species arm their concave sides, being the
hooks or prickles to which the membrane of the fins was attached.
Several hving species of the great family of sharks have smooth
homy spines connected with the dorsal fin, and similar small tooth-
less spines occur in a fossil state in the chalk formation. Ten species
of the genus Ganodus represent the EdaphodontidsB. The Ganoid
fishes of Stonesfield belong to the four famihes Pycnodontidse, Lepi-
doidei, Sauroidei, and CsBlacanthi. The PycnodontidaB are repre-
sented by the genera Pycnodys, Qyrodtis, Gyronchus, and Sccvphodm.
The remains of this family most frequently found are the small ronnd
palatal teeth of Pycnodus trigoniM, generally occurring in an insulated
condition, but sometimes met with in small groups retaining the
position they once occupied in the jaw. The femily Lepidoidei has
only two genera as its representatives in the formation under review,
namely Lepidotus and Pholidophorus, These are distinguished hy
their enamelled scales, rhomboidal in form, and in some species
smooth and glistening, but in others curiously plicated or folded.
Small jaws are also sometimes obtained belonging to Lepidoius tuber'
culatus (J) ; these retain the teeth in a considerable degree of perfec-
tion. The Sauroidei are represented by the genera Saurofsis^
CaturtiSy Macrosemivs, and Belonostomus, The fishes of this vora-
cious family combine both in the structure of their bones and some of
their soft parts characters belonging to the class of reptiles. The
Sauroid fishes are distinguished by their beautifully striated teeth,
nearly conical, with conical cavities Uke the teeth of Saurians. In
some species the base of the tooth is fluted Hke that of the Ichthyo-
saurus. The nearest analogues presented to these fishes in the
existing creation are the Lepidosteus, or bony pike of North
America, and the Polypterus of the South AMcan coast. Of the
Caelancanthi only a single species, Ctenolepia cl/ycJ/us^ is known at
Stonesfield.

From the fishes of Stonesfield we ascend to its reptiles, the most
famous of which is the Megodoscmrua Bucklamdii, The thigh-bones
of this animal measured three feet, and the leg-bones, which were
hollow, the same length ; and the vertebree were also of great size.
Portions of its jaws, armed with long thin serrated teeth curved in
the form of a pruning knife, are preserved in the Oxford Museum.
From these remains. Dr. BucMand conjectured this enormons
lizard to have been twice the length of a crocodile, or thirty or
forty feet.

Associated with the Megalosaums are found the remains of another
saurian of considerably smaller dimensions {Teleosa/wrus Gadomensis)^
possessing aflGboities with the recent crocodiles. Those strange flying

HORTON — GEOLOGY OP THE STONESPIELD SLATE. 257

reptiles tlie Pterodactyles are represented by one species (P. Biick*
landi), chiefly known by its wing-bones, remarkable for their length,
and which, like those of birds, were hollow in the middle, thus com-
bining extreme lightness with strength. The femily of turtles are
known in these beds by one small species of Ghdonia.

The remarkable catalogue of associated life exhibited by these rocks
is rendered still more complete by the occurrence of three genera of
MamTnalia, namely, AmphUhermnv, Phascolothermm, and Stereognathnis,
Of these the only known remains are a few specimens of the lower jaws,
with small cuspidated teeth, indicative of a small insectivorous quad-
raped, probably alUed to the opossums, and other marsupial genera
now confined to Australia and Tasmania. It is extremely interesting
to observe that this resemblance to existing forms of Australian life is
by no means limited to the mammalia of the Oolite. For instance,
ID the Australian sea exists the Gestradon Phillipif or Port Jackson
shark, the only known representative of the numerous species of
Acrodi and Strophodi, the palatal teeth of which are so abundant in
the OoUtic beds. There also living TerebratulsB are found associated
with a species of Trigonia, the extinct forms of which are among the
most common of the Stonesfield fossils. On the continent of
Australia also flourish the Araucariae and CycadacesB, conifereus
plants, very nearly aUied to the vegetable remains of the Stonesfield
Slate.

If we review the fossil treasures of Stonesfield in the aggregate, we
can to some extent repreduce that period of the earth's history in
which the district under our notice was a lagoon with boidering
marshes, intervening between a line of coast on the one hand, and
the ancient Oolitic ocean on the other. Every circumstance con-
nected with these finely laminated and ripple-marked sandstones
indicates the nature of the process by which they were deposited
to have been slow and gradual, doubtless demanding similar con-
ditions to those which would prevail in a shallow sea-lake, pene-
trated at intervals by moderate swells, or gentle tides from the
«ea, but not exposed to storms or fluctuations caused by violent
littoral action.

We may picture to ourselves the inhabitants of this lagoon, consti-
tuting a large population, beautiful branching star-corals analogous to
those forming the reefs and islets on which the broad Pacific smiles,
aristocratic Nautili and Ammonites associated with their humbler
neighbours, the TrigonisB, TerebratuleB and oysters that furnished a
supply of food for the numerous sharks and other predaceous fishes
infesting the wide open sea, and frequently visiting this quiet lake in
quest of prey. On the ancient land lived that monstrous reptile the
Segalosaurus and the crocodile-like Teleosaurus, with a few turtles ;
strange winged lizards, the Pteredactyles, hovered in the air, or
snatched their prey from the calm waters below ; and insects like
dragon-flies flitted over the reedy marshes. From time to time
fragments of bordering plants floated in the shallow pools,
either swept down by inundations • or - driven by the wind ;

VOL. HI. 2 K

258 THC asoLooisT.

leayes of femS| branches, and froits of ooniferons trees like the yew
and cypress.

Thus we see that in this lonely and, to the superficial eye, utterly
unattraotiye village, we tread npon a spot once instinct with aniinal
life in its most marvellons organic forms. It is a subterranean
mnseum closely and securely packed, a treasury for palaBontologists,
a storehonse containing nnmerons instances of the skill, power, and
wonderfnl resources of creative Omnipotence, which oonld people a
world with the strangest organisms, and yet permit them for so
many ages to remain hidden and entombed, bemg well able to dis-
pense with their testimony to its powers.

THE CAEBONIFBROUS SYSTEM IN SCOTLAND CHARAC-
TERIZED BY ITS BRACmOPODA.

By Thomas Davidson, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., Hon. Member of
the Geological Society of Glasgow, etc., etc.

(Continued from page 240.J

" This group in Northumberland is seen, westward of Alnwick at
Gtirmitage-bank and Crawley Dean, and on the flanks of the porphyry
of the Cheviot in Biddleston Bum, and in the Coquet below llnn
Brig ; it occupies a considerable area in the south part of Berwick-
shire, and is largely developed on the Tweed at Carham, Coldstream,
Norham, etc. ; it is seen underlying the mountaui-limestoiie on the
sea-coast &om near Lammerton Shiel to Bummouth ; on the
north side of Lammermuirs it is intercalated between the Old Red
Sandstone, and the mountain-limestone from the Pees mouth to the
Cove harbour."

Mr. Tate observes also that the Campsie and Fifeshire beds re-
semble those of Northumberland.

We will now conclude by offering a list of the Scottish localities,
distance, and direction from certain towns, as well as of the nature of
the sediments in which Carboniferous Brachiopoda and other marine
fossils have been hitherto procured, with the hope that such may
prove of use to collectors and geologists generally, and by thankiiig
all those kind and zealous Mends for the great interest and impor-
tant assistance they have afforded me during the prosecution of this
fiomewhat lengthened inquiry.

DiTIDSOlT — SOOTTIBH OAEBOlflPEROUa BEiCHIOPODA. 259

SCOTTISH 00UNTIE9 m WHICH THK FOLLOWING CAEBOITIFEEOnS
BBACmOPODA HATE BEEN DI3C0VEEED .•

1
3

B
6

10
11

12
13

14.
15
16
17
IS
19
W
2]
i2
23

^soceuta, Martin.

resicuia™, do Kon

Spirifera dMpUcicasta, Phil.

bisiilcata, Sowerby.

tngonalia, Sowerbj

(hmKb, PhillipB

Um, PlemiDg

CorluWenjis, Dbt...

IwMota, Martia

Sptnfmroi criitata, rar. oe-

t^Ucata, Sowerby

Miteufoto, PhillipB

AihyrU ambtgva, Sowerby

itojssi, rBveillS „

ErfsM rodiatts, PhillipB ..
Rhynehonella pugnua. Mar

yar. a/naloga, and distorta

+ P
+

+
+

+
+
+

+
+

FhimpB.and var. radialia

25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Orthis reampinata, Martin..
Mickelim, VEveiUi ,.

BvMaaia, de Kon.

Frodactiis giganteas, Martin

corn, d'Orbigny..

This Table Bhowalhe Bhiree in wWohCarboniftronB strata eikt, as well as tliBBinouBtof
■k done in the way of ooUecUng organic remains. Those countJeB from whicb I6w apeciiH
»^.^~>^^ —in ^^ donbt npon folW fiplocation Tie found to contain manv more of tJie
id a glance at Uie table will also prove that <he stiiree twrfleiing ai -■

Glaegow have l . — ,-

foBsilH had been incloded in uie lit
triet ii b; Ar tba Tlobasc ft "~

) m^ explored th^ elmoBt on; ot^ere, a

SCOTTISH COUNTIES IN WHICH THS POILOWIHG CABBOKIFEEOCS
BRACHIOPODA HAVE BEEN DISCOVESBD (CimttmMiJ).

QmEEA IND 8PICIE3.

: »

■

(

Haitin, andTBT. MwrUni,

■''

■*■

Koninck

+ ?

S4. longitpinuf. Sow

88. seobricuius, Mar

40. fimbriatus, Sow..

41. — — pundatiu, Martin

42. a^kattts, Martin

43 «pi™io««, Sow...

45. Crania (uodmta, IfCoT .

46. IHsrina iwtido, PhillipB „,

47. ii7H7«te»5«amtfcnnii,Phil.

48. Bcolica, DaridHon,,,

49. mvWiotAM, Sowerbj

*■

LIST OF LOOALITIES TN SCOTLAND WHERE CAKBONIPEEOUB
BEACmOPODA HATE BEEN FOUND.

LkHKBKSRtaE.

IHstatice rmd StraHgrapMc
Diredionfrom postfton tie- Sattin of Sl^-
Ca/fUike Kirk, loie Ell coal.

Beleton Place Bum IJ mileB N. 160 feOioniB. Slttty ironBtoM.

Beliton Place Bum li m. N. 173 „ Ironstone "batea.

Gare Limestone 2 m. N,E. 239 "i

WeBterhonse 8 m. E.N.E " / , , .

Bashaw ij m! N.E [ Old BhaJa bMf*

Wluteahaw i m. W. J

BeUton Burn Limestone i m. N.E. 26S „ LimeettiDesDdBla'*

Maggy Ironstones — 300

ftwiksHole ] m. E. ■)

Below Whiteahawbridge... 1 m. W. f IronetciiMMidBlulo-
Near Ch^iel 2 m. S. )

Lingnla Ironatone . 317

BraidwoodOm .2 m. S. " Iroiutolie K>i »We.

DAVIBSON — SCOTTISH CAEBONIPEBOUS BRACHIOPODA.

2G1

Distcmce omd Btrai/igrapMc

DvrecUon from position be- NaMt/re of Strata,

Ccurhike Kirk, low Ell cool.

Lizigiila LimeBtone 2 m. S.

Hallcraig Bridge If m. W.

Baes 2 m. W.

Langshaw Bum 1 m. S.E.

Braidwood Bum 2 m. S.

let E^ingsliaw Limestone . . .

Hallcraig Bridge IJ m. W.

Kingshaw 1 in. N'E.

2nd Eingshaw Limestone . . .

Hallcraig Bridge 1|. m. W.

Langshaw 1 m. S.E.

E^ingshaw 1 m. N.E.

1st Csjiny Limestone

RaesGiU 2 m. W.

Braidwood If m. S.

Langshaw 1 m. S. E

Waygateshaw 1 m. S.

Headsmnir If m. S.E.

Baes GUI Lronstones

Baes Gin 2 m. W.

Waygateshaw 1 m. S.

Braidwood If m. S.

Langshaw 1 m. S.E.

Eil(»dzow 3 m. E.

Hillhead 1 m. B.

Hosie's Limestone

Hillhead 1 m. E.

BaosGill 2 m. W.

Waygateshaw 1 m. S.

Braidwood If m. S.

Mosside 1 m. N.E*

2nd Calmy Limestone

Braidwood If m. S.

Mosside 1 m. N.E

EUcadzow 3 m. E.

Main Limestone

Braidwood If m .S.

Langshaw 1 m. S.E.

Mosside 1 m. N.E.

Bashaw If m. N.E.

Kilcadzow 3 m. E.

SheUy Limestone —

Braidwood Gill 2 m. S.

NellfieldBxim 2 m. S.E.

Productus Limestone —

Braidwood GiU 2 m. S.

NellfieldBmn , 2 m. S.E.

Near Ymldshields 2 m. E.

Ironstone Beds —

NelMeldBum 2 m. S.E.

837 &thoms.

— 338

— 341

> Limestoneand shales.
Limestoneand shales.

I-

— 343

> Limestoneand shales.

- Limestoneand shales.

— 354

Alternate beds of
* ironstone and shale.

— 856 „

- 371 „

<■ Limestone and shale.

— 876

> Limestone and shales.

Limestoneand shales.

391
397

Limestone.

410

> Limestoneand shales.

Ironstone and shales.

The foregoing list embraces strata in descending order where Brachiopoda and
other fossils have been found in Carluke parish, and for which I am indebted to
a local inquirer, whose knowledge of the district and its localities has extended
over thirty years' duration.

262

THE OEOLOOIST.

BrooUey 6 milefl S. of Lesmahago Limestone and shale.

Coalbnm 4 ,, S. „ „

Brown HiU 2 ^ S. ,^ j,

Middleholm 2 „ S.W. „ „

MOAt 8 I) £• f) n

Coalbnm 4 „ S. „ Ironstone and shale.

HaUHffl 8i „.N.B. „ „

Anchenbeg 8 „ S. „ Limestone and shale.

Kersegill 1^ „ N. „ „

Birkwood .' 2 ,, N. „ „

Dykehead 3 „ N.W. „ „

Anchenheafch 8 „ N. „ Lx)n8tone and shale.

Den 8 „ N, „ Limestone and shale.

Dalgow 8 „ W. „ „

Flat 5 „ N.E. „ „

Grossford 2 „ S. of Braidwood „

QaUowbill } „ E. of Strathavon „

B^W^"™] ^* " S.W. of Hamilton Limestone.

Auchentibber | 1^ „ S.W. of High Blan- Limestone and shale.

^ tyre

Galderside mines 2 „ S.W. of ditto ),

Brankamhall, Calderwood ... li „ S. of East Kil* „

bride

Gapelrig, Calderwood 1 „ E. „ h

Limekilns, near East Kilbride „

Lickprivick 2 „ S.W. „ „

Hermyres '. 2 „ W. „ „

Thomtonhall 2i „ W. „ „

*Farliamentary-road, comer

of North Frederick-street,

Glasgow CalcareotiB Bandstone

and shale.

Bobroyston 2 „ N.E. of Glasgow Old shale heaps.

Bedlay ^

^Sk \ 6to7 „ „ Limestone »a.We.

MoodiesbnmJ

Shale aboye limestone at Bishopbriggs, three miles north of Glasgow.

The Lanarkshire localities, excepting those from the' parish of Carlnke, ha^^
been careftilly explored by Mr. J. Armstrong, Mr. J. Thomson, Dr. Slimon, Mr.
J. Yonng, and Mr. Bennie, and comprise likewise those quoted by David Ure,io
his " History of East Kilbride."

Stiblingshire.

Calmy limestone and shales ; Balqnarhage, two miles south-sonth-east of Ui^'
noxtown.

Corriebnm beds on Campsie Hills, fonr miles north-east of Kirkintillooh t ^'
stone, ironstone and shales.

* During some building operations in 1867, strata of calcareous sandstone and shatewere
exposed and quarried ; and from l^e sandstone, numerous casts of Productus, Bpin^Bra,^-'
were obtained. The rock was built over, but as there is vacant around to the east and ^^
it is likely it may be again exposed, aud local geologists would do well to profit bv such ex-
posure. We may here likewise mention that the whereabouts of David tire's locauly, Vn^'
ley, could not be discovwed.

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CABBOKIFEBOUS BRACHIOPODA. 263

Dark grey limeatone and shale, twenty-two Mhoma above Campsie main, lime*
Btone ; South HiU pits, and Barraston, near Lennoxtown.

Shales above Campsie main limestone, Schlliengow ; near Lennoxtown.

Campsie main limestone ; Schlliengow, Ferrot's and Gloratt quarries en North
Hill, and Alum Work mines and Craigend Mnir, South Hill, all near Lennoxtown.

Shelly limestone, ironstone and shale ; Balgroohan Bum, half a-mile north of
Lennoxtown. ,

Limestone, ironstone, and shale ; Mill Bum, near Lennoxtown.

Ironstone and shale ; Balglass Bum, near Lennoxtown.

Limestone, ironstone, and shales j Craigenglen and Gle&wine, two miles south-
west of Lennoxtown.

In the foregoing list are enumerated all the locaHtieB from which Bradhiopoda
have been obtained in the Campsie district.

^Banton 2 miles E. of Kilsyth Limestone.

Hurrays-hall S.W. of Stirling „

All the Stirlingshire localities have been minutely examined by Mr. J. Young.

DUMBABTONSHIBE.

Gastlecary near Cumbernauld Limestone and shale.

Netherwood ditto 16 miles N.E. of Glas. „

Dimtocher New Kilpatrick, Bed of limestone and

9i miles N.W. of Glas. shale, near sandstone

quarry.

For these localities I am indebted to Mr. J. Young.

BSNrBBWSHIBB.

Howood 4 miles W. of Paisley Limestone and shale.

Waok Mill Glen, Barrhead . . . Barrhead

Hurlet 7i miles S.W. of Glasgow „

Orchard 1 „ E. ofThomliebank

Bavieland Quanry near ThomUebank

Arden Quarry ditto

Floors Quany near Johnstone

These, as well as the Ayrshire looa£ties, have been carefully searched by Mr.
J. Thomson and Mr. J. Armstrong.

Aybshibe.

West Broadstone 1 mile S. of Beith Limestone and shale.

Boughwood near Beith „

Treehem „ »

Anchenskeigh 2 noiles S. of Dairy • „

Highfield Quarry 1 „ N.E. „ „

Linn Spout near Dairy »

Goldcraig 1 mile E. of Kilwinning „

Monkrecfiing li „ E. of ditto „

Hallerhirst near Stevenston „

Craigie near Kilmarnock „

Cessnock ....^ 1 mile S.E. of GkJston „

Alton 2 „ N. „ »

Moscow 3 „ N. „

Nethemewton 3 „ N.E. „

264

THE GEOLOGIST.

Hyndbeny Bank 2 mfles N.E. of GaLston Limestone and slale.

Meadowfoot 5 „ E. of Darvel, near „

Dnunclog

Gainford 2| „ E. of Stewarton „

Bnintland 1 „ E. ofFenwick

MuUochHfll NewDaffly

Edinbusghshiee.

'Gilmerton, near Edinbnrgh.

Wardie, „

Driden, 6 mileB S. of Edinburgh.
Oarlops, 14 miles S. „

Joppa, near Portobello.

Boman Camp, near Dalkeith.

Conaland ' „

Magazine, 6 miles S.E. of DaJkeith.

Esperston, 2 miles S.E. of Temple.

Grichton Dean, Crichton Castle.

Peniouick.

Comton, near Penicnick.

Monnt Lothian, 3 miles S.E. of Penicnick

Leven Seat

tcotBam^S-^-«fW««*C«^d«'-
Baad's Mill,

Peebleshir'^. (North pa/rt adjoinrng
Edmbv/rghshvre.J

Bents.
Lamancha.
Whim,
Whitfield.

Haddinqtonshise.

Prestonpans.
Aberlady.
Longniddry.
Jemsalem.
* Salton.
Kidlaw.

The Vaults, E. of Dnnbar.
Skateraw „

Cat Craig „

Eeflt Bams, near Dnnbar.
Sanghton, 4 miles W. of Haddington.

LlXLITHGOmrSHIKB.
Kinniel ")

Dykenenk C W. of Borrowstownness.
Craigenbuck j
Tod's Mill, River Avon.
Caribber, fi.W. of Linlithgow.
Bowden Hill, S.W. „
Bathgate Hills.
Balbardie, near Bathgate.
Blackburn, S.E. „
Breiohwater, above Breichdyke.

LiNLiTHOow (Contiwuedj.
Hillhouse, 1 mile 8. of LinHthgow.

Tartraven, 3 „ S.E.

ElPESHIBE.

3 miles S.W. of St. in-
drews.

near Kirkcaldy.

Ladedda

Wilkieston

Winthank

Craig Hartle, near St. Andrews.

Craighall "S

Cult's Hill }► 8 mfles S.W. of Cupar.

Forthar J

St. Monance, 3 miles W. of Anstruther,

Strathkenny, St. Andrews.

Dumbamie, near Ijargo.

Chapel

Bogie

Inverteil

Seafield ^

Sunnybai]^, N. of Inverkdi^ung.

Parkend, N.E. „

Brucefield, S.E. of Dunfermline.

Bescobie, N.

Duloch, E.

Charlestown.

Bosyth, west of the Castle.

Crombie Point.

Bucklyre, N. of Aberdoar.

Behwiokshibe.

Cove at Cockbumspath.

Marshall Meadows, 3 miles N. of Ber-

wick. .

Coast between Lammerton and BerwicJtr

Duhpbiesshibe.

Closebum.

Hollows, 4 miles S. of Lajigholm.

KiRCUDBKIGHTSBISE.

Coaat at Arbigland, parish of KirTi:be8ii.

This locality has been explored by
Mr. John Steven, of Glasgow.

Buteshire.

Asoog, in Bute.
Corrie, Arran^
Salt Pans „

PAYIDSON — SCOTTISH CABBONIFBBOUS BRACHIOPODA. 265

For mnoh of the informaHoQ relative to the localities in the last xiine ooiinties
I am iadebted to Mr. Geikie, Kr. Page, Mr. Tate, Prof. Bamsay, Mr. Fraser, the
Iftte Dr. Fleming, and H. Miller ; as well as to Sir B. Murohison and Mr. Salter,
who hare kindly allowed me access to the lists and specimens assembled during
the Qeological Survey of Scotland. I wish likewise to express my thanks to
Profs, de Koninok and Phillips, Mr. Hancock, and to Dr. Gratiolet, of Paris, for
some of the information I have been able to communicate ; and to Mr. Mackie
for the care and trouble he has bestowed upon the publication of this memoir.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Plate XII. in Vol. II. op the "Geologist."

Fig. 1. Terf^oiulOi hastata^ Sow. Nellfield, Lanarkshire.

2. . From Ayrshire ; in the collection of Mr. Young,

This specimen shows remains of colour marking.

3 — 4. sacculus^ Martin. From West Lothian and collection of

Dr. Fleming.

5, vesiculwria^ de Koninck. From West Lothian and collection

of Dr. Fleming.

6. Athyris Ofmhiguaf Sow. Hallerhirst, Ayrshire. CoUeotion of Mr. Arm-
strong.

7. • . From Carluke, Lanarkshire.

8. . Interior of the Ventral Valve. A, adductor or oc-

clusor ; B, divaricator muscular impressions ; T, teeth ; D, dental, or
rostral plates.

9. : . Interior of the Dorsal Valve. A A, quadruple im-
pressions of the occlusor muscle ; M, dental sockets ; N, hinge-plate ;
O, point from which the spirals (here omitted) were developed. 8
and 9 are from Capel Big, East Kilbride, and collection of Mr. Arm-
strong.
10—11. — — - pkmo-tttlcato, Phillips. Prom Lanarkshire. In fig. 10 a
portion of the lamelliform expansions are represented.

12. Royssvif L'EveiU^. Prom Coalbum, near Lesmahago. A portion

only of the pectinated fringes are represented.

13. Betssia radiaUSf Phillips, var. From Brockley, near Lesmahago. Since

this specimen was figured, several others have been found in the
same locality, as well as at Gare.

14. Spirifera dwpUcicosta, Phillips. From Balgroohan Glen, Campsie, Stir-

lingshire.
15. , — . From West Brockdstone, Beith j CoUeotion of

Mr. J. Thompson.
16. trigoTi^oMs, Martin. Brockley, near Lesmahago ; collection of

Dr. Slimon.

17. . Prom Cousland Bum, near Dalkeith.

18. , Campsie ; collection of Mr. Young.

19. hisulcatOj Sow. Craigenglen, Campsie; collection of Mr.

Young.

20. . West Broadstone, Beith ; collection of Mr. J.

Thomson.

21. • . Ventral Valve, showing the imbricated surface ;

from Barrhead ; collection of Mr. A. Cowan.

22. • .. West Broadstone j collection of Mr. Armstrong.

23. — — . A coarse-ribbed variety j in the Museum of Prac-
tical Greology.
VOL. III. 2 L

2G6 THE GEOLOGIST.

Fig. 24. Spvrifera hiauleata. Interior of the Ventral Yalve ; (the letters refer

in these figures to the same paits as in figs. 8 and 9.
26. . Interior of Dorsal Valve. 24 and 25 are from

Capel Big, East Kilbride.
26. ovalia, Phillips. From Corrie Bnm ; coHeddon of Mr. J.

Tonng. The beak has been restored from another specimen.
27. . From West Broadstone. These two figureg repre-

sent the original type of Dr. Fleming's 8p- exa/rata,

28. pirufuis^ Sow. From near Qlasgow (?) ; in the Musetun of

Practical Geology. The exact locality is not preserved, but it is cer-
tainly a Scottish specimen.

29. Ca/rluUensis, Dav. Hill Head, Lanarkshire. Fig. 29, a andd,

are enlarged.

30. Urii, Fleming. Hill Head, Lanarkshfre. The lower fignres

are enlarged, and 30c shows the spiny investment confiiderablj mag-
nified.

31. lineata, Martin. From West Broadstone, near Beith; %■

31b is enlarged, and shows a portion of the spiny sor&oe, which ib
still more magnified in 31c.

32. glabra, Martin. From East Kilbride, oollectian of Mr. Ann-
strong.

83. . From Middleholm, near Lesmahago.

84. . From Orohard-qnarry, collection of Mr. Bennie.

35. Spiriferina insculpta, Phillips. A fragment from Gare, Carliike parish,
35a and h are enlaarged restored representatives. Bettor Soottifih
examples have been recently found.

86. cristatay var. octoplicata. Sow. " From West Lothian. Col-
lection of Dr. Fleming.

37 • , Lanarkshire.

38. . From West Broadstone, Beith ; oollection of Mr.

Thompson.

Plate I,, Vol. III.

1. Bhynchonella pugnuSj Martin. From the Campsie main limestone-
Collection of Mr. Yonng.

2. . From Hyndberry Bank, parish of Loudon. Col-
lection of Mr. Thompson.

3. pleurodon, Phillips. Corrie Bnm; collection of Mr. Yonng.

4. . West Lothian ; collection of Dr. Fleming.

5. . Capel Rig ; collection of Mr. Armstrong.

6. Cama/rophoria c/rwrnena, Martin sp. From West Lothian j collection oi

Dr. Fleming.

7. Orthis MicheUni, L'Eveill^. From Campsie.

8. . Enlarged fragment of the striated external soi^oe,

showing the position of the spines, M, and the exterior orifices of the
* tabular perforations which traverse the thickness of the shell.
9. . Interior of the ventral valve, enlarged; A, occlMor;

B, divaricator, and perhaps ventral adjnstor mnscolar impressions;

N, pedicle scar (?) ; T, teeth.
10. . Interior of the dorsal valve ; J, cardinal process;

S, dental sockets ; L, oral processes (?) ; A A, ocdnsor impreeeions.
11, resupinataf Martin. From Robroyston ; colleotion of Jiir. Young.

Much larger examples are found in Ayrshire.
12. . Enlarged freagment of the striated, spinose,

punctured surfiu^.

13. . Interior of the ventral valve.

14. » Interior of the dorsal valve.

DAVIDSON — SCOITISH CARBONIFEROUS BRACHIOPODA. 267

15. Orihis resti^nata. Variety (?) fi<om Come Bum; ooUection of Mr.

Yoimg.

16. Streptorhynclvus erenistria, Fhillips. From Come Bum,

17. . Outline of a large specimens firom West

Broadstone. Many examples of Phillips* yar. senilis have been re-
cently fonnd in the limestone of Boertrapping, three miles south of
Glasgow, by Mr. J. Thomson.

18. . Interior of the ventral valve.

19. , Interior of the dorsal valve.

20. . A young specimen fix)m Gare.

21. . Longitudinal section to show the space left

for the animal between the valves.

22. . A small specimen firom Gare.

23, — ■ , var. KelU% M'Coy. From Ayrshire.

24, • — , var. raddalis^ PhiUips* From Middleholm |

collection of Dr. Slimon.

26. ■ . From Gare.

26. Strophomena rhomhoidaliSf var. cmaloga, Phillips. Corrie Bum ; colleo-

tion of Mr. Toung.

27. , Interior of ventral valve.

28. . Interior of ventrsJ valve. A, occlusor ;

• R, divaricator ; P, pedicle (?) j F, interior opening of foramen, which

is closed at X in fig. 27.
29. . Interior of the dorsal valve. V, vascular

impressions.

30. . A very young example, in which both

valves are straight.

31. . A fragment of the ventral valve, showing

the external orifice of the foramen.

32 — 33. . — J var. cUstorta, J. de 0» Sowerby. From

Grare.

Plate II.

Fig. 1. ChoTieies BuchiomOy de Koninck. From Gare ; la h, enlarged represen*
tations.

2. Ha/rdreTms, Phillips. Nat. size. From East Bams, near

Dunbar.

3. ■ . Interior of ventral valve. A, ocdusor j B, diva*

ricator ; collection of Mr. Armstrong.

4. ^ ^ — , , Interior of dorsal valve» A A, quadruple im-
pressions of the ocdusor ; X, reniform impressions. Capel Big, East
Kilbride.

6. , A young shell, fipom Craigie, near Kilmarnock ;

collection of Mr. Thomson.

6. , A young shell fcom. Mill Bum; collection of Mr.

Young.

7. . A small variety (?) fi:t)m South Hill, Oampsie j

collection of Mr. Young.
8. ProdAictus latissvmuSf Sowerby. From near Dairy.

9. . Interior of the dorsal valve, fcom Belston Bum.

(A fig. of the ventral valve will be found, pi. iv., fig. 26).

10. longisipvnAis, Sow. With its spines restored ; firom Lanarkshire.

11. . From Craigie, near Kilmarnock | collection of

Mr. J. Thomson.

12. , From the original specimen of P. loTigispimiSf

Sow. West Lothian and collection of Dr. Fleming.
13. __.^ ^ yar. lohcUuSf Sow. From Lanarkshire.

268 TBI OIOLOGIST.

IHg. 14. Produdnis hngispmus. From the origmal spedmen of Soirerb^s P.

Flemingii j West Lothian and collection of Dr. Fleming*
15. . Interior of the ventral yalye j finom Ca]Ml Eig

and collection of Mr. Armstrong.

Ig^ „ ^ Dorsal valve, fix)m the same localily.

17, , From the Caanpsie main limestone ; ooDfictioa

of Mr. Young.

18. . A ottrions variety from Gare.

19. . A variety in which the ainns has not; been

developed ; Prod. 9pino8U8, Sow., from the original example, slightly

restored, and collection of Dr. Fleming.

20. aculeatuSf Martin. From the Campsie main limestone.

21. mesolobus, Phillips. From the Glarat lime-works, Campsie ;

collection of Mr. Young. The shell has also been veosoiij foimd ^
Brockley, near Lesmahago, by Mr. J. Thomson.

22. costatusj Sow. From Banhead j collection of Mr. Young.

23. , Sow. From near Lesmahago; collection of Dr. Sfimon.

24. J Sow. Dorsal valve, Barrhead. The interior of the

dorsal valve has been recently found at Brockley, by Mr. ThomBOD.

25. ?. Undetermined species. From Corrie Bum j collection of

Mr. Young.

26. Yovmgianus, Dav., type. The usual oondition <rf the species,

from the same locality and collection ; in pL v,, fig. 7 sfaows the con'
centric lines of growth.

27. JimbriaMLs, Sow. From Lanarkshire.

Plate IV.

1. Prodactus aemireticulatus^ Martin. From Castlecary ; ooQectian of Hf*

Thomson.

2. . Nellfield, Lanarkshire.

3. . Interior of the ventral valve. Prom Calder*

side ; collection of Mr. Armstrong.
4 . Interior of the dorsal valve. Prom Calder-

side; collection of Mri Armstrong. A, occlusor; B, dhrarioatarB;

J, cardinal process. Fig. 4a, cardinal process seen from its upper

surface. Pig. 46, a smaller portion of the internal sar&ce close to

the margin, showing the spinose asperities, M, which covers its but-

ftK», as well as the orifices of the minute canals which trarerse the

shell, N.
5. _. J p. ScoUca, Sow. From the original specimen

in the collection of Dr. Fleming. Figa. 7 and 8 show the di^)06ition

of some of the ribs.
6. J var, aulcatu^ Sow. Prom Carluke parish.

10. , var. MaaiwrU. From ironstone under the

Campsie main limestone ; collection of Mr. SomerviUe. Pig* 1^^
shows how the ribs bifiircate upon the lateral portions of the Talves.

11, — , From the tfame locc^ty.

12. , var. P. concmmis. From the same locality*

and showing how the shell becomes someiimes fractured.

13. coroL, d'Orbigny. From the Campsie main limestone (Bal-

grochan Glen beds). A more correctly enlarged fragment of the
shell Bur&ce will be seen in pi. v., fig. 5.

14. . cofrbona/ri/vbs, de Koninck. In the ooUection ^ ^e Geological

Survey this specimen is labelled " North of Glasgow" (?), a very
vague indication ; and it is possible that the ie^)ecimen may be from
some other district of the Scottish Carboniletxms seriee.

15. _.........-. tmdatuff, Defranoe. From the Campsie »M>.in ]uM8ton&

DAVIDSON — SCOTTISH CAEBONIFBEOUS BRACHIOPODA. 269

Fig. 16 — 17. Productus wndatus. Two eicainples, &om the same locality and ool-
lection of Mr. Young.

18. 8cdbr%culu8, Martin. From the Campne main limestone. The

interior of the dorsal vaLve will be found represented in pi. v.

19. _ pustulo9U8f Phillips. North of Glasgow (?) ; oolleotion of the

Geological Survey. The same thing may be repeated here that we
have said under fig. 14.

20. pwnctaUiSj Martin. From near Lesmahago. One part shows

the spiny investment, of which 20c and d are enlarged illustrations.

21. . Internal cast of the ventral valve seen from the

besik, and showing the relative position of the ooclusor (A) to the
divaricafcor (B) muscular impressions.

22. '. Interior of the dorsal valve } collection of Mr.

Armstrong.

23. spinuhstbSt Sow. From the original example in the collection

of Dr. Fleming.

24. . From near Lesmahago j collection of Dr. Slimon.

25. costa;tuSt ▼»*■• wuricatiw, FhiUips. From Cessnock, near Gal-

ston. This specimen agrees exactly with the original example so
named in the museum of York, and which has been considered a syno-
nym of P. costal/us.

26. latissirmbSj J. Sow. Interior of the ventral valve. From West

Broadstone, Beith ; in the collection of Mr. Armstrong.

Plate V.

1. ProdAidus gigomteu^, Martin. Braidwood Gill, Lanarkshire. This
species attains more than twice the dimensions of the figure.

2. . Interior of the ventral valve. A, ocdusor ; E, di-

varicator impressions ; L, hollows occupied by the oral arms.
8. . Interior of the dorsal valve. A, occlusor ; J, car-
dinal process ; X, reniform impressions ; Z, prominences correspond-
ing with the hollows (L) in the opposite valve.
4. ' ■■ . Hinge-line showing the upper surface of the car-
dinal process, J.

5. cora. A portion of the external surface magnified to show its

peculiarly sculptured striae. Corrie Bum ; collection of Mr. Young.

6. scaJmcuhis. Interior of the dorsal valve, from two Lanarkshire

specimens : the partially divided mesial ridge and cardinal process
are peculiar. From the collections of Mr. J. Armstrong and that of
another friend.

7. Twjmgia/nni8, Dav. This figfure shows the concentric lines of

growth, which had not been sufficiently expressed upon the figures
already given.

8. Spirifervna Icwnwiosa, M*Coy. From Lammerton ; in the collection of

Mr. G. Tate. This is only a cast, the shell being destroyed.

9. — , A fragment of the shell magnified to show the dis-

position of the lansinsd which adorn the surface.

10.. Spvnfera hisulcata. A remarkab^ elongated variety, in .the Hunterian
Museum, Glasgow College. A similar specimen has been found near
Lesmahago.

11. trigonalis (?). Campsie; formerly in the collection of Mr.

A. Cowan, now in that of the Geological Society of Glasgow. I am
Bom^ewhat uncertain whether this shell, of which many similar ex-
amples have been found, is in reality a variety of 8p» trigoTidUs or of
8p. d/wpUcicoata.

12 — ^13 — 14. CramAa quo/d/rata^ M'Coy. From Capel Big and CaJderside ; in
the collection of Messrs. Thomson and J. Armstrong.

270 THE GEOLOGIST.

Fig. 15 — 16. Crcmia quodrata. From Gare, in Lanarkfihire.

17. . A remarkable fragment of encrinal stem, npon which

no less than firom twelve to thirteen specimens of the Crania had

clustered. Capel Big, East Kilbride.
18 — 20. . Three specimens, showing the exterior of the

larger or firee Yalve, firom Capel Big i in the collection of Messre.

Ainnstrong and Thomson.
21. ■ . A specimen of Diseina nitida, upon irtiich four

Cranias had congregated.
22 — ^27. Diseina nitida, Phillips. Exterior of the larger or firee valre, from

Capel Big and Baes GiU ; principally firom the coUedaon of Mr.

Annstrong.
28. . Exterior of the smaller or perforated valve. From

Anchentibber, High Blantyre ; collection of Mr. Bonnie.

29. . From Baes Gill.

30. Lingula squamiformiSy Phillips. Nat. size. From Corrie Bum ; coHec*

tion of Mr. Yonng.
81. ' . Another example, in the Mnseom of Practical

Geology.
32. . Interior of the ventral valve, and an internal

cast of the dorsal one ; fix)m 841 fathoms below ^ Ell Goal," in the

parish of Carluke. A, occlusor impression.
33. . A beautifiilly perfect example of the dorsal

valve, showing the three ridges often observable in this species.

From the parish of Carluke.
34. . From Haw Hill, near Lesmahago ; collection d

Dr. Slimon.
36. . Interior surface and usual dimensions of the

specimens found in Carluke parish.
36. Scotica, Dav. From Hall Hill, Lesmahago ; collection of

Dr. Slimon.

87. . Gare ; collection of Mr. Young.

38. nvytiloideSf Sow. A typical example, firom CraJgenglen, Campsie;

collection of Mr. Young.
89 — 41. Varieties = L. elUpUca and L. pa/raMelA, Phil-
lips. From Orchard-quarry, Capel Big and Bobroyston ; coUectionB

of Messrs. Bennie and Thomson.
42. , A very elongated variety, firom MarshaTI Meadows,

Berwickshire j in the collection of Mr. G. Tate.
43. _^ , This specimen was found highest in the formation,

viz., at 160 fathoms below "EU coal," and 13 fethoms above the

Biscina bed in the parish of Carluke.

PROCEEDINGS OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES.

Geologists' Association. — The Annual Byeporij of the Association has
recently been printed, and gives a most satisfactory account of the prospects
and advance of this Society. During the present year the following papers we
been read* : —

" On the Theory of a Gradual Withdrawal of Heat from the Earth as Ex-
planatory of certam Geological Phenomena." By J. Curry, Esq.

• The Proceedings of this Society are published at the "GaowGisx" OflOce, price On«
ShiUing each.

NOTES AND QUERIES. 271

" On the Geology of Whitecliff Bay, in tlie Isle of Wight," By Mr. Mark
Norman.

" On a Stalactite found in Flagstone-rock at Haslingden, near Manchester."
By the Rev. L. H. Mordacque.

"" On the Crag." By E. Charlesworth, Esq., E.G.S.

" On the Action of Heat on certain Saucbtones of Yorkshire." By C.
Tomlinson, Esq.

" On Flint Implements from the Drift." By S. J. Mackie, F.G.S., F.S.A.

The Committee of the Association having come to the very desirable reso-
lution of having occasional excursions to places of geological interest, the first
excursion was made on Monday the 9th oi April, when a number of members,
under the guidance of the Rev. Thos. Wiltshire (the President) and Prof.
Tennant, visited Folkestone, and spent several hours in the Warren, in East
Wear Bay, and at Copt Point, examining the formations and procuring the
characteristic fossils of the Grault. Anotner excursion to Maidstone took place
on the 19th ult., when a large party visited the " Iguanodon" quarries worked
by Mr. Bensted; the "Charles" Museum, in which is placed Mr. Bensted's
unique coUection of SiphonisB (?) from the Kentish rag-beds of his quarry ;
and the river-drift beds at Aylesford.

As the Association have, with most praiseworthy liberality, thrown these
excursions open to any friends of the members, we recommend them to the
notice of of those our readers who desire field-instruction in geolosry, in the
assurance that thev will not fail to find them useful and agreeable holidays.

We are gratifiea to find that the suggestions made in tnis journal have been
80 energetically taken up by this Society, and in that liberal and non-exclusive
manner which is so fully in accordance with our own views and wishes. We
regret that an accident at press with our last number compelled us to substi-
tute other matter for the notice we intended giving of the then proposed
excursion to Maidstone. We hear that a third excursion to Dulwioh will be
proposed for July.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Chemical Evidence of the SpoNGEOirs Nature of Flint Fossils. — If
a flint coated with chalk be immersed in hydrochloric acid, the chalk will be
dissolved and the flint will remain unaffected. In many instances, however,
there is a point beyond which the acid, even if renewea, will not act, and a
white coating is left which neither nitric, sulphuric, nor hydrochloric acid will
touch. This incrustation I have found to consist of sulphate of lime. It is
met with on those flints which contain fossils, such as sponges, &c. I have
several specimens of laminated flint presenting this peculiarity. I have also a
fossil echinus from which the chalk has been entirely removed by acid, and on
which the sulphate remains beautifully arranged only around the lines of ori-
fices between the plates.

May I presume to draw the inference that the above facts lend confirmation
to Dr. Bowerbank's views on the spongeous basis of many flints ? May they
not also be adduced in support of tne opinion that holds the animal nature of
sponges ? We know tliat animtd substances are partly albuminous, and that
sulphur is one of the elements of albumen. The animal substance, in under-
going decomposition, during or previous to fossilization, would part with its
sulphur, which would be seized by the lime of the chalk in immeaiate contact

272 TEB GEOL00I8T.

with it, uid henc« the coating of sulphate oS lime, for which I wh Millj
luutble to account, until Dr. Bowetbank was kiod enough to impart to mo xme
of the Tttft infonaatioQ lie has amassed on the uature and habits of qxn^
recent and foMil. — W. B. Kestzvas, Upper Hollon ay.

Oh tub Vekticai. Veins of Dabx Likbstohe in Rbd 9uli a
Templeuoec. — De&B SiH, — Permit me to offer an explanation for the omot-
renoe of those "irregular vertical veins or thin dfkes of darkrr^eommt
limestone, which erosH a nearlj horiaontal bed of rod shale near IfiebaseoftliB
old red sandstone of the neighbourhood of Temriemore," to which ttleatioii
has been directed bj jour correspondent A. B. W., in the April naubw d(
"The Geolooisi."

Let us suppose that the aooompanjiBg diagram, &g. 1, represents the li>oe of
this bed.

bjau
theii

I, Bandstone ; i, Bhale j e a, LimeBtone mad flUing ap fldiares ; d i, UaH «

After the deposition of the shale b, and while it was vet in the state of mud,
the sea bottom at thb place became suddenly elevated above the waten, uhI
subjected to rapid dessicatioo, which produced uumerous cracks and Essiuts
nver its surface ) and these after a time were doubtless increased in dimene^^
J subsequent atmospheric action. The land was then sabmeived ; but doiin;

le interval of this npheaval and dessication, the sea around this puticulu
area had ceased to deposit femigio-ai^illeceous mud as well as sand, owing,
doubtless, to local changes of ourrenta, the result jrassiblj of those movements
in the land which I have just supposed. Its sediment now consisted eutiRlf
of such higldj calcareous materials as would be capable of forming liraestoiu
onlj, and this, of course, filled up these cracks and hssures, and any olJuii in^
gularities which existed over irhat was then the bottom of the sea.

It is remarkable that in the neighbourhood of Templemore absolute l*^ jj
pure dark grey limestone are frequently found interstratifled with the old iM
saudstonen, and we may therefore rationally suppose that the shale which I »d
describing may have been at one time covered by a bed of such limestone is '
have alluded to, at which period of its history the section at this looabtj MJ
have been that which I have represented in the diagram fig. S.

After a time, the ealcareons mud not only ceased to be deposited here, W
Miother great and material change took place in the relative distribuliw ot
land and water. The seA bottom became aufGeiently elevated to be boigiil

NOTES iSJ} QUEBIGa. 273

under the errosive action of the breakers, wherebj not only all tiie bed of lime-
stoae mud was removed, but a small portion from the top of the argiliaceous
shale bed also, as far down, we may suppose, as the line d — e (Bg. 3). This
accomplished, the shore was once again depressed deep beneath the sea, and
thus protected from further destruction.

■ Lign. a.— a o, aandalone; i, Redshala; c, Fiesnrea flUfd with limaslone.

This last great pliTsical change appears to hare brought back the normal
conditions under wnicn the ferruginous and non-calcareoua materials forming
the mass of the Old Red Sandstone were deposited, and thus the shale with its
limestone-filled fissures, was covered bv the ordinary sandstones of its type of
tock. The formation of tlie Old Red SandstonE then went on uninterruptedly
till its time was accomplished, and the " carboniferous sea" was spread over all
that extensive area, or which the central-western and south-wcatem portion of
Ireland now forms but a very small part. — Yours truly, Geo. V. Dv Notee.

Noiicz OP New Tossils peom the Lower Old Red SiHraTONE op
ScoTLAHD.— Three localities are referred to in this paper. First, the Den of
Cauterland, in the parish of St. Cyrus, on the southern border of Kincardine-
shire i second, a spot in the pariah of Kinnell, near Farnell ; and third, a spot
ia the parish of &aig, near Montrose, both these being in the north-east divi-
sion of the county of Torfar.

Pirst, in the Den of Cauterland, where there is a considerable development
of the basement beds of oiir Scottish Old Red Sandstone. Tor many years
there haa been no quarry wrought in this locality ; but as the roek is exposed
to decay in a natniil ravine, the fossils can be gathered with patience and care.
The botlom-bed in the ravine seems to be a coarse sort of gnt, throi^h which
there is dispersed much limy matter, and in this portion of the beds I hare
never seen but one fossil, the Farka decipieiu of rleming. Above it lies the

Ey layer, the et^nivalent, I believe, of the "pavement" beds of Carmjbe,
^mul, and Tann in the neighbourmg county, and from it are collected many
fossils, such as the Cephal(apis lyellH, the Farka decipietu in great abundance,
the Pterggolus anglicm, ana that peculiar and minute crustacean form the
Kammcaris of Page. Besides the Pterygolus anglicm, there are, I think, in
this locality several other allied forms of all siaes, from half an inch to many
feet. I must be understood as meaning, however, creatures of that size when
complete, as out crustacean remains occur in a very fragmentary and scattered
condition, 'nie members of the section will remember the gigantic specimen

TOL. III. 2 li

274 THE GEOLOGIST.

of Tterygoitu from Tealing, in Eorfarshire, exhibited at last meetii^ of the
Association at Leeds. It consisted of eight large sculptured segments, and it
80 happens that I have here before me on the table a very small spedmen from
Cauteriand, consisting also of eight segments, and little more altc^ther than
one-third of an inch m length, a minim thus one-sixtieth part the size of its
gigantic brother. From this grey layer there are also well-marked Ichthyodo-
rimtes, and for a reason which will hereafter appear, I am disposed to attach
considerable value to these remains of ancient fishes. Of the vegetable
remains from this locality, and which occur in considerable abundance, I can
affirm scarce anything with certainty. Though much broken and carbonized,
there are what appear to be fragments of coniferous wood, and there is a very
common ribbon-like leaf which used to be thought fucoidal. This I have ever
been disposed to question, and it so happens tnat I have met with instances
where the leaf terminates in an apparent seed-vessel, very distinct, however,
from the Parka decipiens. Besides these seed-vessels, which occur separated
from the stem, there is another globular body of a beautiful yellow colour, and
which presents in the cross fracture a radiated appearance or structure, rrom
this layer also I have pieces of a crinoidal-looking organism, and several things
about which it does not even become me to hazard a conjecture. I have now
more particularly to notice that these grey beds pass towards the top into a
very tnin bed, more regularly stratified, and which presents, when laid open by
the stroke of the hammer, smooth level surfaces. On the face of these sur-
faces fossils occur, but as for the most part they are very small, they are not so
readily observed. They are, however, if I may so speak, the most exquisite
carvings of the extinct organisms. They are the spines or other bony parts of
the dermal covering of fishes, and to me they give to this layer the deepest
interest, although as yet 1 have turned out from this locality onlv detached
fragments. I Save the fishes to which they belong entire from the locality, to
which I am now about to refer.

Second, a spot in the parish of Kinnell, near Famell station, in the county
of Forfar. Ixom one of the beds in this locality I have gathered fossils in
excellent preservation and of «reat beauty. It is a thin shale in whidi they
occur, ana I believe it to be the equivalent of the uppermost beds in the sec-
tion at Cauteriand. This locality was unknown to our local geologists, and I
cannot describe the feeling vnth which on one afternoon of the July of the
summer time of 1857, I struck out from its stony bed the almost com|)let€ pic-
ture of a handsome little fish. There it was, with its every spine and its every
scale in place, and with what seemed an enamelled head. On further search, I
find that it occurs of sizes varying from one inch to something more than three
inches. It evidently belonffs at least to the family of the Acanthodii. There
also occurs here another fish, still more laboriously defended and ornamented.
It has two dorsal fins or spines of solid bone, a pectoral spine, a curious arrange-
ment of smaller spines immediately succeeding, what may be called fulcral
knobs, like those m the sturgeon, and of a very elegant pattern, a highlv
finished scale for the head, another scale along the anterior part of the dorsal
crest, and scales of minuter form spread over the rest oi the body. The
reader will pardon my referring so minutely to the different parts of the dermal
covering of this little denizen of the ancient seas, when I mention that these
are the fragmentary parts of the fishes which occur in the den of C5auterland,
and enabling us so far at least to co-ordinate the beds.

In the section at Famell I have also met with an epistoma df the Ptemotui
anglicus, and an aknost complete example of a Pterygotus or Ettiypterui, Tcai>
not decide which, of about seven inches in length. The Parka decipiens also
occurs, as might be expected ; and there are other minute Crustacean forms.
The vegetable remains are rare, but there are numerous Ichthyodorulites ; and,

NOTES AND QUEBIES. 275

from what I have said, it is important to preserve these, as we may meet with
the fishes to which they beloi^ in some other locality. There are still to be
mentioned numerous fossil bodies from this locality ; some looking like pieces
of skin, others evident concretions around a spine or spines, and others, besides,
of a ooprolite nature. Were the beds more accessible many objects would be
found to reward the researches of the explorer.

The third locality is in the parish of Craig, and near the village of
Eerryden. The section is a very small patch of thin bedded sandstone, and
rests upon and is surrounded on all sides by trap. The flags are very coarse
in sort, and have been much chan^d by heat, but still preserve on some
of their surfaces the marks of paleozoic showers and the tread of living
things. These footprints are of a lowlier cast than those from the Morayshire
beds, but they may oe of interest, notwithstanding, as belonging to the older
beds of the Old Red. Here, for instance, we have the evidence of the beaches
of that very remote period in our world's history. In the large drops im-
pressed on the stone, nave we not the proof of the thunder-shower? in the
small drops have we not the evidence of the drizzlinff rain ? And there were
living creatures on those sands ; very humble no doubt, but happy withal.
Altogether I can make out about a dozen different kinds of footmarks. In
one case it is a Ptervgotm floundering in the mud ; in another instance the
emstacean is of smaller dimensions, and is leisurely crossing the oozy beach ;
and in a third example it is a shrimp-like creature, rapidly traversing the wet
sand.

I may here be permitted to make one or two remarks of general character in
conclnsion. And first, as to the connection of the thin beds with the more
common " Cephalaspis" bed of Porfarshire. Upon this point I would not like
to speak with anything like dogmatism, but at present I hold them to be part
and parcel of one and the same ; indeed, I met not long ago, in the Den of
Cauterland, with what seem to be the spines of one of the small fishes in the
same piece of a stone with Cephalaspis head and the crushed segment of a
Pteiygotus.

Secondlv, as to the title of the Old Tied Sandstone as a System to an
establishea place in the geological scale. Leaving out of view the English
beds, which I do not know, in Scotland alone we can now affirm the existence
of a peculiar and I may say extensive fauna and flora at the very commence-
ment of that period ; and as we ascend we have the well-known unimie fishes
and the recently described vegetation of the middle and upper beos. I do
hope that you will idlow a Scotchman very humbly to speak his mind — that
English geologists do not take away from us the good old classical name of
Old Red Sandstone.

Thirdly, as to the succession of the different strata, or formations rather, of
which the system of the Old Red Sandstone is composed. On this point I am
disposed to adhere to the arrangement of Sir Roderick Murchison, adopting as
the base or lower formation our Scottish beds which contain the Cephalaspis as
their characteristic fossils ; as the middle formation, the beds of Cromarty and
Caithness with their peculiar fossil fishes ; and as the upper formation, the
beds of Moray, Perth, and Mfe, containing the Holoptychius.

Two entire specimens of fish exhibited by me at the British Association
Meeting at Aberdeen, last year, were named respectively by Sir P. Egerton
Acanthodes atUiquus, Brachyaeanthus scutiger. — Rev. Hugh Mitchell,
Craig.

FossiLCTEiioiTS Localities in Malta. — ^Deak Sir, — I send you a short
account of the best localities for fossils in Malta and Grozo ; it may be useful
to some of your numerous readers.

Tlie upper strata composed of coral-limestone is tolerably fossiliferous ; the

276 THB GEOLOGIST.

best places for collecting are Ras I'Alirase, Melleo baj, and Port Cerceva,
near Marfa, in Malta ; and at Port Chambr^ and the cliffs at Banda, in Gozo.

The next stratum consists of a mixture of yellow, black, and green sand in
various proportions, and is the one which yields most fossils, although, OTring
to the soft sandy nature of the rock, many of them are but casts. Eamla
cliff, along the north-east coast of Grozo, is by far the best place I have yisited;
but many can also be got on the coast of Malta, between Port Cercewa, near
Marfa and Miggiar, where the great fault reaches the south-west coast.

The next stratum is composed of blue and bluish-white marl ; in it fossils
are more rare, the only common one being broken specimens of Pecten Bur-
digalensis; however, others are to be found, and the best places are the cliffs
under Port Chambre, in Gozo, between St. Paul's bay and Melleha bay, and at
Miggiar, in Malta.

Selow the marls there is a series of beds of light yellow sandstone, the
common building-stone of the islands, which is rich in echinodermata; the
coast between Port Tigue and St. Julian's bay, Madalena bay, and particularly
the large quarries in the centre of the island, near Luca ana Micabba are the
most productive places. I also obtained a large species of nautilus from Cala
Dueira, on the north-west coast of Gozo. Through these beds runs a band of
chocolate-coloured pebbles, containing fish-teeth, &c. ; it is well developed on
the south-side of Port Chambre, close to the sea, and on the north side of the
Wield Cannotta, near the valley of the Salines, in Malta.

The next stratum, which is tne lowest, consists of semi-crystalline limestone,
and is generally devoid of fossils ; on the point between St. Geor^'s bay and
St. Juhan's bay broken specimens of Scutella subrotunda, and occasionaUy teeth
may be found, and I procured a nautilus from the cliffs near Krendi, Malta.

At a quarry on the sea-coast at Torre Sciulo, near Krendi, there used to be
a fissure fillea with breccia, containing mammsdian remains ; I think it has all
been removed now, but others may be expected in the high cliffs on the south-
west coast of both Malta and Gozo, and ought to be looked for.

1 would recommend any one desirous of making a collection to go to Fort
Chambr^ and ask for a Maltese named Mike ; although not very respectable,
he knows most of the best localities, is used to coUectmg, and works well with
a pick — no pleasant employment in so warm a climate. — ^Yours truly, F. W.
HUTTON, Staff College, Sandhurst.

NiCKEE Pits. — Deab Sib, — ^About two miles from Canterbury, in the
marshes of West Bere Level, are a number of pools called Nicker Pits. Some
of them are very deep, and springs of clear water rise up to the surface, the
water finding its way into the marsh ditches, and thus escaping into the river
Stour, near the banks of which the pools are situated. Many of them are
funnel-shaped in the middle, and when standing on the margin, any one looking
into the water can see a long way down. The people in the neighbourhood
believe them to be of an awful depth. One man told me that an eel-pot had
been lowered into one of the pits seventeen rods, but it did not reach the
bottom.

There is some high ground close to the marshes where probably the water
whicli supplies the springs is collected. The soil of the marsh is peaty, and
that of tne fields adjoining of clay.

The name of these pools, or pits, is remarkable, and makes one fancy that it
is connected with some early tradition of our Saxon or Danish fore&theis.

Jacob Grimm (Deutsche Mythologie, bb. 456, Zweete Ausgabe), under the
article " Nichus,'* enters somewhat circumstantially into the derivation of the
word. Nichusy crocodilus. Nikr^ old Norse for hippopotamus, &c. Mones
nl volkslit, s. 140, Nikker has the meaning of evil spint, deviL " AJle lukkers
nit de hel." Swedbh, ndk, nek; Danish, nok, nok, &c., all express tiie mean-

REVIEWS. 27?

ing of a water-ghost or demon. In the Anglo-Saxon the word has the same
meaning. Beov. 838, 1144, 2854 :—

"And on ydum slog,
Niceras nihtes."

" And on the waves I slew
Nicors by night."

Odinn was called, according to Snarro, Nikarr, or Knickarr, and when the
Scandinavians were converted to Christianity, the god was metamorphosed
into the popular Devil, by way of opprobrium. Thus, " Old Nick" became a
surname of Odin and the Devil.

J. Kemble, in the glossary to the An^lo-Saxon poem Beowulf, explains the
word ; thus. Nicer (m) monstrum fluviatile, a nick or nix. Oha nehhar,
whence the name of the beautiful river (the Neckkar) upon which Heidelberg
stands. Old Nick, eald nicer Sathanas.

I send you these few imperfect remarks in the hope some of your numerous
correspondents may have heard of similar pits in other neighbourhoods ; and
it will be curious if they bear the same popiuar name.

The superstitious feeling of the people living near them appears to connect
them with something which the Scotch would call uncanny. — I am, dear Sir,
yours truly, Jo FN Brent, Barton.

Pleistocene Deposits near Liverpool. — Sir, — I have read in your jour-
* nal Mr. Morton's communication relative to the northern drift, or Pleistocene
deposits, near Liverpool.

Mr. Morton says it is " assumed" that the clay, &c., was dropped from melt-
ing icebergs. The assumption seems to be a certaintv, from the fact that the
majority of the fossils found in the Pleistocene beets are common existing
species, and all of them such as are of arctic or glacial origin.

On the Cheshire side of the Mersey, between Seacombe and Egremont, there
is, as Mr. Morton is doubtless aware, a capital section of the clay and gravel
beds. In this clay occurs Nucula oblonga, which no longer, I think, finds a
place in our recent fauna. It is some years since I examined these beds, but I
remember to have found there what does not frequently occur in Pleistocene
strata, a ripple-marked surface separating in one place the sands from the clays.

Perhaps Mr. Morton, or some of the members of the Liverpool Geological
Society, may be able to confirm this.

Can you inform me where it is possible to obtain a copy of King's Mono-
graph of the Permian Fossils. — I am, yours &c., M. T. U., Darlington.

Professor King's Monograph of the Permian Fossils is one oi the publica-
tions of the P^ontographical Society. Any of the back volumes can be
obtamed for the amount of the annual subscription of one guinea. Dr. Bower-
bank, of 3, Highbury-grove, is the treasurer.

REVIEWS.

Answer to Hugh Miller and Theoretic Geologists. By Thos. A. Davies. New
. York : Rudd and Carlton. London : Sampson, Low, Son, and Co. 1860.

Por some time past we have had rather a plentiful production of discussive
works upon the concordance or non-concordance of the so-termed biblical and
geological accounts of creation. We have already questioned, on more than
oneoceasion, whether geologists or theologists are as yet properly prepared

278 THS GSOLOOIST.

with the necessary data of coming to just conclusions on this interesting topic;
but this, however, would not be sufficient reason for the absence of aH dis-
cussion on the point. We have ever accorded to every opinion, whether we
agree with it or not, a fair and just notice, but with the principles of the pre-
sent book no one could for a moment suppose that we should concur. Written
with an evident desire to attain logical deductions and conclusions, our task
in reviewing it becomes consequent^ the more easy, because ^ven any pre-
sumed fact as a basis, the truth of the conclusion, if really logically brought
out, depends not upon the lo^c, but upon the actuality and positiveness
of the original fact upon which the arguments and deouctions are based.
We do not admit the basis upon which Mr. Davies attempts to a^e,
namely, that fossils grow or are naturally produced in particular kinds
of rocks and soils, according to an original fiat of the Creator, as animals
and plants are from germs and seeds which are developed under their
particular and essential conditions. Mr. Davies disputes that fossils are
the remains of pre-existing vegetables and animals, and he considers them
to belong to the mineral kingdom entirely, and to be developed by a peculiar
condition of crystallization — ^plasticity, as it used to be called, we suppose
he means.

Now such a natural resemblance to organic forms by mere crystallizing forces
we think few people will be for a moment inclined to seriously consider ; but
as there may be some to whom the fallacy of this position may not be apparent,
we would simply remark that fossils exhibit in themselves the true conditions .
of what they really are, namely, the solid parts of objects once under the mys-
terious influences of vitality, which, after the cessation of the vital forces, have
been resigned to the action of the crystallizing, chemical, and other forces of
the mineral kingdom. Refuting the premises is refuting the principles, and
consequently the arguments, however skilful they might be, must therefore
necessarily fall ; and as Mr. Davies is thoroughly wrong in his basis, his con-
clusions must be wrong also.

The Old Glaciers of Switzerland and North Wales, By A. C. IUmsat, P.RS.,

r.G.S. London : Longman and Co. 1860.

These pleasant chapters formed part of a volume — "Peaks, Passes, and
Glaciers" — which we reviewed in our August number of last year, and in which
we laid special stress on this portion contnouted by Professor Kamsay. In their
present pretty pocket-book form, accompanied oy a well-defined map of the
ancient Racier-regions around the famous Snowdon, they wiU form an attractive
companion and a useful guide to the tourist in this district of Wales.

Eor the glacier-scenery of Switzerland we need not utter a word, it has only
to be seen to be appreciated ; and, as Professor Ramsay truly observes, in the
writings of De Saussure, Charpentier, Agassiz, and" James i^orbes the charms
of style and graphic illustration have invested glacial investigations with an
interest felt far beyond the circle of scientific reaaers.

Although the glaciers of Wales have long since melted away, and only the
marks of their grinding on the rocks in their slow and ponderous passage and
the loose debris scattered in the vales and hollows in their dissolution remain
to prove their former existence and extent, yet we cannot view such time-
honoured reUcs without a solemn feeling of awe, and a wish to dive deeper into
the only seemingly inscrutable mysteries of the past ; for how much has given
way to man's persevering intellect, and how much more wiU hereafter yield, by
the Divine blessing and consent^ to his indomitable energies and intellectual

REVIEWS. 279

labours. Heartily in tliifl beautiful summer-time do we wish Suowdon many
visitors, aud Professor Kamsa/s book many readers.

The Oeoloffieal Examinator, By David Page, P.G.S. L(»don and Edin-
burgh : Blackwood and Sons.

The general excellency of Mr. Page's educational books on geology entitles
any new production from his pen to just consideration. If Mr. rage's last
work on geological terras contained many errors and some omissions, it was
not to be expected that in a subject so full of difficulties a first attempt should
prove perfect ; but Mr. Page is too careful and pains-taking an author not to
avoid a repetition of these casualties in a second edition.

The "Geological Examinator" before us is a little pamphlet of forty pages,
usefully filled with generallv well selected questions, designed chiefly for the
use of teachers in framing their periodical examinations, fliey are adapted also
as an aid for students desirous of acquiring a sufficient proficiency in the
science for such general examinations.

To the mere student, self-educating himself in the history of our earth, this
useful category presents a succinct epitome of geological science ; and if he
attempts without reference to his books to answer this series of questions, he
▼ill perceive for himself what he has acquired and what he has still to attain
before he can regard himself as worthy of being called a geologist.

The Rocks of Worcestershire. By George E. Roberts. London : J. Masters,

Aldersgate-street.

Oar readers are acquamted with Mr. Roberts' pretty style of writing, from
the several^ attractive communications which from time to time he has con-
tributed to this journal. In this geological history of "Tlie Bx)cks of
Worcestershire" we have a conversational book of much merit and origin-
ality. We are introduced at the outset to three important personages —
Granitia, Siluria* Triassia — ^who meet in the arbour of a friend, Hospes,
whose acquaintance we thus also make. There these personages narrate
what they have to tell us of the past and present condition of that portion
of our globe which now bears tne denomination of Worcestershire, while
Hospes, who is a good listener, puts in an occasional inquiry of very sensible
character.

As a rule we dislike dialogues in books, as tending to make them either
hea^y or puerile ; but we must say Mr. Roberts has very well managed to
Iteep up the vivacity and vigour of the narrations throughout, and has rather
skilfully made the plan of conversational difference subservient to keeping dis-
tinct those topics into which he has divided his work.

Granitia is a fiery, impetuous personage, caring most for the majestic aspect
of the rocks and mountains ; Siluria finds his pleasure in studying their fossil
remains; while Triassia has tales to tell of the natural productions now
livinff upon their surfaces. Hospes, as we have before said, listens;
and oy his interrogations not only represents to some degree theoretical
speculations, but keeps his three scientific friends down to the mark of popular
explanation.

Granitia first speaks of the physical rise of the globe, and of the oldest rocks
exposed in the county ; Siluna follows with a description of their characters,
relating also what remains of former animals they contain ; while Triassia teUs

280 THE GEOLOGIST.

of the beautiful clothing that makes their ancient masses so enchanting to the
eye.

Granitia brings into his account of the i&;neous rocks the famous Eovley
rag-stone, the Shatterford basaltic dyke, Munster's Hill, and the Titterstone
dew-stone, said by Mr. Roberts, much to our surprise, to be locally called je»-
stotte. Stone-breakers on the roads may by indistinctness of pronunciation give
the impression to a stranger of their calling it ^'^«7-stone, but the correct local
term is ^^-stone. It has acquired this name from its having the property,
like other basalts, of condensmg on its surface the moisture of the air ; nence
in damp weather, or when breathed on, it becomes darker in hue, and even
sometunes glistens with innumerable beads of water or detp.

Siluria, after some remarks on the Cambrian rocks of Wales and the Long-
nyrnds, discourses pleasantly first of the Holly-bush sandstone, the black shides
of the Malvern, the Lickey quartz-rocks, ana other notable strata of Silurian
age ; secondly, of the Old Red Sandstone-beds ; thirdly, of the Carboniferous
deposits, up to the coal ; then of the Wvre Forest coal-field and the coal-
measures; fifthly, of the red-rock above the coal, or the Permian formation;
and sixthly, of the New Red Sandstone. The Lias and Oolite then come mfor
their share of notice ; and Siluria finishes his discourse, which is discuisiyely
illustrated throughout with occasional excellent descriptions of the yarious
characteristic and rare fossils, with remarks on the post-tertiaiy period and on
modem geological changes.

To Tnassia nothinjg beautiful in the present scenery passes mmoticed;
nothing growing, or kving on the present surface, from tne lichen clinging to
the bare rock to the dense forest of luxuriant trees, from the snail or the
caterpillar browsing on dock or thistle to the cony burrowing in the qnarry-
walls of the new red sandstone, but affords him an interestmg and amusing
topic.

In this bright summer-time, if with any excuse — geological, botanical, or
artistical — or with no excuse at all, we should ramble over the beautiful hills
and fertile lowlands of Worcestershire, Mr. Roberts' book will be an agreeable
and useful companion. Small in size, we mav put it in our pockets ; and when
resting after a morning's walk on stHe, fellea tree, or road-side heap of stones,
as we lazily inhale the fragrance of flowery odours we may read some passage
of Granitia's, Siluria' s, and Triassia's gossip with pleasure and profit, and per-
haps within our reach we may pick up the stone, fossil, plant or msect that lias
formed a topic in these agreeable conversations. The dilettante may think we
have not given our excursionist the most luxurious resting-place, but if diUt-
tante likes it best, he can read Mr. Roberts' book at home. It may be well
read anywhere. But for the geologist what resting-place after a twenty
miles walk like a road-heap, where he can rest and luxuriate in his hammerings
at the same time? "Politics, love, theology, art, are full of thorns; but
when," to apply a humorous quotation from Mr. Reade, "you see a man perched
like a crow upon a rock, chipping it, you see a happy dog. The hammerist can
imnp out of his gig at any turn of the road, and find that which his soul desires.
The meanest stone a boy throws at a robin is millions of years older than the
Pamese Hercules, and has a liistory as well as a sermon. Stones are curious
things ; if a man is paid for breaking them he is wretched, but if he can bring
his mind to do it gratis he is at the summit of content."

THE GEOLOGIST.

AUGUST, 1860.

GEOLOGICAL LOG ALITIES— No. I.

FOLKESTONE.
Bi S. J. Mackie, F.G.S., F.S.A.

(Oonliniied from page 207.)

In our route we shall paaa several brick-pits dug into a stiff brown
clay or ordinary brick-earth, which must in no way be mistaken for
gaalt, as this fresh-water or marshy stratum, for such the abundance
in its lower part of the small white shells of Helix, Succinea oWonga,
and Fupa prove it to be, skirts the chalk downs for many miles,
apparently into Surrey. At the time when it is estfinsively dug for

—Bono otDoipi-ii

brick -making, honei oi Bos prvmigeniug, Cervus elephnis, Boa tiros, and
horse are met with. The specimen figured is from one of these pits
belonging to Mr, Kingsnorth, of Broadmead.

In some places, aa at Brabonme Lees, this brick-earth inoscnlates

282 THE GEOLOGIST.

with or merges iuto great drifts of angnlar flint-gravel, bat in the area
we are traversing the brick-earth is very pure and free from anyconr
Biderable quantity of fragmentary flints.

It must be borne in mind that the plain over which we h&n been
walking, althongh at the foot of the lofty chalk downs, is still at a

high level above the sea, and forms the continnation of that high
ground of the Ganlt and Lower Greensand at Folkestone, which con-
stitutes the West Cliff, and is cnt off from the East Cliff or Copt Point
by & vaUey from eighty to ninety feet deep, in which a considerable part
of the old town is bnilb. In this valley several springs of beantifullj
clear water break ont, the most noticeable being that at the "Bull-
dog steps," which even in the driest and hottest seasons ponra forth
in undiminished flow.

At the south-eastern comer of the .West Cliff, under the Battery,
lying immediately on the upper beds of the Lower Greensand, which
are of loose disintegrated sand, is the Pleistocene ossiferous deposit,
from one to nine feet thick, to which we alluded at p^e 125. It con-
sists of flint-pebbles, bonlders, and fragments of fermginona sand-
stone, intermixed with loamy sand and surmounted by calcareons
marl. This bed extends along the face of the cliff for a distance of
three hundred and twenty feet, following the irregularities of the

GEOLOGY OF rOLKKSTONE — THE OAULT. 283

snr&ce of the rock on which it rests, and distinctly displaying the
variationB in its thickness.

It aboonds in the lower part, with the remains of elephant, ox,
stag, hyrana, hippopotamna, Irish deer, &c., and, in the marly portion
nnmerotis specimens of two or three species of Kelix occur.

The sheila, however, are found both in the gravel and in the calca-
reous marl above it, as well as in the cavities of the bones.

Ligu, 22.— Bull-dog Steps Bnd Spring, FalkiaUaie.

This ossiferous bed appears to be cut off by the valley, above
referred to, towards which it thins out altogether ; and no traces of
mammalian remainB have been fonnd on the east aide of the town,
eieept those of Whale in the brick-earth at Porter's saw-mill.
On the west it thins ofi* beneath a bed of dark brown brick-earth,
such as is fonnd ihrongbout the neighbouring country.

The presence of a breccia of cbalk-fiintis, if it may be so termed,

284 THE 6E0L0OIST.

at tliis spot is somewliat singular, no flinty chalk occnrrmg at a
distance than six miles to the north or east, and the grey cbalk rising
between that member of the Cretaceous group and the "bone-
deposit," and forming the highest ground of the whole district.

The calcareous marl would appear to have been derived chiefly
from the waste of the chalk, the marl possessing all the usual mineral
characters of such sediments; a microscopic investigation con-
firms this view, the marl abounding with Fcyra/niinifera and other
microscopic organisms, many forms of which are immediately recog-
nized as ordinary species of the chalk.

The following are the cretaceous fossils which have been detected
in it : —

Terebratnla rigida. Single cells, ovoidal and globula, = Oo-
Yememlina tricarinata. lines (?) and portions of other Forami-

Teztnlaria globosa^ trochns, and others. nifera.

Polymorphma (?). Prismatic fragments of Inoceramns.

Bulimina variabilis and another. Fragments of Echinodermata.

Bosalina. Ossicles of Apiocrinites.

Globigerina cretacea. Valves of Cytherella ovata and C. tnm-
CristeUaria rotolata and another. cata.

Botalia globosa. ^ Bairdia snbdeltoidea and B. Har-

Nodosaria. ' lisiana.

C jthere Hilsea.na.

LIST OF THE ORGANIC REMAINS FROM THE « BONE BEB."

Mammalia. Megaceros Hibemions.

Elephas primigenios. Eqnns.

Hippopotamus major. HysBna spelaaa.

Rhinoceros hemitoechns. Ursns ?.
Bos primigenins. Shells.

nros. Helix nemoralis.

longifrons. ■ concinna.

Cervns elephus.

We have now fairly got back to Folkestone, and if we maie the
best of our way towards Copt Point, through London-street, we shall
pass a good example of the superficial brick-earth spreading over
gault and green-sand. I point out this section as, although limited
in extent, the little patch of gault there exposed is rather rich in that
very elegant and somewhat rare ammonite, A, Bouchardiaims,

(To be contintied.)

SUESS — ^DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRACHIOPODA. 285

EEMARKS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE

BRACHIOPODA.

By Pbof. E. Suess, of the Imperial Mineralogical Muserun of

Vienna, Ac.

[Communicated by Thos. Davidson, Esq., P.G.S.]

In liis address to tlie Geological Society of London, Prof. Phillips
has stated that " very slight and trifling, if not mischievons, is that
minute indnstry which, nng^ded by philosophical reflections, busies
itself only with differentials of specimens and abandons the true
integration of species, the work of the real naturalist" and from so
jnst an assertion who could dissent ; for although it may be neces-
sary to study the characters by which species may be distinguished,
still, if an undue importance is given to certain features, or that these
are arbitrarily restricted within preconceived limits, and that the
more important questions in connection with the distribution and
zoological characters of the class in general are overlooked, then, as
Professor Phillips so justly observes, but very little good and much
harm may be the result of the minute industry of some would-be
palaeontologists.

Shortly after the publication of the first portion of my Jurassic
Monograph, I entered into active communication with Prof. Suess, of
Vienna, who had offered me his valued and valuable assistance in
the labour I had undertaken, by devoting his serious attention to the
Austrian species, and to those fundamental characters by which the
class could be subdivided, and so actively and zealously did Prof.
Suess pursue his allotted task, that science is indubitably indebted
to him for a great many of those important discoveries which
deservedly place him among the first few who have really advanced
our knowledge in connection with this important class.

In his researches Prof. Suess has constantly aimed at general
views ; and as those relating to the distribution in time and space
have been one of his favourite themes, and upon which he has
devoted much attention, I need make no apology while communicat-
ing to the readers of the " Geologist" a letter recently received^
and in which my distinguished friend has given a brief but concise
account of the most prominent results of his enquiry.*

* I may here enmnerate the yarionB memoirs published by Prof. Suess upon
the Brachiopoda, regretting at the same time that the space which can be devoted
to this article precludes the possibility of my enlarging upon their respective
merits.

1852. — "On Terebratula diphya." Vienna Acad. 8vo., one plate.

1863. — " On Stringooephalus Burtini." Zool. Soc. 8vo;, one plate.

286 THIS QE0L00I8T.

Imperial Mus&um of Mineralogy, Vierma, April 30, 1860.

My Deab Friend, — I beg leave to sdbmit to your kind judgment
the leading views of my second paper on the disiiibntion of Brachio-
poda, published by our Academy a short time ago.

In a first paper on this subject, I have tried to unite the facts relat-
ing to the geographical and bathymetrical distribution of liim^ Bra-
chiopoda, and have arrived at the conclusions: 1st, That the geo-
logically ancient genera (Terebratula, RhynchoneUa, <fec.), are sporadic,
and only some genera of newer date (Kransina, Morrisia) may,
perhaps, be termed endemic genera ; 2nd, That Brachiopoda are found
living in every climate, but that the genera with translucid shells
(Lingula, Discina) are confined to warmer seas ; 3rd, That these
same genera with translucid shells are only found within very
moderate depths, most of them within seven fathoms, the genera
with opaque shells (Terebratula &c.) inhabiting, on the contrary,
greater depths, with a very small number of exceptions. Some of
these latter live even in very considerable depths.

My subsequent papers were intended to give my views on the
habitations of fossil Brachiopoda, and so I have given a chapter at
the beginning of my second paper, which contains some general
remarks on the life of species, and on the influence of a change of
external conditions on the distribution of a.nima.lH. It is not this part
of my paper I wish to speak of now ; if you should wish for it, I
might give you an analysis of it in some other letter, and you would
find a new classification of our Tertiary beds in it. Before I enter
into further details, it is sufficient to extract the following condnsions
from this chapter : — Ist, A change of level, which produces wi
extension and communication of marine provinces, will produce dimi-
nution and isolation of terrestrial provinces, and vice versa, 2nd,
Because the vertical range of bathymetrical zones increases with the
depth, an oscillation may produce greater changes in the upper than
in the deeper zones. Besides this, the littoral and sub-littoral zones
are exposed to certain influences, which do not penetrate into the
deeper zones, so that external changes may cause great variation m
the upper zones, the fauna of the deeper sea remaining the same,

1853.—" On the Brachial Apparatus of Theeidea." Acad. 8vo., three pbtes-

1854. — " On the Brachiopoda of Kdasen Strata. Acad. 4to., four plates.

1853.—" On the Brachiopoda of the Hallstatt Strata." Acad. 8vo., two plates.

1856.— " Grerman edition of Davidson's Classification of the Brachiopoda."
4to., five plates.

1858.—" On the Brachiopoda of Stramberg Strata in Haner's Beytrage." 4to.,
six plates.

1859.— "Note BUT la Waldhemia Stephanis in PalsBon." Lomb. 4to., one
plate.

„ . — " On the Distribution of Brachiopoda." First paper. Acad. 8vo.
„ . — „ „ „ Second paper. „ >»

In addition to these, Prof. Suess has published several other papers relntrng to
the Geology of the AJps, etc.

STJBSS — DISTEIBtJTION OF THE- BKACHIOPODA. 287.

I presame that the batliyiiietrical distribntion of the great groups
of Brachiopoda has ever been nearly the same as it is now, viz., the
species with a translucid shell being confined, or nearly so, to the
higher zones, and those with opaque shells living in the deeper parts
of the sea. It is not necessary to enumerate the numerous cases in
which fossil Lingulidae and Discinidas have been found, together with
ripple-marks, littoral shells, or other signs of shallow sea ; nor to
point out how rare it is to meet with other Brachiopoda in such con-
ditions. But I must heg you to remember how very predominant
hornlike shells of Brachiopoda are in sandstone and shale, and how
marked the maxima of RhynchonellidsB, SpiriferidaB, Terebratulidee,
&C.J are in limestone, and more especially in argillaceous limestone.
It is a gross error to believe that these families are so frequently
wanting in sandstones or shales, because these latter have been
formed by a sea too poor in lime for the formation of these shells.
MM. Logan and Hunt have taught us that the shells of LingulsB also
consist principaDy of lime. I believe that the extinct family Spiri-
feridflB ranges, as I have just remarked, with the other families with
opaque shells ; but as to the Strophomenidee you wiU see that excep-
tions are somewhat more numerous, most of them belonging to the
(restricted) genus Ortkis. And now let us cast a glance on the dis-
tribution of a number of Silurian Brachiopoda, and for the sake of
shortness let us call all Lingulidee and DiscinideB the Group A, and
all other Brachiopoda the Group B, the genus Orthis and a number
of other Strophomenidae being regarded as standing between these
groups, Orthis, as you will remark, often ofiering a very marked
tendency associating with group A.

In looking, as a first example, at M. Barrande's newest list of
primordial fossils in the Bulletin Soc. Geol. xvi., 1869, p 516 — 646,
you may find the following Brachiopoda : — Eight species of Lingula,
two Obolus, three Discina, five Orthis, and one doubtful Atrypa.
This can only be Atr. vucula (Dalne), or Atr. lenticularis (Dalne),the
first of which, according to M. Barrande, approaches to Obolus or Lin-
gula. The latter surely is one of the StrophomenidsB, and probably an
Orthis, So you see that this fauna only offers thirteen or fourteen
members of the group -4, and five or six forms of the genus Orthis.
I carmot believe that this association of Brachiopoda has lived in deep
water, and you know that the predominant rocks in which they are
found are sandstones and slates.

In this case it is possible to attain a marked conclusion even in
contemplating the primordial fauna of all regions in which it has
been found as a whole, but for farther studies it is necessary to
I'egard one country after the other. I will select a few examples
now, but must, before I do so, say that a part of the conclusions
at which I have arrived has been anticipated in a very nice way
by the statement of Mr. Sharpe (Quart. Jour, 1848, iv., p. 158),
that the genera Lingula and Orbicula, now preferring shallow
water, do not offer identical species in the Silurian beds of
North America and Europe. I beg you to read the passage of

288 THE GEOLOGIST.

Mr. Sliarpe, becanse it harmonizes very well witH my views on the
subject.

I. North America. — Potsdam Sandstone.

Professor Hall only cites two LingnlsB and the ScoUthus lineam
here. Professor Rogers is said to have found a Discina. Sir C. Lyell
speaks of something resembling a Placuna, The profiles given by
D. D. Owen (see Rep. on Wisconsin, Iowa, &c., p. 499, <fec.), cite
Lingula and Discina in the deepest beds, and the first other genus
appearing is Orthis,

The Caldferovs somdstone does not show any marked diflference in
the character of Brachiopoda. Vanuxem and Hall only speak of a
Lingpila found in a loose block. Bigsby mentions L. obiusa and
Orthides here.

The Chazy limestone, on the contrary, contains ten species of Brar
chiopoda (according to Hall), one single doubtful one, OrUcula {?)
deformis, belonging to the shallow water group -4, the rest having
opaque shells, and only embracing one single Orthis,

The Birdseye limestone contains no Brachiopoda, according to HaU.
The statements of Dr. Bigsby seem to be somewhat contradictory
(Quart. Jour., 1858, p. 431 and lists.)

The Trenton limestone seems to form a great exception, and to con-
tradict all these statements in containing at the same time a great
number of species both of group A and of group B. Still, in
gathering the facts relative to the recurrence of these species in the
overlying strata, it may be shown that no contradiction exists. In
comparing the lists of Brachiopoda from the Trenton limestone, Utica
slate, and Hudson river group, as I intend to do now, it is, I fear,
necessary to omit those given in Dr. Bigsby 's lists with the authority
of Sharpe, because Sharpe united these three strata under the
denomination of blue limestone of Ohio, and the species named by him
in this bed are cited with his authority as J? in every one of the
three strata. The following species are said to rise from the Trenton
limestone into the Utica State, and as no new species of Brachiopoda
appears in the State, they form the whole of the species found in it*:—
Spirigerma reticularis, Bhynchonella increhescens, B. modesta, B, Udenr
tata, Strophomena altemata, Orthis lynx, 0. testudvnaria, Imgvl^
ohtusa, L. curta, L. ovata, L. quadrata. The proportion is much more
in favour of group A here than in the Trenton limestone. In com-
paring the Hudson river group, you will find in it : —

a. Species found in Trenton limestone, but not in Utica State :
lA/ngula crCissa, Orthis Tulliensis.

h, Species passing indifferently through all three strata : SpW-
gervna reticularis, Bhynch. increhescens, B. modesta, B. hidentataf
8traph. altemata, Orthis lynx (?), 0, testudinaria,

* Mr. Hall's list cites L&pt sericea here for the first time.

SUESS — DISTRIBUTION OF THB BBACHIOPODA. 289

Cj One species perhaps first appearing in Utica slate : Lepi, smieea,

d, 'New speoies, neither fonnd in Trenton limestone nor in Utioa
slate : Ducina oultcUa, JD. orassa, D. subtrTmcata^ Orthia centrUineata^
0. crispata, 0, errcUica,

You easily perceive that the members of gronp A and a nnmber
of Orthides show other facts of recnrrency than the deep sea gronp
By and that they therefore seem to have lived in other conditions,
viz., probably in another depth. I might even venture to say more
than that. A certain number of shallow-water Brachiopoda of the
Trenton limestone reappear in the Utica state ; so also do a number
of Brachiopoda belonging to a somewhat deeper zone. These latter
all pass on into the Hudson river group, but the shallow-water species
do not, and are, on the contrary, represented by a number of new
shallow-water species. In this case, indeed, I presume that a cha/nge
in the littoral or sub-liUoral zones has taken place alone, the fauna of
the deeper zones remaining the same.

Above the Hudson river group tiie beds of sandstone with Lingvla
cu7ieata and ripple-marks follow.

n. Bkoland.

The association of Orthides with species of the shallow-water
group A is very nice in the deeper Silurian beds. I need only cite
Sir Roderick Murchison's and Mr. Salter's statements in Siluria, 8rd
edition, pp. 47, 60, and 53, to show that the oldest fossiliferous depo-
sits are very nicely characterized by the association of the genera
Inngnla and Orthis. In the calcareous Llandeilo beds of Pembroke-
shire (Sil. 66), L&pt. «encea is cited withLin^, attemuxta, L. gramndata,
and (Mh. striatula, I believe it might be of some peculiar interejt
to study the fossils of tho^e localities, where the csdcareous portion
of these beds passes into slates. It must be interesting to see the
members of deeper zones appearing in this limestone. In comparing
the lists of Caradoc and 6ala Brachiopoda with those of Llandeilo,
as given in Siluria, 3rd edition, and regarding Spirif, ingidaris as an
Orthis (Sil., p. 209), you may arrive at the following conclusions : —
Eighteen species of Brachiopoda are known in the Llandeilo b^ds,
but all the characteristic genera of the deep sea group B are wanting.
The species are divided thus : Five Lingula, one Sophonotreta, ten
Orthides, two Lept89n89. Of these the fol towing recur in the Oaradoc
and Bala : —

Of the five Lingnla, none.
Of the one Siphonotreta, none*
Of the ten Orthides, seven.
Of the two Leptasned, both.

The charaoteristio inhabitants of shallow Watey, all remain con-
fined to the Llandeilo beds, as well as one-third ef the Orthides ; on
yoL, III* 2 0

290 THE aEOLOCHST.

the oontraiy, ihe two single LeptsensB, whicli may, perhaps, be re-
garded as inhabitants of a somewhat deeper zone, both recur.
Although, according to these lists, the Caradoc and Bala strata con-
tain six Discinsa, fonr InngoliB, and one Trematis as tme inhabitaniB
of shallow water, they are all different to the shallow-water inhabitants
of the Uandeilo beds, as also are the eight Annelida of the Llaadeilo
different from the eight Annelida of the Caradoc and Bala beds. The
fauna of the littoral zone has been changed ; the few inhabitants of
deeper zones which have been found in tiie liandeilo beds rise un-
changed ia the following beds. I cannot think of speaking ngiore on
British Brachiopoda to you. I have only thought these lines neces-
sary for the sake of showing you that the apparent mixture of both
groups in your Silurian beds does not seem to me an argument
against my views ; and as I have now given you two examples in
which the shallow-water inhabitants were changed, the fauna of the
deeper zones remaining the same, viz., by the comparison of the
Utica slate with the Hudson river group, and of the Llandeilo with
Caradoc beds. I believe I must point out the very nice example of
the contrary given by your uppermost Silurian beds. Here yon see
the sea getting gradually shallower, and out of about thirty species
of BracUopoda known in the Ludlow beds, you only see a single one
rising up into the littoral or sub-littoral passage-beds, and occnrring
there in great numbers, and that is Lmgvla cornea. Professor
Phillips has given a great number of data on these facts, and I
see from his paper on &e Malvems, that Bynch, tmcvla and Glumetes
lata sometimes go a good way up, together with Disdna rugata, but
without continuing into the true passage-beds.

in. BOHEMU.

Mr. Barrande's Protozoic slates 0, containing the first or primordial
fauna, have hitherto only yielded one JXsdna and one Orthis as repre-
sentatives of our class.

The second or lower Silurian fauna forms Mr. Barrande^s etage I?,
which is divided by this gentleman into five minor groups, viz. :—

d 1, Slates at the base of the eta^e, near Komarow>
d 2, Quartzite of Mount Drabow,
d 3, Black, foliated slates.
d 4, Very micaceous slates,
d 6, Yellowish grey slates.

The lower part of this Stage is very poor in Brachiopoda, d alone
having yielded the genus Orthia. As to d 4 and d 3, M. Bafrande
has had the extreme kindness to conomunicate to me the lists of the
Brachiopoda known to him up to the present time from these beds.
I see from them that, making abstraction of several incomplete spe-
cimens, most of which, according to this distinguished palaeontologist-,
will prove to be Orthidca, d 4 has given thirteen specieS; viz., two or

SUESS — DISTRIBUTION OP THE BEACHIOPODA. 291

three BieemoR, one Lingula, five Orthides, two LeptcenCB, and two
donbtfdl species. Yon remark exactly the same association of the
shallow- water gronp A with the intermediate forms, which I have
already pointed ont several times.

M. Barrande knows thirteen or fonrteen species of Brachiopoda
from d 5, one of which is Discma scrobumlosa frojn d 4, one or two are
Li/ngtdcB, four OrthideSj and fonr other Strophomemdoej among which is
the recmrent Lept, aquila, and two donbtinl species. I need not say
that it is again a qnite similar association, exdnding the formation
from deep sea condition. Finally, M. Barrande has a short time ago
mentioned a new Lingnla in chloritic qnartzite belonging to 6tage D.

Now it is the bed d 4 which, as M. Barrande has tanght ns, con-
tains intercalations of slates with calcareons nodules, which have
yielded fonr new species of fossils, fonr species identical with those of
etage D, and not less than sixty species which have never been fonnd in
d 4, nor even in d^ 5, bnt only in the overlying Upper Silurian 6tage
B. Among these sixty species are eleven Brachiopoda : Terehrat
Ba/phne, T, linguata, T. monaca, T. oholma, T. obovata, T. reticularis,
Spirifer togatus, Orthis rn/ulu8, Lept. euglypha, L. patrida, and L,
Hauefri. Not one member of the shallow- water gronp A, and only
one single Orthis are among these eleven species, several of which are
Spir^endcB ; T. Daphne is a BhynchoneUa, In this list the predomi-
nance of gronp B is, indeed, very clear.

As, I believe, M. Barrande's sngge&tion is now generally acknow-
ledged, that the fanna d 4i, and at least a part of the Upper Silurian
fauna E must have lived at the same time, I presume, ftirther, that
thif part of the fauna E must have lived in a somewhat deeper part
of the sea than the contemporaneous littoral or sub-littoral fauna d 4t
and d 5, and I regard these '^ colonies" as the intercalations of the
deposits of a somewhat deeper bathymetrical zone between sub*?
littoral deposits.

In perusing that highly instructive comparison between the
Silurian beds of Bohemia and Scandinavia, wluch M. Barrande pub-
lished a few years since, it is seen that the primordial faunae of both
countries consist of very closely representative, but not identical,
species.* The same is the case with the second or lower Silurian
faunse, although here, perhaps, a small number of identical species
may be found. The comparison of the third or Upper Silurian fanned
yields quite another result, as the number of identical species in both
countries is by far greater, although small in comparison to the
locality of these faunee. M. Barrande teaches that with few excep*
tions (one Trilohite, two Orthocerata, and a somewhat greater number
of Corals), these identical species belong to the class of Brachiopoda,
not less than eighteen of which are enumerated as occurring simul--
taneously in the Upper Silurian beds of Scandinavia and Bohemia.
I suppose eight of them to be Spiriferidce, three RhynchonellidcB, and
seven Strophomemdce, among which are two Orthides, The gronp A is

* Perhaps with one single exception.

292 THl OXOLOOIfiT.

not represented ; although, the geniui Orthis is so rich in both coun-
tries, it only coontB two identical species, and the bulk of the iden-
tical forms belongs to the deep-sea gronp B. M. Barrande has sog-
gested that in uLOse cases in which tiie fannie are distinct in boOi
countries^ a limit between both may hare existed similar to that now
existing between ^e Bed Sea and the Mediterranean, or between the
Atlantic and the Pacific, and that when a greater munber of identical
species is found, it may be ascribed to the disappearance of this
barrier. My yiew on the snlg'ect is different. Supposing that the
first and second faunes are indeed littoral and sub-littoral depofdta,
the presence of open and somewhat deeper sea will alone be quite soffir
oient to aeoount for the distinctness of these &un8d, the de^ eea
forming an almost insurmountable barrier for such beings. Eyen in
the thixd finmsa only such forms will be found identical in both oonn-
tries, which haye been able to pass oyer the depths of that Silnnan
ocean which separated Scandinayia fiom Bohemia.

Let us for a moment abstract such species as are common to the
Bohemia ^tage / and to Scandinayia, and only regard the lower etage
e of the Bohemian Upper Silurian beds. This deposit offers fourteen
species of Brachiop(xliE^ in common with Scandinayia, and, sbvb
haye seen aboye, eleyen species in common with the "Colonies."
In comparing the lists it is seen, that with the exception of £Jpt)v
gerina retictUarie and Strophomena eughfpha^ these two lists contain
different names. I presume, therefore, that a fiortber bathymetrical
subdiyision of that Silurian ocean existed, and that at its southem
border the littoral and sublittoral aones were inhabited by the &ana
d4i and d6 ; the next deeper by the species found in the " colonies ;"
the deepest by those which haye pro^vod identical with Scandinavian
deposits. Spirig, retioularia and Siroph, eughfpka may haye hyed in
both the middle and the deeper aones.

M. Barrande names about sixty fossils as common to the '^ colonies'*
and the &una e. Among these are eight trilobites and other crus-
taceans, twenty Cephalopoda, twelye Acephali^ but only eleven
Brachiopoda and one Coral: four Cerdiokd and eight other Gflrdiaoea
are found here, together with four Gh*apto]ites. The dbaracter of the
small list of fossils common to the Upper Silurian of Bohemia and
Scandinayia is quite different ; it contains a single TriloHte, v^
few Cephalopoda, but eighteen Brachiopoda and seyeral Corals.
Brachiopoda of the group B therefore, and Corals must, if my view
be correct, have formed by &r the greatest part of the populaoon of
the deeper part of the sea.

Supposed a barrier of land to have existed between Scandinavia
and Bohemia, and this to haye been destroyed ; no cause can be
given why merely Brachiopoda and . Corals alone haye passed the
place where it formerly existed. Say, on the contrary, my view to be
correct, then localities must be known in which such Brachiopoda
and Ccorals occur alone, or nearly so, and are contained, not in sand'
stone or shale, but in limestone, and these localities may then be re-
garded as formed in deep sea. Now such localities are indeed known,

EIBKBY — SANDPIPES IN 1U0NS8IAN LIMESTONE OF DURHAM. 293

and I need only remind yon of M. Ghrnenewalds' papers on Bogoss-
lowsk. At the locality Petropawlowsk the proportion of the total
Bracliiopoda and Corals to all the rest of the fossils is twenty-six to
one, or nearly seven and a-half to one ; at Bogosslowsk eighteen to
one, or two. In the middle zone, as given by the fossils common to
the "colonies" and E in Bohemia, this proportion on the contrary is
twelve to forty-eight, or one to fonr. At Bogosslowsk and Petropaw-
lowsk not one member of gronp A is fonnd ; not even a single Orthis.

M. Barrande, in his paper on the paraUel between the Silurian
deposits of Scandinavia and Bohemia, has shown that dnring the
first periods of animal life, the species were already not nniversally
spread, but distributed according to the same strict roles which rega-
late the distribution of organic beings in our days. Convinced as I
am of the correctness of this view, I venture to add that in remote
times also the distribution of the species was not only horizontally
but also vertically limited, t. e., that not only geographical provinces
but also bathymetrical zones have existed in the Siluiian seas.

In closing this abstract, I beg you, my dear friend, to remark,
that for the sake of shortness some view may be put forth here
too apodictally, which is only enounced as a mere conjecture in my
paper, and many an argument in favour of my views has been
omitted ; I beg also to obiserve this to any one of your friends, to
whom these lines might seem to you worth communicating. Impos-
sible as it is to arrive at decided conclusions by the study of one single
class, I have only intended to show that fossils may no more be re-
garded as mere '* dead-bom medals," but must always be looked upon
as the remains of living beings, the existence of which depended
upon a thousand external conditions.

I am, my dear friend.

Most truly yours,
To Thos. Davidson, Esq., P.G.S. Edw. Suess.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF « SAND-PIPES " JN THE
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE OF DURHAM.

Bt J. W. KiBKBT.

DiJBiNa the past year my attention has been directed to some
curious tube-Kke cavities in the magnesian limestone near Sunder-
land, which I believe to be perfecdy analogous to the sand- and
gravel-pipes of the chalk districts of the south of England and
France. And as our knowledge of such pipes has hitherto been
almost confined to their occurrence in the chalk, I deem it advisable
to describe these in the magnesian limestone ; not that they add
much to what we already know, or that they afford grounds for a

EIBEBT — SANDPIPES IN MAQNESUN LIMESTONE OF DURHAM. 295

new theory of the origin of safid-pipes, but because it is well that the
oocurrence of such as are found in other calcareous rocks than chalk
should be recorded, and especially when in rocks which differ from
the latter in general structure and greater hardness.

The tubular carities or pipes, that I am about to notice occur in a
new quarry belonging to Sir Hedworth Williamson, which has been
lately opened on the northern slope of an eminence of the magnesian
limestone called Fulwell Hill, and which is about a mile and arhalf
north of Sunderland. The summit of the hill is about two hundred and
thiriy feet above the sea, but the site of the pipes is only about one
hundred and fifty feet above that level. The limestone of this hill
belongs to the upper portion of the magnesian limestone series, being
the upper limestone of Howse, and the crystalline, earthy, and com-
pact limestone of King. This eminence, like most of the surround-
ing country, is covered more or less with boulder-clay, the covering
being comparatively thin on the top, but of greater and increasing
thic£iess on the slopes and lower levels.

On the northern slope of the hill, and at the site of the pipes, the
bonlder-clay has been removed, and in its place are beds of sand, and
clay without boulders, with some shingle and gravel. The limestone
sniface is also worn here, and has every appearance of having once
occupied a position between tide marks — ^at least, it has the appear-
ance of having been subjected to the action of water. But to pro-
perly understand the relation of these beds to the limestone surface, and
to the pipes in the latter, I refer to the accompanying woodcut (fig. 1),
which gives a transverse section of the deposits 1 am describing.

The contour of the general surface is given by the line a a, and the
worn surface of the limestone by h h, which at b' takes the form of a
low terraced cliff, the ledges being smoothly rounded, and in some
places rather hollowed out beneath. Against the face of this cliff is
piled an irregular mass of gravel and shingle, the pebbles being
chiefly from the magnesian limestone, with others derived from the
boulder-clay, some of the former being sub-angular. Very little
order is to be. observed in the arrangement of the gravel, it being
heaped agaiiist the rock just as we sometimes see gravel thrown
against the base of a cliff on recent coasts : some of the pebbles are
coated with cede sinter. Immediately upon the surface of the lime-
stone, and occasionally in slight hollows of it, are large boulders, e c,
of mountain limestone, basalt, and other rocks, which are most
undoubtedly the heavier boulders of the boulder-clay originally cover-
ing this surface, the greater weight of which has enabled them to
withstand the denudative forces which removed the rest of that
deposit fr^m this axea*. Upon the surface of the limestone, and

* This is the case where the drift, or boulder olay, is now being denuded on
the Durham coast. I know of several instances of the kind in the neighbonr-
hood of Sunderland, one of the best occurring about two miles or more to the
north of the harbour, on a level tongue of Umestone called Whitburn Steel.
Scattered over its surface are some dozens of large boulders of mountain-lime-
stone, mdgnesian-limestone, millstone-grit, and basalt, the majority being par-

296 THB QBOLOQIBT.

ooTering the boulders joBt mentioned, is a bed of yellow gaud, d d,
that becoiueB rather ferrogmoas inferiorly ; this bad is Uuckest
where it »buta against the gravel, and decreases in tbickneea as the snr-
face elopes, until it thine out and diaappeara -, its maximmn IhickiesB
is about sii feet, its breadth about fif^ yards ; where it is thickest,
thin seams of brown clay, and more rarely of oarbonaceons matter
like ooal-drift, are interspersed throngh its mass ; and onxaaianallj
towards its lower portion are small lenticular beds of gravel. Abore

Lies. 3.-0, Clagr; h, Suulj e, Linienone,

the sand is a bed of brown clay, e e, which increases in thictness sa
(he Bur&ce slopes, being thinest where the sand is thickest, the npper
portion graduating into the soil. The nnited thickness of these b«s
of alluvium is not more than nine feet where thickest, nsually much less.

tiaDy covared with marine paiaaiteB, and Beveral are lodgad in liSgbt bcflo**-
And though I bave known tbia localitj for man; years, and have almost a pCTaou
aoqQBJntoDoe with some of the boulders, I have never olwerved indica&Ds i'
any of tbem having shiited their position. Indeed, it is astoniBhing to dbiet^
how little, or rather how slowly the booldera are affected by tlie enni ttenu^
some whose distance from the cliff is indiontive of the period that mtiet Ist
elapied einoe the; were washed out of the olaj, which still rettiiii an oagnlaril? n
snrilioo i and there ore others which have laid on the beach for years — whore Di*
iconred by sand or gravel — that have not yet lost their itaiatad Bor&oee. hi tie
cliff or bank of clay other large bonlders may bo seen ready to drop out, and il
the base of it, or in olose vidnity, are others which have lately fitUen, to wlx^
niuaber everf winter's frosts and storms malce additions.

EIBKBY — SANDFIPE3 IN UkQSEBlkS LIUESTONE OF DURUAH. 207

The pipea are fonnd in the limestone beneath the saad beds.
I have never noticed them where the Band ia absent ; and though
they are sometimes filled with clay, or a mixture of clay and sand,
yet in. these instances a thin layer of sand is always the immediate
cover of the Hmestone. Nevertheless, the quarrymen assert that
pipes have occurred in other parts of the hill where the limestone is
immediately covered by the boulder-clay. They do not occur
towards the higher portion of the slope where the gravel is piled
against the face of the limestone ; nor further up where the lime-
stone ia merely covered with turf; nor have they as yet been noticed
ia any other locahty of the magnesian limestone.

Tfign, 3, — 3and- and Clay-pipee on ^ort^ Bids of Qaany, tha AllDTiniD ramov
a, Kpaa BUod with und ; 6 i, Pipss flUad witli cl^ ; g g, Thiok-bedded, (ryataJ
wacTfltioDajy Jimeel^ne. Saoia of tiiQ pipes in Ous Qgore do not flho« t

The general form of the majority of the pipes ia tubular (figs.
1 and 2), but often irregularly so ; some few are conical, but snoh are
usually of alight depth ; others seem to be modifications of these
forms; occasionally they are almost flask-shaped (fig. 3), and in some
instances, by the coalescence of two pipes, they appear to be bifid.

The depth of the longest is about twelve feet, but in one case the
termination was not reached at this depth. The depth of the
majority ia within six feetj but there are pipes of all depths from
one foot to twelve.

Generally their width is proportionate to their depth, though in
this they do not observe much uniformity. It is curious to observe the
irregularity of width of some, especially of those I have termed flask-
shaped. Such pipes are of less width a foot or two below their
apertures than towards each extremity, the lower portion of the
tube being the most capacioua. In aome pipes I have noticed a

298 THS QEOLOOIST.

sudden increase of widtli at certain beds, as though the substance of
such strata was easier remoyed than that of others. Indeed, the
unequally worn surface of the limestone composing the sides of the
pipes seems indicative of the same thing; for, on removing the
internal core of sand or clay, and so exposing this surface, it is inva-
riably found, so far as I have examined, to be unevenly worn, some
beds, or portions of beds, standing out in relief, and others being
deeply corroded all round the circumference. The widest pipe I have
seen was about two feet across, but most of them are under twelve
inches. Transverse sections are usually more or less circalar, oval,
or ovate, the diameter of course varying in different directions.

Though, perhaps, the most of the pipes are excavated straight into
the hmestone, yet several are more or less obUque. The most
remarkable instances of this kind are represented in fig. 4. In more
than one instance I have actually seen pipes which change the direction
of their original course, so as to become in a measure slightly angalated.
I cannot but think that the direction of both the latter pipes and those
whose courses are oblique must have been determined by some pre-
existing fissure or other weakness in the limestone, though in these
instances I have seen no indication of any such fissures.

The pipes are usually filled with sand from the bed overlying the
limestone, but sometimes with sand and clay ; and occasionally a
great portion of the core is composed altogether of clay of an unc-
tuous and tenacious character, and which ofben contains numerous
remains of small vegetable roots, or the perforations once occupied
by such roots ; in fact, so thoroughly perforated are the cores of clay
sometimes by the minute ramifications of these roots, that I almost;
believe that they would be quite pervious to water in spite of the
impermeable nature of the clay composing them.

(To be continued.)

BRITISH ASSOCIATION MEETING.

The Meeting of the British Association opened on the 27th of June, at Oxford,
under the presidency of Lord Wrottesley.

The President, in nis address, offered some admirable remarks on astronomical
matters, and on the progress made in chemical science. On geology his re-
marks were chiefly confined to the interesting topics of the earliest human
remains, associated with those of extinct mammalia. We give this part of his
address entire.

"The bearing of some recent geological discoveries on the great question of
the high antiquity of man was brought before your notice at your last meetmg,
at Aberdeen, by Sir Charles Lyell, in his opening address to the Geological
Section. Since that time many Trench and Imglish naturalists have visitea the
valley of the Somme in Picardy, and confirmed the opinion recently published
hj M. Boucher de Perthes, in 1847, and afterwards confirmed by Mx. Prest-
wich, Sir C. Lyell, and other geologists, from personal examination of that

BRITISH ASSOCIATION MEETING. 299

region. It appears that the position of the rude flint-implements, which are
unequivocally of human workmanship, is such, at Abbeville and Amiens, as to
show that they are as ancient as a great mass of gravel which fills the lower
parts of the valley between those two cities, extenfing above and below them.
This gravel is an ancient fluviatile alluvium by no means confined to the lowest
depressions (where extensive and deep peat-mosses now exist), but is some-
times also seen covering the slopes of the boundary hills of chalk at elevations
of eighty or one hundred feet above the level of the Somme. Changes, there-
fore, in the physical boundary of the country, comprising both the filling up
with sedimeiit and drift, and the partiad re-excavation of the valley, have nap-
pened since old river-beds were, at some former period, the receptacles of the
worked flints. The number of these last, already computed at above fourteen
thousand in an aiea of fourteen miles in length, and half a-mile in breadth, has
•afforded to a succession of visitors abundant opportunities of verifying the true
geological position of the implements.

"Tlie old alluvium, whether at higher or lower levels, consists not only of the
coarse gravel with worked flints above mentioned, but also of super-imposed
beds of sand and loam, in which are many fresh-water and landshells, for the
most part entire, and of species now living in the same part of IVance. With
the shells are found bones of the Mammoth and an extinct Rhinoceros, E. iicho-
rhinus, an extinct species of deer, and fossil remains of the horse, ox, and
other animals. These are met with in the overlying beds, and sometimes also
in the gravel where the implements occur. At Menchecourt, in the suburbs
of Abbeville, a nearly entire skeleton of the Siberian Rhinoceros is said to have
benn taken out about forty years ago, a fact affording an auswer to the question
often raised, as to whether the bones of the extinct mammalia could have been
washed out of an older alluvium into a newer one, and so redeposited and
mingled with the relics of human workmanship. Far-fetched as was this
hypothesis, I am informed that it would not, if granted, have seriously shaken
the proof of the high antiquity of the human productions, for that proof is in-
dependent of orgamc evidence or fossil remains, and is based on physical data.
As was stated to us last year by Sir Charles Lyell, we should still nave to allow
time for great denudation of the chalk, and the removal from place to place,
and the spreading out over the length and breadth of a large valley of heaps of
chalk flints in beds from ten to fifteen feet in thickness, covered by loams and
sands of equal thickness, these last often tranquilly deposited, all of which
operations would require the supposition of a great lapse of time.

That the mammalia fauna, preserved under such circumstances, should be
found to diverge from the type now established in the same region, is consistent
with experience ; but the fact of a foreign and extinct fauna was not needed to
indicate the great age of the gravel containing the worked flints.

Another independent proof of the age of tne same gravel and its associated
fossiliferous loam is denved from the large deposits of peat above alluded to,
in the Valley of the Somme, which contam not only monuments of the Roman,
but also those of an older stone period, usually called Celtic. Bones, also, of
the bear, of the species still inhabiting the Pyrenees, and of the beaver, and
many large stumps of trees, not yet well examined by botanists, are found in
the same peat, the oldest portion of which belongs to times far beyong those
of tradition ; yet distinguished geologists are of opmion that the growth of all
the vegetation, and even the original scooping out of the hollows containing it,
are events long posterior in date to the gravel with flint implements — ;nay, pos-
terior even to the formation of the uppermost of the layers of loam with fresh
water shells overlying the gravel.

The exploration of caverns, both in the British isles and other parts of
Europe, has in the last few years been prosecuted with renewed ardour and

300 THE GEOLOGIST.

success, although the theoretical explanation of many of the phenomena brouglit
to light seems as yet to baffle the skill of the ablest geologists. Dr. Palconer
has given us an account of the remains of several hundred hippopotami,
obtained from one cavern, near Palermo, in a locality vrhere there is now no
running water. The same pgdaontologist, aided by Col. Wood, of Glamorgan-
shire, has recently extracted from a single cave in tne Gower peninsula of South
Wales, a vast quantity of the antlers of a reindeer (perhaps of two species of
reindeer), both allied to the living one. These fossils are most of them shed
horns ; and there have been alreaay no less than one thousand one hundred of
them dug out of the mud filling one cave.

In the cave of Brixham, in Devonshire, and in another near Palermo, in Sicily,
flint implements were observed by Dr. Palconer, associated in such a manner
vrith the bones of extinct mammalia, as to lead him to infer that man must
have co-existed with several lost species of quadrupeds ; and M. de Yibraye
has also this spring called attention to analogous conclusions, at which he has
arrived hj studying the position of a human jaw with teeth, accompanied hy
the remams of a mammoth, under the stalagmite of the Grotto d'Arcis, near
Troyes, in Prance."

The Papers read in the Greological Section were : —

Professor Phillips. — " On the Geology of the Vicinity of Oxford."

J. P. Whiteaves, Esq., P.G.S. — " On the Invertebrata Pauna of the Lower
Oolites of Oxfordshire."

Edmund Hull, Esq., P.G.S. — " On the Blenheim Iron-Ore, and the thickness
of the formations below the Great Oolite at Stonesfield."

Kev. P. B. Brodie, P.G.S. — " On the Stratigraphical position of certain spe-
cies of Coral in the Lias."

Rev. H. B. Tristram. — " On the Geological characters of the Sahara."
Rev. J. P. B. Denis, P.G.S.—" On the mode of flight of the Pterodactyles
of the Coprolite bed near Cambridge."

Dr. Daubeny. — " Remarks on the Elevation Theory of Volcanos."
T. Sterry-Hunt, Esq. — " Notes on some points in Chemical Geology."
W. Pengelly, Esq. — On the Geographical and Chronological Distribution of
Devonian Possils in Devon and Cornwall."

Dr, Wright. — " On the Avicula contorta bed, and Lower lias in the South
of England."

Joseph Prestwich. — " On some new Pacts in relation to the Section of the
Cliff at Mundsley, Norfolk."

Dr. Geinitz. — " On Snow Crystals observed at Dresden."

. — " On the Silurian Formation in the district of Wilsdruff."

Professor Harkness, — " On the Metamorphic Rocks of the North of Ire-
knd."

Captain Woodall. — " On the Intermittent Springs of the Chalk and Oolite of
the neighbourhood of Scarborough."

Sir R. 1. Murchison. — ^Exhibited New Geological Map of Oxford.
Dr. Anderson. — " Report on the Dura Den excavations."
M. A. Pavre.— " On Circular Chains in the Alps."
Professor Jukes. — " On the Igneous Rocks interstratified with the Carhoni-
ferous Limestone of the Basin of Limerick."

BRITISH ASSOCIATION MEETING. 301

C. Moore. — " On the Contents of three square yards of Triassic Drift."

Rev. S. R. Smith.—" On the Bone Caves of Tenby."

Baron Francesco Anca. — "On two newly discovered Ossiferous Caves in
Sicily containing Marked Flints, &o."

Rev. W. Lister. — " On some Reptilian Foot-prints from the New Red Sand-
stone, North of Wolverhampton."

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick. — " On the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Cam-
bridge, and the Fossils of the Upper Greensand."

Rev. W. V. Harcourt. — " On the Effects of Long Continued Heat — shown
in the Iron. Furnaces of the West of Yorkshire."

Prof. Rogers. — " On some Phenomena of Metamorphism in Coal in the
United States."

Prof. Ferdinand Von Hochstetter. — "Some Observations upon the Geological
Features of the Volcanic Island of St. Paul, in the South Indian Ocean, Illus-
trated by a Model in Relief of the Island, made by Capt. Cybulz, of the
Austrian Artillery."

. — " Remarks on the Geology of New 2jea*

land, illustrated by Geological Maps, Drawings, and Photographs."

Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck. — " On the Course of the Thames from Lechlade to
Windsor, as ruled by the Geological Formations over which it passes."

Alphonse Gages. — " On some Transformations of Iron Pyrites in connection
with Fossil Remains."

William Molyneux. — " Remarks on Fossil Fish from the North Staffordshire
Coal Fields."

W. Powrie.— " On the Old Red Sandstone and its FossU Fish in Forfar-
shire."

Sir P. Egerton. — " On a New Form of Ichthyolite discovered by Mr. Peach."

E. Hull. — ^To Explain the Six-inch Maps of the Geological Survey.

Rev. W. Symonds. — " On the Selection of Peculiar Geological Habitats by
some of the ftarer British Plants."

Rev. Dr. Whewell and Prof. Tennant. — On the Kohinoor previous to its
cutting."

Dr. W. S. Lindsay. — " On a Recent Volcanic Eruption in Ireland."

Sir D. Brewster. — " Details respecting a Nail found in Kurgoodie Quarry."

J. A. Knipe.— " On the Tynedale Coal-Field and Whinsill."

Rev. J. Dingle. — " On the Corrugation of Strata in the Vicinity of Mountain
Chains."

J. Prioe. — " On Sliokensides."

The following are the chief Papers of geological bearing read in the other
Sections : —

Captain Sherrard Osborn, R.N., F.R.G.S. — " On the Formation of Oceanic
Ice in the Arctic Regions."

Rev. F. O. Morris. — "On the Permanence of Species."

Professor Daubeny. — " Remarks on the Final Causes of the Sexuality of
Plants ; with particular reference to Mr. Darwin's work ' On the Origin of
Species by Natural Selection.* "

802 THE GEOLOGIST.

Professor Perdinand von Hochstetter (Vienna), Geologist of the Austrian
Novaro Expedition. — " A new Map of the Interior of the Noitham Island of
New Zealand, constructed during an Inland Journey in 1859/'

Captain Sir Edward Belcher, R.N., C.B. — " On the Manufature of Stone
Hatcnets and other Implements by the Esquimeaux, illustrated by native Tools,
Arrow-heads, &c., &c."

Dr. James Hunt. — " On the Antiquity of the Human Race."

Professor Macdonald. — "On the Homology of the Vertebrata> and its im-
portance in Zoology."

J. A. Brom. — " On the Velocity of Earthquake-shocks in the Laterite of
India."

. — " On the Magnetism of certain Indian Granites."

Canon Moseley. — " On the Motion of Glaciers."

Professor Buckman. — " Report on Experiments on the Alteration of the
Specific Eorms of Plants by Culture."

J. Gwyn Jeffreys, P.R.S. — "Exhibition of Opercular Monstrosities oiBucci-
nnm undatum,'*

Professor Cams. — " On the Value of Development in Systematic Zoology
and Animal Morphology."

G. Ogilvie, M.D.— " On the Hard Tissues of Pern Stems."

Dr. Ogilvie. — " On the Woody Fibres of Flowering and Cryptogamic
Plants."

Prof. Hennessy. — "On the possibility of Studying the Earth's Internal
Structure from Pnenomena observed at its Surface."

" Prof. Pierce. — " On the Physical Constitution of Comets."

Mr. W. R. Birt. — " On the Porms of Certain Lunar Craters indicatiye of a
Peculiar Degrading Force, with Diagrams."

P. Lutley Sdlater, F.L.S. — "On the Geographical Distribution of Yer-
tebrates."

NEW GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE NEIGHBOUEHOOD OF OXTOED.

On Saturday the 30th June, Sir R. I. Murchison drew the attention of the
Section to the maps of the neighbourhood of Oxford just completed by the
Geological Survey, and accompanied by explanatory memoirs, liie area em-
braced the whole series of formations from tne " Woolwich and Reading series"
of the Tertiary system (Prestwich) to the Lower Lias, and included the towns
of Banbury, Woodstock, Farringdon, Wantage, Thame, with Oxford about the
centre (sheets 13, 45 south-west, 45 north-westj. This district had been sur-
veyed by Messrs. Hull, Whitaker, Polwhele, ana Bauerman.

Mr. Hull then proceeded to give a rapid sketch of the most interestiDg
points recorded in the maps, dwelling particularly on the iron-producing be(£
of the Lias, the fragmentary distribution of the Portland and Lower Cre-
taceous groups, particularly the sponge-gravels of Farringdon. With reference
to the fresh- water iron-sands of Shotover Hill, it was shown that they were
entirely isolated from the marine beds of the Lower Greensand period, which
range from Culham by Nuneham to TootBaldon. After much consideration,
it was deemed the less hazardous course to colour the fresh-water beds of Shot-
over as Lower Greensand, under the supposition that they may be an estuarine
and marginal portion of that formation. At the same tune, recollecting

BRITISH ASSOCIATION MEETING. 303

the Opinions of Fitton, €onybeare, and more recently of Professor Phillips,
who on a previous occasion had stated reasons strongly in favour of the
Wealden age of these beds, the course adopted by the geological surveyors
could only be considered providional.

OK THE BLENHEIM IRON-ORE AND THE THICKNESS OF THE
FORMATIONS BELOW THE GREAT OOLITE AT STONESFIELD,
OXFORDSHIRE.

By Edwabd Hull, B.A., F.G.S.

The economic importance of the Liassic andOolitic iron-ores is yearly on
the increase, owing to three causes — ^the expansion of the British iron-trade ;
the local curtailment in the siCpply of the clay ironstone of the coal-measures ; and
the extension of the railway system, which has rendered available iron-ores far
removed from the boundaries of the coal-fields, and which were almost unknown
till within the last few years. From the "Mineral Statistics of Great Britain,"
collected by Mr. Hunt, it appears that in 1857 the (juantity of ore raised from
the Cleveland, Whitby, and Northamptonshire districts reached the amount of
pearly one and a-half million of tons, or nearly one-tenth of the total quantity
raised in Great Britain. It may safely be predicted that ere long Oxfordshire
will also rank as an iron producmg county.

Blenheim Ibon-Ore. — ^The existence of highly ferruginous beds in the
direction of Banbury and Deddington has been known for some years back,
and they have to a small extent been quarried for smelting. There are two
varieties, a siliceous ore, occurring at the top of the sands, wmch form the lower
zone of the Great Oolite, and a calcareous ore, fonning the upper rock-bed of
the marlstone, or Middle Lias. During the progress of the Geological Survey
in the neighbourhood of Woodstock, the existence of this latter ore was ascer-
tained in several places, but in particular along the valley of the Cherwell,
west of Charlbury.*

Geological position. — The Blenheim ore is identical in geol^cal position and
almost in its nature with the Cleveland ore of Yorkshire^ it forms the rock-
bed at the top of the Marlstone, which in Gloucestershire and elsewhere pro-
duces the tabulated promontories which jut out from the flank of the oolitic
escarpment. At Fawler it rests upon soft sands, comprising the lower division
of the Msfflstone, and is surmounted by the clay of the Upper Lias. It varie§
in thickness from ten to fifteen feet, and is of nearly uniform composition through-
out, except where there occur bands of fossils, witn an excess of carbonate of lime.
The shelb are Marlstone species, as Rhynchonella tetrahedra, Terebratula punc-
tata, &c.

Mineral character, — ^At the outcrop the rock presents a rich ferruginous
aspect, but when reached at positions where it has been protected from
atmospheric influences, its colour is deep oUve green ; and the gradual change
may be observed in blocks newly spKt. In its latter state it appears to be
oohtic under the lens.

The character of the ore, before oxydization is probably that of carbonate
and silicate of iron, the latter imparting the green tinge : when exposed, it
passes into a hydrated peroxide of iron. The quantity of silica is about 12 per
cent., and of.limelOper cent. Phosphoric acid is only present in minute

• As this ore extends under tihe property of the Duke of Marlborough, I have caUed it
"Blenheim ore ;*' and for ftirther details refer to the " Geology of the country round Wood-
stock." Mem. Geol. Survey : 1857.

30 i; THE OEOLOQIST.

quantity — 0*55 per Cfnt. From an analysis of nine samples made m the
Museum of Practical G^logy, the average quantity of metallic iron was found
to be about 32 per cent.

The outcrop of the rock may be traced alonff the valley of the Cherwell, at
Fawier, on the property of the Duke of Marioorou^h, where it is now being
quarried for transport to South Staffordshire ; and it is expected that upon the
completion of the Worcester and Hereford Bailway large quantities will be
sent into the iron-districts of South Wales.

Thickness op the Formations belov the Grea^t Oolite, at Stones-
PIELD. — ^For the purpose of ascertaining the depth of the iron-bed below the
Stonesfield Slate, the Duke of Marlborough directed one of the slate pits to
be continued downwards till the ore was reached. This has not been aocom-
plished, for on reaching, at a depth of one hundred and twenty feet, the Upper
liias Clay, the water flowed in so plentifully that the sinking had to be
abandoned. With the assistance of a very interesting section at the west side
of the railway opposite Fawier, we can easily complete the series of strata
down to the Lower Lias.

SeetioH in Slate Pit at Stonesfield,

Thickness.

C t f Upper 2iOne. — ^White limestone resting on calcareous 10 feet

Q "j?? < shales and marl with Ostrea Sower^i,

^ ^' C Lower Zone. — Sandy flags, slates, and shelly oolite,

with a band of " Stonesfield Slate at
10 feet from the top. Trigonia im-

pressa, &c 80 feet

J * . r Upper Kagstone or^ Coarse-grained rubbly oolite,
/? ?., < zone of Ammomiesy with. ClypeusPlotii, Lima gi6-
uoute. (parkinsonii( Wright) ) bosa, trigonia costata, &c. . . 30 feet

Upper Lias Clay, at Fawier 6 feet

C\. — Iron-ore or rock-bed 10 to 15 feet

Marlstone. \ 2. — Sands with concretionary nodules of iron-

C ore 15to30fect

Lower Lias.— Thickness unknown; but, judging from analogy

with the above formations, not very great.

If we compare the development of these formations in this part of Oxford-
s^e with that which thev attain in Gloucestershire, we shall find that there is
a great diminution in volume when traced from their north-western onterop
towards the south-east of England. On former occasions I have endeavoorea
to show that all the Lower Secondary Formations undergo a similar degree of
attenuation from the north-west towards the south-east, in which direction they
ultimately disappear. This will be illustrated by the following table of com-
parative thicknesses in Oxon and Gloucestershire : —

Comparative Thickness of Formations.

Gloucestershire. Oxfordshire.

Thickness in feet. Thickness in feet.

Inferior oolite 264 30

20—50 Absent.

380 6

Upper Lias [l^

Marbtone 250 25

Total 944 61

BRITISH ASSOCIATION MEETING. 805

The thicknesses of the strata in Gloucestershire are derived from an accu-
rately measured section in the north flank of Bredon Hill, except in the case of
the Inferior Oolite, which is taken from Leckhampton Hill. The thickness of
strata in Oxfordshire is taken at Stonesfield. It embraced the rejifion extending
from Banbury on the north to the range of the Chalk formation south of the
Thames valley, and from Earringdon on the west to Thame on the east, Oxford
occupying a central position. Mr. Hull then ^ve a rapid sketch of the
formations from the Lower Lias up to the Tertiary deposits of the Wool-
wich and Beading series, which had been surveyed by himself and his col-
lea^es, Messrs. Whitaker and Polwhele, dwelling more especially on the
position of the iron-beds of the Marlstone, the distribution of the Portland
series, and the Lower Cretaceous strata which occur in detached outlying
areas of small extent, and evinces the extent of the denudation at severS
periods.

The positions of the fresh-water iron-sands of Shotover Hill, which had
on a previous day been lucidly described by Professor Phillips, were
pointed out, and the reasons were stated which had induced the officers of
the Greological Survey to refer these strata provisionally to the Lower
Greensand, thous^h it was by no means intended to undervalue the arguments
of Eitton, Conybeare, and Phillips in favour of the Wealden age of these
isolated groups.

SUMMAEY OP PAPEE ON THE GEOLOGICAL SYSTEM OF THE

CENTRAL SAHARA OF ALGERIA.

By Rev. H.,B. Teistram, M.A., F.G.S., &c.

On leaving the Atlas crest, and descending its southern slopes, we soon
come upon the secondary rocks, which are tne prevailing formation of the
whole country between the Atlas and Laghonat. This district for about four
hundred miles due south is rocky, and with mountain-ranges running for the
most part in parallel lines north-east and south-west. The southern slopes of
the Atlas cham rise from a depression which in several parts, especially to the
south of Tunis, is many feet below the level of the Mediterranean. From tliis
depression the Sahara is for the most part a system of endless terraces, some
of which are only a few miles apart, while others are expanded into plains of
from 50 to 100 miles in width, and which, so far as my observations and the
information I Could gather from native caravans aud a trustworthy guide,
extended in an unbroken series to within three days' journey of Timbuctoo, when
the traveller will probably find himself on the northern watershed of the valley
of the Niger.

As we advance, on every stage is written the record of the retiring ocean,
which gradually, by the elevation of its southern shores, was driven back and
back to the northward, till the last long inlet from the gulf of Cabes to
Tnggurt was drained and evaporated, leaving its traces in the salt plains, and
occasional moisture of the Wed Rhir and Cholt el Melah — ^the ancient Lake
Tritonis. ^ .

There are several singular exceptions to the course of the mountain-ranges
above mentioned, which are generally the local causes of the oases.

Thus at Laghonat we fina several elliptical basins of diminishing size piled
one on another. The lowest and largest rests on the flat surmce of the
secondary rock, which is the base of the shale system. Several great fissures
which pervade all these super-imposed basins, allow the water to percolate. It

VOL. III. 2 Q

306 THB GEOLOGIST.

then rests on the impenneable rock, draming through a verj thin stratum of
gravel or sand into any depressions, whence it is raised by artesian wells, and
creates an oasis.

From the Sebaa Eon^to Laghonat, all these ranges appear to belong to the
lower chalk formation. Limestone predominates, wd forms the ridges of the
Sahari, Senalba, and Djellal mountains. It is of saccharoid structure, and of
a variable colour, generally greyish white. In many of the plsdns there is
sandstone, sometimes hard, and at other times so soft as to yield to the pressure
of the fingers. This sandstone encloses nodules of flint of various ooIoqts
and semi-transparent. By dis-a^gre^ation they become detached from the softer
medium in which they were embedded. As the wind sweeps the sand they
form shm^ly beaches of pebbles, many of them of a pretty chalcedony, which is
exported m some quantity to Paris.

The upper deposit of limestone is marked by regular beds of gypsum of vast
extent, wnich are found in every district of the Saluffa, but never in the
secondary formation of the Atlas region.

South of Laghonat, the furthest French outport, we came upon a shallow
alluvial deposit of the very latest tertiary and diluvian formation. Near the
mountains this is often composed of rolled pebbles in a limestone matnx. On
the plains it is a white calcareous rock, a sort of crust very hard at the snr-
face, but soft and friable below, where it is mixed with green or grey clay, and
encloses many crystals of gypsum.

The diluvian formation may be traced more or less distinctly, I behave,
between all the ranges, even as far north as the Zahrez, near Djelfa.

I was particularly struck by the fact that several of my fossil sbeUs from these
superficial deposits proved specifically identical with fresh-water tertiary fossils
from the region of the Black Sea. May not further research perhaps reveal
that at no very distant g:eologic epoch a vast chay:i of fresh-water lakes, similar
to those of North America at the present day, extended from the plateaux of
the western Saliara as far as the neighbourhood of the Caspian ?

The basin of the M'zab country further still to the south supplied me only
with a few fossils, apparently miocene.

In turning from the M'zab southwards to Waregla, and thence north-east
towards Tuggurt and the Gulf of Cabes, the geological system appesffs to be
the same, but with fewer distinct little basins, and with more extensive dilu-
vian deposits.

As far as we could trace them, the basins are generally horizontal up to
Biskra in the north, and Gufza in the east, or very snghtly inclined, consistinff
of alternating beds of greensand (?), gypsum, and clay. These beds extenl
almost without interruption, or vnth very slight depressions, from latitude
thirty-one degrees north to thirty-five degrees north, and jfrom longitude five
de^ees east to nine degrees east.

The most interesting portion of this district is the Wed R'hir, a long line of
depression sloping from the Tonareg desert, latitude thirty degrees north, and
longitude five de^ees east (circitu), with its surface occasionafiy moistened by
salt lakes, but without any springs of fresh water, yet affording at intervals
throughout its whole extent a never-failing supply of sweet water, through
artesian wells penetrating the upper limestone. An immense population is
supported by this Wed R'hir, whicn i^ for many days* journey one continuous
line of oases, such as El Marier, Tamema, Tuggurt, Tema^in, and after a
further interval, in which its traces are lost, it reappears in the oases of
N'Gonssa and Wangla, and gradually is lost in the highlands of the south.
But it is probable that even here the subterranean course of the water can be
traced, and that the Tonareg owe their means of subsistence to their knowledge
of wells on this line.

BRITISH ASSOCUTION MEETING. 307

The Wed R*liir tenrnnates in the Chott Melr'hir, a depression probablj
eighty feet below the Mediterranean sea-level, and the lowest point of the
whole Sahara. This basin extends eastwards to the Chott el Melali (Lake Tri-
tonis), at a greater elevation, but yet scarcely rising to the sea-level, from
which it is separated by some thirty miles of sand-hills and rocks.

Proceeding northwards of the Melr'hir, we rapidly lose all traces of the
diluvian deposits, and come upon the chalk, chalk-marl, and greensand in
regular succession, dipping generally southwards. The three southernmost
ridges of the Mons Aures, viz., the Djebel Checha, the Dj. Khaddon, and
Dj. Amar, present us with these tliree stages of the cretaceous group in
order.

When we advance to the north of Biskra, the boundary between the Till and
the eastern Sahara, the mountains are composed of masses of numraulite lime-
stone, with bands of gypsum and occasional irruptions of rock-salt, mixed with
layers of marl. One of these mountains of rocK-salt has been described long
since by Dr. Shaw — that of El Outaia.

There are many salt deposits, sometimes masses of isolated rock-salt, per-
fectly pure, of many hundred yards in circumference, as at Hadjera el Meh^,
(or Kochers de Sal), more frequently in the form of layers or incrustations on
the plains near the Chotts, or beds of evaporated lakes. Some of the isolated
rock-salt hills have been suggested to have been eruptions of argillaceous mud,
gypsum, and rock-salt across the secondary and tertiary deposits.

In such a country as the Sahara, we cannot expect to find much mineral
wealth, beyond the salt, gypsum, and natron. Tnere is a quarry of oxide of
manganese in the Djebel Trisgrarine, traces of lignite and carbonized trees at
Ain el Ibel, and may hot springs — some pure, others strongly impregnated with
phlorine. The temperature of one of these I-fomid to oe one hundred and
twenty-five degrees Fahrenheit, of others from seventy -five to ninety-five degrees
Fahrenheit. In one of the latter were swarms of a little fish, Ct/pnnodon
dispar, also found in the warm springs of Egypt.

ON THE INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF THE LOWER OOLITES OF

OXFORDSHIRE.

Br J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S.

Hie author remarked that, although the physical ffcologv of the neighbour ->
hood of Oxford was, with some exceptions, tolerably well understood, com-
paratively little was known with respect to its palieontology, especially that
part relating to the invertebrate division of the animal kingdom. The only ex-
ception he was aware of was a detailed list of the fossils of the Stonesfield
slate in the volume of Oxford Essays for 1855, by Professor Phillips, and to
this list the author was enabled to add twenty-seven species of shells, which he
enumerated.

Near the Kirtlington Station, on the Great Western Railway, several
fine sections of the upper beds of the Great Oolite are remarkably well
exibited; and iA deep cuttings on the Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton
railway, between the Handborough and Gharlbury Stations, the lower beas of
the same formation may be conveniently studied. The fossils procured from
these beds, including the Stonesfield-slate, were one hundred and thirty-five
species, of which one hundred and twenty-eight were shells, four echinodermata,
three corals, and one Bryozoon. This list seemed to the author especially
interesting, as tending to remove the isolation of the Minchinhampton fauna^
and to prove that shells, &c., previously detected only on the Gotswolds^ were

308 THE OEOIiOGIST.

•

in reality widely distributed throughout Great Britain. The same zook^cal
features characterized both the Great Oolite of the Cotswolds, and the same
formation in the neighbourhood of Oxford, these features being principaUj the
rarity of the cephalopoda, and the comparatiye abundance of carnivorous imi-
valve sheUs. rive of these shells had not previously been detected in this for-
mation, and eight were new to science. Mx. Whiteaves then read a list of the
fossils of the Forest Marble and Combrash, collected at Islip and Kidlingion.
These lists comprised one hundred and twenty-six species. With regard to
the Combrash, he remarked that a careful study of the fossils of that forma-
tion, whether in Oxfordshire, in Yorkshire, to on the Cotswolds, seemed to
him by no means favourable to the theory of Professor Buckman, that the
Combrash assemblage of fossils, on the whole, more closely resembles the
series from the Infenor than that from the Great Oolite. Comparing the col-
lection formed in Oxfordshire with the fossils of the same formation at Scar-
borough, as catalogued by Mr. Bean, we see that, although there exists a
gener^ resemblance, yet, on the whole, this is not so great as we might have
supposed, and that each district possesses several species apparentlv peculiar
to it — ^many Yorkshire species oeing probably absent in Oxfordsmre, and
Vice versa. Ammonites and Belemnites are remarkably rare, too, in both
the Combrash and Forest Marble. Mr. Whiteaves has in his cabinet up-
wards of three hundred species of fossils, in the finest preservation, collected
by himself in the neighbourhood of Oxford : of these, tnirty species are new,
the majority of which are about to be published by the PaUeontographical
Society.

ON SOME REPTILIAN FOOTPRINTS FROM THE NEW RED SAND-

STONE NORTH OP WOLVERHAMPTON.

By Ret. Wm. Listek.

The object of this paper is simply to announce the discovery, not so much of
new fossu-remains, as of some already known, but found in a fresh locaHtj ;
some of them are, however, believed io be new. They consist of foot-prints of
the Cheirotherium, or Labtfrinthodon, the Rhyncosaurus, and of another animal,
with which the author is not acquainted, but which he is inclined to think was
a bird.

• Hitherto the remains of the Labyrinthodon have only been found in War-
wickshire and the north of Cheshire,* and the Bhyncosaurus in the Grinshill
quarry, near Shrewsbury. The remains now discovered have been met with in
Staffordshire, in a quarry of the New Bied Sandstone, just within the borders
of the Bed Marl, which caps the quarry, at a place about six miles north of
Wolverlumipton, in the parish of Brewood, on the road between " The Stone
House" and Somerford. " The Stone House," which is given on the Ordnance
Map, is near to Chillin^on Avenue Gate, and within two hundred yards of the
quarry. The bed in vrnich they occur is about twelve feet from the surface.
One of the slabs was so thickly covered with foot-prints resembling those of
the Bhyncosaurus as necessarily to convey the idea that the animsds wnich made
them must have been very numerous on the spot. These were smaller than
most of the others of the same kind, being only from three-fourths of an inch
to an inch in length. This slab was unfortunately removed before I had an

• This statement was corrected by Mr. Hull, of the Govemment Survey, who named tvro or
three fresh localities in which the remains of the Labjrrinthodon have been discovered, but Uxe
names of these places have not, as I understood, been published.

BmXISH. ASSOCIATION MEETING. 309

opportimitj of re-examming it, but I have a strong impression that the tracks
were those of a number of joung animals, they were so very uniform in size
and shape.

Some of the foot-prints of the Labyrinthodon are ten inches in length, those
of the Rhyncosaurus are from one to two iuches. The latter vary a ^od deal
in shape, the toes, three in number*, of some of them being straight, while,
others are curved outwards, like a bird's claw, half-closed, and then pressed
down laterally on a flat surface. The nail, which is very distinct, is broad in
proportion to its length, hooked, and sharp at its point, and turned out in the
same direction as the toe. When questioned at Oxford as to whether the
author had detected any signs of articulations or phalanges, he answered in the
negative ; but on re-examining the impressions, he is strongly inclined to think
that the latter may be seen, and that they are three in number in the outer
toe, but he feared to speak of the others. Most of the footprints terminate
somewhat abruptly behind, but one of them is prolonged in that direction,
more, however, m the shape of an elongated heel tnan of a hinder toe.

I|i all these foot-nrints, which, though differing somewhat in form, he re-
gards as those of Rnyncosauri. The outer toe is invaribly the longest, the
second somewhat shorter, and the third shorter still. But in one of the im-
pressions this is not the case, the middle toe bein^ the longest, as in the case
of birds, and he is therefore strongly inclined to think that the impressions are
really those of a bird ; but the toes are broader in proportion to their length
than are those of birds generally, being one inch and five-eighths in length, and
five-eighths of an inch m breadth, the two side toes being broader tnan the
middle one. There is another impression which much resembles this, four
inches behind it, measuring from the back of the one 'to the front of the other,
and he believes both belong to the same animal ; but the second has been
somewhat interfered with bv the foot-prints of another animal which has crossed
it, and he cannot thus speak positively upon the point, but he believes he may
affirm that these two are single and alternate.

He has recently learnt from the workmen engaged in this quarry that the
same, or similar impressions have been also found in another quarry about a
mile distant from this, but he has not yet seen them.

It may be added that the ripple-marks are very beautifully preserved on
some of the slabs, and so are also the imprints of rain-drops ; wnile in many
cases the amount of sand deposited by each tide is readily discovered by the
thickness of iis layers, which lie one on the other, and which, by means of the
ripple-marks, show also the direction of the wind, or the currents of water, at
the time they were deposited.

ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL ANTD CHRONOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OP
THE DEVONIAN FOSSILS OF DEVON AND CORNWALL.

By W. Pbngellt, F.G.S.

The author stated that if we adopt the classification of Professor Sedgwickf ,
we have, in the districts under consideration, what, as a matter of convenience,
may be called five fossiliferous Devonian areas, namely, a deposit of the age of
the " Plymouth group" in each of the districts. South Devon, North Devon,
and Cornwall, and one of the " Barnstaple" age in each of the two latter.

* On a slab of Bed Sandstone, in the Manchester Museum, there are footprints which much
resemble these, but in which the toes are Jbur in number, the side toe, as in the present
instance, bein^ the longest, and the other three each shorter than the other.

t Qoftr. Jour. QeoL Soc, vol. viii., p, 3— 14.

810 THE OEOLOaiST.

Throughout his paper he spoke of them as "Lower South Devon, Lover
North Devon, Lower Cornwall, Upper North Devon, and Upper Cornwall,"
but stated that he applied the terms " Upper" and " Lower to the rocks of
Devon and Cornwall as a matter of convemence merely, and not as embodyiog
or implyuig any opinion respecting the co-ordination of these rocks, with
deposits of the Devonian age elsewhere.

Ei?hty-seven per cent, of the fossil species found in them are peculiar to one
or other of the five areas. Ranged in the order of their specific fossil wealth,
whether total or peculiar, they stand thus, in descending order : Lower Soutli
Devon, Upper North Devon, Upper Cornwall, Lower Cornwall, and Lower
North Devon. There is a greater number of species common to Devonshire
and the Devonians of strata of continental Europe than to the five areas. If
the entire number of species found in the district under consideration, be put
as = one thousand, we have twenty-one derived from the Silurian, eight hun-
dred and six peculiar to the Devonian, and one hundred and seventy-three
which passed over to the Carboniferous age.

The latter part of the paper was occupied with the discussion of various
hypotheses respecting the cause of the peculiarities of distribution which had
been described.

ON THE AVICULA COKTORTA BEDS, AND LOWEE LIAS OF THE

SOUTH OP ENGLAND.

By De. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.

The object of this paper was to show that the beds known as the "black
shales with the bone-bea ' which rest upon the grey marls of the Keuper con-
tained a fauna which was special to them, and that many of the speaes were
identical with those found in the Upper St. Cassian beds of Germany, and the
Kassen strata of the Tyrol. Dr. Wright described detailed sections of the
•* Avicula cortorta beds" at Garden Cliff, near Westbury-on-Sevem, which he
considered as the best type in England, at Wainlode cliff on the Severn, at
Aust cliff on the Severn, at Penartn near Cardiff, and at Watchet near St.
Quartock's head, the railway cuttings at Upthill and Saltford, and sections of
the same beds at Binton and Wilmcote, in Warwickshire, were described.
Nearly the same physical conditions prevailed in the deposition of all these
beds. The fauna was limited as to the number of species, but abundant as to
individuals. Fecten Valoniensis (Defr.), Aoicula contorta (PortL), Cardium
rheticum (Mor.), Pollastra arenicola (Strick.), were found in nearly all these
beds. The " bone-bed" was likewise well exposed in many of these localities.
The fishes of the " bone-bed" had long ago been referred by Prof. Agassiz, Sir
PhiLp Egerton, to species which were found in the Trias, and the Molluscous
fauna, as far as it was known in England, was special to this zone, for these
reasons many geologists consider the " Avicula contorta beds" as the upper
fossiliferous portion of the Trias rather than as the basement beds of the Lias.
The question was an interesting one, inasmuch as fossil mammalian teeth of
Microkstes had been found in the " bone-bed" of Germany many years ago, and
recently Mr. Moore had discovered them in a deposit of the same age near
Prome.

The Lower Lias may be divided into six zones by the ammonites centred
in each of these sub-divisions; the lowest. No. 1, contains Ammonites plaMrbU
(Sow.) in great abundance ; this zone is well exposed at Street, in Somerset-
shire, at Up Lyme, near Lyme Regis, at Watchet and Penarth, and in War-
wickshire and Gloucestershire in several localities, all the fine Enaliosaurian

BRITISH ASSOCIATION MEETING. 811

remains from Street, now in the British and other museums, were collected
from this zone, together with the remarkable Plesiosaurus megacephaltts
(Stritch), of which only two specimens were known, the one contained m the
Bristol Museum, and the other in the Warwick Museum.

The zone of Ammonites angulatus (Schoth.), which forms so important a sub-
division of the Lower Lias of France and Belgium, and contains m these coun-
ties so rich a fauna, is represented in England by a few characteristic ammonites
only, it is exposed in the Harburv cutting near Warwick, from whence most of
our specimens have been obtainea.

2nd. The zone of Ammonites Buehlnndi is well exposed in the Church cliff
of Lyme Regis, in the Harburg cutting, in various sections in Somersetshire,
as at Saltfora, and near Bath, and in Gloucestershire and Glamorganshire.
This zone contains many species of Ammonites, as A. Bueklandi^ A. rotiformis,
A. Greenoughi, and A. tortilis, and A. Conybeari, with Lima gigantea, and Gry'
ph€ea arcuatu.

3rd. The zone of Ammonites Tumeri contains many of the Lyme Regis
saurians, as Ichthyosaurus platyodon, associated with Am. semicostatus (Y. and
B.), and A. Bownardi, and JPentacrinus tuberculatus (Mill).

4th. The zone of Ammonites obtusus is best shown at Lyme Re^is, between
Broad Ledge and Comstone ledges, near Charmouth. Its beds are very
fossiliferous ; here are found Am. obtusus, A. stellaris, A. planicosta, and A.
Ludressieri. This zone was exposed in Gloucestershire, in the cuttings of the
Bristol and Birmingham railway, and at Bredon, in Worcestershire, a large
assemblage of its cephalopods was found.

5th. The zone of Ammonites oxynotus is found near Black Venn, at Lyme,
and in the vale of Gloucester, Am. oxynotus, A. bifer, A. lacunatus, lie in this
zone.

6th. The zone of Ammonites raricostatiis is well seen at Lyme Regis, in the
yale of Gloucester, and at Robin Hood's bay, in Yorkshire. The beas belong-
ing to this and the preceding zone are very ferruginous, and many of their
fossils are preserved with difficulty.

Hippopodium ponderosum, Gryphaa obliguata, and a thin band of corals
occupy the upper beds. With these are associated many other moUusca and
Penta-crinus scalaris. Am. armatus, A. dentinodus, and A. varicostatus lie toge-
ther in the lower beds of the zone.

ON THE METAMORPmC ROCKS OF THE NORTH OF IRELAND,

Bt Propessob Habkness, F.B.S.

On referring to the geological map of Ireland, by Sir Richard Griffiths, Bart.,
it will be seen that a large area in the north of Ireland is occupied by rocks of
a metamorphic nature. These rocks, well exhibited in the county of Donegal,
are composed of mica-schists and quartz-rocks, which are seen occupying well-
marked districts in this part of Ireland. These mica-schists and quartz-rocks
are subject to great contortions, and have a prevailing south-east dip in the
north of Ireland, The relative position which these rocks bear to each other
is well seen in a section of about twenty miles along the coast, between Inish-
owen head and Mulin head, the extreme north point of Ireland. Although the
mica-schists and quartz-rocks are several times repeated in this section, the
result of OTcat flexures and contortions, the section shows that quartz-rocks
are the oldest rocks of this portion of Ireland, and that they are conformably
overlaid by the mica-schists. An anticlinal axes occurs among these meta-
morphic rocks a little south of Mulin head, and on the north side of tliis axis.

312 THE GEOLOGIST.

where the higher strata reposing on the quartz-rocks are seen, flaggy gneiss
occurs, the representatives of the rocks termed mica-slate on the south ; bat
which, from the abundance of chlorite contained in them, have a greater affinity
to the chlorite slates of the south-west of the Grampians than to true mica«
slates. The arrangement and lithological nature of the rocks in this portion
of Ireland bear great resemblance to the higher members of the quartz-rocb
with their succeeding flaggy gueiss of the west of Sutherland, as aescribed by
Sir Roderick Murchison, and induce the conclusion that in the former area the
equivalents of the latter occur.

ON TWO NEW OSSIFEROUS CAVES DISCOVERED IN SICILY m 1859.

By Bakon Anca be MANOALvm.

Since the fourteeth century caves containing fossil bones have been known
in Sicily ; but these were regarded up to the sixteenth century as belonging to

fiants, the supposed first inhabitants of the island. The caves whicn have
itherto been explored are six, to which are now to be added two others dis-
covered by the author in 1857. The locality of one of these caves is Mon-
dello, at tne northern extremity of Mount Gallo, to the west of the city of
Palermo. It bears the name of Grotta Perciata, because it is hollowed oat
from both sides. The exposure of the cavern is towards the north-east ; its
length twenty-four metres ; its breadth thirty metres ; its elevation above the
sea forty-nine metres ; and its distance in a straight Ime from the shore one
hundred and sixty-seven metres. The mountain is of Hippioiite limestone,
like the other mountains which encircle the basin of Palermo. It was known
that the cave contained fossil terrestrial and marine shells, but it was not sns-
pected that it contained also fossil bones until the author found them after
very careful search. He found also, mixed with the bones and shells, flints and
agate having the form of weapons, apparently of human workmanship.

The animals to which the fossil remains belong are the following : —

Mammalia. — One or two species of deer; hog (probably /SW* 8crofa)\ asoli-
ped pachyderm (probably an ass).

Birds. — ^A species undetermined.

Mabine Shells. — Patella ferruginea or Lamarkii, P. vulgaia, Monodoitb
Jraaarioides, Murex brandariSy Fusns ?

Land Shells. — Helix aspersa, H, Mazzullii, JT". vermievlaia, Bnlinw
decollatus.

The second and most interesting cave exists in the north part of Sicily, near
the village of Acque Dolce, and exactly at the foot of Mount San Iratello.
It is known under the name of the " Grotte San Teodoro." Its entrance is
exposed to the north-east, and its elevation above the sea-level is sixty-five
metres ; its distance from the shore one thousand forty-one metres. The rock
of which Mount San Fratello is composed is also Hippurite limestone, but at
the base of the hill, not much more than ninety-seven metres from the shore,
and ten metres above the sea, is seen a limestone which the author susjjects to
belong to the Post-pliocene formation. The cave penetrates into the interior
of the mountain to a depth of seventy metres. Its width at the entrance is
fifteen metres, but it eularges to nineteen metres in the middle. The roof is
high and sloping, but without any appearance of " chimneys" or openings pass-
ing outwards to the exterior of the mountain. The floor of the cavern, from
a wall at the entrance to the extremity, rises 10.90 metres. This height in a
finreat measure arises from fragments of rock fallen from the roof, which have
accumulated from forty-four metres to the end of the cave.

BRITISH ASSOCUTIOy ME£TINa. 313

TEe author Had the good fortune to dbcover in this grotto a rich deposit of
fossil bones comprising all the fossil Post-pliocene fauna of Sicily. But that
which renders tnis discovery highly interesting is the finding, 1st, of entire
jaws with their canine and molar teeth — ^the firat evidence of the existence of
camiyora in Sicily ; 2nd, a fra^ent of a molar apparently of Elephaa Africanus,
the existence in Sicily of which animal is confirmed by another fragment of a
molar from the " Grotte de POlivella."

Lastly, in the " Grotte de San Teodoro" there have been found abundantly
stone-weapons of trachytic aud phonolitic rocks, the form of some of which do
not permit us to doubt their human workmanship. I may remark here that the
stone-weapons as yet found in Sicily have been only found in those places
where the remains of deer and hog are accumulated. In the rich collection
made from this cavern, the author, with the aid of M. Lartet, has determined
the following species : —

Gabniyosa. — Spotted Hyaena; Bear, resembling the brown bear of the
Alps (Ursus arctos)', dog, wolf, fox, species much smaller than that of France^

RoDiiNTS. — ^Porcupine, Babbit.

Pachtdekhs. — Elephaa antiquus, E. Africanus ; Hippopotamus, two species ;
Sus, probably Sus scrofa^ resemoling the Sw of the nortn of Africa ; a soliped,
probably an ass.

Ruminants. — Ox, of middle stature ; ox, small and lank \ deer, one or two
species ; sheep, or an allied ruminant.

Batbachians. — ^Large frog.

Birds. — Small species undetermined.

Mabine Shells. — Ostrea larga, Cardium edule.

Land Shells. — Helix aspersa.

Copbolites of hy8Bna»

Also Stone Weapons.

ON THE SELECTION OF PECULLIR GEOLOGICAL HABITATS BT
SOME OF THE RAEER BRITISH PLANTS.

By Rev. W. S, Symonds, F.G.S,

The author requested the aid of his brother naturalists on the above interest-
ing subject, and remarked that he would be especially obliged by any com-
munications from geologists and botanists during the ensuing summer and
autumn.

He is engaged with his friend, the Bev. Mr. Purchas, in preparing a work
on the botany and geology of the county of Hereford, and had lately been
struck with the selection of peculiar geological habitats by some of the rarest
of our plants. He visited the rocks of Stanner, near Kingston, last month, in
company with his friend Captain Guise, and found a certain band of the

eighteen botanical provinces into which England
have been subdivided. Stanner rocks are hypersthene greenstone, and lychnis
viscaria has selected to ffrow uj)on a black basaltic dyke. It has also selected
a similar habitat on Salisbury Cfrags. Sceleranthtis perennis grows only in two
provinces in England and Scotland. It is remarkable that it should be found
on the isolated trap rocks of Stanner with lychnis viscaria, associated with
Geranium sanguineum^ neither of which ate found within many miles of the
Stamier traps.

VOL. m. 2 B

814 THE GEOLOGIST.

Lathfnu Aphaea9sA Laihyrtu Niuolia have been veir abundant this year
on the Keiiper sandstones ml marls, but Mr. Sjmonds nas not seen a single
specimen of the former plant upon the adjoining Lias of the district. Carex
Montana grows only on carboniferous limestone. The rarer plants of Soowdon

Sppear to have selected bands of yolcanic tuJff, intermingled with calcareous
eposits for their habitat. Mr. Svmonds {nrtioularly asked for the atteation
of geologists to the Flora of insulated trap rocks.

ON THE COREUGATION OF STEATA IN THE VICINITT OF

MOUNTAIN RANGES.

Bt the BsT. J. DiNOLB.

This paper was in continuation of some former papers which had been read
before tne Association, in whieh an attempt had been made to determine the
mode of the formation and development of the earth's crust, from physical,
geographical, and geolo^cal considerations. The author described the vaiyisg
forms of flexure, diminishing in intensity with their distance from the igneoas
axis, which characterizes tne strata in the neighbourhood of the monntam
chains, and showed how this form would arise from the action of the molten
interior of the earth near the fissures in the crust. The fluid lava rising in s
fissure must have reacted on the general mass beneath, anj caused an upward
pressure on the crust on each side. Now it has been proved bv experiment in
the case of a column of fluid, that, in the propagation of tne eondensatioo
produced by the weight of the colunm, there were points of maximum and
minimum pressure along the surface of the fluid from which the colunm arose ;
and hence in the case of the fissures we might generally expect successive cor-
rugations, subsequently lifted up, and sometimes falling over at last into one
dip. Just as we actually find them. ' The author expressed his obligations to
Professor H. D. Bx)ger8 for the valuable mformation which he had denied
froni an important paoer of his on the subject in the Transactions of the Koyal
Society of Edinburgn for 1857, but demurred to some of his hypotheses.
Flexures at definite points in solid strata must be produced by repeated and
continued fissures, and not by paroxysmal action. The latter cMefly spends
itself in earthquakes and volcanos, which, upon the whole, can produce no con-
tinuous change of form. The two kinds of forces appear, however, to be inti-
mately related to each other ; and if we suppose the one to be oidy the other
in excess, we are supplied with a simple explanation of the connection between
the corrugated mountain chains, and the lines of earthquakes and volcanos.

As a corollary from the above views, it might be observed that they destroyed
the idea of any distinct theory of volcanos, whether of elevation or eruption;
for the Quantities of elevated and ejected matter in the case of a fissure or a
ruptured corrugation might be in all possible proportions to each other.

The author expressed nis confidence that in this and his former papers he had
pointed out the true means of determining the mode of formation of the
earth's crust from the consideration of existing facts and wdil-known physical
laws — a branch of geological science in whioi nothing had been done fiefore
beyond starting a few crude and ill-supported guesses.

A brief conversation followed the reading of the paper, in which Professor
Kogers expressed his general acquiescence with the author's views on some
important points connected with the formation of the eaith's crust.

BIUTISH* ASSOOUTION MEETING. 815

OK THE TYNEDALE COALFIELD AND WHINSILL.

Bt J. A. KjfiPE.

The Tynedale coal-field is of no yery great extent, but from its being a pro-
longation of the true Northumberland and Durham coal, though at the distance
of forty miles west of the great deposit, saved by the great ninety fathom
fault, whicb is so well exposed on the coast at Callercotes, and as it is entirely
ignored in the Geological Society's Map, and every other, excepting the author's,
he thought it should be recorded in the reports of the meetmg of the Britisb
Association. The proprietor of the Tynedale coal-field is the Earl of Carlisle,
and the coal is worxea to a great extent by Messrs. Thompson, of Kirkbouse,
near Brampton, who also work the Talkirs mines in Cumberland.

The pit IS called the " King Pit," " Midgeholme Colliery," and is situated on
the noith side of the Tault, which has been proved to be a down -throw to the
north of one hundred and eighty fathoms, and as the mountain limestone of
Aldstone Moor is in juxta-position with the coal, the author conceives that the
down-throw here must be considerably greater. The shaft is five hundred and
six feet deep, and the aggregate thickness of the five seams or beds of work-
able coal is twenty-three feet. Below the coal are thick beds of sandstone,
shale, and grit ; then thick beds of limestone ; then comes the coal of Blenkin-
sop mines ; a^ain other intervening strata, succeeded by the thin beds of coal
of Holtwhistle in shale and sandstone; then intervene coarse sandstone,
a thin bed of coal and -grit, succeeded by rich ironstone nodules in thick beds
of shale. A^ain come thick beds of coarse sandstone and Hmestone, reposing
on interstratified trajh— the great Whinsill.

The Whinsill of Wall Town, near the Bx>man camp, Amboglanna Bardos-
wold, offers here a bold bluff escarpment to the north of near one hundred feet
in height. Portions of it assume a rude columnar structure ; it is, however,
much obscured by foliage. The Bx)man wall, which is here very perfect, and
six feet in thickness, crosses the summit of the escarpment. The WhinsUl is
traceable to the German Ocean, and is seen again interstratified with the car-
boniferous limestone of Bunstonburgb Castle.

ON THE CONTENTS OF THBEB CUBIC YABDS OF TBLASSIO BABTH,

Bt Chablss Hoore, Esq., F.G.S.

From the extraordinary series of organic remains exhibited to the Section
by the author, and from the importance attaching to the mammalia, the reading
of this paper excited considerable interest. The author stated that sevendvears
ago he suspected the presence of Triassic rocks in the neighbourhood of Irome
from accidentally finding in a roadside heap of carboniferous limestone a single
block of stone containing fish remains of the former age, but that for a long
time he was unable to discover it in situ. More recently, when examining
some carboniferous limestone aaairies near the above town, ne observed certain
fissures which had subsequently been filled up by a drift of a later age. One
of these was about a foot in breadth at the top, but increased to fifteen feet at
the base of the quarry, thirty feet below, at which point teeth and bones of
triassic reptiles and fishes were found. Usually these infillings consisted of a
material as dense as the limestone itself, and ixom which the organic remains

816 THB OEOLOQIST*

could only be extracted with difficulty. In auother part of the section he was
fortunate enough to find a deposit consisting of a coarse friable sand, containing
similar remains. In order that this might receive a more careful examination
than could be ffiven to it on the spot, the whole of it, weij?hing about three
tons, was carted away to the residence of the author, at Sath, a distance of
twenty miles, which was then passed under his observation with the following
results :

The fish-remains, which were the most abundant, were first noticed. Some
idea might be formed of their numbers when he stated that of the genus
Acrodus alone, including two species, he had extracted forty-five thousand
teeth from the three cubic yards under notice, and that they were even'more
numerous than there numbers indicated, since he rejected all out the most per-
fect examples. Teeth of several species of Sauricthifs were also abundant, and
next to tnem teeth of Hvbodu9, with occasional spines of the latter genus.
' Teeth and scales of Lepidotus, and scales of Gyrolepis were also numerous, as
also were teeth showinff the presence of several other genera of fishes. With
the above were founa a number of curious bodies, each of which was sur-
mounted by a depressed enamelled thorn-like spine, or tooth, in some cases
with points as sharp as that of a coarse needle ; these the author supjposed to
be spmous scales belonging to several new species of fish allied to the Sqvo-
tofaia, and that to the same genus were to be referred a number of minute
hair-like spines, with fiattened fiuted sides, found in the same deposit. There
were also present specimens hitherto supposed to be teeth, and for which
Agassiz haa created the genus Ctenoptychius, but which the author was rather
disposed to consider, like those previously referred to, to be the outer scales of
a fish allied to the Squaloraia, It was remarked that as the drift must have
been transported from some distance, delicate organisms could scarcely he ex-
pected, but, notwithstanding, it contained some most minute fish-jaws aud
palates, of which the author had, perfect or otherwise, one hundred and thirty
examples. These were from the eighth to a quarter of an inch in length, and
within this small compass some specimens possessed from thirty to forty teeth.
In one palate he had reckoned as many as seventy-four in position, and there
were spaces from which sixteen more had disappeared, so that in this tiny
specimen there had been ninety teeth.

Of the order EjeptiHa there were probably eig;ht or nine genera, consisting of
detached teeth, scutes, vertebrae, rios, and articulated bones. Amongst these
he had found the flat crushing teeth of Placodus, a discovery of interest, for
hitherto this reptile had only been found in the MuschelkaU: of Germany, a
zone of rocks hitherto considered wanting in this country, but which in its
fauna was represented by the above reptile.

But by far the most important remains in this deposit were indications of
the existence of Triassic mamnuJia. Two little teetn of the Mierolestes had
some years before been discovered in Germany, and were the only traces of this
high order in beds older than the Stonesfield Slate. The author's minute re-
searches had brought to light fifteen molar teeth, either identical with, or
nearly allied to, the Microlestes, and also five incisor teeth, evidently belpnging
to more than one species* A very small double^fanged tooth, not unlike tli£
oolitic ^alaeoiherium^ proved the presence of another genus, and a fragment of
a tooth, consisting of a single fang, with a small part of the crown attached, a
third genus, larger in size than the Microlestes. Three vertebra belonging to
an animal smaller than any existing mammal had also been found. The author
inferred that if twenty-five teeth and vertebrae, belonging to three or four
genera of mammalia, were to be found within the space occupied by three
cubic yards of earth, that ptortion of the ^obe which was then dry land, and
whence the material was in part deriv&o, was probably inhabited at that

NOTES AKD QUDRISS. B17

early period by many genera of Tnammalia^ and would serve to enooorage a
hope that the remains of that class might yet be found in beds of even more
remote age.

A discussion followed, in which Sir Charles LyeU, Professor Sedgpnck,
Dr. H. Falconer, and others took purt, in which the importance attadung to
the author's discoveries was recognized*.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

MoNGEEL WoKDs. — SiE, — ^In somfi late numbers of the " Geologist" you
did ^ood service by pointing out inaccuracies of spelling and speakine: techni-
calities. Would you give tne weight of your authority against such a mongrel
word as ''ligno^ph/" which, half Greek and half Latin, is not to be com-
pared in simplicity or force to the good old English word " woodcut P** — ^Yours,
&c., Cbteic.

We a^ree with our correspondent, although we have ourselves used the
term '^lignograph,^' in condemning mongrel-words \ but "woodcut" ianot aa
expressive as "lignograph.^' Woodcut may be wood hacked, and the merit
does not entirely lie witn the engraver, who is often only a mere machine, but
usually with the draughtsman. We have no objection to introduce the term
"xylograph," for "graph" has a broader sense than "cut," if we should
make up our mind tnat "li^ograph" ought now to be abandoned. Graph,
from ffraphos, too, can not oe restricted to a mere drawing or writing, it
originally described real incisions — ^inscriptions such as the Egyptian hiero-
glyphics— and what we really want is a word to express an illustration drawn
and incised on wood.

Assuredly the word lignograph is a barbarism compounded half of Latin
and half of Greek, and we have no respect for it ; but as it has got into use, is
it worth while to change it ? If any one adopts the Greek compound we have
suggested, we shall be happy to follow the example.

I)bipt op Norfolk.— ^bae Sie, — ^In my communication to your magazine
I have mis-written Tellina Bathica for Tellina Balthica (see pase 141,
lines 31 and 34) ; that is my mistake. In the same page, and in tne third
paragraph, there is an omission which obscures the meaning of the author ; in
the tnird line> after " embedded in it," the following shoula be the reading : —
" The layera of shingle are composed of very small pebbles of primitive meta-
morphic and palseozoic rocks, enclosing an abundance of small fragments of ter-
tiary shells." Will vou have the goodness to notice these errors in the next
number. — Yours faitnfully, C. B. !Hoss, Swaffham.

Geologt op Sligo. — Sie, — As'J intend visiting the county of Sligo, would
you have the kindness, through the medium of the " Geologist," to state the
^geology of the county, but more particularly that immediately surrounding
the tovnis of Boyle and Sligo. — J. B. B.

SHgo county consists of an extensive outspread of the Mountun-limestone
(or Carboniferous limestone lying beneath the Coal-measures), with some
patches of Millstone-grit, and a wide band of Devonian and Old Bed Sand-
stone and con^omerate, passing from Lough Gill to Castlebar, with a granitic
nucleus or axis. Near Sli^ the upper ]^urt of the carboniferous limestone
jabounds. . Near Boyle the Upper Limestone, and some strata of " Yellow Sand-
stone" of the Devonian series, occur* J. B. B. shoiild consult Griffith's Geo-
logiod Map of Ireland, either the large sheets or the small map.

820 THIS OBOLOOTST.

moor, Wyre Porest (this latter place is described at p. 136 of my book), and I
find upon the surface of the top layer of cream-coloured limestone numerous
teeth and fin-spines of small predatory fishes, very tiny, scarcely larger than
dots and specks till a lens is brought to bear upon them ; but upon some parts
of this surface they are plentifully sprinkled, and hare quite a pleasing appear-
ance, their shining black contrastmg so decidedly with the cream-colourea rock
on which they lie. Iron-pyrites in very small cubic crystals accompany them.
Scales of these small fisn are also contained in the limestone, and it has
Spirorbis in plenty. The Cvprides are nearly confined to the coffee-colQiired
shales lying oeneath the harder band.
This limestone occurs at the Gibhouse pits and at Blakemoor, but lacmstnne

biyalve shells (Cyclas^ are there its only fossils. — Yours yery trily, Gbobge
E. HoBEBTS^ IQddermu

irmmster.

REVIEW.

Oeologicdl Gossip ; or, Stray Chapters on Earth and Ocean, By Fbofessob
D. T. Ansted. London : Eoutledge and Co., 1860.

Very pleasant and useful geological gossip Professor Ansted has laid before
the world in the eighteen chapters of which this popularly written little book
consists. The chapters generally appear to us to be yery concise and lucid
epitomes of yarious yaluable contributions to geological and {>hysical science.
Thus yarious useful geological matters which are contained in the two short
but excellent chapters on the Atlantic seem to haye been judiciously selected
from that ponderous yolume of yaluable inyestigations and data "Maair's
SaQing Directions," and from the Keports of the soundings in the Atlantic lor
the etectric telegraph. Dr. Liyingstone's researches in Africa, Mallet and
Perrey's Earthquake Statistics, Sir Charles L^ell's demolishing attack on the
Crater of Elevation theory, Darwin's inyestigations on the Origin of Species.
Mr. Homer's borings into the stratified deposits of the Nile, Boucher de
Perthes' Antiquit^s Antediluyieimes, Mr. Prestwich's Paper before the Royal
Society on the Discoyeries of Eossil Works of Man, Delesse's Experiments on
the Metamorphism of Blocks, and other similar labours condensed with
admirable br'eyity, haye furnished the chief materials for the really iirimstisg
chapters on tiie Interior of Africa, the Statistics of Earthquakes, the Origin of
Yolcanos, the Battle of Life, the Antiquity of the Human Bace in !&ypt,
Human Bemains in Cayems and Grayel,* and the Origin of Bocks and Metar
morphism.

If by these remarks we should seem to be detracting from the originality of
this work — ^a merit Professor Ansted, by the total absence of preface or intro-
duction, does not himself seem desirous of claiming for it — ^we would in (con-
clusion express our sincere wish that the future may be rich in similar
periodical epitomes of important scientific labours and inyestigations as reliably,
readably, and usefully set forth, and as admirably adapted for giying the general
reader a just yiew of their leading principles.

THE GEOLOGIST.

SEPTEMBER, 1860.

GEOLOGICAL LOG ALIT IE S.— No. L

FOLKESTONE.

By S. J. Mackib, F.G.S., F.S.A.

(Continued from page 284._)

Orossmg the railway to the harbour, e. footpath brings ns to Bome
old white-washed cottages, " The Follj HoBses," as they are called
(but why I know not), where a young dealer (GrifBths) lives, of

whom some good specimens may often be got. Contmuing ihe foot-
path to the edge of the cliff, we descend by rugged green-sand steps
again to the favonrite collecting ground, Eastwear Bay.

VOL. Ill, 2 a

t>22 THE OeOLOOIST.

Slowly the bright green tide ia qnittiiig tlte flat shore, and leaTing
^ain exposed the dark blue clay, dotted with black phospkatic nodee
and glittering irideBCent shells, washed clean and bright. Daily may
yoa pick np hundreds of these ancient inhabitants of the eea;
gather the crop as clean ea yoa will, there will be another harvest
for yon when the next tide folk. Here are Inocerami, or "fibre-
shells," in abundance. Two species, the Inoeera/mvs tulcaivt and

T.igt. U.—Iiueenmia mJoifu. Ligu. X.—IaaetramMt (wMrfneu.

Iwxerwmfu concenirieaB — the fnirowed and concentric are particiilariy
characteristic of the ganlt. There is a third and rarer species, t
Coquandi, which is also found in- the dark-coloured upper green-sand
a short distance beyond, towards the old gnn-brig " The Pelter,"
The individaals of these species, so remarkably abandant in tlie
gatilt, rarely attain to the size of a few inches in length, while other

Lign. le,—yiKiUa pKHmjUi. Lign. K.—yaciUa Btda.

apedes of "fibre-shells" of the subsequent era of the chalk attaiiied
dimensions of more than a yard in diameter, with shells, bowe^^'
singularly thin for such laige molluscs living in a sea conapicnous Kt

OF F0LKE8T0NB — THE (

its immense ctJoareons depOBito. Nttcula peeOnaia and NwnUa c
are also common and characteriatic bivalves of the ganlt.

Idgn, 38, — Jfitaaia Aipiiyata,

\jgti^ 2ft, — yueuf^ or

And of the genns Nneula we figure also two other species, which
are occadonally to be found, which, from their peculiar and beaatiinl
omunentation, can be readily determined.

Uga. iO.—PUaitula ptr^

liign. Sl.—Oairia SaiUimima.

Amongst the other bivalves which the collector is likely to include

324 THB OEOLOOIST.

in his first gatliering, are flie readily dbttiDgaiBbable PZiea/da petU-
wndet and Oitrea Raulimiania.

He win also meet with one or two other speciee of Fticatda and
OyBtera.

Lign. 3S. — I^ma paraiUUi.

The speciea of univalve shells of the O&nlt are few, (Jttongl irf
two or three species the individuals are nnmerically abnndani Ve:?

IdgTL 34.— IWriitUo Mn>sea»a.

irely a delicate Turritella (T. Yibrayeana,, or T. Sugardiim) maj
e Been on the face of a newly cleaved block, and now and then s

OEOLOGT OP POLKESTOME — THE GAULT, 825

gracefml SctUaria Clemmtma, or a bandeome Scaiima Dvpimana
may be exhumed is the same locl^ manner. Of the genus Scalaria
four or five other species ore recorded as occom^ in continental
localities ; of these I believe I h&ve found fragments, of the ibllowing

at Folkestone — 8. gauUima, 8. Raidhtiana, 8. gastina, but I can not
speak with cert^ty.

These forms aboold therefore be looked for by collectors, as should
also a little Bissoa, a genns familiar moat likely to some of our
readers, from the immense abnndajice of a living species in the poob

THE 0B0L00I8T.

The pretty smaU urnvftlveB Aeteon Vibrayeana and AveUana {Smgi-
ndia) OUmenima Ttmy frequently be obtained in a very perfect state.
Two other spedes of Arellans are recorded &om the ganlt, A«^
latM morattata, and A. itifiata.

tiga.37.—Acliiiiivaraiiuui. Ugn. Si.— fitafiasOaelMntiM.

Tlie most abundant nnivalre of the Ganlt, and which is ei1§o one of
the characteristic shells, is the Natica ga/uUiaa, whit^ sometdmeB aleo

occuTB of Tery lai^ size. Five or six other Natdcea are recoK^
as Oantt species abroad, some of which ere hke^ to'be found at

Ligo. 40. — Soi^rnvM deidaiitm.

Folkestone, as I have collected &agmentB of otiier spedes, ben^
, the common ti. gwiMma. We have already noticed as beia^ of

GEOLOOT OP FOLKESTONE — THE C

3 several epecies of Solarium, and at page 124

we liavo figured one, 8. oma^im. As the two fonns, 8. deniatum and

Jigtt. U.—Satariuitmioidiim.

8. eoaoidaum ape equally common and dmracteristic, we think it
n^t to present also their portraits.

Lign. K.—Z>iHdaUut dtevteinm.

The long pipe-like shells of DentaUvm deeweatwm, will also be found
in abnudance ; and in certain spots, if one is fortunate enough to
detect them, clusten of little naatilus-like shells, scarcely kuger than

Lign. 4a,~BtlJrropklHa n&mynma.

small shot, may be coUecfed. These, the Bdlerophina Vibrnyeana,
are not cephalopods^ but belong to a lower grade of mollnsca, the
shell being open throoghont, as in the common univalves, and not
divided by septa, or chambered, like the Nantilns and Ammonite, for
the young of which, from their mere exterior resemblance, they
mi^bt be at the first glance mistaken by an inezperienoed naturalist.

(To be continued.)

32B THE GEOLOGIST.

ON AN AMMONITE WITH ITS OPERCULUM IN SITU.

By S. p. Woodward, F.G.S.

Opebcula of Ain2nomte$ are oommon in many localities, especially
in banks and sections of the Kimmeridge Clay ; but they nsnally occur
in broken fragments, and very rarely with their valves paired, unless
sheltered within the last whirl of the shell to which they belonged.
Even when thus protected the valves are generally displaced, as
might be expected if we consider how slight is their union along the
suture, and how great were the chances of being shifted by the con-
traction of the animal after death, by the pressure of external mud.

The British Museum contains several examples of Am/monUes Jason,
A. Brightii, A. Jluctuoevs, A. linguLahis, and other species with their
opercnla more or less shifted ; and Mr. Charles Moore, of Bath, has
several small shells of Am/numites plamorhis from the Lower Lias,
with the opercula remaining in their true position ; the smallest in-
dividual is only one quarter of an inch in diameter.

I have recently obtained a specimen of J.m-.
momtes svhradicdua (J. Sby.) from Mr. Joseph
Wood, an experienced collector (formerly of
Bath, but now living at 23, New Union-street,
Moorfields), who discovered it in the Inferior
Oolite, of Dundry, near Bristol, with the oper-
culum remaining in its natural position as
represented in the accompanying figure.

The shell measures sixteen lines by twelve
and a half, with a maximum thickness of four and
a half lines. It agrees with the ordinary run of
specimens from Dundry, and differs from the Ammomies tuhradiatut,
example figured by Sowerby in being less com- "^^ ^SX*^"™
pressed, and more widely umbilicated ; the umbi-
licus measures four lines across, and is bordered by a steep margin.

The operculum is flat in the middle, with a slight ftirrow along
the suture, and is much bent down at the hinder comers where it
abuts against the inner whirl of the shell. li^is six lines long and
four wide, and is sculptured externally with .about twelve* angnlai
concentric furrows ; the inner sur&ce is smooth, as shewn by the
fracture and removal of a portion. It closely resembles the opercnTa
of Ammonites Brightii and A. Imgtdatus, to which A, mbradiaius is
nearly related.

British Mttseu/m, August, 1860.

LIMESTONE C

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF "SAND-PIPES" IN THE
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE OF DURHAM.

Br J. W. KiRKBT.

(Ctmtimied from page 298.^

On examining the interior of the pipee, I have invariably found the
snrfaoe to be more or less decomposed. For about half an inch —

sometimes less and sometimes more — the texture and hardness of the
UmcBtone is completely changed — so much bo that it ia possible to

scrape it away with the finger-nail. "ThiB ia the case with all the
beds, no matter how they may differ in texture and general character,
though some seem more affected than others. This alteration is best
seen iu those strata that are cryatalline. In one part of the quarry

VOL. 111. 2 T

330 TUB GBOLOOIBT.

ifi a bed of which the limestone is hard and dolomitic, and also finely
laminated, there being more than a dozen laminffl to the incli; thia
is it« normal character, bnt where it is penetrated by a pipe it looses
its hardness, and becomes dnll and etothy ; the lamlme also, which
in the nnaltored portion of the pipe are fiiToly coherent and difficnlt
to separate, are here easily split open, the sor&ces of their planes
being highly decomposed ; the colour, too, of Uie decomposed portion
is somewhat changed, being of a light yellow, while the limestone of
the bed generally is of a brown or grey hue, and so soft has it beconw
whore it forms the surface of a pipe that it crumbles to pieces on
being touched, and for half an inch in it can be cut with a pocket-

Lign. 5. — b. Band ; €, Decomposed Buiihce of THmflftfamn,

knife. In fig. 5 the decomposed surface of a pipe !s shown for the
sake of illustration. When two pipes are very close together, and
are only separated from each other by a thin wall, as sometimes
occurs, the limestone composing it is affected throughout. Ibe
upper surface of the limestone upon which the sand rests baa suffered
in like manner ; and it sometimes happens that a loose piece of limC'
stone rests upon it, and its surface is also just as mnch decayed, and
the same is the case with the surface of the large boulders embedded
in the sand when they are of mountain limestone, but boulders of
trap are not affected in the least.

Much of the limestone in which the pipes are excavated is crys-
talline, some of the beds being highly ddomitic. The thickest bed*
in which they occur have a concretionary structure, exhibiting those
peculiar coreJloid forms for which the upper member of the 'oag'
neeian limestone is so famous. On the south side of the qnan?,

IN HiaNEBUN LIMESTONE OF DtTBH&U. 331

where the pipes are very nnmeroos, the limestone is more of a slaty
nature, though thicker beds of a ciystalliiie and concretionary
character are aaaociated. Some of the beds are finely Uminated, and
a few are soft and marly.

Some of the pipes b^D in mbblo overlying the solid beds on the
Bonfch-weafc of tlie qnarry, and a few email ones about two feet in
length are solely excavated in it. The mbbte only esiate in this
region, where the uppermost beds of limestone seem to have been
completely broken up, and all signs of their stratification destroyed,
by a disturbance of which further tracea are still visible in a broken
syncline a little beyond the most westerly pipes. The pipes shown

TAga. S.— Sectdon of Fipoa in Riibblo. near
>, Sand, cIb;, sad bihI (llie und Lhinnlatr out hfrv) ; g, '

■ud bruksD to tiie weat ; g . i-uuulo.

in fig. 6, which are close to the ayndine, are altogether in rubble.
The form of the pipes in anch loose materials seem te be just aa well
preserved as when the snbatance pierced is unbroken.

These are about all the facts that it seems necessary te notice in
describing the pipes ; and so much has been sud on the origin of
sand' and gravel-pipea by the various authors who have atudied and
written on those in -the (tiialk, and being perfectly satisfied that those
in the ma^esian limestone have been similarly originated, that it ia
scarcely necessary for me to go &r into the question, though it may,
perhaps, be neceasary to draw attention to the theoriea broached, and

332 THE GEOLOGIST.

to state the manner in which the evidence offered by the sand-pipes
I have described bear upon them.

There are only two theories that require notice — one being what is
commonly termed the mechanical theory, which was strongly advo-
cated by Mr. Trimmer, and the other the chemical theory whose most
important supporters are Sir Charles Lyell and Mr. J. iSrestwidbu

The former doctrine, as propounded by Mr. Trimmer, supposes the
pipes to have been formed on coast lines and between tide marks, or
at least within the area of broken water, by the action of the surf
charged with sand, or assisted by stones and pebbles. He quotes
the peculiar wearing of the rocks of our coasts, and maintains that
the agency which formed the basin-like and other shallow cavities in
these rocks, is the same that excavated the sand- and gravel-pipes of
the chalk and other limestones.*

According to the other theory the pipes have been eroded by the
chemical action of carbonic acid held in solution by water. Without
going into details, it may suffice to state that this theory, as elabo-
rated by Mr. Prestwich, supposes the sand- and gravel-pip»es of the
chalk to be '^ extinct natural water-conduits, which the waters at
different periods, through incessant filtration &om a higher water-
bearing stratum in their tendency to reach a lower level, gradoaHj
and quietly wore for themselves by their solvent action alone." But
it is also the opinion of this geologist that in the harder limestones
many of the pipes may have been formed on the sites of pre-existing
cracks and fissures.t

AgiEunst the former theory there are many grave objections, and in
my opinion, it most certainly fails to account for the origin of the
sand-pipes in the magnesian limestone. And Sir Charles Lyell and
Mr. Prestwich have almost, if not quite, demonstrated its insuffi-
ciency to account for the phenomena observed in those in the chalk.
It was the opinion of Mr. Trimmer that pipes in the act of formation
were to be found in the rocks of modem beaches, but I think with
Mr. Prestwich that in this opinion he was mistaken. At least, I
know of nothing analogous to them on the Durham coast, and I hare
conversed with those who have been longer acquainted with it than
myself, and who have also examined the sand-pipes, and they are
likewise equally ignorant of anything of the kind. Indeed it is
incomprehensible how the action of Sue surf, howsoever assisted or
directed, could drill holes so deep and yet so narrow. One objection
of great force is that sand- and gravel-pipes are invariably found in
calcareous strata. Now how is this to be explained on the supposi-
tion of their origin being mechanical P For, supposing this had heen
the case, why do they not affect all rocks of whatever nature or kind,
just as the surf of a littoral region affects rocks of all descriptions,
varying its action in degree, and somewhat in mode, as the rocks
upon which it acts vary in hardness and general structure P Some

* Quart. Jour. Geo. Sec., voL viii., p. 273 ; also voL xi., p. 62.
t Quart. Jour. Geo. Soo,, vol. ad., p. 80.

KIRKBT — SANDPIPBS IN MAQNESIAH LIMESTONE OF DURHAM. 333

of the pipes in the magnesian limestone offer another difficulty to
this theory ; I aUade to those occurring in rubble, it scarcely being
possible that any mechanical agent, and especially the action of surf,
could form tubular or conical pipes, nearly two feet deep and only five
or six inches in width, in so loose a substance as rubble. For on
such a supposition of their origin, they must of necessity have
remained open until completed, so that their walls of loose materials
would be unsupported internally, besides being exposed to all the
disturbing influences of a littoral region — that is, according to the
views of Mr. Trimmer. And it is not to be supposed that these
pipes might have been formed prior to the breaking up of the lime-
stone from which the rubble was derived, for any movements suffi-
ciently violent to rend and break up solid beds of limestone, would
certainly have destroyed the pipes passing through them.
On the other hand, the chemiciEd tlieory explains the origin of sand-
pipes more satisfactorily ; and though it is not altogether unobjec-
tionable, yet it suffices to account for their phenomena in a manner
that not only seems possible but very probable. Indeed, there is
apparently no other agency but a chemical one that could form pipes
under the circumstances that seem to have existed while those in the
chalk were being formed. It has been shown by Sir Charles Lyell,
and also by Mr. Prestwich, that the pipes have been eroded after the
alluvium covering the chalk was deposited (this is also evident in the
pipes of the magnesian limestone), and that the different strata com-
posing the alluvium have been gradually let down into the cavities of
the pipes in the same consecutive order in which they occur where
lying undisturbed on the surface of the chalk. In my opinion this
seems to oblige the adoption of a chemical origin of some kind for
the pipes ; for in what other way could they have been formed with
the alluvium superimposed upon the surface acted upon P They have
also shown that the agent employed did not act upon the flints em-
bedded in the chalk ; that the surface of such flints as had been
extracted from the matrix in the excavation of the pipes, are not
worn in the least ; and that when a flint protrudes from the wall of a
pipe, neither is it worn or otherwise affected, except in one instance,
wnere the protruding portion was broken off, apparently by pressure,
it being found embedded in the core a Httle lower down. Thus it
seems that the agent employed had power only to act upon calcareous
substances, and that it was powerless upon such as were siliceous ;
consequently that it was a chemical agent ; for it is not to be sup-
posed had it been mechanical that it would not have lefb some
traces of its action on the flints in the sides and cores of the pipes.
But if the reader will refer to the papers of these geologists, he will
find frdl particulars of these facts, and of others of equal interest and
importance.*

The softened or decomposed state of the limestone forming the

* Lyell on Sand-pipes, Lon. and Edin. FhiL Mag. 3 ser., vol. zv., p. 257.
Prestwich on the Origiu of Saad-pipes, Quart. Jour. Qeo. Soc., vol. zi., p. 64.

334 THE GEOLOGIST,

walls of the pipes in the magnesian limestone seems to afford ano-
ther argument in favoTtr of this theory, for this effect is nndonbtedly
due to chemical action of some kind ; though some may hold that
the decomposition of the surface may have resulted after the forma-
tion of the pipe by a very different agent ; and this is oertamly
possible, though it must be evid )nt at the same time that whatever
decomposed the limestone forming the surface of the pipe, had suffi-
cient power to be the primary cause of their formation ; for if the
application of the decomposing agent effected the results we see in a
certain amount of time, it is not to be doubted that by increasing the
period of apphcation, so would we increase its results ; so that
having here a power competent to originate the phenomena of sand-
pipes, it seems more philosophical to credit it with their consumma-
tion than to call in the aid of another power whose capabilities even
to originate them is almost more than questionable.

But though the chemical theory of the origin of sand- and gravel-
pipes is more satisfactory than the mechanical theory of Mr.
Trimmer, or than any conceivable theory of a mechanical nature, and
though I have little doubt myself but that they have really originated
by chemical action of some kind, yet there are one or two points
connected with this theory which seem difficult as yet to explam.
For instance, it is not easy to understand how the water contained in
the stratum overlying the limestone could be so extra-charged with
carbonic acid as to possess erosive power enough to excavate the
pipes. It seems plain that more than the usual quantity of carbonic
acid would be required, or sand-pipes would be of more common
occurrence where limestone surfaces are exposed to the reach of
rain-water ; and if the roots of vegetables supplied the extra quantity,
as Sir Charles Lyell suggests, I see no reason why they should not be
found where limestones lie immediately beneath the turf, which I
believe is never the case in any district where sand-pipes occur. It
is possible, however, that rain-water may derive firom vegetable
matter, as in the case of an overlying morass, an addition to its usual
per centage of carbonic acid ; and the fact of the remains of so many
small roots being found at a depth of three or four feet in the core
of clay of some of the pipes I have described, may, perhaps, be con-
sidered as rather indicative of something of the kind. It is also
possible that it may derive additions from animal remains imbedded
in the overlying alluvium, as Mr. Prestwich suggests ; and the
absence of all remains of this kind in the alluvium in question is no
proof to the contrary, for this supposition necessarily includes their
destruction in the derivation of tiieir carbonic acid. But still, not-
withstanding the possibility of such supplies, I must confess that to
me it seems probable that we are still ignorant of the true source of
the erosive agent ; neither do I see any reason for supposing that
carbonic was Qie only acid employed, and that by it idone were the
pipes eroded.

Another difficulty is the special application of the acid or chemical
agent to the particular spots occupied by the pipes. If we suppose

KIBKBT — SAKDPIPES IN MAGKESIAN LIMESTONE OF DURHAM. 335

water to hold acid in solution, and apply it to a surface capable of
being eroded by the acid it contains, we should naturally expect —
granting that the water covered the whole surface — that as the
hollows were deepened so would the higher portions of the surface
be lessened in height, so that as the erosion proceeded the relation of
the inequalities to each other would be pretty nearly preserved in
their original condition. Mr. Prestwich certainly supposes that in
the harder limestone the majority of the pipes are founded on cracks
and fissures, though he is of the opinion that those in the chalk have
not been thus assisted, but have been worn out of a soHd substance.
And so far as we may judge &om the pipes in the magnesian lime-
stone, which is perhaps harder than any other limestone in which
they are known to occur, they certainly seem to bear out the former
opinion, for many of them undoubtedly occupy the sites of pre-eidst-
iQg breaks in the strata. But if we grant that any could originate
without such assistance, the question still remains unsolved. And
that some were not assisted in this way almost seems to be true, and
some of those in magnesian limestone appear to belong to this class,
so far as my experience goes. However, we must leave the clearing
up of this point for fixture research ; at present it seems to be a fact
that some pipes, so far as we know, are formed in rocks that are solid
and unbroken, and that others exist where cracks or breaks in the
strata formerly existed.

These cannot be said to be serious objections to this theory. They
are certainly difficulties, but such as a better knowledge of the sub-
ject -will most probably remove. They do not affect the pi inciple
involved so much as its application in questions of detail.

Before concluding I may draw attention to the peculiar position of
the stratum of sand beneath which the pipes only occur. By referring
again to ^g. 1, it will be seen that the sand gradually thins out as it
dips, so that the overlying stratum of clay ultimately rests imme-
diately upon the limestone, and so prevents the water lodged in the
sand &om escaping in the direction which, in its search for the
lowest level it would naturally take. It also appears to be as
thoroughly enclosed in lateral cfirections, at least, though its eastern
limits have not been reached, it thins out to the west, and is en-
veloped in the same manner as seen in the transverse section, so that
it can scarcely be doubted but that this deposit of sand is overlapped
by clay on aU sides, except along its upper edge, where it abuts
against the gravel. It consequently follows that though it had the
power of receiving water collected on the higher grounds, and trans-
mitted to it by the gravel, yet, on account of the impermeable nature
of the stratum covering it and overlapping its edges, the water it
received would either have to remain lodged in it, or find a lower
level by passing through the limestone. Such seems to be exactly
the circumstances which Mr. Prestwich supposes to have obtained
during the formation of the pipes in the chalk — ^indeed, which were
necessary for their formation. It is interesting to know that there is
so close an agreement in the geological relations of the water-bear-

336 THE GEOLOGIST.

ing strata overljring the pipes both in the chalk and magnesian lime-
stone, for it assists in corroborating the views of Mr. Prestwich.

For a full exposition of the theory I have adopted, I would refer
to Mr. Prestwich's most able paper " On the Origin of the Sand-
and Gravel-pipes in the Chalk of the London Tertiary District,"
" Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc," vol xi., p. 64.

ON THE OLD RED SANDSTONE AND ITS FOSSIL FISH

IN FORFARSHIRB.

By W. PowRiE, Esq.

As anything calculated to throw Ught on the peculiar fauna of the
Old Red Sandstone period must be interesting to geologists, I send
you a short notice of some fossils lately found in the flagstones of
Forfarshire, which may aid in adding to our knowledge of the peca-
liarities of the creatures found in these rocks.

Some six weeks ago, by far the finest specimen of Pterygotiis
anglicus yet found was discovered in the " pavement" quarries of
Cannyllin : this superb specimen is now in the Arbroath Museum.
This fossil, coming clean out jfrom the matrix in which it was
imbedded, consists of all the body-segments, a part of the caudal
plate being also preserved and well seen in the cast from which the
fossil had been lifted. It shows no features absolntely new or
hitherto unknown, but it is nevertheless veiy interesting, as exhibit-
ing the manner in which both the dorsal and ventral portions of this
creature had been covered and protected by strong sculptured plates.
It also proves that Mr. D. Page was quite correct in the place which
he latterly assigned to the curious duck-bill like plate with its
wing- like appendages, which, as noticed in Hugh Miller's " Old Red
Sandstone," occasioned the name of " Seraphim" to be appHed to
this fossil. It is found in situ, covering the under portions of the
segment next the head. In aU probability, as suggested by Mr.
Page, it formed part of the sexual organs of this creature, and also a
covering for the vent or anal opening, there being no vestige of any
such opening in either the sub-caudal segment, in the portion of the
caudal plate, or telson, preserved, or on the junction of these seg-
ments. It gives some idea of the manner in which the different
plates forming the body-segment joined into one another, the joinings
being seemingly of such a nature as to allow the creature consider-
able powers of curvature. It also shows its comparative length and
breadth, although in this respect it seems to differ from other speci-
mens, showing a rather greater proportional length ; but this might
have been occasioned by these belonging to different sexes, the one
being probably of a more slender form than the other. The head
with all its appendages is wanting. The entire length of the fossil,

POWRIB — FOSSIL PISH FROM THE OLD RED SANDSTONE.

337

including tho tail-segment, is three feet nine inches, and it measures
very nearly twelve inches across at its greatest breadth. Making a
fair allowance for the head, the creature must have been over four
and a* half feet long, and had thus formed a rather formidable
lobster-like animal when swimming in the waters of the primeval
world. It had not, however equalled in size the Pterygotus, to
which three tail-segments, very recently found in a quarry in
this immediate neighbourhood, had belonged, and which are now in
my possession.

I here give a rough sketch
of this also very interesting
fossil. The dotted line marks
a portion which lifts clean
ont firom the matrix, leaving
a very fine cast of what I
consider' to have been the
dorsal plates of these seg-
ments. The upper side of
this fossil seems to have
formed the upper portion
of one of the layers or beds
of the rock, and has the
scnlpturings a good deal ob-
literated ; these are, however,
beautifully preserved on the
under side, as also on the
cast. These markings are
much smaller on the caudal
than on the other plates, in-
creasing in size, but still
small, on the sub-caudal.

The sub-candal plate, and
that anterior to it, have
ridges along both the ven-
tral and dorsal surfaces, dif-
fering in this from some
other specimens of these
plates, which only show one
ridge. The caudal segment is of some considerable thickness
where it joins the one above it ; this rapidly narrows, until, after
extending to about one-fifth of its length, the upper and lower
sides seem to join and become one plate. It would thus appear
that the body of the creature had penetrated some little distance
into this segment. No appearance of any vent or anal opening is
found in these segments ; and as, from the state of preservation of
this fossil, had such an opening existed, it would have been in all
probability readily distinguishable, it affords strong negative evidence
against the existence of the vent in this part of the body of the
animal. The Qaudal plate is seven and a-half inches long by five

VOL. III. 2 u

338 THK GEOLOGIST.

and a-half inches broad, the snb-candal abont five and a-half inches
long by seven and three-quarters inches broad. By comparing
this with the Carmyllie specimen, it must have belonged to an
animal about six feet in length.

From the same quarry, and about the same time, I was also for-
tunate enough to procure five very nearly complete segments and
part of a sixth of another Pterygotus anglicus, the segments of which
lift quite out from the matrix, leaving a very thin cast. A seventh
segment is also shown in this specimen, lying at nearly right angles
to the others ; this might, however, have belonged to another anmial
coming out entire and separate fix)m the other segments. This speci-
men would seem to have formed part of an animal considerably
broader in proportion to its length than the two before described ; in
this respect it agrees with another very fine specimen now in the
museum of the Watt Institution of Dundee, found some two years
ago in a quarry on Tealing, consisting of seven of the body segments
of the Pterygotus angUcua,

These four are by far the most complete remains of this very
curious crustacean yet found ; besides those of this species, P. aivgll-
CU8, only very fi^gmentary remains of another species of Pterygotus,
P. puTictatits, have yet been found in Forfarshire. In Cauterland
Den, however, and the " fish-beds" near Famell, several specimens of
a Pterygotus very similar in appearance and form to the P. wnglmts
have been discovered, but of a comparatively very small size, being
only six to ten inches in length. These have not as yet been ex-
amined and named by any competent authority. They are all pre-
served in the collections of the Rev. Henry Brewster, of Famell, and
the Rev. Hugh Mitchell, of Craig.

After the repeated notices of the Famell " fish-bed" in the " Geo-
logist," by Mr. Mitchell, it is unnecessary for me to give any length-
ened description of this very curious deposit or its peculiar fossils.
It was first noticed as afibrding evidences of being fossiliferous, and
pointed out as such by Mr. Brewster. It is, however, to the indefati-
gable researches of Mr. Mitchell that we are indebted for a know-
ledge of the curious organisms it contains. It is at present being
very fully explored. The Earl of Southesk, on whose estates it is
situated, has not only allowed this to be done, but has, with the
greatest liberality, furnished labourers for the heavy part of the
work, placing the examination of its treasures in the hands of ^ir.
Brewster and myself; and it is only due to his lordship here to
record our grateful thanks for the unexampled facilities it has
afforded for having these treasures, so long locked up, made known
to the geological world.

Besides a good many specimens of the genera Acardhodes and
BrobchycLcanthuSj discovered and noticed by Mr. Mitchell, several
species, apparently new, of Bvplacanthus, with the remains of other
fishes of other genera have already been discovered, as also several
curious and seemingly new species, if not genera, of Uurypteru^oi
and other crustaceans. These are in the course of being prepared for

JONES — OUTLIER OP UPPER TERTIARY IRONSAND. 339

laying before competent authorities for having their aflSnities deter-
mined, and their characteristic markings described.

Mr, Mitchell, in his notice in yonr July number, rightlj^ places this
deposit, as also that of Cauterland Den, amongst the very lowermost
of our Forfarshire sandstones. The localities as well as the fossils
clearly indicate this.

ON THE OUTLIER OF UPPER TERTIARY IRONSAND
ON THE NORTH DOWNS OF KENT.

By T. Rupert Jones, Esq., F.G.S., Assistant-Secretary of the

Geological Society of London.

Having at times been asked questions about the " Fossiliferous
Ironsands'* of the North Downs, which Mr. Prestwich described in
the Journal of the Geological Society in 1858, vol. xiv., p. 322, Ac, I
find that some little diagram appears to be wanted by amateur geo-
logists and general readers for the clearer demonstration of these
strata and their relations to the Chalk and the Drift.

I beg, therefore, to offer you the accompanying diagram, illustrative
of the relationship of the -so-called " Kentish Crag," agreeable, I
beheve, to Mr. ftestwich's views of the subject, as given in his
elaborate paper before mentioned. Having seen the ground at Len-
ham and Charing, to which Mr. Prestwich refers, and at the latter of
which places my friend Mr. W. Harris, F.G.S., had some sections
specially made, I feci the greater satisfaction in bearing testimony to
Mr. Prestwich' s carefal working out of the whole question.

In the diagram you will see the whole known succession of these
ironsand deposits at A, where such outlines as those of Paddlesworth
and Vigo-BSll may be supposed to be represented ; and partial rem-
nants are seen at B, C, D, and E. At F and Fa may be discerned
instances of sandpipes which have imbibed the ironsands before the
changes at the surface led to the denudation of the ironsands off the
chalk, and the wearing of the Chalk into furrows and cavities, leav-
ing the clayish sands and gravel now known as " Drift," ot which G
represents the lower and H the upper portion.

The sandpipes at Lenham, where the ironsand is found to be richly
fossiliferous, are such as are seen at F in the diagram, the broken
ironstone having sunk gradually in with the sinking superincumbent
beds as the cavity was slowly niade in the Chalk, probably by the dis-
solution of the latter by means of percolating water.* At I the

* See Mr. Prcstwich*H account of the formation of Sandpipes in the Challc^
Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. xi., p. 64.

THE GBOLOGIBT.

ironstone is abeent^ and a thick
oorering of drift lies on the
Chalk ; and at Buch a spot tis
this Mr. HairiB made hia large
trench, described in Mr. Presl-
wich's paper (p. 33a). His
smaller trench was dng at a spat
(like that at C H), where a rem-
nant of the ironatone remained
nnder the drift. At H G is a
peak of chalk standing high up
m the Drift, which may be snp-
poaed to be thirty feet thick;
ench rough pillars of chalk are
aot Tmcommonly met with in the
excavations which the fimners
make in gravel and clay to get
chalk for their lands along the
back of the North Downs.

Mr. Prestwich trnly etateB that
it is difficult to trace at the sur-
face the range of the " Kentish
Crag ;" and that it is so the
diagram will show. It is bat
seldom that the ironstone and
ironsands are well seen at the
snrfa«e ; they are nsnally masked
by the Drift ; and fiirther, these
are but relics of the original
beds ; and it is often difficult to
distinguish these, even when ei-
poaed, from the ferraginons Drift
in which they are enveloped.

It ia to be hoped that local
observers will follow np Mr.
Prestwich's researches, and en-
deavour to work out more paf-
ticnlars about these interesting
ironsands ; and perhaps the ac-
companying diagram will serve
the purpose of connecting toge-
ther before the eye the varions
conditions under which patches
of these strata remain on the
chalk-surface, and help to direct
renewed attention to the sabject^

GIBB — ON CANADIAN CAVERNS.

341

ON CANADIAN CAVERNS.

By George D. Gibb, M.D., MA., F.G.S., Member of the Canadian

Institute.

(Continued from page 219).

In the foregoing account it has been my aim and endeavour to
describe the geological formations in which the caverns existed ; this
will be seen at a glance in the following table : —

2
5

Cayems on shores of Magdalen Islands

Caverns and arched rocks at Peroe, Gaspe. . .
Ldttle Biver Gavems, Bay of Chaleor

Gk>thio arched recesses, Gaspe Bay.
Cavern in Bass Island, Lake Erie .

9
25
26
28

7
18

20 GWbb's Cavern, Montreal
24 Probable Caverns at Kingston
29 Murray's Cavern and Subterranean Biver ...
6 Arched and Flower Pot Books, Mingan

Perforations and Caverns of Michilimacinac

The Old Woman, Cape Gaspe

Niagara Caverns

Flower Pot Island, Lake Huron

Mono Cavern

Eramosa Cavern

Subterranean Passages-, Manitonlin Island..

21
11

12
13
14

Pillar Sandstones, north coast of Gaspe
Bigsby's Cavern, Murray Bay

Probable Caverns at Chatham

The Pictured Bocks, Lake Superior

St. Ignatius' Caverns, Lake Superior

Pilasters of Mammelles, Lake Superior

Thunder Mountain and Pie Island Pilasters,
Lake Superior

15 The Steinhauer Cavern, Labrador

16 Basaltic Caverns cf Henley Island

17 Empty Basaltic Dykes of Mecattina

19 Bouchette's Cavern; KUdare

22 Colquhoun's Cavern, Lanark

23 Quartz Cavern, Leeds

30 Probable Caverns Iron Island, Lake Nipissing

New Bed Sandstone

Lower Carboniferous

))

Portage and Che-

mung groups
Helderberg series

Onondaga Salt group
Gaspe limestones
Niagara

Sillery group

))

Ttenton limestone
» }>

» n

Chazy, Birdseye, and

Black Biver lime

stones
Calciferous sandstone
Potsdam sandstone

Old Bed or
Devonian

Upper
Silurian

Middle
SHunan

Sandstone
Greenstone
Greenstone trap

Crystalline limestone
Basalt

Crystalline limestone

Quartzite
Crystallino limestone

Lower
Silurian

Huronian
Bocks

Laurentian
Bocks

342 THE GEOLOGIST.

Taking the two classes together as representing thirty distinct
series of cavernous localities, one is found in the New Bed Sandstone
formation, two in the Carboniferous, two in the Devonian or Old
Red, seven in the limestones of the Upper, two in those of the
Middle, and six in those of the Lower Silurian formation, three in
the Huronian rocks of Sir William Logan, and seven in the Lauren-
tian rocks of the same geologist. In the last of these they are pre-
sent in the interstratified bands of crystalline limestone, characteristic
of this formation in Canada.

With a few exceptions nearly all occur in limestone rocks, and
their origin has depended upon various causes. The first fourteen,
which compose the first division, enumerated in a previous part of
this paper, are the results of aqueous action, as their situation, present
condition, and general description clearly prove. Perhaps an ex-
ception might be taken to the formation of pilasters and goihic
arched recesses, which are more properly attributable to atmospheric
influences. Volcanic agency has given origin to the basaltic dykes
of Mecattina (17), the basalt of Henley Island (16), Bouchette*s
(19), and Gibb's (20) caverns. The same cause has most likely in-
fluenced the subterraneous passages of Manitoulin (28), and Murray's
Cavern (29). On the other hand, Bigsby's Cavern (18), Colqn-
houn's (22), the Mono and Eramosa (25 and 26), and Bass Island's
Caverns (27) were formed by some other agency, in which a slow
disintegration of the rocks has occurred from chemical and other
causes, and the soluble particles have been removed by the influence
of water, entering by percolation from above, or between the neigh-
bouring layers of rock. The origin of the Quartz Cavern, by the ex-
plosion of a pyritous vein (23), is clear enough.

It would he premature to enter at farther length into the con-
sideration of the formation of these caverns until fiirther evidence
has been obtained. It is hoped, however, that this first attempt to
embody a descriptive and connected account of the caverns of
Canada in a single paper wiU be productive of ultimate good results
to science, by stimulating the zeal of those on the spot to carry out
by further exploration an earnest investigation of this interesting
subject, for there is still much to be done to render it complete.
Many of the caverns are systematically noticed and described for the
first time ; and before this memoir was written, the inhabitants of
that country were hardly aware that any caverns existed at all, except
the comparatively few residing in the immediate neighbourhood of
their presence.

HODGE — OSSIFEROUS CAVERNS AT ORESTON. 343

ON THE OSSIFEROUS CAVERNS AT ORESTON.

By Henry 0. Hodge.

(Continued from jpage 30, vol, iii.)

To tlie thick-skinned quadrapeds belong animals of at least four genera —
Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse, and Hog.

In addition to the Urge grinders of the mammoth, before described, there
occurred a remarkable molar tooth of a very young mammoth (length or antero-
posterior diameter of the crown one inch and three-quarters, breadth one inch
and o]ie-eighth), containing six plates ; it appears to belong to the " thick-
plated" variety, but is unlike any of the numerous small grinders of this
animal, contained in the British Museum and elsewhere, with which it has been
carefully compared.

The larger molars of the rhinoceros were aU fragmentary ; but a small tooth,
having its enamel equally thick with that of the larger specimens, may, it is
presumed, belong to a small species of that animal.

The teeth of the horse were comparatively very numerous, and comprised
the two species, Equm Jvssilis and E. plicidens. Some of the molars were re-
markable, not merely with reference to their large size, but also on account of
the elegant plications of their enamel folds, the festoons being more complex
than usual, and in one of these the presence of a small additional and nearly
oval island of enamel is apparent. Whether thLs specimen belonged to the
ancient primigenial Hippotnerium I am as yet unable to determine. There
were also various specimens of astragalus, a large coronary bone, and portions
of jaw with teeth. Other remains included teeth referable to those of a fossil
ass or zebra.

The chief remains of the hog were the interesting skuU before alluded to ;
it, however, wanted that portion containing the incisors, tusks, and pre-molar
teeth. An interesting fra^ent, containing three pre-molars in situ, and still
retaining the base of a tusk of the lower jaw, together with a considerable por-
tion of the extremity of a tusk of the upper jaw was afterwards met with in
the stalagmite. Another portion of the jaw of a young hog, its last molar
tooth not having yet cut the gum, was found, together with various large
molars, pre-molars, incisors, and two tolerably perfect tusks, belonging
respectively to the upper and lower jaw of this animal. It was remarked that
some of the teeth were in both caverns singularly stained of a yellow colour.

The ruminants probably included* one or two species of elk or deer, and two
or three animals allied to the ox. Teeth of the sheep or goat were also
brought me from the clay, but I have reason to be doubtful about the genuine-
ness of many of the last-named specimens.

Among the remains of animals of the deer tribe, I would specially mention
an interesting fragment of iaw, containing several teeth, developed by me with
some pains from a large ana nearly solid mass of stalagmitic matter, containing
various other imbedded bones. There occurred, too, a very few fractured
specimens of teeth, suggestive of those of a giraffe (this possibility having been
ascertained by companson with figures of fossil teeth contained in a paper by

344 THE OTOLOGIST.

Dr. Falconer and Capt. Cautley, in the Proceedings of the Geological Society
of London) and a small horn core may, it is presumed, also indicate the presence
of an animal allied to a species of this interesting quadruped.*

Among the bones of large oxen were teeth, some characteristic fragments of
the metacarpal and metatarsal bones, and two or three specimens of astragalus.

Of the carnivorous animals, canines and molar teeth of the hear pre-
dominated, indicatinff the existence of two or more species, among which may
doubtless be included Ursm spelaus and U. priscia.

The interesting though fragmentary canines of the cave lion or tiger, and of
the still larger and probably undescribed species before referred to, were for
the most pwt met with very near to the large grinders of the mammoth before
described. Among the specimens referred to tne wolf or large dog were many
of different magnitude, and I suspect that there may be good evidence of the
existence of carnivora intermediate in size between that of the wolf and the
larger feline animals.

Of the gnawing animals there were evident traces of small incisor teeth of a
quadruped about the size of a mouse diffused through some of the upper parts
of the clay, and one tolerably perfect ramus of a jaw was found loosely attached
to the side of a small cavity bud open on breaking a lai^ mass of stalagmite.

There also occurred a very few hollow conical teeth of two kinds, some of
which are possibly those of very immense reptiles, a cast in the stalagmite of
the abdommal rings and elytra of a supposed coleopterous insect, sonie bones
of birds, and, indeed, many other specimens, some of which may still be in-
cluded in masses of clayey stalagmitic matter that I have not yet had time to
examine.

In concluding this portion of my paper I beg to say that I should not haie
presumed to attempt this necessai'ily nastv and imperfect description of the
fossils so lately met with, but that I hoped, it might be of interest, and at the
same time give me an opportunity of gaining from competent authorities further
information respecting specimens, some of which it appeared not unlikely he-
longed to undescribed species of animals. It is right, moreover, in this place
for me to say that I have been informed by the manager of the quany tnat a
great number of bones and teeth were discovered before my arrival in Plymouth,
and that most of these were sold to the bone merchant. Many also of the re-
mains have been unavoidably dispersed in various other directions daring my
conduct of these investigations.

In beds of limestone existing further to the east of those in which the just
now mentioned fossil bones occurred, and which are evidently a continuation of
the same series of rocks, little or no dolomite is included ; they are also par-
ticularly free from caverns and generally from stalactitic deposits, presenting
us with similar limestone rocks, for the most part unaltered oy those changes
which produce the phenomena of dolomization and caverns. These rocks are
coloured black by the oxides of iron and manganese, and are traversed by
numerous white calcareous veins ; they form a part of the black marble so fre-
quently emploved for statuary purposes in this part of England. Distinct
bluish black slate and argillaceous hydraulic limestone beds are of veiy fre-

* Since the above has been written, I have had an opportanily of comparing these firag-
mentfi with teeth of similar form, from the Sewalik hills, in the north of India, contained in
the Museum of Marischal College, Aberdeen ; and I am indebted to the kindness of Professor
Owen for further confirmation of the opinion that the teeth are really those of a species of
fossil ij^irafib. The Museum at Aberdeen contains numerous other fossils and casts of jaws
with teeth, &t>m the same locality. From an inspection criT these, I feel also justified in con-
cluding that two other pre-molars found at Oreston belong to a species of fossu cameL These
jBacts wtU, if ftiUy confirmed, place on record the (I believe) first instance of remains of these
Interesting genera having been found in Britain, and aJso tend to indicate their extensive
geographical range during the geological period under consideration.

HODGE — OSSIFEROUS CAVERNS AT ORESTON. 345

quent occurrence in them, the beds containing occasionally iron pyrites, which,
by the action of the weather, tinge the surmces of the arffiUaceons and cal-
careous rocks of a rusty yellow colour. Applying now tne above facts to
account for the alteration of our cavem-containing rocks, we may legitimately
suppose that their previously contained pyrites might by its decomposition
yield a supply of sulphuric acid and sulphate of iron, and that these com-
pounds, reacting upon the limestone in their neighbourhood, would (in presence
of the air) finally produce sulphate of lime and peroxide of iron, the disengaged
carbonic acid at tne same time generated affording the required means for
effecting (in presence of moisture) the decomposition of its slaty layers ; these
in their thus disintegrated condition being afterwards comj[)ressed by means of
superposed beds of limestone into a compact series of beds identical with those
of our quarrj;, and coloured purple in their slaty seams by the above-mentioned
peroxides of iron and manganese. The bicarbonates of magnesia, and also the
bicarbonates of iron and manganese, reauired to produce dolomization being at
the same time formed by the action oi the carbonic acid upon the masses of
limestone, which is found on analysis to contain a sufficiently notable proportion
of the necessary ingredients.

But the physical evidence that these limestone beds are truly rocks of the
black marble series, altered by chemical chants in them, allied to those now
pointed out, does not alone rest on the similarity of their strata, allowance
being made for the effects of such changes ; the hollow cavities of the bkck
marble are occasionally lined with acute scaline dodecahedrons of calcareous
spar, and (n the supposed altered series of rocks similar crystals are met with,
these being generally coroded on their surface, and thus affording an evidence
of a chan^ in the conditions existing after their formation. In connection
with the deposits of stalactite, and in numerous small cavities in the dolomite,
other crystals of calc spar are not unfrequent, but under both these circum-
stances they exhibit dif&rent forms, those of the stalactite being generally acute
rhombohedrons, whilst the dolomitic cavities are lined with crystals havmg the
figure of obtuse rhombohedrons, combined occasionally with the plans of a
second rhombohedron, which is more acute. There are, moreover, in these
altered strata, instances of the formation of a second crop of crystals in the
cavities still occupied by the acutely scalenohedral forms, and in all the cases I
have had an opportunity of observing them, these secondary crystals invariably
contain obtusely rhombohedral surfaces. I may also add that there may be
considered to be ^ood evidence that the causes connected with the original
formation of dolomite took place under conditions very different from uiose
existinfi: at the present day, for not only does the iron pyrites belong to a very
persistent variety of that mineral (no marcasite being mixed with it), but the
oxide finally seen to result from its decomposition is not a yellow brown
hydrate, like that of the present day, but a red anhydrous peroxide, which
would not have been likely, unless the temperature at the time was somewhat
elevated.

During the progress of the study of these rocks, I was able to obtain phy-
sical evidence of the presence of atl the chemical compounds before described
as occurring in them, sulphate of lime alone excepted ; this, it may be remem-
bered, I supposed to have been removed by the agency of water ; and that
means adequate for the removal of this somewhat soluble salt existed, was
amply proved by the very numerous caverns produced by the decomposition of
the aolomite to which so frequent reference has been made. In the lower
strata of the quarry the workmen arrived at two very large openings of this
kind in the immediate neighbourhood of the bone cavern, and that these com-
municated with a plentiful supply of water was easily proved by the splasliing
sound heard when stones were thrown into them.

VOL. III. 2 X

346 THE GEOLOGIST.

There remain a few other facta which doubtless have an importuit bearing
on the former condition of the bone caverns.

The stratified beds of the Plymouth limestone dip most generally to the
south at about the high an^le of forty-five degrees ; there are, however, ex-
ceptions to this general rule, in certain places the beds exhibiting more or less
basin-shaped depressions, caused, we may legitimately presume, by the under-
mining 01 their foundation through the decomposition of the before-mentioned
irrepmarly distributed dolomite. If this be true, and similar causes have
during former geological pjeriods been in constant operation, the entire strata of
this limestone may m their mass have undergone considerable subsidence— a
presumption corroborated by the presence on its northern boundary of an older
series of unfossiliferous purple and grey slates of immense thickness, haying a
conforming dip of forty-five degrees, but now seen to lie at a consideraply
iiigher elevation. A second inference may also be deduced, viz., that, owing
to such causes, the bone caves, at the time they are supposed to have been
inhabited by camivora, might have been situated at a much greater elevation
than that at which we now discover them to be, affording these animals a dry
tmd comfortable retreat in the mountain for devouring their prey. The dislo-
cation of these rocks caused by their subsidence would afford, moreovra*, the
necessary mechanical force required to separate in the soft and deconi])osing
slaty layers the limestone beds from one another, affording in this way suitable
openings to the animals for entrance to and egress from their caves ; the further
subsidence again giving rise to displacements of the strata and hermeiicaily
closing them, until by still further mechanical change, an entrance being given
to calcareous waters, they deposited the stalactite and stalagmite now some-
times found within them. Aiid it may also be deduced from such considera-
tions that even during the human period the opening of these bone caves may
have been possible, and that savage races using their dry and capacious cham-
bers as a place of residence, and leaving their easily procurable flint hammers
on their exit, they may, through similar chemical and mechanical changes, have
once more been closed by the infiltration of stalactitic deposits. With respect^
however to this subject, I will not dwell upon it farther than to remark that,
^though we can never bring forward arguments having the conclusiveness of
eye-witnesses' testimony against the contemporaneity of man with the extinct
mammoth and its congeners, the facts I have stated will, if proj^rly considered,
tend to demonstrate that not merely is there no geological evidence whatever
to prove their co -existence, but that all the apparently powerful a]^;uments
based upon the occurrence of his remains in ossiferous caverns, may be merely
deceptive, and of no real significance or certainty whatever, as their presence
in them may be easily accounted for through the operation of natural and still
existing causes.

Again, there has been observed in the neighbourhood, and at a distance of
not more than two miles from the above rocks, the remains of a raised beach
on the coast fifteen feet above the present level of the ocean, and traces of
others have been met with in various parts of the adjoining district. These
raised beaches may at first sight appear incompatible with the view of a general
subsidence of the neighbounng strata, but it will, on consideration, be evident
that the formation of a large valley, through the falling in of very considerable
stratified masses, would naturally produce an upraismg at the sides of the
depression. In the neighbourhood referred to (that of the Hoe), it may be
seen that a great part of the town of Plymouth occupies such a valley, bounded
on the south by the limestone hills of the Hoe, and on the north by the high
strata of purple slate before referred to. Follovnng out the above idea, and
supposing that there has been in past geological time a general sinking of the
land in the northern part of our hemisphere, it is not dimcult to account for a

NOTES AND QUBBIES. 847

colder climate, through much greater elevation and more general distribution of
the land, prior to these changes ; and it may be easily explained why raised
beaches containing shells of arctic type may be compatible with such general
depression ; and these and other chemical changes acting below the sunace of
the rocks, and accelerated by the mechanical opening of their fissures through
the freezing of water in them, may be reasonably supposed to have in some
instances produced sudden floods of water accompamed by fields of ice, account-
ing for the presence of remains of thick-skinned monsters in the ice and frozen
sod of Siberia.

(To be eoHtittuedJ

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Elint Impl£K£NTS at Hoxne. — Sib, — ^Last week I paid a second visit to
the brickyard at Hoxne, in Suffolk, the interesting locality in which stone axes
are said to have been found beneath the remains of extmot animals. In the
October of last year I had the gratification of accompanying Messrs. Prestwich,
Evans, and Gunn to the same spot.

On my last visit I found the ground as left bv the various explorers, and I
learnt from the workmen that a clei^man from ^Norwich (Mr. Kmg) had been
there about a month previously, and nad found two celts, one was taken from
the brickyard four feet from its surface, and the other from the graveUy shingle,
which lies between the brickearth and the fluviatile bed, consequently above
the latter, and the workmen pointed out to me the precise spots. Mr. Prest-
wich secured a celt from the brick-earth at his first visit, and Mr. Evans a
large portion of a fractured one from the gravel-bed above mentioned. I am
not aware that more than four celts have been taken immediately from the beds
in which they lie by recent explorers of the ground.

As the object of this communication is to urge the verification of Mr.
Ereere's statements, which has not at present been done, I will here give his
section of the ground, that your readers may more readily understand what I
consider is stiu required to be done to verify it. Not that I in the slightest
dqgree question the faithfulness of his accounts ; still, the high interest apper*
taining to the subject renders it very desirable that no stone should be left
unturned to complete the inquiry.

The following is a copy of Mr. Freere's section : —

1. Yegetable earth, one and a half feet.

2. Argill (brick-earth), seven and a half feet.

3. Sand mixed with shells and other marine substances, one foot.

4. A gravelly soil in which the fiints are found, generally at the rate of five
or six in a square yard, two feet.

In the same stratum are frequently found small fragments of wood, very per-
fect when first dug up, but which soon decomposes on being exposed to the
air ; and in the stratum (No. 3) were found some extraordinary bones, particu-
larly a jaw-bone of enormous size of some unknown animaJ^ with the teeth
remaining in it.

Mr. Prestwich's section, given in his paper to the Eo^al Society, agrees
•with the above as far as the succession of strata ; but it is in a correction of
stratum No. 2, which is a freshwater deposit, and not a marine — ^a very excusable
error, considering that Mr. Freere's paper was written sixty-three years ago.

348 TBE GEOLOGIST.

From Mr. Preere's communication to the Antiquaries' Society of London,
written in 1797, we leam that the flint weapons were taken from No. 4 of the
aboTO section, and that the bones of " enormous size" were met with in No. 3,
consequently the flints lie beneath the bones, and if so, must have existed at
or before the deposit of the bones of the " unknown animal ;" and this is the
point of interest which requires to be proved. The astragalus of a mammoth
m the possession of Mr. Ainyott, of Diss, and mentioned by Mr. Prestwich m
his paper, I have seen, and there is no doubt respecting its nature ; but as Mr.
Amyott could not leam from which stratum at tne brick-yard it was taken, that
bone is of no avail in the inquiry.

There is nothing in the information recently acquired to disprove Mr. Freere's
statements ; at the same time, sufficient evidence has not .been sought to estab-
lish them. The probabilities are decidedly in their favour, and the correctness
of Mr. Freere*s account is greatly confirmed by the fact that tne flint-weapoDs
met with in France occur in similar positions, »'. e., in association with, and
beneath a fluviatile deposit, the flints in both cases being found in undistorbed
ground. Nor is our belief iu his account weakened, although it appears that
all the recent recoveries of the flints have been from strata above the bone-bed
No. 3, including the numerous flint-weapons that have been met with by the
workmen of late years, those persons havmg worked the ground for brick-earth
above the bone-bed only.

I have before said that this inquiry is of so interesting a nature that it is
highly desirable nothing should be omitted which can firmly establish the evi-
dence hitherto produced. As the recent explorations at Hoxne have not ex-
tended by digging (for boring only is anything but satisfactory) into stratum
No. 4 01 Mr. Freere's section, and as all the recently found celts have been
met with above the bone-bed No. 3, 1 hope that some steps will be taken to
carry the search thoroughly into No. 4, for till that is done, we are not in a
position to confirm or disprove Mr. Freere's interesting and valuable informa-
tion.

The only trouble, for I will not call it an obstacle, which vrill occur in the
deeper research at Home, will arise from an abundant flow of water; but this
may with little difficulty be removed by cutting a narrow trench into the
adjoining low-ground — a secondary tributary valley to the Waveney ; or by the
employment of a common wooden pump. — Yours laithfolly, C. B. Kose, Great
Yarmouth. August 9th.

Geological Notes on the Punjab. — ^Deab Sib, — ^I was going to say there
is not a stone of any sort, size, or description in the whole Punjab — at least,
in a length of three or four hundred miles that I am well acquainted with, two
hundred of which, from Mooltan to Lahore, is the site of the railway. With
such a country before me, it is not surprising if an amateur like myself forgets
his stone-and-dirt-ology, as I have every prospect of doing. There are, how-
ever, some trifling appearances, which the dearth of more important ones forces
on the observation ; one of these is the " Kunkur," from which all lime is
made. I said there were no stones here, I should have said rocks, for in various
places strewn over the surface of the sandy desert is found a quantity of
" kunkur." In some places it is as fine as barley-corns, in others large as
eggs, in shape most irregular, mosslike, and eccentric ; at times similar to
stalagmites, in colour green, brown, and red, fracture conchoidal. The origin
of this formation is a subject of intexesting speculation. The soil on which it
lies is — 1, A very fine drift-sand ; 2, An excellent brick-sand, or loam ; below
these, at twenty feet, fine white micaceous sand — say, six to ten feet ; then^
another bed of fine brick-soil and white sand again. This has been the appear-*
ance of the soil in the wells bored down in two hundred miles of railway. I
made a tour last year to the mountains of Cashmere in search of coal and iron.

NOTES AVD QUERIES. 349

I brought down some large blocks of hard " anthracite" and "culm," of which
there is a bed about two feet wide, nearly vertical, in fine limestone-shale. I
also got iron of a good quality, but Professor Medlicot has condemned both.
I can't help it : I did not put them there. Coal and iron are also on the Hjma-
la^as ; but Mr. Henwood, F.G.S., condemned them both. Doctors differ, but in
spite of all, the bad coal and bad ore make good iron, and Mr. Sowerby is
superintending the erection of extensive iron works on the spot. I know for
a fact, which he has mentioned, that in other countries the appearances are not
the same as in England, and he who depends only on what he has seen there,
is foolish to condemn dissimilar appearances in other countries. In South
Africa I have seen iron-beds in gneiss rock, the ore as bright as new-wrought
steel ; a few miles off the ore o^uite black and highly polarized ; in another,
huge blocks of brown oxide, quite hollow, when broken perfectly black and
shiny inside, a fine black haematite. At the Spring Fontem mines the copper
is entirely red like oxide of iron. With such experience, I think it foolish to
condemn what does not exactly coincide with our past experience.

When I have time you shall look over the diary of my sojourn in Cashmere.
Though it may not be sufficiently scientific to interest you deeply, there may
be a few amusing facts to pass half an hour over. I hope to repeat my visit,
as I saw some fine fossils in the limestone rocks ; but they are so precipitous,
even so old and experienced a traveller as I had much trouble to get over
them. — ^Most sincerely yours, John Calvert, F.G.S.

Pleistocene Deposits neab Liverpool. — ^Dear Sir, — I take this early
opportunity of confirming the observations of your correspondent with regard
to the above interesting deposits. In the neighbourhood of Liverpool Pleisto-
cene sands underlie the boulder-clay throughout the district, bemg seen to
advantage on the opposite shore of the Mersey, between Seacomb and Egre-
mont, and are frequently observed in artificial excavations. They contain
recent shells, but I am not able yet to prepare a list of them. " False bedding"
widely prevails, and in the locality Mj. Darling mentions, a most interesting
ripple-marked surface exists just where the sands end, the hollows of the
ripples being filled by the superincumbent boulder-clay. At the last meeting
of the Liverpool Naturalists Field Club, I pointed out similar beds of seum
beneath the boulder-clay at Hall, ten miles from Liverpool. — Yours truly, Geo.
H. Morton, F.G.S., Liverpool.

Manupacture op Stone Axes. — Sni, — ^A market gardener at Redworth, a
small village about seven miles north-west of Darlington, dug up a short time
ago in his garden a stone hammer. The portion of tne garden where it was
found has, until very lately, been pasture, and may not have been disturbed for
centuries. The axe was found at a depth of three feet from the surface. It
is about eleven inches long and four and a-half broad. One end of it is flat or
hammer-shaped, and the other is edged ; there is also a hole for a handle.

I do not write to you about the mere fact of its being found, but to inquire
whether you can give me any information as to the probable method of its
manufacture.

The hammer, or axe, is made of basalt, locally called " blue stone," of which
there is now a quarry at Bolam, distant about four miles from Redworth.
How could so hard a substance as the material of which the great whin-dyke
is composed be wrought and bored as this axe has been P Could it be done
without using some metal P Though, if. metals were known, why manufacture
stone implements P

To fashion it by friction would be a work of gigantic labour ; and how
could the hole for the handle be made P

I must confess myself completely puzzled, and hoping you can enlighten me,
I am. Sir, yours most obediently. Inquirer.

350 THE QEOLOOIST.

Leaving this interesting inquiry to be folly treated of by some of oar oor<
respondents who may have abreacty turned their attention to the subject, we
may suggest that the slow process of rubbing stones, first rudely fashioned by
fracture, into definite shapes with smooth surfaces by the friction of one piece
on another, was probably the actual process of manufacture, howeyer long a
time it may have required. The hole may have been produced by the slow
grinding of pieces of flint into the stone, possibly by means of some rade
revolving apparatus. At all events the manufacture of these hammer-heads
must have been extensively carried on throughout the country, especially in
the midland and northern countries, whence specimens of a£nost elaborate
workmanship have been not unfrequently obtainea.

Mr. Thomas Wright, the eminent antiquary, we know entertains the opinioii
that the better formed of the antique stone implements were contemporaneous
with those of metal, and were made with metal tools.

Geology op Cornwall. — In our reply, page 199, to the inquiry respecting
the geology of Cornwall, references to Sir Henry De la Beche's excellent
" Report on the Greology of Cornwall, Devon, &c., and to the Rev. Professor
Sedgwick's " Memoir on the Slate Rocks of Cornwall and Devon," in the
Journal of the Geological Society, vol. viii., p. 1, were accidentaJly omitted.

Geology op Reading. — ^Deab Sia, — ^I read in the April number of the
" Geologist," pa^ 151, in Mr. Charles Hickman's letter, some reference to
the geological series of deposits in this neighbourhood. We are referred to
the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for further information, but I
fear it is not in my power to get that ; so may I, as a constant subscriber ever
since the first issue of your valuable magazine, beg of ^rou to ^ve us a httle
information occasionally as to the strata and fossU varieties in this neighbour-
hood. The only one I have found has been a large oyster in the chalk oeds of
Caversham.

I hope you will excuse my taking this liberty. — ^Yours much obliged, A. H.
Reading.

K we are not favoured by some correspondent with a detailed account of the
chalk, Thanet sands, Woolwich beds, London clay, and gravels of the Reading
district, we will take an early opportunity of fulfilling our correspondent's
request. But we hope, that this interesting county will find its own geologist
The neighbouring district of Newbury, consisting of very similar formations to
those of Reading, has been described, in a little pampnlet by Mr. T. Rupert
Jones (Geol. Hist., Newbury, 1854. Blacket, Newbury ; Lovejoy, Reading.)

Geology op Sligo. — I see with surprise that you have in last " Geologist,"
pa^e 317, mistaken the band of mica-schist and other hard old transition rocks
which form the Ox mountains in Sligo and Mayo for Old Red Sandstone. The
latter is very thin, and but rarely seen in the neighbourhood of Sligo, according
to Sir Richard Griffiths.

The limestone of Sli^o is peculiar and unlike the great mass of that forming
the centre of Ireland ; it seems to be a great development of the lower beds
resting upon certain others (sandstones) conformably, concerning which th»e
is a (ufference of opinion, viz., as to whether they are really below the lime-
stone, or are interstratified with it at a considerable height in the formation.

I had hoped to have investigated this point when I was last at home, but
was prevented by the weather. Now, however, we may perhaps hope to hear
something of the rocks in that country from your correspondent, particularly
if he should be connected with the railway which is being made, ana will cross
both the range of older rocks and that of the Curlew mountains, formed,
I believe, in some places of Old Red Sandstone. — ^Very truly yours,
A. B. Wynne.

HiBBEETi ON Fossil Tish of Bubdiehouse. — Sib, — Can you infcHinme

NOTES AND QUEBIES. 851

what the price of Dr. Hibberti's work is on the fish-remains discovered at Bur-
diehouse oy him, and if it can be obtained P — I remain yours respectfully, J.W.

This book is out of vpnt, and not to be obtained of thepublisher. The
original paper is in the Transactions of the Eoyal Society of Edinburgh.

Extract of a Letter prom Edwd. Wood, Esq., E.G.8., Richmond,
Yorkshire. — Should any of your numerous readers be about to form a geo-
lo^cal museum with plate glass wall-cases on a somewhat extensive scale, I
am certain that much trouble and outlay, as well as time, will be saved by hav-
ing sent to them the elevation and plan of the cases as just completed in my
new room. Though the drawings were carefully made, and subjected to the
well practiced eyes of the courteous savans of the British Museum and the
Sorvey, still the cases had to be pulled down, and altered again and again.
No one but he that has tried it can know how difficult it is to stratigraphically
arrange a large series of fossils in proper display, or to make lai^ and heavy
slabs and microscopic examples fit together to Ime and to rule. At last this
has been in a great measure accomplisned here ; and I know that any applica-
tion for the plans addressed to Mr. John Metcalfe, the skilful cabinet-maker of
this town, wnO has so admirably made jdl the cases, will receive a prompt reply
and much disinterested information.

It mav likewise be valuable to some to know that Mr. Gavin Young, of
Carron Mills, Edinburgh, is a most admirable lapidaiy ; and thoush a penect
stranger to me, he has been entrusted with many of my rare fossiEa to reduce
and cut ; that in about a hundred sent to him, all have been cheaply and imme-
diately done, and that the most ponderous boxes sent have beea| so wonderfully
reduced in weight, that it required an examination to be assAed that all had
heen returned. In every instance the lines marked for cutting have been care-
folly kept — ^the value and capability of arrangement of rough specimens
wondcrfiilly increased ; and that in no instance has the delicate surface of any
one specimen been in the slightest degree scratched or injured.

Remarkable Property op Iron. — ^In the year 1856, says a contemporary,
Mr. March, an able chemist connected with the Royal Arsenal, discovered that
it was an invariable rule with iron which has remained a considerable time
under water, when reduced to small grains or an impalpable powder, to become
red hot, and ignite any substances with which it comes in contact. This he
fomid by scraping some corroded metal from a gun> which ignited the paper
containing it, ana burnt a hole in his pocket. The knowledge of this fact is
of immense importance, as it may account for many spontaneous fires and ex-
plosions. The tendency of moistened particles of iron to ignite was discovered
by the great Erench chemist, Lemary, as far back as the year 1670.

Silver in Calipornia. — M. Peligot, a professor of chemistTy in Paris, has
recently received a specimen of mineral silver, which reached General Morin,
the Director of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, from California. It
It is said to have been taken from a mine which occupies a surface of twenty-
five square miles, and is of ^eat depth. The mineral is described as remark-
ably pure and rich, containmg not less than twenty-six per cent, of silver,
together with a fair proportion of gold, copper, and antimony. Should the
mine be as rich as it is described, it will, in the opinion of the learned chemist,
restore the equilibrium between the relative value of gold and silver, which
was beginning to be disturbed.

PossiL PmiT Implements in America. — Sir, — Can yt)u inform me if any
truly fossil flint-implements have been found in America P whether the fiiut
arrow-heads, &c., commonly found in Canada, Peru, and other places on the
great western continent belong to the historical or ffeologicalperiods ? and
whether any weapons similar to those from the English and rrench gravel
drifts have been discovered in America ?

852 THE 0E0L00I8T.

These questions have reached us too late to say more than that as yet no very
accurate records have been made of the soils in which these instruments have
been imbedded in the countries named. Some are undoubtedly of the historic,
others may be of the geological period. We may refer our correspondent to vol. i.
of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge (Washington, 1848). In this
work, in an article on the " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," by
Messrs. Squier and Davis, there is figured, at p. 211, a spear-head, apparently
similar in shape to the specimen found by Mr. Wetherell at Homsey, and
figured in Mr. Mackie's Geological Diagram No. VI. (fig. 7). At page 214
are figiired on a very reduced scale three implements, which appear, as far as
one can judge of the engraYines, to be of like form to the so-called flint
" celts," (but which are more probably spear-heads) from the drift. In vmtirg
of these, the authors say : —

" It is a sinpular fact, however, that few weapons of stone or other materials
are discovered in sepulchral mounds ; most of the remains found vdth the
skeletons are such evidently as were deemed ornamental, or recognised as
badges of distinction. Some of the altar or sacrificial mounds, on the other
hand, have the deposits within them almost entirely made up of finished arrow-
and spear-points, intermixed with masses of the unmanufactured material.
Prom one altar were taken several bushels of finely-worked lance-heads of
milky quartz, nearly aU of which had been broken up oy the action of fire. In
another mound an excavation six feet long and four broad disclosed upwards of
Hx hundred spear-headsy or discs ofhomstone, rudely blocked out, and the deposit
extended indefinitely on every side. Some of these are represented in the accom-
panying engrailtig. They are necessarily much reduced. The originals are
about six inches long and four broad, and weigh not far from two pounds each.
Some specimens from this deposit are nearly round, but most are of the shape
of those here figured.* We are wholly at a loss respecting their purposes,
unless they were designed to be worked into the more elaborate implements to
which allusion has been made, and were thus roughly blocked out for the
greater ease of transportation from the quarries. With these relics were
found several large nodules of similar material from which portions had been
chipped off", exposing a nucleus, around which the accretion seems to have taken
place. These nodules are covered to the depth of half an inch with a calcareo-
siliceous deposit, white, and of great hardness. Such nodules are found in the
secondary hmestone formations. Several localities are known from which the
material may have been obtained. One of these, named "Flint Bidge," exists
in the counties of Muskingum and Licking, in Ohio. It extends for many
miles, and countless pits are to be observed throughout its entire length, from
which the stone was taken. These excavations are often ten or fourteen feet
deep, and occupy acres in extent. It is possible that the late as well as the
more remote races worked these quarries. Like the red pipe-stone of the
Coteau des Prairies, this locality may have been the resort of numerous tribes
— a neutral ground, where the war-hatchet for the time was buried, and all
rivalries and animosities forgotten."

This topic is one which we shall follow further out in our intended series of
papers on the " Pirst Traces of Man," which we commenced in the " Geolo-
gist" in vol. ii., p. 432, and which we intend very shortly to resume.

* Flatly x)eax-Bhaped, or more or less pointed.

THE GEOLOGIST.

OCTOBER, 1860.

GEOLOGICAL LOCALITIE S.— No. L

EOLKESTONE.

By S. J. Mackie, F.G.S., F.S.A.

(Goniinued fromjpage 327.^

Of all the Gtiult fossils, the Ammonites take precedence both for
beaatjr and number; and, holding as the Cephalopods do the highest
rank of moUnscous animals, we cannot but view their extraordinary-
variety in this deposit with singular interest. K, therefore, we dwell
here somewhat at length on their general classification, we could
scarcely choose a more fitting occasion.

As ordinarily seen in collections, the Gault Ammonites appear to
be all more or less of diminutive size. Few exceed two inches in
diameter ; many are little more than an inch ; while one of three
inches would be looked upon as a fine individual.

These specimens are, however, for the most part only the central
whirls solidified or hardened by interior walls, or in-fillings of iron-
pyrites. In the Gault itself Ammonite-shells of far larger size —
commonly of six or seven inches across, sometimes more than a foot
— are not merely frequent, but extremely abtindant, although, from
the fragile state of the main mass, they are commonly cleft to
pieces in breaking out the central pyritous cores without attracting
observation.

Even if collected, their tendency to peel away from the matrix

VOL; III. 2 Y

354 THE GEOLOGIST.

and to shatter causes tliem to bo soon ejected from the cabinet. This
latter case is, however, the rarest, and the large part of the shell is
Tisnally passed by and disregarded by collectors, which is to be re-
gretted, as from the adnlt forms the best information is to be
obtained of the structure of the animal, and particularly of the form
of the mouth, or orifice, of the shelL

This, well preserved in many specimens from other clay-strata, is
a part unknown in many species, even amongst the conmionest, from
the Gault. Its outline is very distinct fix^m those foliated sutures
which mark in the casts of these fossils the septal divisions of the
shell ; and which are often thought by amateurs, as they have been
by some unreflecting naturalists, to represent the successive edges of
the mouth at the various stages of growth. Such, however, is not
the case. At the mouth, or opening of the shell the actual growth
of course took place ; it was (here the shell-matter was added layer
by layer to the edge or rim, as we see it done in other shells. But
this was eflfected by the upper part of the Ammonite-animal, wlule,
on the contrary, it was by the lower part of the same animal that the
foliated septa were formed which divided ofi" the unoccupied portions
of the shell into separate chambers. These septa or divisional plates
are smoothly concave and plain in the living nautilus, because the
lower extremity of that animal is simple and bag-like ; while in the
Ammonite and others of the extinct cephalopods, as the Hamites^
Turrilites, Goniatites, &c, it was concave and more or less highly
foliated, or zig-zag, as the ovaries on each side were more or less
elaborately constructed and sub-divided into small and separate
egg-l^ags.

These foliations are entirely lateral, the central part of the septa
being smooth and undulating, while slightly varied striations, a
narrow flat band, or a tendency to prismatic colouring on the ^ides
of the shell-substance, may guide the experienced eye of the
naturalist to detect the outlines of the former cusps or undulations
which ornamented or characterized the mouth of the living shell-
But these indications of the former mouth occur solely on the out-
side of the shell; the foliations, being, in fact, the end-sections
of the septa, mre seen only in the casts, where, to use a familiar
simile, they may be compared to the ends of the rafters of the

GEOLOGY OF TOLKESTONE — THE GAULT. 365

various floors of a house when the front wall has been completely
pulled away.

No one can look at the pearly nautilus shell — ^the animal itself is
very rarely to be seen, even in a preserved state — and the common
native cuttle-fish of our shore, without noting at once a marked dif-
ference in the characters apparently presented to his view. A com-
parison of the animals, however, shows equally plainly that they are
truly members of the same natural group. So it is not to be won-
dered at that the early geological investigators should have failed for
a long time to have recognized the very various objects now known
to have been various solid parts of differently modified cuttle-fish as
referable to the class of Cephelopoda. Who, at first sight, without
previous training, would have imagined the dart-like sparry Belem-
nite and the glittering nacreous Ammonite to be the remains of ani-
mals belonging to this one group ?

The position of the ammonite in the animal kingdom was the more
easily made out fi'om its general resemblance to the nautilus, whose
pearly shell is a familiar ornament in our rooms ; but the translucent
spathose Belemnite sorely puzzled the early naturalists. It was
amongst the earliest recorded fossils, and some singular notions were
entertained of its origin, and some equally singular medicinal proper-
ties were also assigned to it. Whether or not belemnites are the
objects referred to as the Lyncurium by Theophrastes, or the
Dactylus ideeus by Phny, they are certainly noticed by Agricola
in 1646.

It is curious to trace the first strange guesses made as to what
these objects were, und then to see how slowly, how very slowly,
their true nature was made out. Some took them for the tails of
crabs, the vertebra of snakes, the teeth of whales, &c., and they
were alternately referred to every class of animals from the mammal
to the polype ; sometimes even they were put with marine algals,
and lastly they were thought to be " thunder-stones."

George Agricola, to whom we have already referred, knew the
entire Belemnite with its alveolus, and was the first author who used
the generic term. Conrad Gesner, in 1666, follows with the first
figures of these fossils, and in 1696 we find C^lespin occupying him-
self in attempting to make out their origin, and regarding the

356 THE GEOLOGIST

Belemnites, GloBSopetra (sharks' teeth), and the thnnder-stones as
derived from the Pinna or some other marine shell. Passing by
Michel Mercati, Bonlin, Imperato (who regarded them as stalactites),
Schwenkfeldt, Libavins, Boetius de Boot, Cemto, Chiocco, Aldro-
vandi, Merret, Charleton, and others, who speculated to little
purpose, copied from each other, or blundered, as Olans Worm
did, in mistaking them for flints from the cha]k, we come to
I^achmund, who, in 1669, made a ftirther step towards knowledge
by a primitive distinction of species, giving a goodly number of
woodcuts, which, though rude in execution compared with our
modem skilfrdness in that department of art, are sufficiently indica-
tive of the objects.

Our countryman. Lister, though generally so advanced beyond his
contemporaries in natural history knowledge, did nothing for the
Belemnites. In 1678, we find him placing them immediately after
the Echini, or sea-urchins, in his division of Lapides turbinati non
spirati without remark.

Grew, Jean Schroeder, Sibbald, Leibnitz, and Jacobssus follow with
equally bald results up to the time of Lhwyd, who made a great
collection of minerals and fossils from different countries, particu-
larly from England, and in 1699 devoted a chapter to Belemnites,
figuring all the varieties in his possession. While regarding the
alveolus as the matter which had filled the cavities, he searches little
after the origin of these fossils, and contents himself with consi*
dering them as concretions made in the tubes of worms.

With the dawn of the eighteenth century a more intelligent
ray of knowledge began to beam, although absurd notions still con-
tinued to be propagated. Toumefort (1?02) persisted in regarding
them as mere minerals (lyncurium) to favour his doctrine of the
growth of stones, and their reproduction from germs. Ghedini,
believing them to be crystals, thought they ought when perfect to
have two points instead of one. Helwing, following Lhwyd, looked
upon them as either marine plants, stony zoophytes, or marine tubes,
and imagined that they were pointed at both ends before they were
petrified and formed part of the rock. Volkman (in 1720), speak-
ing of those of Silesia, supposes them to be spines of fish ; and even
Swedenborg, having only seen the alveoles, regarded them as the

WATSON — NOTES ON METALLIFEROUS SADDLES. 357

tails of crayfish. At last, however, appeared in 1?24 the celebrated
dissertation of Ehrhart on the Belemnites of Franconia, in which he
demonstrated

1st That they were parts of marine animals allied to the !N'aiitili
and SpirulsB ; hence he perceived the affinity between the alveolus
and the body of the Belenmite.

2nd That they grew or were enlarged by the application of ex-
ternal layers of animal-matter. And

3rdly That their chemical composition was indicative of an
organized body.

And these points he rendered more intelligible and evident in his
second edition (172?) by a plate of figures.

(To be continued J

KOTES ON THE METALLIFEROUS SADDLES, OR ORE-
BEARING BEDS IN THE CONTORTED STRATA OF THE
LOWER CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF CERTAm PARTS
OF DERBYSHIRE AND NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE.

By Db. Joseph J. W. Watson, F.G.S., F.S.A., etc.. Member of the
North of England Institute of Mining Engineers.

The inferior division of the Carboniferous series in Derbyshire and
North Staffordshire, composed of calcareous rocks and shales, and
forming the Mountain Limestone group of those counties, presents,
particularly about the neighbourhood of Alstonfield, some very
interesting and remarkable associations of metallic minerals with
certain mechanical disturbances of the strata ; moreover, these asso-
ciations are not to be indiscriminately classed with the general phe-
nomena of the mineral veins of the districts in question, but must be
considered as special facts requiring a separate consideration and
explanation. Their existence is no new discovery, since they have
been recognized from, the earliest times that mines have been worked
in the places where they occur, and where also they are at most
times regarded as valuable features, inasmuch as the richest deposits
of ore have been found in connection vdth them ; indeed, so decidedly
has this been the case, that, in working the mines, much of the
future success has been calculated by the amount of probability of
any particular vein intersecting the disturbed beds; such unions

358

THE OEOLOGIST.

having, in nearly all coses, been attended with moat important re-
snlts, both AS rcnpectH the qnantity, aa well as the kind of ore met

with. Nevei'theless, I am not aware of their having ever received
any particular attention from geologiata, nor of their having been
anywhere described, circumstances which may probably arise from
the fact of these beds only being visible below the surface, and
nanally in deep mines ; or they may have remained unnoticed, from
the really small amomit of scientific observation which in this country
has been brought to bear on the facts connected with metalliferons
deposits, compared with what has been done, and is BtUl doing, in
other branches of physical geology. The present article ia drawn
from memoranda made during several careful surveys of mines which
arc notable, in North Staffordshire, for exhibiting the phei
the saddlea in great force.

LigtL 1.— Contorted or plicated .

In vertioal section.

The term metalliferons saddle, or rather simply " saddle," aa need
by the Derbyshire miner, ia a very expressive one, and pictm«f=,
almoat withont the necessity of fiirther description, the parbcolar
Mnd of structure to which it is applied. It will, however, assist ns
subsequently in more ways than one if we here recall a few of the
facts connected with contorted strata 80 called, and which are so fre-
quently to be observed in various rocks in nature. Firat then, m
many localities, where good cliff-sectiona are exposed, the strata of
various common rocks, and particularly schists and shalea, are seen
to have been crumpled, so to speak, or in other words, the beds, instead
of continuing on with their usual regularity, become twisted and
folded into the nioat singularly complex forms, this kind of stmotnre

WATSON — NOTES ON METALLIFEROUS SADDLES. 359

being sometiines maintained over a whole countay, althougli generally-
confined to a comparatively small portion of the strata. It happens
that the contortions, which are not to be confounded with those
larger effects of the same kind known as synclinal and anticlinal
axes, are so compHcated that, as in some of the oldest rocks of North
Wales, the folds are partly tnmed over, and the order of the strata
is actually inverted ; but such extreme cases are comparatively rare.
The country where the beds are thus disturbed almost invariably
displays other proofs of mechanical alteration, and usually more or
less of elevation. As conducting to the explanation of the dis-
turbances which may have taken place in a district these phenomena
are often very useful guides, since they nearly always indicate the
direction in which the disturbing force was apphed, and this I shall
presently show.

It may be demonstrated experimentally that plicated or folded
strata are the result of great lateral pressure, aided by much super-
incnmbent weight. Sir James Hall — ^whose important experiments
in uniting chemistry with geology laid out a path which, unfor-
tunately for the progress of the latter science, in at least one depart-
ment, has been since too little followed — succeeded admirably in re-
producing the appearances in the rocks by placing plates of moistened
clay one over the other, with a heavy weight on the top of them, and
then squeezing them at the sides. The effect produced is re-
presented in the diagram (fig. 1), which will also serve as an illus-
tration of the contortions on the large scale, as in nature. The
appearances, however, are best imitated by thick paper, or cloth,
moistened by gum, or other adhesive liquid, which will cause the
sheets to retain the form they may assume, after the pressure is
withdrawn. It will be observed that a series of consinuous waved
lines are produced ; in fact, a miniature succession of anticlinals and
synclinals, and it is one of each, taken separately, that the miner calls
a saddle (see fig. 2). The crown may be either an unbroken arch
(a) (fig. 2), or, if the squeezing and bending has been more severe
than the rock could stand without fracture, it may be an angle (c),
more or less acute. From the crown downwards there is usually a
w^ell marked fissure, or joint, traversing all the beds in succession
vsdth more or less inclination from the vertical (fig. 2, B B'). The
sides of a saddle are termed its wings, h V (fig. 2), and the crown is
called the huckle (a) ; the joint dividing the crown is called the
saddle-joint ( a B, c B') . The space between two saddles at its lower
part, which on the large scale would be termed a synclinal axis, is
called the trough (c) (fig. 2), and, as it is usually fractured like the
crown, the dividing fissure is called the trough joint, indicated by
the Hne d c

What I have just described relates more particularly to the lime-
stone saddles than to the plicated beds of the calcareous and bitu-
minous shales which overlie the limestone, since in the latter,
although the same general structure prevails, there is more confusion
in the strata.

360 1

The Boddle-beds are recorraat tlitongh tlie whole thickness of the
limestone series, and, at least, five sets of those beds are distingnished
in the neighboorhood of Alstonfield ; but, no certainty belongs to
this ennmeration, inasmacb as the same strata are plicated in certtun
parts and not in others. The saddle-beds are known to crop ont at
the surface, and a clue is thei^by afforded to and embraced by the
minor in searching for them below ; but it baa been particnlarly re-
marked that the contortions are always more gentle above than in
depth, resolving themselves, generally, into a long swell very dif-
ferent froih the rapid and closely associated folds ef the same beds as
seen below the surface. In fig. 3 the dotted lines, z, y, z, represent
this gradual dying out of the folds of the beds a a at their crop a' a' ;
bat f shall have presently occasion to refer again to this cnrious cir-

Lijfn. fi. — Contorted bede of altflmnting limeeL^qio teiA bIuUo flOnta, ahonliig the fbrmaticai of

cumatance. The breadth of the saddles from wing to wing, taken
midway above the trough, of course, varies greatly, but (Jiere is
something bke an average, and which may be stated at forty feet
The joints, both huckle and trough, run very regularly ; and it is
worthy of remark that they are always continued out of the beds
either above or below. Their ^neral direction is north-north-wefit
and eonth- south- east, which is also the direction of the joints, in »
large majority of cflses, of the Mountain-limestone, in Derbysbire
and Staffordshire. The perpendicularity of the saddles themselrea
on their line of strike (east and west) is a matter of some importance,
since by the way in which they are inclined so may the direction of
the maximum compressing force be ascertained ; thus if the majorilj
of the saddles bear to the right, it is more than probable that the
greatest resiatauce was to the left, and that the force, whatever it

WATSON — ^NOTES ON METALLIFEBOUS SADDLES. 361

miglit liave been, continued to act fix)m the right on the lower por-
tion of the already contorted beds.

In the shale beds these rapid contortions do not strike ns with so
mnch surprise as when the phenomena is seen in the more massive
and coherent beds of limestone ; and then it seems scarcely credible,
even to the geologist, that the folded strata could ever have been de-
posited horizontally, and that, with comparatively so little firacture,
they could have been bent into their present form by simple pressure.
In cases where a separate well marked bed, left standing, forms the
roof and sides of ir level in a mine, the entrance to such level from a
transverse gallery or shaft wears all the appearance of an arch of
artificial masonry, and the deception is only removed by close
inspection of the contiguous rock. Natural arches, formed by the
weathering and removal of the soft beds, are not uncommon in cliff
sections of contorted rocks, but then the spread of the strata is
usually much wider, and the idea of such vast compressing force
having been put in action is not so obtruding. The coal-measure
" binds" (argillaceous sandstones) on the shores of Carmarthen Bay
between Saundersfoot and Tenby display some very remarkable ex-
amples of weathered contorted beds, but they are in no respects
equally striking with those of the limestone strata above described.

Next to the form and structure of the saddles we may conveniently
consider the associated minerals ; but, before we can do this satis-
factorily, the circumstances connected with their union with the
metallic veins — which invariably, in the districts which now occupy
us, form part of the general system of displacements of the stratifica-
tion— must have our attention ; and perhaps it may simplify matters
in this respect if we select an example for description. Let us take
the case of the Old Ecton mine, in the parish of Alstonfields, North
Staffordshire. * This mine deserves our choice not only because it has
made very large returns of ore, but also because, from the length of
time it has been working, the ground has been so thoroughly opened
that the relationship between the saddles and veins has been better
made out than in more recently opened and less developed setts in
that neighbourhood. The veins which here exist are " pipe veins*'
and "rake veins," and may be thus particularized.

The pipe veins are irregular cavities inclined at angles varying fi^m
fifteen to thirty-five degrees to the horizon; have no proper longitu-
dinal bearing, like the Cornish lodes for instance ; and have generally
the most important of their expansions parallel to the bedding of the
strata which they traverse ; and whose dip is also the direction of
the pipes, although these are by no means always confined to any
distinct bed of stone, but, on the contrary, usually pass through
several beds in succession until they reach the saddles. The general
relations of a pipe vein to the stratification of the rocks is shown in
fig. 3, E JS, which also represents the course of such a vein through
the different beds in the direction of their dip, as just mentioned.

The rake veins in the Ecton district are usually a series of vertical
fissures falling in with the pipe veins, and, occasionally, passing

VOL. III. 2 z

362 THE QEOLOQIST.

through them. These veins are seldom highly incHned as regards
the relationship of their plane to the vertical plaiie of the rocks ; and
considered with regard to their contents, only become productive in
the immediate vicinity of, or at their conjuncture with, the pipe
veins. It is, indeed, questionable whether they may exist even as
fissures at any very great distance from the pipes ; at any rate, their
origin may be safely assumed as contemporaneous. They are not
often twitched, or, in other words, the spaces between the walls
seldom present any great irregularities of size, such as commonly
arise where the edges of the strata, originally opposite, by the nature
of the fault are brought to different levels. The direction of the
rake veins varies, but a great number have been observed to run
north-north-west to north-west. Crossing them, usually at nearly
right angles, are other similar veins, which however must not be
confounded with another set of great fractures which extend east and
west, or nearly so, through a considerable extent of the country, and
frequently intersect the saddle-beds in the direction of their strike.
These fissures are locally known as " lums," this name having an analo-
gous signification in mining language with what are elsewhere called
cross-courses, although they differ essentially from these both in
their mineral contents as well as in their effects on the veins with
which they are associated and cut across.

The lignograph, fig. 3, represents an ideal block, or parallelopiped,
of the country in the neighbourhood of the Ecton and Dale mines
without reference to the surface, and exhibits the strata, 1st, as they
would be seen in vertical section on their line of strike ; and 2nd, as
they would be seen in vertical section in the direction of their dip.
The plane A B E F shows the contorted beds, or saddles, and those
which are superincumbent but not contorted, h c d e: A B JE F ia
also the plane of the cross-course, called the lum, which consequently
intersects the saddles vertically. The general features of the pipe-
vein E F' in this diagram have been already explained, but E g,
F g\ F g" will show the connectionship of this vein and the rake-
veins, as seen in plan ; the bearing of the rake-veins is north-east,
south-west, and south-east. The gradual dying out of the con-
tortions towards their crop at the surface, where they form, as
already stated, merely waved strata, a' a\ explains itself by the
dotted lines x y z. The dotted line o o' is supposed to proceed from
saddle-beds much lower in the series (see also p. 365), and which
consequently crop out a great deal farther to the south.

When considering the origin of metalliferous accumulations
whether in igneous or stratified formations, any peculiarities in the
composition of the rocks are as important to notice as are differences
of structure in the same rocks. It may be, therefore, here mentioned
that many of the beds in the vicinity of the saddles, at Ecton and
elsewhere, are highly charged with silica — either in a segregated
form as pseudo-strata intercalated between the coursings of the
stone, or by a species of pseudo-morphism : a bed of limestone, while
retaining many of the marks of its sedimentary origin, is wholly, or

WATSON — NOTES ON UETALUFEROUS SADDLES.

363

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3G4 THE GEOLOGIST.

in part, converted into silica. Most of these siliceons beds, however,
are composed of a description of grannlar calcedony, or chert, com-
monly of a dark grey colour, inclining to and passing into black,
semi-opaqne, and having its surface and fissures often lined with
minute pyramidal crystals of quartz. These chert beds do not
appear to have any direct connection with the ore-deposits, but their
history, in other respects, as I shall presently show, may undoubtedly
have a bearing in the general question of the origin of the varions
phenomena embraced by the dynamical theories involved in our
subject.

But we must now turn to the metallic contents of the fissures.
The pipe- as well as the rake-veins, are invariably mineralized with
Bulphuret of lead (galena ore), mixed with a small quantity of sul-
phuret of zinc (blende), which is deposited in the ordinary layer-like
form on the walls of the fissure, and accompanied by a gangue or
rain-stone of carbonate of lime, barytes-calcite (carbonate of lime and
baryta), cawk, or the massive variety of sulphate of baryta, dreelite
(sulphate of baryta and lime) and strontianite. Sometimes, never-
theless, the pipe-veins enclose largo separate fragments or lumps of
ore embedded in soft decomposed limestone, and unaccompanied by
any true veinstone. Such occurrences are not infrequent -where the
veins squat — that is a line, after passing from one set of beds to ano-
ther set situate below them, the pipe swells out in a direction parallel
with the coursing of the last entered stratum. (See the section of
the pipe- vein in the diagram fig. 3.) When the pipes come down to
the saddle-beds, they commonly expand in size rapidly, the quantity
of ore increases, and the vein assumes a more banded structure, the
vein-stone alternating with ribs of ore ; at the same time their is an
augmented flow of water, and the adjoining rock, or country, is
thickly threaded with small ore-bearing fissures. At such junctions
large deposits are the rule — ^that is to say, if the pipe has previously
borne ore ; and any very considerable returns are seldom expected
until these points are reached, unless, as is rarely the case, the rake-
veins are found to be very rich at their intersections of the pipe- veins
above the saddles. The first appearance of the contortions is marked
by a universal fissuring of the rock, most of the fissures bearing ore,
and the ceasing of the pipe to retain any longer the distinctive cha-
racter of a separate vein.

A rude representation of the arrangement of the ore in the saddles
after their intersection by the Vein is given in fig. 4. A marks the
buckle or crown of the saddle, which is usually unmetalliferous ; c c'
are the wings, and on them are some of the principal deposits of ore,
a a* ; B is the saddle-joint, and is commonly ore-bearing for a limited
distance, vertically between the huckle and the trough, the ore dying
out below ; the troughs are marked//', and are the parts richest in
ore, a a\ very large and solid deposits being often encountered at
these poiijts ; D B' is the trough-joint, usually more productive than
the saddle-joint ; lastly, w, x, y, z are mineralised fissures running np
to the pipe, and often containing ore solid enough to be worth foflow-

WATSON — NOTES ON UETALLIFEBOUS SADDLES. 365

ing, while sometimes they are also sufficiently nnmeroos to repay the
cost of removing the whole of the rock containing them. But the
ore-bearing parts of the saddles extend in reahty to two separate sets
of beds, distingniahed aa the thick and the thin beds,//' and g g' (fig.
4), the latter being immediately under the former. The mineral, h b',
IB associated in the thin beds, g g', under nearly similar conditions to

those which have been described above for the thlclc beds (//') ; the
ore deposits in the former arc generally worked by driving cross-cut
levels from the tronghs of the thick beds (see dotted line o o' in the
lignograph). No true vcin-stonc accompanies the ore in the saddles,
hot crystallized calc-spar is not nnfrequently plated with ore on the
cheeks of the fissures, and spar also exists beneath the ore on the

360 THE GEOLOGIST.

wings. In place of a vein-stone, however, there are certain accom-
paniments of a peculiar condition in the rock which are considered
by the miner as bearing unfailing testimony of the proximity of ore ;
these guides are called the " weigh-beds" (e e' e*' e'" in diagram), and
are composed of soft decomposed limestone much resembling (although
possessing an entirely different chemical composition) the clayey
contents of the " slides," and often " cross-courses" associated with
the lodes in Cornwall, and there termed " flookan." The position of
these beds is immediately overlying the ore, both in the thick as well
as the thin beds (see lignograph), but particularly the latter, where
the " weigh" is said " to change into ore." The collective term in
use for the various mineralized portions of the saddles is " bearing
beds." Cutting across the sadAes or bearing beds, as has already
been mentioned, are the east and west fissures called " lums ;" their
veins are usually of great magnitude, and are commonly entirely
filled with marl and decomposed limestone, although in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of the pipe- veins some ore proceeding fix)m the
saddles is mostly found attached to the cheeks of the vein.

But if there is a great change in the structure of the vein, and the
mode of deposition of the ore when the pipe-veins come to intersect
the bearing beds, the change in respect of the nature of the minerals
is greater still, the ore in the pipe^ and rake- veins being lead, while
that in the saddles and limestone is almost always copper ; some lead as
usually found at first in the saddles, but as the beds near the limestone
the proportion of copper ore invariably increases, until the whole
deposit consists of this mineral. The distance to which the ore is
deposited in the bearing beds laterally divergent from the point of
intersection of the pipes, amounts seldom to more than two or three
saddles* breadth on either side, although there is no rule in the case ;
the transverse deposits, i. e., those which are parallel with the saddle-
joints, either on the wings or in the troughs entered often as much
as eighty fathoms in one direction from the point of intersection
with the pipe and limestone, and inasmuch as the limestone as stated
above usually contains some ore at such points of junction, the saddles
are in such cases said " to carry away the ore."

The description of the mode of occurrence of the ore in the bear-
ing beds as well as in the pipe- and rake-veins, in the preceding
paragraphs is a fair reswme, I believe, of the aggregate of the observa-
tions of the most experienced miners in the districts lying north,
west, and south of Alstonfield, both in Staffordshire and the neigh-
bouring county.

From the consideration of appearances we naturally turn to the
causes which have produced them ; and although it forms no part of
my intention to give more in this article than something like a con-
nected account of the phenomena observed in these metalliferous
saddles, as entered among my notes, there are yet some questions
respecting the history of the facts which need a brief recognition in
this place. It has already been assumed that the plication of the
beds has arisen from pressure laterally applied, and the origin of the

WATSON — NOTES ON METALLIFEROUS SADDLES. 367

clianges may be attributed in general terms to subterranean disturb-
ances. A glance at the geology of the neighbourhood to which our
observations apply, is sufficient to show by surface evidence alone
that the countiy, to anglicise a useftd French geological term, is
acddented ; and we may consider the whole of the changes, whether
mechanical or chemical, to have occurred subsequently to the first
formation of the rocks. What is more, if we attribute the presence
of the bands of chert to the separation of silica from hot springs
during the deposition of the strata, we may fairly assume that the
rocks themselves are formed over some old focus of disturbance;
and in this way the siliceous beds may be considered as remotely
related, as once before observed, to the chain of firtt causes in the
history of events. We may infer, then, that the dislocations of strata
giving rise to the irregularities of the surface, and probably the
greater part of the veins, fissures, and joints have resulted from
elevatory forces uplifting wide tracts of country with energy varying
in intensity and unequally applied. For the plication of the strata,
the in-filling of the ores, and the general molecular changes in the
rock composing the saddles, we must look to another cause, the
opposite of the above, namely, depression. And if we reflect for a
moment on the change of volume that takes place in solids when
aflfected by high ranges of temperature, not sufficient to produce in
degree any other change, it will be evident that any large mass of
strata carried below the stratum of invariable temperature and ex-
posed, it may be, for centuries to a regular, though not necessarily
very high, temperature, will, if afterwards elevated, display marked
effects, partly mechanical, partly chemical, of the action to which it
has been subjected. The expansion of rocks in the direction of their
length has been made out for each increment of one degree of Fah-
reiiheit above the ordinary mean temperature at the surface, and by
these experiments we learn that if a mass of limestone one hundred
miles in length be removed by subsidence to a depth of about two
miles below the stratum of mean temperature*, where it will
encounter an elevation of one hundred and eighty degrees Fahren-
heit beyond the mean temperature of its original position, it will
undergo a lineal expansion amounting to about five hundred and
forty feet. But such an increase in length could not fail to exert, if
opposed by any adjoining resistable rocks, aided by superincumbent
pressure, a very marked effect upon aU the compressible strata of the
limestone, squeezing and contorting the beds after the manner
observed ; and at the same time it will be evident that long e2q)osure
of the rocks to a perfectly even and regular temperature would tend
to produce great molecular change, and probably a semi-crystalline
condition. In connection with this therefore, it is well worthy to be
remarked that these plicated beds which I have been describing are
perfectly devoid of organic remains, while the beds above and below

* The stratnm of mean temperature lies in latitudes forty-eight degrees and
fifty-two degrees north, at a depth of about sisty to sixty-four feet.

3GS THE GEOLOGIST,

them are loaded with fossil debris, particularly the stems of encri-
nites. It may be argued that as the contorted beds occur at intervals
among the other beds, they must have possessed some peculiarities
that caused them to undergo such great mechanical changes, while
the other beds are comparatively unaffected. It may be answered
that this was probably the case, and that these beds, moreover, are
exposed by circumstances to a greater amount of compressing force ;
for it must be borne in mind that all the strata show more or less of
contortion, and that it is only in limited areas that the bearing beds
themselves exhibit the phenomenon in the utmost degree, inasmuch
as there is an almost undistinguishable difference in this respect
between these strata and the others at their crop*, as before observed.
The mentioning of these facts is necessary, lest it may be
thought that these contorted strata were formed and transformed
previously to the deposit of the overlying beds, against which sup-
position there is every evidence.

But to return. During the re-emergence of the mass of the
strata, for which we have been supposing the changes above
imagined, we may conceive the dislocations and separations of the
beds, whether separately between themselves, as in the saddles, or in
whole masses, more or less vertically, as in the veins, to have
occurred. The complicated fissures forming the pipe-veins, with
their associated rake-veins, were in all probability formed simul-
taneously with the fissures in the bearing beds. It the same time, it
is likely that the great east and west faidts called the " lums," were
of more recent origin, and formed by a wholly separate system of
dislocations ; and it may be taken that the saddle-beds are the lines
of least resistance, along which these last manifestations of the dis-
ruptive force displayed themselves. Moreover, there is great reason
for supposing that the infilling of the fissures and joints in t^e bear-
ing beds, with their cupreous contents, were effected through the
media of the lums which were thus formed. The lead, on the other
hand, was probably supplied to the pipe-veins through the agency of
their intersecting rake-veins, which continue to descend indepen-
dently of them to unknown depths, and are probably the channels
through which the plombiferous menstrua originally ascended.

The parts stated at the conclusion of the last paragraph point to a
remarkable natural distinction between the saddles and the pipes in

* The ontooming of the bearing-beds is recognized, among other appearances,
by the more crystalline character of the limestone, but with the exception of the
occasional presence of the peroxide of iron, there is nothing to indicate the
metalliferons condition which obtains in them elsewhere ; and, it may be, though
I have no positive knowledge of the fact, that their nnfossiliferous state, as re-
marked in the text, is also only partitive. It is not difficult to imagine that the
intense squeezing, necessary to produce the often fantastic contortions of the ore-
bearing parts of these beds, would be sufficient to crush and obliterate any re-
mains of organisms previously preserved, particularly if aided by any subsequent
arrangement in the molecuhar agglomeration of the rock, of which "there is
abundant evidence in, at loaat, the productive portions of these strata.

WATSON — ^NOTEa ON MBTALLIFBEOUS SADDLES. 369

the nature of their ore contents, and, partly on this acconnt, it has
been remarked at the commencement of this notice that the saddles
must not be classed indiscriminately with, bnt rather mnst be consi-
dered apart fron\, the general vein-system of the districts in which
they occur. Of course the separation cannot rest alone on the ground
of a change in the description of the ore, since many such changes,
and often from lead to copper, frequently occur in depth in true veins.
The real distinction lies in the mechanical position of the ore, which,
it would seem, gives a classification for the saddles between veins and
bedded deposits ; and this arrangement will be ftirther confirmed if.
Considering that the latter mostly comprehend mineral accumulations
introduced from above, and the former those injected from below, the
agency of the lums be regarded in a two-fold light — ^first, as
originally giving passage to copper-bearing solutions, with which
their other mineral contents were at one time largely impregnated ;
and, secondly, by afterwards permitting a free electrolysis of the
salts by which the copper was determined to the fissures in the
saddles, and by then, or after, acting chemical changes resolved into
pulphurets (copper pyrites) as now found.* Thus conceived, the
segregation of the ore in the saddles is a special phenomenon, and
deserves, as I hope I may have succeeded in some measure, at least,
to show, a separate and attentive consideration at the hands of phy^
sical geologists. It is not to be confounded with 'what in Flintshire
and elsewhere in the mountain-limestone mining-districts are termed
" flats," or " flat veins," notwithstanding that it more nearly resembles
those descriptions of deposits than any others. Still it is widely
difiTerent, since as on one hand flat veins, as their name implies, are,
comparatively speaking, horizontal veins, and often occupy a plain
corresponding irregularly with the stratifications, so, on the other
hand, the constant position of the ore in certain beds, as well as cer-
tain parts of those beds, is, beyond all doubt, the distinguishing
peculiarity of the general phenomena of the saddles.

In the foregoing observations I have endeavoured to describe as
nearly as possible the average of the appearances presented by the
bearing beds of the Ecton district in the limestone ; but, as before
mentioned, the same phenomena are observable in the Upper Lime-
stone shales. They do not, however, merit any separate description
beyond the statement that they are similarly mineralized, are equally
traversed by lums, and have the same mechanical relations witii the
neighbouring veins and with the associated strata.

* Where galena is the aesociated ore, copper seldom occnrs in any other form
than as copper pyrites, a fact worthy of remark in connection with the para-
genesis of metallic minerals.

VOL. HI. 3 A

S70 THE QEOLOOIST.

GEOLOGICAL TOPICS.

THE FIRST TRACES OF MAN ON THE EARTH.
(Continued from vol. ii., pa^e 482.^

The first person to verify the geological aee of the flint-implement strata of
the yaUey of the Somme was Dr. Rigollet, wno in 1854 published his " Memoire
sur des Instruments en silex trouy^ a Saint Acheul pres Amiens^ et consideres
sous les rapports G^loeique et Arch6oloeiqQe/' * iliustrated bv five sections
of the beds by M. DutiUeux, and with arawings of the worked flints. After
stating that on many occasions the bones and teeth of fossil elephants had
been met with in the same beds, he adds — " My curiosity was strongly ex-
cited in the month of August last (1854), when M. Dutilleux, Member of the
Society of Antiquaries of Ficardy, informed me that he had found there also
axes or instruments of flint evidently worked by the hand of man. This fact,
however astonishing, was the less so as M. Boucher de Ferthes had amiounced
the like discoveries at Menchecourt and at the mill at Quignon, near the gates

of Abbeville."t

Feeling that these • discoveries supported the statements of M. de Ferthes,
Dr. Rigollet thought the geological question the most important^ and the first
to be investigated.

Accompanied by M. Buteaux, member of the Geological Society of France,
and author of an excellent memoir " On the Geology of the Department of the
Somme," Dr. Rigollet inspected the beds themselves. He induced abo M. E.
Hubert, the professor of geology of the Ecole Normal Sup^rieure of Fans,
who for many years had spared no labour nor travel in the special study of the
quartemary deposits, to visit the excavations at Saint Acheul and Saint Roch,
and the deposits at Abbeville, and to inspect the rich and curious collection of
axes and worked flints of M. Boucher de Ferthes.

"At Abbeville, as at Amiens," says Dr. Rigollet, "the worked flints are met
with solely at the lower part of the diggings, in the midst of the sand and
gravel. Some of those found at Saint Acheul are still covered with a
calcareous coating that at certain places envelopes the boulders and gravel, and
which adherent gangue is met witt only in this stratum, and is not seen in any
of the overlying beds. At Saint- Acheul, from the same place where these pro-
ducts of human industry are met with, M. Dutilleux obtained the tusk of an
elephant, and bones and teeth of extinct species of horse, ox, and deer, the
substance of which is dense, and heavy, as if impregnated with calcareous and
perhaps siliceous matter, and totally unlike the bones of men, oxen, or horses
found in superficial deposits, which are porous and light, even when they date
back for fifteen or sixteen hundred years."

" Thus it is well established," M. RigoUet adds, "that these flint objects are
not found in the brick-earth which forms the uppermost stratum, nor in the
intermediate beds of clay, sand, and small pebbles, but are met with exclusively
in the veritable diluvium" M. Rigollet collected upwards of four hundred of

* Amiens, 1864, Duval et Herment.

t Part of M. Boucher de Perthes book was translated and embodied in " The Stone Period,"
bj Dr. A. Hnme, of Liverpool, in 1851.

GEOLOGICAL TOPICS. 87l

these flints, all worked in the same manner, althoush for different purposes.
"For the most part there is a general resemblance of form, which is ordinarily a
flat oval, of which the upper part or thick end is smooth, remaining in its
primitive state, while the sides and point are sufficiently sharp to havepermited
their use without recourse havm^ been dad to grinding.

"Others resemble a dagger (poignard) ; and some haye the form of a triangular
pyramid, of which the fastenings (aretes) are very irregularly hollowed out by
the conchoidal chippings of the flint. The figures we have given will convey the
form of these productions of so remote an age ; their medium size is ten or twelve
centimetres in their greatest diameter. There are others in which this dimension
is only eight centimetres, and some in which it is twenty-four centimetres.

** When one has seen some of these stones, they can be recognized immediately
as belonging to the diluvium. Those which M. Boucher de rerthes has found
in the same deposit at Abbeville have a like form and are worked in the same
muiner. I could not say what has been their use ; and on this subject every
hypothesis ought to be carefully excluded, and we should content ourselves
with stating the facts in all their simplicity."

M. E. de Marsy also, published a work on this subject entitled " Kapport
sur I'ouvrage de M. Boucher de Perthes ayant pour titre, * Des Monuments
Celtiques et Antediluviens' " (12mo., 1855).

M. de Perthes now devotes a chapter of his book to " the erratic blocks,
-flints, and animal debris transported by ice."

*' This may at first appear foreign, he says, " to the subject of this book,
but one will soon see wny I insert it, and how transportation by ice has con-
tributed to the formation of some deposits, and consequently to the com-
mingling of objects brought from many ana often distant points. Hence one ought
not to be astonbhed at finding in the diluvium debns of various origins, or
bones of animals which have not inhabited the same lands, and even of the
arms, signs, and instruments of stone worked by men who lived perhaps in
very different countries.

** How the ice has been able to transport the boulders, the bones, and the dif-
ferent detritus which compose these tertiary layers and analoeous deposits
I will now try to explain by the ideas which struck me for the first time
when 1 traversed the glaciers of the Alps, and since when I have seen on the
peaks of the Pyrenees, on Etna, and other mountains those masses of snow of
which the origin is lost in the night of Time, for if the superficial layers melt
and are renewed, the snow beds below remain always the same. In what
manner, then, were those first snow beds formed? Why have they not
annualiy disappeared like those which have followed them ?

**It may oe thought that at different epochs there have succeeded
without interruption, during periods of more or less duration, violent
storms of snow, of which the consolidated masses have at certain points over-
topped the trees, filled up valleys, and enshrouded mountains, the earth for
a great part of its surface presenting an immense plain over which there
reigned but one season — winter.

" This snow has consolidated and maintained itself throughout a vast period
of time ; at this hour even it has not entirely disappeared, we see its remnants
in our glaciers.

" It was the melting of the snow of the plain and on the slopes of the moun-
tains which produced a last deluge. But before this deluge swept the earth,
it is possible that entire families, especially of the herbivora— deprived of food,
since it was buried under that icy sheet — ^had been annihilated ; or if they were
not suddenly destroyed, the alteration of climate would have arrested their re-
production. One can comprehend that from this snowfall, and from its con-
tinuance, there would have resulted a great refrigeration of tJie atmosphere

372 THE GEOLOGIST*

even in those countries which the storm had spared. Hins in IVanCe, where
palms and a tropical vegetation flourished before, by reason of the change of
temperature, onfy northern plants would be produced, or those which we see
there now.

" For the same reason the animals of hot climates of which we find the hones
would have ceased to appear there, and to multiply. It might be objected that
the cause being destroyed and the snow melted, the effect ou^t to cease, and
the temperature to return to what it previously was. Truly, if this thaw had
been umversal ; but it is not so, witness the polar ices and all the glaciers of
the mountains; witness also the colder aspect of aU the uppermost strata of the
earth, — a reduction of temperature which may have dated from this veiy
cataclysm.

" T^hat would tend also to prove, up to a certain point, these deluges of
snow are the skeletons of mammoths found in Siberia with their flesh. Sufo-
cating them on the spot at the moment when they were fuU of life, that snow,
since transformed into solid ice, could alone accomplish such a result. One
can comprehend, too, how these animals, flying from the sudden and violent
storm, were arrested by the sea, and when entirely cqf ered by the snow, since
frozen and hardened, their bodies have been, so to speak, eternalized, for
they would have been able to endure for millions of years still in the same state, if
the amelioration of the temperature or some fortuitous cireumstance had not
brought about the melting of the ice which enveloped them. H^ice the quan-
tity of their bones which still covers Nova Zembla and a part of Siberia, bones
so well preserved that the ivory of their tusks is esteemed nearly equal to new.
It is then perhaps at the bottom of some glacier, under some avalanche, or in one
of the enormous blocks of polar ice that we shall find antediluvian man ; and it
will not be merely his bones that we shall see, but the man entire, snch as he was
when, put to sleep by the cold, death surprized him, and the icy preserving
winding sheet enveloped him like a fly in amber.

" The world will treat this as a revery ; but how many fertile foresights,
which our fathers had treated as fables, have been realized ? How many others
rejected in our incredulity will be manifest truths to our descendants ? Leav-
ing here the speculative, and returning to the positive, we regard this deluge
of snow as the result of a sudden cause which has not yet entirely ceased.
The polar ices and our glaciers date not from the creation of the globe,
and many ages have elapsed before the earth received these icy showers.
Moreover, at the end of the snowy cataclysm, and even after the great
breaking up of the ice and the deluge which followed it, the glaciers were
more consiaerable and extended much farther than in our time. Blocks of ice
broken out by the waves and from seas remote floated within sight of our
coasts. Stranded by the tempest, or by the heaving of the waves, they
covered entire regions even in tne temperate zone. In their melting they have
left on the soil those masses of granite, of sandstone, and other rocks which
are called erratic blocks ; masses too ponderous to have been brought where
we now find them by the effort of a mere current of water.

" The position alone of these blocks would prove that they had been placed
there not by a simple horizontal impulsion, but by a perpendicular action, that
is to say, by a successive sinking, or a movement from above to below,

" Placed in the interior of the iceberg, or perhaps on its surface, each block,
in proportion as the ice melted, sunk nearer to the ground or upon another
block which before it had taken there its erect position. It is then on the soil,
or on the first sunken block that the second finds a basis where we now see it,
-as upon a pedestal.

• " One knows not otherwise how to explain these superpositions of stones,
ioT no human force could have raised xhem, mxd one cannot comprehend

GEOLOGICAL TOPICS. 373

liow it could be done by a current of water, however powerful it may be
supposed. A torrent overthrows but does not pile up.

" One sees, then, torn off at their base by tne weight of snow, these rocks
precipitated from the mountains in their icy envelope, launched afterwards
into the sea by the waves and torrents or by their own impulsion, driven by
the winds and currents from ocean to ocean, just as the polar icebergs still
are. These have been carried towards the coasts, and afterwards by the
irruptions or conflux of the seas thrown over the interiors of the lands. There,
when their icy vehicle has disappeared, they were dropped on the soil where we see
them at this hour, demanding of us wh^ tney are there when no other analogous
production shows itself either in the vicinity or even in the same region.

" If we admit the carriage of these granite-blocks and others by ice, there is
still greater reason for reco^zing the possibility^ that the smaller bodies,
bones, and debris belonged originally perhaps to latitudes very remote.

Although we can not concur in the very speculative view set forth in it,
nevertheless, M. Boucher de Perthes* third chapter " on the affinities of form
and use of the stones called * celts' of all epochs and of all countries," is one
of considerable interest. Here he justly observes that what has mainly
prevented their study oeing seriously taken up has been the want of books
upon the subject. " If some ancient authors,"lie says, " have spoken of theui,
it is incidentally, and without attaching any great importance to their origin,
or sayinff a word about the circumstances of their discovery, or the place
whence they have come. In none of the States of Europe, except Denmark
^nd Sweden, have I seen any collection of them which deserves that title. The
objects exposed in our museums without any certificates of their origin, may
contribute to the ornament of a gallery, but not to the progress of science.
Isolated thus, they tell us nothing of the history of men, nor of their first
steps upon the earth.

" I have endeavoured to avoid this reproach of isolation or doubtful origin by
not admitting as typical a single fragment of which the circumstances were not
perfectly reliable, and which was not accompanied by a sample of the earth
whence it came.

" That which strikes us at once in these thousands of worked flints from all
parts of the world is their general likeness. Gathered from the turf-pits of
the Somme or the marshes of Sweden, Denmark, or Greenland, they resemble
«ach other so much that one would think they were made by the same work-
men. Moreover, between these productions of the north and south, between
these industrial essavs of nations separated by the seas, there is a striking
resemblance, which oecomes more apparent as the objects are larger and
simpler.

" When one reflects upon it, this does not differ from that which daily passes
under our eyes. Children in every country have the same delights and the
same desires — ^hence even the same playthings. If they have not got them,
they invent them and make them.

" Thus, too, the primitive peoples^those great children of Nature — have
acted : all had the same weapons because they had the same passions. Every-
where alike is it that with a club, a stake, or a sharpened stone, men have
begun to kill each other when they have thought that their hands were not
sufficient.

"Everywhere, too, similar wants have necessitated similar tools and utensils.
Knives, vases, combs, spades, bows, arrows, fish-hooks, have been simultaneously
invented by peoples without communication with each other.

" Not only have these races had need of arms, household goods, and tools, but
they required also finery, idols, amulets, talismans, and ornaments, and lastlv, com-
memorative signs, which, substituted for word andgesturcj took the place of

874 THE GEOLOGIST.

figures and writing ; for there Ib no tribe so poor, so brutal, so little adyanced
as entirely to do without them.

" It is to the collecting of these signs, in bringing them together and com-
paring them, that I haye specially deyoted myseli. ^Before arranging a manu-
tactured flint in the class oi types, I haye assured myself that tnis type was
met with in yarious localities. A single example was no proof ; I only adunitted
those of which I had assembled a certain number of like examples.

«We distinguish amongst the drawings which I haye giyen the flint
types or characters from those which are not. Since my last puolication I have
augmented the number of these characters, which now exceeds that of the
letters of our alphabet. That I may be forgiyen for this comparison, it is not
80 hazardous as it seems ; for in these hieroglyphics of stone I belieye I Lave
seen a reyealinff of the primitiye writing, and me original means of transmitting
thought beyond speech.

** 1 haye searcned closely for the key to this language of stones ; but for a
much longer time was that of the hieroglyphics asked of ancient Egjpt, and it
is only in our days that Champollion found it. We do not despair, then, of
arriying at the explanation of tnese antediluyian sig^. Less numerous and
less complex than the Egyptian and Assyrian hiero^phics, they ought to be
of easier solution.

" Resuming our preceding subject, we say these signs exist, that is certain ; that
they are also the work of men cannot be doubted ; and that they are not the re-
sult of a simple caprice is proyed by their number and their constant uialogy.

" If they be the work of men, and a work repeated from generation to ^ne-
ration, the work must haye had an object and an application. The primitive
men would haye been more simple and more ignorant than we are — ^that is to
say, would haye had less experience, fewer topics of remembrance, fewer terms
of comparison, and hence embracing fewer and less profound ideas ; but they
were not, any more than ourselyes, wanting in sense, nor would they, anymore
than we would, take trouble for nothing — ^that is to say, without any object or
any need. If they haye made signs, if they haye made them in great numbers,
it IS because they were useful.

** Now if it were neither as trinket nor utensil, it follows that it was as a means
of being understood — as an intellectual or relimous, representative or com-
memoratiye sign — ^a sign materializing a thou^t, rendering it palpable — ^in
short, representing a divinity like our idols, a v^ue like our money, or a per-
petuation like our writing.

" Of all these versions, whichever we may adopt, one can but see in these
types of stone the result of a thought, the desire io transmit it, and to render
it enduring.

" If these signs are ranged in a certain order, if in their diversity they hare
amongst themselves similarity of material, size, make, or workmanship, it will
be stm more difficult to doubt that by their relationships it may not have been
wished to extend and complicate the idea — ^that is to say, to create phrases by
the combination of words, and of pages by the linking together of phrases ?

Writing, such as civilized peoples understand ana practice it, is a science ;
but this science, so complex now, has not always been so ; like every other
created thing it has had its beginning. This beginning has been simple, as it
is still amongst savages ; for, I repeat it, I do not believe that any are so ahso*
lutely unlettered, ignorant,. or unmtelligent as not to have any scripture what
ever. Is there amongst ourselves a man reputed to know neither now to read
or write that has not his own P Ask this clown, this mechanic, this labourer-
he writes his accounts in his own manner, but he writes them.

" So also all the burrowing peoples ; they write on the sand, on the trees, on
the rocks. It is thus that tney indicate their meeting places for war, for the

GEOLOGICAL TOPICS. 375

chase, of love, or of holidajr. By conveational signs they announce to their
friends their victories or their defeats, the number of their killed and of their
prisoners. By the number or the form of the stones placed on his sepulchre
thejr explained the name, the (jualitv, the exploits of a defunct chieftain.
While alive he had made them wnte them on his body by means of tattooing,
which is less a mere ornament, as it has so long been thought, than the bio-
graphy of the man and of his ancestors.

" These traces drawn upon the earth, these trees, these rocks, these stones
placed in certain order or grouped in varied number, such was the first writing
of these antediluvian peoples. Men like us, those first-bom made that which
we have made since. As their ideas enlarged and complicated themselves they
complicated also the means of communicating them ; their signs became more
varied, more complex, more moveable. Not finding everywhere these signs or
the material proper to fabricate them, they carried tnem with them. It is thus
that the Itomans carried with them their penates and their household-gods.
Some Asiatic and African nations still do the same ; their relics and their gods
are the characters of their tongue. With us also has not each saint his
symbol ?

" If each individual or^ead of a family had had only those signs which belonged
to himself they would have been understood by tnose around him, as his wife
and his children, but he could not have commumcated with his neighbour. He
had, then, besides these special signs, or, if you please, this household lan-
guage, general signs intended for all. Hence the analogy of types from dis-
tances so great and in countries so' different. They nkve been introduced
as men, becoming more numerous, spread out from the cradle of their fore-
fathers."

It is thus our French author has let his imagination have play, and persuaded
himself that he has found out the characters which constituted the £rst and
universal material language.. We cannot say that on this point our faith is
great in the accuracy of M. de Perthes' conclusions, but his speculations are
suggestive; and we have more than once turned our thoughts from these
ethereal theories to those great monoliths (of which the so-called Druid stones
and Druid circles in our own lands are examples) that are found seemingly distri-
buted nearly all over the world, presenting m regions far apart from each other
remarkably similar characters ; —everywhere massive ; of local material ; of the
simplest workmanship; eveiywhere older than every other architectural erection;
everywhere of unknown ongin ; and everywhere with the strongest marks of
the highest antiquity. Is it possible these may be the venerable monuments
of the first wandering nations ? I know, of course, the opinions of our best
antiquaries on British monuments of this class ; but I am by no means per-
suaded of their sepulchral origin, still less that many of them have ever been
covered by mounds of earth. Not a stone, nor a coin, nor a relic of any kind
has ever been discovered in or near them that could give a datum to their erec-
tion. And the situations in which they are placed are very remarkable and
different from those usually selected for buriatmounds, or barrows.

I thhik there is no point bearing on these remarkable discoveries of
stone-weapons which shoidd not be thoroughly considered before rejection.
From the wildest theories at this moment we may be led to the discovery of
important facts.

. The way in which M. Boucher de Perthes accounts for the great number, in
certain localities, of these flint objects is singular and fanciful, and the passage
is worth transcribing.

" Any one visiting me may count them by thousands, and yet I have kept
only those which presented some interest. Erom those beds which I have
callexi " eeltic" I have seen them drawn in barrows to metal the neighbouring

376 THE GEOLOGIST.

roads : one would have thought a shower of them had fallen from the sky. I
have exphiined this by the passa^ of an armj, of which each warrior would
belieye himself under the obligation of throwmg one of these stones, more or
less worked, on the sepulchre of a chief, or on the place where he had been
killed. And the multitude of signs b only a small part of those that existed,
for all those, the material of which was woody^ soft, or soluble, have dis-
appeared."

Ilesuming the previous topic, M. de Perthes concludes his chapter with the
following remarks : —

" Icebergs floatinff from one sea to another will explain not only the pre-
sence of rocks and (n minerals in countries where there exists neither quarry
nor vein of them, but abo the mysteries of spontaneous vegetation, or the sudden
appearance of beings previoushr unknown. Bulbs, grain, germs, eggs, chiysa>
lides, and larva even, protected by those walls of ice, braving all temperatures,
all shocks, all contacts, could they not preserve almost indefinitely their vital
power and their productive virtue P Have there been made in this respect all
possible experiments, and is it known up to wliat point ice is the protector of
life? Snow, is it not soP Are there not numerous vegetables and even
animals that it defends from the destruction which would be brought upon
them by the sudden variations of the atmosphere P Does even the most intense
frost kill certain creatures P No ; and frogs frozen to the extent that there
limbs break like glass have been re-animated by a gradual transition from this
excessive cold to a moderate temperature. In our ponds are there not fish
and insects seized by the ice, which, seenlingly dead, revive in the spring ?

" One ought also to look at the question iinder its purely geological relations,
and decide if the ideas that I have mooted on the transport of erratic blocks
by floating icebergs could not be applied to the formation of certain banks or
deposits. That would inform us how these worked stones are to be found on
points very far from those whence they had come.

" After the necessary investigations on the movement of the glaciers of the
Alps, on the augmentation or the reduction of their masses, could we not
establish some csJculation as to the greater or less antiquity of the last great
invasion of the snows, and of the inundation which would have resulted from
their sudden or gradual melting P If a part of our rivers were fed by the
draining of snow-water, it is evident that the mass of the waters of these
rivers ought to have decreased with the diminution of the fall of snow.
Everything tends to show that water-courses, at present hardly navigable, have
been deep rivers. Our largest European rivers, if one judge by the extent of
their valleys, which in their entireties ought to be their ancient beds, had thus
ten times more water than now-a-days. This reduction has been attributed
to the destruction of forests, which certainly ought to go for something; but,
according to my ideas, the decrease of the mass of snows has contributea much
more to this result. Lastly, why does less snow fall than formerly ? These
deluges of snow, are they periodical ? Should we see again some day the
earth re-covered with this winding-sheet, that for ages to come would throw
it into a sleep of death from which it would only be drawn by another watery
deluffe, would this • deluge, by its fecundating oose, restore to it its vegeta-
tive heat, and its first fertility P Great Questions.

" Without seeking to read the future, let us profit by what we have under
our eyes to enlighten the past, and let us not reject the light which we have."

(To be continued.)

HODGE — OSSIFEROUS CAVERNS AT ORESTON. 377

ON THE OSSIFEROUS CAVERNS AT ORESTON.

By Henry C. Hodge,

(Continued from page 344, vol, iii.)

In concluding this paper, allow me to remarkthat if the deductions to which
I have arrivea be correct, some data will have been afforded for explaining,
through the agency of analogous chemical changes and their resulting products,
the cause of some, at least, of the various distinctive characters presented by
those rocks which constitute that portion of the earth's surface formed from
the decomposition of previously existing rocky masses. I will not, however,
take up your time with any lengthy arguments to strengthen my position in
such a manner, but will merely attempt to give a very brief description of what
I conceive we may not unreasonably mfer has taken place during past ages of
the world's history, remarking on the various geological formations in the
general order of their occurrence ; and, firstly, I would direct attention to the
important bearing the chemical changes descnbed may be presumed to have on
the solution of the question as to the geological equivalence of the Old Red
Sandstone rocks of Scotland to those of our Devonian era. I have before
adverted to the occurrence of red sand in a decomposed slaty seam of the
Plymouth limestone, and would add that such red sand is a frecjuent result of
the decomposition of its dolomite, and that sandy beds of a similar kind are
also not unfrequent in the limestone itself. If we call to mind the fragmentary
condition of the fossils of the Old Red Sandstone strata, it may not be consi-
dered unreasonable to suppose that they have been formed from the decom-
position of rocks similar to those of our Devonian limestones, in which iron
pyrites was much more abundantly distributed. If this be true, there must
nave been generated at this period an enormous quantity both of carbonic acid
and of sulphate of Ume — ^the former no doubt required for the sustenance of
the luxuriant vegetation of the succeeding coal period, and a most active agent
in producing similar chemical changes to those I have just now endeavoured
to explain — and the sulphate of ume, under the reacting influence of the
organic matter (assisted by the hisch temperature of that penod), being changed
to sulphide of calcium, and simultaneously, through the influence oi the car-
bonic acid, again becomiog resolved into carbonate of lime — changes still
traceable in the waters of the present day. At the same time, too, with the
formation of tins carbonate of lime, and the presence of such large amounts of
carbonic acid, it is reasonable to conclude tnat the waters might be charged
with other salts and carbonates (together with alkaline chlorides, from their
solvent action on the substance of decaying plants), viz., bicarbonates of iron
and magnesia with those of Ume, such depositmg with admixed clayey mud : —
Firstly, those valuable argillaceous carbonates of iron of the coal measures,
and the immense excess of carbonic acid contributing to undermine the founda-
tions of the rocks, and interstratify them with the coal ; after this depositing
the mountain limestone, and the resulting fluid from these products readily to
be obtained from the decomposition of pyrites, now form beds of gypsum, and
with sand the New Red Sandstone, and the remaining waters, now almost
divested of their lime, proceed to dolomize the submarme calcareous rocks,
effacing thus in part the record of their first existing organisms.

VOL. III. 3 B

378 THE GEOLOGIST.

Here allow me to remark that cypseous deposits hapneniiig to possess a more
than very slight degree of solubiuty, would not entirely sink in passing from
the base of decomposing limestone fissures, and there would be formed layers
of fresh water on the now concentrated salt (a truth still noticeable at sea),
and the supply of sypstun yet going on whilst evaporation from the surface of
the fluid layers still proceeoed, there would thus be formed beds of rock salt
which alternate with gypsum.

During the progress of these changes, abundant herds of chambered nautili
and other cephalopods are spoiting in the quiet waters ; and whilst the atmos-
phere is now becoming purified for the reception of air-breathing birds and rep-
tiles, the traces of whose footprints on the sands are even undisturbed by the
fiently rippling waters, the trvlj igneous rocks are on the eve of pouring forth
their lavas, which (as !Fownes has shown) contain phosphoric compounds, these
being more abundantly required for the purposes of the seed-producing plants
and the supply of bone ; and whilst the reptiles of the Lias are by sucn dis-
turbing causes frequentlv destroyed, and the delicately sculptured trilobites
have entirely disappeared, the agitated waters, charged with our bicarbonates,
deposit oohtic rocks, by reason of the numerous shSting grains of sandL Just
before the close of these commotions there may be remanded another chan^,
resulting |>robably (as mav be clearly shown from causes now operating in tlie
mineral veins of Cornwall and elsewhere), from the accidental presence of fiuo-
rides in our decomposing limestone strata (comparable, perhaps, to those of
Derbyshire with veins of fluor-spar), green compounds, differing from mere
siHceous sand, and somewhat allied in composition to chloritic rocks, minting
their contents with the settling products. And, now again, there is a period
of rest, and whilst the draining of an upraised or still existing westward con-
tinent is pouring forth torrents of clayey mud, our bicarbonates deposit chalky
rock, which, with the immensely numerous remains of microscopic shells ana
corals, cover the ocean's bed, and at intervals in which organic forms are
favourably found for nucleus, there are formed on it siliceous nodules, in a
manner similar to that in which the fossil stems of trees silicify, and compara-
ble in this respect with the septaria from our shales and inmstone nodules from
the Gault. uhanges still go on, and during these there forms a separating gdf
between our Gaulish neighbours and oursdves, and at the same time si& the
basin-shaped foundations for their capitals, and where these now stand, strange
pachyderms, huge snakes and crocodiles in groves of palms, with monkeys, have
their sway ; but by-and-bye pouring forth of rivers charged with sulphuric acid
from the decomposing iron pyrites of the rocks, and similar to the so-called
" vinegar river* of Columbia, at the present time, rushing with violence into
these, react upon their loose calcareous strata, decompose their shells, and over-
throwing the adjacent banks, bury their mammals in a gypseous mass, dislocat-
ing their fragile skeletons, and often leaving only parts of them. To such suc-
ceed still more gigantic pachyderms, and very soon mammoths, rhinoceroses, and
liippopotami, our varied mammals of the caves, with lions, bears, hysenasj
wolves, the machairodus, and other flesh-consuming animtds fitted to cope
with them, hold their.reign ; but all this while an eleratiog action (perhaps
resulting from the same causes that overwhelmed the ancestors of these pre-
daceous tyrants), has been in operation, raisiog whole mountain chains —
the Alps, and Pyrenees, Carpathians, Himalayas — having their lofty peaks
crowned with the nummulitic limestones, and to this again succeeds, through
chemically undermining influence upon the rocks, a period of swift depression,
during which the crags were formed through stormy waters lashed into fury by
the raginff winds, commencing now to change and modify the tainted air, and
fit it for the dwelling of a future human race.
But during,. and, indeed, before this time, the smouldering volcanos have

PROCEEDINGS OF GEOLOQICAL SOCIETIES. 879

been pouriiig forth their sulphur, and meteoric stones (found by Berzelius
and others to contain two-thirds at least of all the elements) fall fre*
quent to the earth ; the activelv combining oxygen forms with these products
sulphate of iron, staining red tde crag, and in our oldest rocks deposit minera'
veins and beds of tin ; tne oxygen aosorbed, reducin^^ action now ensues, and
the metallic salts of copper, iron, silver, lead, and zinc form, in the veins of
various geologic age, metallic sulphide, just in the order of their differing solu-
bility or disposition for each other ; last of all, the noble metals platinum and
gold, refusing to combine with such as these, are found in drifted sands with
the more ancient streams of tin.

But now the elemental strife increases, some of the opening to our caves are
closed, bone breccias are fonned, the glacial or boulder-drin and clay conceal
the mouths of others, and at length the earth is without form and void^ the
waters gaui the mastery, and over them in darkness moves alone the Spirit of
their Great Creator.

PROCEEDINGS OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES.

Geological Society op London. — January 18, I860,

1. " Notice of some Sections of the Strata near Oxford." By John Phillips,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. G.S. &c.

From the Yorkshire coast to that of Dorset, evidence of unconformity be-
tween the Oolitic and the Cretaceous strata is readily observed. Ttus is
especially seen in the neighbourhood of Oxford, where it is difficult to trace
out correctly the limits of the Lower Cretaceous beds. The Oolitic rocks
having been deposited whilst the relative position of the laud and sea was being
changed, many of the deposits are subject to local limitation ; thus the Cora£
line. Oolitic, and the Calc-grit die out rapidly, and the Kimmeridge Clay comes
to rest on the Oxford Clay. It is on the denuded surface formed by these
irregular beds that the Lower Cretaceous beds have been laid down. Prom
their close propinquity, the sand-beds 6f different ages are scarcely to be de-
fined as Oolitic or Cretaceous, and the occurrence of fossils only can secure
their distinction.

At Culham, near Oxford, a clay-pit is worked, which presents at the top
three feet of gravel; next about twenty feet of Gault with its peculiar fossils:
then nine feet of greenish sand, with a few fossils ; and lastly, twenty-three
feet of Kimmeridge Clay, with its peculiar Ammonites and other fossils. The
intervening sand contains Pecten orbicularis (a Cretaceous fossil), Thracia
depressa, Cardium striatulum, and an Ammonite resembling one found in the
Kimmeridge Cky. Although this sand at first sight resembles and yields a fossil
found in the Lower Greensand, yet it is probaSy more closely related to the
Kimmeridge Clay. In the railway-section at Culham, the Kimmeridge Clay
is overlaid by a sand equivalent to that of Shotover Hill; whilst the Gault,
which lies on it unconformably, with that of the clay-pit. At Toot Bsddon
also, though Lower Greensand probably caps the hill, yet an Oolitic ammonite
was found on the eastward slope of the hill, in a ferruginous sand, lying con-
formably on the Kimmeridge Clay. Prom these and other instances the diffi-
culty of mapping the country geologically may be shown to be very great.

2. " On tne Association of the Lower Members of the Old Bed Sandstone
and the Metamorphic Rocks on the Southern Margin of the Grampians." By
Prof. R, Harkness, P.R.S., P.G.S.

The area to which this paper referred is the tract lying between Stonehaven

380 THB GEOLOGIST.

and Strathearn, including the sotith-eastern flanks of the Grampians foi* about
two-thirds of their course. Metamorphic rocks, trap-rocks, the Lower and
Middle memb«*8 of the Old Ked Series (the former being sandstone, and the
latter conglomerate), are the constituent rock-masses of the district, and give
it its peculiar phjrsic^ features. The ffiode in which these rocks are associated
is well exhibited in the section on the coast (at Stonehaven), and in the severd
sections in the interior where streams lay bare the rocks. Sections at Stone-
haven, Glenbumie, Strathfinlass, North Esk, West Water of Lithnot, Cruick
Water, South fisk and Prosen, Blaii^wrie, Dunkeld, Stratheam, and Glen^
artney, were described in detail.

Against the nearly vertical, but somewhat north-westerly dipping, meta-
morphic schists (which sometimes include conformable limestones), come purple
fia^tones, but usually separated from them by trap-rocks, having the same
strike. These flagstones pitch to the south-east, but retain a high angle away
from the schists, and, in many places, are intercalated with oeda of trap.
The lower purple flagstones are umossiliferous ; but higher up tracks of Crus-
taceans (Protichnitef) have been discovered by the fiev. H. Mitchell. The
grey fossiliferous flagstones of Forfarshire succeed, still with a steep dip.
Conglomerates succeed, in beds having a less inclination, gradually becoming
more and more horizontal as they reach the low country.

The axis of the elevation of the Grampians thus appears to be along their
southern margin, and to be marked by the trap-rocks separating the meta-
inorphic schists and the purple flagstones of the Old Red series, and giving the
latter their general south-easterly Jip. As the metamorphic rocks of the Gram-
pians have not yielded any fossils, their relation to the other old rocks of
Scotland is difficult to determine.

3. " On the Old Red Sandstone of the South of Scotland." By Archibald
Geikie, Esq., E.G.S., of the Geological Survey of Great Britain.

This paper was the result of a series of explorations carried on at intervals
from Gnrvan to St. Abb's Head. The first part related to the geolo^ of the
border-district of Lanark and Ayr, near Lesmahagow. The Silurians and
Lower Old Red sandstones of that district, as formerly pointed out by Sir
Roderick Murchison, form one consecutive series. They are traversed by
great numbers of felstone-dykes, and are disposed in longitudinal folds, ranging
from north-east to south-west, the Silurian strata forming the axis of each
anticline. Both series are overlaid unconformably by Carboniferous strata
belonging to the horizon of the Mountain Limestone group of Scotland. The
features of this unconformity are well displayed all round Lesmahagow, where
an enormous series of Lower Old Red sandstones, more than ten thousand feet
thick, have their truncated edges overlapped by gently inclined beds o^ Car-
boniferous sandstone, shale, and limestone. The whole of the Lower Carboni-
ferous group and the upper Old Red Sandstone, amounting in all to at least
six thousand or eight thousand feet, are here wanting. But as the junction of
the Carboniferous Limestone with the Lower Old iled is traced towards the
east, the thickness of strata between the two formations ^;radually increases,
until at the Pentland Hills the whole of the Lower Carboniferous series and a
considerable part of the Upper Old Red have come in ; and these strata, as at
Lesmahagow, rest auite unconformably on the base of the Lower Old Red
Sandstone and the nigher beds of the Upper Silurian. Hence it becomes
apparent that in the south of Scotland, as in Lreland, there is a great physical
break between the Upper Old Red Sandstone and the lower part of that
formation.

The author next pointed out the character of the Upper Old Red Sandstone
in East Lothian and Berwickshire ; showing that it graduated by imperceptible
'stages into the Lower Carboniferoui» sandstones, and formed with these one

PBOCEEDINOS OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. 381

great petralogical series. The former wide extension of the Upper Old Ked
Sandstone throughout the south-east of Scotland was shown by the height at
which it occurs among the Lammermuirs. These hills must unquestionably
have been covered by it ; and hence the denudation of the south of Scotland
will eyentually be shown to be one of the greatest which this country has under'-
gone. The author concluded by sketcMng the physical geography of South
Scotland during the Upper Old Red Sandstone period, in so far as it was in-
dicated by the facts presented in this papei. He showed that the rate of sub-
sidence was probably much greater in the eastern than in the western districts,
inasmuch as the whole of the vast series of Upper Old Red and Lower Car-
boniferous sandstones had accumulated in the Lothians and Berwickshire
before the base of the Lesmahagow hills began to be washed by the waves of
the encroaching sea.

February 1, 1860.

1. "On some Cretaceous Rocks in Jamaica." By Lucas Barrett, Esq.,
F.G.S., Director of the (Jeological Survey in Jamaica.

On the north side of Plantain-Grarden river, three miles west of Bath, shale
and limestone overlie conglomerate. The limestone contains InoceramuSy Hip-
purites, and Nerinaa. Higher up the river similar fossiliferous limestone occurs
in vertical bands, succeeded by conglomerates, which separate it from massive
porphyries.

On tiie medial ridge of mountains, also, at an elevation of two thousand five
hundred feet above the sea, Hippurite-limestone, with black flints containing
Ventriculites, rests on porphyry and hornblende-rock. These igneous rocks are
interstratified with shales and conglomerates.

2. " On the Occurrence of a mass of Coal in the Chalk of Kent." By R.
Godwin-Austen, Esq., F.G.S.

This piece of coal was met with in cutting the tunnel on the Chatham and
Dover Railway, between Lydden Hill and Shepherdswell. It weighed about
four hundred weight, and was four feet square, with a thickness of four inches
at one part, increasing to ten inches at another. It was embedded in the chalk,
where the latter was free from faults. The coal is friable, highlv bituminous,
and bums readily, with a peculiar smell, like that of retino-aspnait. It resem-
bles some of the Wealden or Jurassic coals, and is unlike the true coal of the
coal-measures. Mr. Godwin-Austin stated his belief that this was a block of
lignite or coal of the preceding Jurassic period lifted off by ice during the Cre-
taceous period, and drifted away like the granitic boulder found in the Chalk
at Croydon.

3. " On some Fossils from the Grey Chalk near Guildford." By R. Godwin-
Austen, Esq., F.G.S.

Im the cast of the body-chamber of a large Nautilus elegans, from the Grey-
Chalk of the Surrey Hills, near Guildford, the author found numerous speci-
mens of Aphorrais Parkinsoni, with fragments of Turrilites tuberculatus. Am-
•monites Coupei, A. variansy and Inoeeramus coneentricus. The author believes
that the specimens referred to were accumulated in the shell of the Nautilus,
possibly by the animsd having taken them as a meal shortly before death, at a dif-
ferent aone of sea-depth to that in which the Nautilus and its contents sank
and became fossilized. Mr. Godwen-Austen referred to these specimens as
bemg indicative of the contemporary formation of different deposits with their
peciQiar fossils, at different sea-zones ; of the transport of the inhabitants of
one zone to the deposits of another; and as a possible eimlanation of the
abundance of small angular fragments of moUusts, echinoderms, and crus-
taceans, in the midst of the very finest Cretaceous sediment.

882 THB GEOLOGIST.

4. " On the Probable Events which sncoeeded the Close of the Cretaceous
Period." By S. V. Wood, jun., Esq. Commnnicated by S. V. Wood, Esq.,
F.G.S.

The object of this paper was to show that the close of the Secondary period
was foUowed by the formation of a continent having a great extent from east
to west, and at that time chiefly occupying low latitudes ; that this direction
of continent prevailed throughout the Tertiary period ; and that in certain por-
tions of the southern hemisphere, particularly in Australia and New 2iealaDd,
tliere have been preserved portions of the Secondary continent with isolated
remnants of the Secondary mammalia and gigantic birds. These conclusions
were arrived at by a consideration of the direction of the principal volcamc
axes in the Secondary and Tertiary periods. The Secondary continent was
(the author considered) mainly influenced in the northern hemisphere by vol-
canic axes which came into action at the close of the Carboniferous, and
continued through the Secondary Period. These axes were that of the
Oural, that of the north of England prolon^d into Portugal, and that of the
Alleghanies, having all a north and south direction, supervening upon volcanic
axes having a dired;ion at n^t angles to them, which had prevailed during the
Newer Palseozoic period, from this circumstance an inference was drawn
that the Secondary continents had generally a trend from north to south,
governed b^ volcanic bands having this direction; while, as the Secondary
formations indicate a great extent of sea over the northern hemisphere, the
bulk of the Secondary continent lay in the southern hemisphere.

The elevation of tbe bed of the Cretaceous sea, it was inferred, was due to
volcanic forces acting from east to west ; and the author adduced evidence of
this action having become perceptible during the later part of the Cretaceous
period. He considered that the direction of all the rost-cretaceous lines of
volcanic action governed the direction of the continent during the Post-
cretaceous period and pointed out that these were all in an easterly and
westerly direction, coincident with the existing volcanic band which extends
from the Azores to the Caspian, and thence (with an interval of intense earth-
quake action between the Caspian and Bengal) extends to the Society Isles.
He concluded that they gave nse to a continent extending ^m the Canibbean
Sea to the Society Isles — ^many reasons uniting to show a land-connexion be-
tween America and Europe at the dawn of the Tertiary period, the snbmer^d
continent of Oceanica also indicating the easterly extension of Southern Asia ;
and that, since this continent receded to the north at the dawn of the Tertiary
period before the inroad of the Nummulitic Sea (which stretched from the
south-east through Western Asia and Southern Europe, and was, as the author
conceives, the oceanic equivalent of the Eocene basins of Europe) the greater
portion of the deposits formed in the interval between Cretaceous and Eocene
times must be now under the Southern Oceans.

The author then adverted to the circumstance that the recent great wingless
birds and the nearest living affinities of all the Secondary mammSia yet known
occur only m the southern hemisphere. Prom this, ana from some considera-
tions as to the vegetation, he concluded that, while parts of the Secondary con-
tinent yet remain in that hemisphere incorporated more or less into the Post-
cretaceous continent, other parts of it, such as Australia and New Zealand,
have remained isolated up to the present time to an extent sufficient to pre-
clude the migration of mammalia and wingless birds. He inferred that the
wingless birds, excepting the swift Struthionidse, have been preserved solely
by isolation from the camivora, which do not appear as an important family
until the Pliocene age ; and he instanced the Gastromis of the Eocene (which
had affinities with the Solitaire and Notomis) as evidence that the apterous
birds had survived until that period*

PROCEEDINGS OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. 383

An inference was then drawn that the remains of the Secondary continent,
accumnlated to the southward, caused cold currents to flow to the southern
shores of the Post-cretaceous continent, causing the extinction of the bottom-
feeding and shore-following Tetrabranchiata, to which Mr. Wood attributes the
destruction of the Cestracionts which fed on them, and that of the marine
Saurians that fed on the Cestracionts. The preservation of the Dibranchiata,
on the contrary, was attributed to their being ocean-rangers. The extinction
of the Megalosauria he attributed to the effect produced on vegetation by the
alternation of dry seasons during the year, brought about by a great e(j[uatorial
extent of land — the extinction of the nerbivorous Megalosauria, by this cause»
involving that of the carnivorous.

The author dso alluded to the contiguity of volcanos to the seas or great
waters, which he considered to admit of explanation by every volcanic elevation
causing a corresponding and contiguous depression, which either brings the sea
or collects the land-drainage into contiguity with the volcanic region ; and in
conclusion he alluded to the law of natural selection and correlation of growth
lately advanced by Mr. Darwin, in the soundess of which he asserted his belief.

February 15, 1860.

1. "On the Probable Glacial Origin of some Norwegian Lakes." By
T. Codrington, Esq., P.G.S.

The laKcs referred to were those frequently found situated at a short
distance from the head of the several fjords on the western coast of Norway.
The fjord and the valley in which such a lake or " vand" lies are parts of one
great chasm, with perpendicular sides, often thousands of feet high. The
valley generally shows traces of the former existence of a glacier, and is now
traversed by a rapid river, which falls into a vand or lake six or seven miles
long, rarely a mile wide, and veiy deep. The lake is separated from the fjord
by a mass of rolled stones, shingle, and coarse sand roughly stratified, and
sometimes rising one hundred and twenty feet above the lake. Through this an
outlet has been cut to the fjord, a distance varying from about one to four
miles. On the side towards the lake this mound is terraced ; and at the upper
end of the lake similar terraces are sometimes seen. The author, vnth some
doubt, attributes the accumulation of this terraced barrier to glacial action.

2. On the Drift and Gravels of the North of Scotland." By T. F. Jamieson,
Esq. Communicated by Sir R. I. Murchison, F.G.S.

In a former commumcation the author gave an account of some features of
the Pleistocene deposits along the coast of Aberdeenshire, showmg that in cer-
tain localities remains of marine animals occur, of a character similar to those
met vrith in the later Tertiary beds of the Clyde district, and, like them, in-
dicating the presence of a colder sea. In the present paper the author treated
of the Drift of the higher grounds in the interior of the country, more especially
as regards that part of Scotland lying between the Morav Firth and the Firth
of Tay. The following phenomena were more particularly described ; — 1. The
upper gravels, their distribution and origin ; 2. the marine drift of the higher

f rounds and of the highland glens ; 3. the striated and polished rock-surfaces
eneath the Drift ; 4. the high-lying boulders, and the dispersion of blocks
from the Ben Muic Dhui Mountains. The probability of extensive glacier-
action before the formation of the Drift, the extinction of the land-fauna pre-
ceding the Drift, and the sequence of events during the Pleistocene period
were then dwelt upon ; and the author expressed his opinion that the following
course of events may be supposed to have occurred in the Pleistocene history
of Scotland. 1st. A period when the country stood as high as, or probably
higher than at present, with an extensive development of glaciers and land-ice.

884 THE GEOLOGIST.

which polished and striated the subjacent rocks, transported msaiy of the
erratic blocks, destroyed the pre-existmg allayiam, and left much boulder-earth
in yarious places. Sndly. To this succeeded a period of submergence, when
the sea graaually advanced until almost the whole country was coyered. This
was the time of the marine drift with floating ice. The beds with arctic shells
belonged to it, and some of the brick-clays are probably but the fine mud of
the deeper parts of the same sea-bottom. 3rdly. The land eme^ed from the
water, auring which emergence the preceding dnft-beds suffered much denuda-
tion, giying rise to the extensive superficial accumulations of water-rolled
gravel that now overspread much of tne surface. This movement continaed
until the land obtained a higher position than it now has, and became connected
with the continent of Europe. Its various islands were probably also more or
less in conjunction. The present assemblage of animals and plants spradually
migrated hither from adjoining lands. Glaciers may have still been tormed m
favourable places, but probabbr never regained the former extension. 4ithly.
The land sank again until the sea in most places reached a height of from
thirty to forty feet above the present tide-mark. Patches of forest-ground
were submerged along the coast. The clays and beds of silt, formmg the
" carses" of tne Forth, Tay, and other rivers, were accumulated, as well as
the post-tertiary beds of the Clyde, &c., described by Mr. James Smith, the
shells of which agree with those of our present seas. Sthly. An elevation at
length took place, by which the land attained its present level. As Mr. Smith
has shown, this probably occurred before the Roman invasion ; but that man
had previously got into the country appears from the fact that the elevated
beds of silt near Glasgow contain overturned and swamped canoes with stone
implements.

March, 14, 1860. — L. Homer, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The following communications were read : —

1. "On the Occurrence of Lingula Credneri in the Coal-measures of
Durham." By J. W. Kirkby, Esq. Communicated by T. Davidson, Esq.,
F.G.S.

As the Lingnla Credneri of Geinitz, formerly known only in the Permian
rocks TLower Permian of Germany ; Marlslate of Durham and Northumber-
land), has of late been found by Mr. Kirkbjr in the Coal-measures at the
Ryhope Winning, near Sunderland, he offers this notice as of interest both as
to the discovery of another species common to the faunsB of the Carboniferous
and Permian eras, and as illustrative of some of the physical conditions which
obtained during the deposition of the Upper Coal-measures of the North of
England, the occasional occurrence of this Lingula proving that marine con-
ditions prevailed at intervids in the Durham area auring the accumulation of
those deposits.

The species now known to be common to the Carboniferous and Permian
faunsB (besides L. Credneri) are Terebratula Saccukts, Mart. (T. sufflaia^ SchL),
Spirifera Urii, Plem. {Martinia Clannyana, King), Spiriferina costata, Schl.
(Sp. octoplicata. Sow.), Camarophoria Crumena^ Mart. {Terebrainla SchloHeimii,
Y. Buch.), Camarophoria ffhbulina, Phil. {Terebratula rhomboidea, Phil.),— on
the authority of Mr. Davidson ; Cythere elongata, Miinst., C. inomata, M'Coy,
Bairdia gracilis, M'Coy,-— on the authority of Mr. Rupert Jones; Gyracanthw
/ormosus, Ag. — according to Messrs. King and Howse; Pinites BrandUngiy
Lindl., Trigonocarpon, Noeggerathi, Brong., Sigillaria renifortnis, Brong., Gala-
mites ajyproximatusy Brong., and C. inaqualis (P), Brong., — collected by Mr.
Howse in the lowest Permian sandstone. From the preceding list of Carboni-
ferous species found also in the Permian strata of Durham, we are able (says

NOTES AKD QUERIES. 385

the author) to see at a glance the specific relationship (so far as at present
known) which exists between the ufe-groups of the later palaeozoic periods.
The generic affinity of these gronps has long been noticed. This affinity and
other apparent indications of a want of systematic difference originated the
proposal that the Permian should be induaed in the Carboniferous system ;
and!^Mr. Eirkby considers that the existence of the several recurrent Carboni-
ferous species in the Permian rocks strongly supports this view, and that
" Permian" should be retained only as a subordinate term.

2. " On the Rocks, Ores, and other Minerals on the property of the Marquis
of Breadalbane in the Highlands of Scotland." By C. H. G. Thost, Esq.
Communicated by Prof. J. Nicol, F.G.S.

After noticing generally the mica-schists of the district, with its limestone
or calcareous scluist, and occasional roofing-slate, the author proceeded to
describe first the porphyry-vein (half a mile wide), containing silver-ore, copper-
pyrites, ffrey copper-ore, iron-pyrites, and molybdena, and crossing a vein of
non-metsLlliferous greenstone, at Tomnadasham, on Loch Tay, opposite Ben
Lawers. He then pointed out the probable connection of the existing great
valleys with lines of fracture due to igneous violence. The veins at Ardtalla-
naig, containing heavy spar, and ores of zinc, copper, and iron, were next
noticed. At Correbuich there are two sets of veins in the calcareous schist ;
those having a north and south direction contain argentiferous galena and
traces of gold. The most eastern hills on Loch Tay, in the neighbourhood of
Taymouth, abound with quartzose veins containing copper-pyrites, iron-pyrites,
and galena. The iron-ore of Glenqueich, and the serpentine and chromate ot*
iron at Corycharmaig, where graphite and rutile also occur, were next noticed.
At Lochearn Head tnere are galenarveins in calcareous schist ; here, too, somo
auriferous arsenical pyrites has been found. Lastly the author described in
some detail the lead-bearing veins of Glen Tallich and Tyndrum, which have
been worked for many years.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Haioiebs op Stone and Flint. — The daily discoveries of implements of
flint and stone throughout Yorkshire and other counties in Englana have often
caused people to wonder and ask the same questions which are made by
" Liquirer" in your " Geologist" of last month ; and having been for several
years a collector and storer of implements of flint and stones, you will perhaps
allow me through your pages to make as concisely as possible a few remarks
on the hammers'in my own collection, and in the public collections in London,
Dublin, and Edinburgh, from which I have no doubt " Inquirer" and others
may draw conclusions of such a nature as will satisfv their curiosity, enlighten
their understanding, and give pleasure to all who make matters of this descrip-
tion their study. In a magazme devoted to a science of so much importance
as Greology, it cannot be expected that you can devote so much space to re-
marks which have not a direct bearing on the subjects to which your pages are
generally dedicated ; but the finding of so many implements of stone and flint
at great depths below the surface of the earth, which have been made by
human beings, having created a great amount of interest, I may perhaps
trespass more on your space than I otherwise should liave done.

In the collections mentioned there are a great quantity of hammers ; upwards
VOL. in. 3 c

886

THE GEOLOGIST.

of seventy. Their shapes vary considerably, and no doubt they were made for
various special purposes. One of the hammers in my collection has been so
well preserved aecp in the earth (overlying the chalk m the township of Brid-
lington) that it shows the mode in which it was made. It is five and three-
J quarter inches long, two and a-quarter wide, and about five inches in circam-
erenoe ; an oblong oval, inclined to be flattened on the sides. Along and
across the whole of the exterior it shows the indentations and lines of shaping
by the tool with which it was made. It has no hole to hold a shaft. The form
of this hammer is, as before stated, oblong, and tapering towards one end of it,
as are some of the tools or weapons called " celts.

Lign. 1.— Sandstone hammer with groore.

The outlines of the hammer in question are as above. The mode in which
the handle was fastened to this instrument was no doubt by having a pliahle
stick wound round the smaller end, and the two ends brought into juxta-
position and tied fast together, as a smith fastens a rod round the chisel with
which he cuts hot iron. It will be seen at a glance that when the instrument
was thus fastened, and the thick end was struck' against anv object, that the
wedge-like form of the hammer would no doubt cause it to be held tight, and
the oftener it was used the tighter it would be held, by the mode used in
fastening it. Tliis hammer is of sandstone, of a rather fine grain.

Lign. 2.— Sandstone hammer witih drilled hole.

Another hammer in my collection, made of sandstone, having a hole in it for
a handle, and is made in shape somewhat like the sketch (Fig. 2). The hole is
deeply splayed, and was no doubt made by rotatory friction, as rubbing with
another harder stone and the use of sand and water ; yet as the stone hammer
descended to much more modem times than weapons of the same material,
metal may have been employed in making the aperture.

Several examples of hammers having the holes for the handle made by a
metal drill have come before my notice ; and others are mentioned at page 7S
of the Catalogue of the Museum of the Eoyal Irish Academy, which museum
contains the greatest quantity, of implements in stone and flint of any public

NOTES AND QUERIES. 387

collection in the United Kingdom, but not by any means so great a yariety as
my own museum.

Where metal was used in making holes in hammers, the sides of the aper-
tures are cylindrical, and in some cases the circular lines left by the tool may
be seen. There are many instances of this in the hammer-heads m the Museum
of the Royal Irish Academy. Where, on the contrary, a stone, with sand and
water was used, the edges of the aperture are deeply splayed od each side, and
the septum broken through, as shown in some of my examples, as abo in a
number both in the Dublin and Edinbui^h Museums. Erom examination of
the several specimens I come to the concmsion that in the earliest and rudest
the position chosen for the hole was first chipped or punched into a hollow, or
indentation, and then by the process of a rotatory or grinding action with a
hard stone adapted for tne purpose, and sand and water. One half of the work
of making the hole being thus accomplished, by the like process the opposite
side of the hammer was worked out until in the centre or near it the apertures
met. The commencement of this process may be seen in seyeral oyoia-shaped
stones^ and a series of objects illustrating the process of the formation.

Lign. 3.— Stone hatxuner with complete perforation.

The third hammer in my collection is one made of granite of a form quite
uncommon, great pains haying also been taken in its manufacture. It is
ground all over its external surface, and partakes of the axe and hammer in
shape, the hole in its centre being eround, and, from appearances, it was put
upon a shaft, the small end of whicn passed through the top of the hammer,
and a pin was driven through the shaft, and it was thus fastened to the handle ;
the under side of the hammer rested on a thicker or Collar ipart of the handle,
left wide to allow the under side of the hammer to rest upon it. I give you a
sketch of this hammer from a drawing taken some time ago. Much more
might be said about such implements had I time, for want of which I conclude
these remarks by stating that the hammers were made by chipping, boring, drill-
ing, and rubbing, and the first hammers could be made without the use of metal.

Metal might be known but yet not worked for or into hammers. Finally
I would observe that hanuners are made of almost all the hard stones that are
found in England ; but it is not my intention to describe their lithological cha-
racters, but simply to state that the rudest of them are frequently made of
softer stone, and that those which were intended for special purposes were
made in a careful manner, highly wrought, and of more durable material. —
Edwabd Tindall, Bridlington.

The Great Monoliths at Boboughbhidgb. — Sntj — Having had occasion
to visit Boroughbridge during the time of the last Bamaby Fair— so named
in consequence of its occurring each year on the day of St. Barnabas,
I took tne opportunity of examining the extraordinary monoliths, better
known to the people at the old borough and vicinity as the "Devil's
Arrows." As these remarkable obelisks are spoken of by almost all topo-
graphers, antic^uarians, and geologists, I think it will not be out of place to
hand you a bnef description of them and of the observations made by me.

The stones at present standing are three in number. The first, or the one

888 THE GEOLOGIST. *

which bean most towards the north, measures twenty-fire feet five inches, tie
second measures seventeen feet three inches, the third, or that stone which
stands most towards the south, has a measurement of fifteen feet eight inches
in circumference. The measurements were made with a tape four feet from
the surface, taJcen as accurately as possible. Their sides partake rather of a
convex form. The sides of the first monolith measured seven and a-half feet
by four feet three inches, the second four feet three inches by four feet five
inches, and the third four feet eight inches by four feet ; but these side measare-
ments are only approximate, their sides being so uneven and irregular it is diffi-
cult to obtain measurements with any degree of accuracy, hence, to take the
whole girt at once is the best means. Their altitudes I had not the requisites
with me for ascertaining } however, according to Gough, as quoted by Professor
Phillips, in his " Bivers, Mountains, and Sea-coast of Yorkshire" (page 67,
second editi(»i)i " The northern stone is sixteen and a-half feet by eighty-four
inches, the middle one twenty-one and a-half feet by fifty-five and a-quarter
inches, and the southern one twenty*two and a-half by four at four and a-half
feet above the ground." The distance of the exterior monoliths is resfjectively
sixty-two yards, and one hundred and twelve yards from that which is in the
interior. The middle antiquital relic, as I may justly term it, stands four yards
to the west out of a straight line with the other two. The first which we took
dimensions of has the greatest girt, but is lowest in stature, due, no doubt, to
having had a portion of its top broken off at an early period. The second and
third monoliths, as may be perceived by the figures of Gough, are much taller,
and lean in a southerly direction nearly a foot from the pernendicular ; hence it
is we come to the conclusion that it will not at all be unpnilosophical to attri-
bute then: leaning attitudes to the effect of tempestuous winds, which Diay
have blown athwfurt the island from the contrary direction during the last two
thousand years, during which time they may have stood. The lowest monolith
does not lean, but occupies a perpendicular position, although, as its side mea*
sures seven and a-half leet, or three and a-half feet more in breadth than either
of the others, consequently it must be confessed the winds must have had a
broader face to infringe against. We might, however, explain why this mono-
lith stands erect, and why the other two partake of a leaning appearance, hr
taking into consideration the possibility of the top to have been broken on
either at the time of its erection or at a very early period. Professor Phillips,
in speaking of these great wonders in the work referred to, says, " They have
doubtless oeen extracted from the great rocks of Enmham or Plumpton."
They are not made or built up out of many stones cemented together, but each
monolith consists of one entire mass of the same stone as the miUistone-grit
of fifcologists. These pyramids are fluted or groined downwards, not by the
hand of art, but by the pelting rains which have fallen upon their apices for
centuries^ Leland, an antiquary of the time of Henry VIIL, makes mention
of four. Cambden, immediately following, speaks of three, the other having
been thrown down by "the accursed love of gain" (Phillips, page 66). Some
writers imagme the stones to be trophies of victory. Others amrm that eadi
was erected in honour and commemoration of one of the Roman emperors ;
others to the Druids. Prom what we are able to gather from history, the
Brigantes who lived in Yorkshire and the northern part of England, when
Druidism was in great glory, were a wild people, and lived in habitations made

considered the mistletoe as their chief specific, and held the mistletoe of the
oak with great solemnity, which, being very scarce, they gathered with great
pomp and ceremony on a certain day appointed for the great festival. They

NOTES AND QUEBIES. 38D

are said to liave met here to celebrate their great quatemal sacrifice ; and as
Aldborough, another place nearly a mile from Boroughbridge, was the capital
Isurian of the Brigantes, it is not at all improbable to suppose that the largest
mark of an holj edifice would be established here for the large quatemal
religious gathermg.

Tneir name, as the Devil's Arrows, seems to have ori^ated from the follow-
ing story, which we had related to us by an hoary headed individual living in
Boroughbridge, when soliciting information as to their histoij :

" There lived a very pious old man [a Druid should we imagine] who was
reckoned an excellent cultivator of the soiL However, during each season at
the time his crops had come to maturity they were woefully pillaged by his siir-
rounding neighbours ; so that at this, he being provokingly grieved, the Devil
appeared, telBng the old man if he would onlv recant and throw away his
holiness he should never more be disturbed in nis mind, or have whatever he
grew stolen or demolished. The old man, like Eve in the warden, yielded to
temptation, and at once obeyed the impulse of Satan for the oenefit of worldly*
gain. So when the old man's crops were again being pillaged, the Devil threw
from the infernal regions some ponderous arrows, which so frightened the
plunderers by shaking the earth that never more was he harrassed m that way.
Hence the name of the " Devil's Arrows."

Another individual told me it was believed by some that the stones sprung
up one night in the very places they now occupy. These opinions seem to be
somewhat firmly fixed in the minds of the narrators. A superstition once im-
bibed is in many instances difficult to eradicate. However, we neither believe
nor wish others to believe that they either sprung up in a single night, or were
shot from a bow of Satan. Having examined and procured ail information we
possibly could respecting the monoliths at Borougnbridge, we next proceeded
to Aldborough, a most pleasing walk of nearly a mile. We were kmdly con-
ducted and shown through the gardens of A. S. Lawson, Esq. In these
gardens are many antiquities of oifferent descriptions, both of the Brigantes
and Romans, but especially of the latter. The lat.e Mr. Lawson excavated and
laid open for several vards the wall which surrounded the capital of the Romans.
Whilst laying bare this portion of wall — which may be seen through the hos-
pitality of l4r. Lawson — coins, &c., were found, all of which are carefully
deposited in this gentleman's museum. Several tessellated pavements are
most beautifully exposed and preserved in different parts of tne village, and
which may be seen for a trifling fee. There lies two splendid pavements be-
neath the floor of Mr. Lawson's Museum. Within the gardens a hot bath
and a cold bath of Roman workmanship are to be seen.

The wall, built by the Romans, measures two and a-half yards in thickness ;
the material is red sandstone. A splendid section of this red sandstone may
be seen in a pit behind the southern part of the gardens.

As the Romans had their capital here after the Brigantes were routed, it
might be conjectured that the monoliths at Boroughbridge are erections of the
Romans. However, from the researches of the Messrs. Lawson, no doubt but
the question may be fairly settled as to their origin.

Now taking leave of the quaint old city, with many a curious thought
treasured up m mv memory, I took train via Pillmoor to Easingwold, not with
the expectation of seeing such wonders as I had just left, but rather as a flying
visit to see an old acquaintance. However, being of an inquisitive turn of
mind, I began asking if there were any things wonderful in Easingwold or its
vicinity, and I soon found that a Mr. ^Nicholson, in the spring of 1858 or 1859
had bored to a considerable depth in the hope of finding coal, but, alas, all his
labour ended in " smoke ;" none could be found. On making further inquiries,
and on examination of the districti there appeared great judgment on Mr.

390 THE GEOLOGIST.

Nicholson's part for attempting to bore for the precious fuel ; but whether
this ^ntleman had not eone low enough, or that the coal-seams had cropped
or thmned out here, in tneir direction mm the north, we cannot say.

We next were invited to cast our eyes to Hambleton Hill, then we shoidd
behold an object called the " White Mare." Scarcely knowing the meaning of
this phrase, but doing as requested, we were astonished to observe at a distuice
of twelve or fifteen iniles a faithful representation of a white horse shaped out
of the rock on the steep hill of Hambleton. This lai^ hieroglyphic, the size
of which I do not at present know, was executed a few years ago through the
instrumentality of a party of gentlemen, as I understood, who came from York.
This object is a great curiosi^, and may be seen at the station at Pilmoor by
travellers along tne Malton ana Thirsk railway. — Yours truly, Eobt. Mobtimeb,
Pimber, Malton.

Oeoloot op Reading. — ^Deab Snt, — ^Your correspondent, A. H., should
et Mr. Prestwich's pamphlet, " The Ground Beneath Us," Van Voorst, Lon-
on, 1857, for a general account of the Lower Tertiary beds and the gravels.
Eor a special account of the neology of the neighbourhood of Beading, 1 beg
to refer him to the recently publishea Geological Survey Map of that part (sheet
13), and to a memoir, now in the press, illustrating that map. The following
information may be useful to your correspondent :

The beds in the neighbourhood of Reading are, in ascending order. Upper
Chalk (with flints), Woolwich and Reading beds (the Thanet sands hsaig
absent), London Clay, and Drift-^vel.

No doubt fossils may be got in many of the chalk-pits, but I did not look
for them myself. Li the railway-cutting at Pangbouin the characteristic fossils
of the Chalk occur, and in a chalk-pit oy the nver side a small reversed fault
may be seen.

The Woolwich and Reading beds are almost unfossiliferous in the western
part of the London basin. The " bottom-bed" of this formation, however,
contains in this neighbourhood a few fossils in the state of casts, besides the
well-known " oyster-bed" that generally occurs immediately above the Chalk.
The " bottom-bed" consists of roughly-laminated dark grey clay and clayey
sand, generally with green grains — often, indeed, being a regular greensand.
The omy place that I know of where this bed is now to be seen at Reading is
at Castle Kiln, where there is the following general section : —

Plastic clays and sands of the Woolwich and Reading beds, over thirty feet.

Bottom-bed of the Woolwich and Reading beds, over four feet.

Chalk, with fossils.

Li the bottom-bed here the following fossils were found by Mr. Gibbs, the
fossil-collector of the Survey, and myself: Pish-teeth, Area, Nucula, Cardium
Laytoniy Cyrena tellinella, jPsammobia ?, and a small Bryozoan, All were casts,
rather imperfect, and, though tolerably plentiful, not to be found without a
little practice. The bed of oyster-slieUs I did not find here ; but there are
most likely casts of oyster*shells in the bottom-bed ; neither was the upper-
most part of the Chalk riddled with the network of tubular cavities (maae by
boring molluscs) so often to be seen in it where capped by the " bottom-bed."

In a brick-yard about half a mile to the north-east of Theale the " bottom-
bed" may again be seen ; here it is thicker, and also contains casts of shells.
Various species of oysters are the only fossils hitherto published as found in
these beds in this district. I believe tnat the officers of the Geological Survey
were the first to find any others.

There are sections of the " basement-bed" of the London Cky at Kates-
grove Kiln (at the top of the section), and at the brick-yard about half a mile
to the north-west of Upper Early ; and when I was first at Reading it might
be seen at the brick-yard near Redlands. It has been found at some depth at

NOTES AND QUERIES. 891

the kilns above Caversham, where there are lying about many blocks of lime-
stone from it, which are very full of fossils. This "basement-bed" is a loam,
or sandy cla^, of a general doll brown colour, with occasional seams of green-
sand containing sheUs in a very perfect state, until one attempts to ^t them
out ; flint-pebbles, often in beos, ironstone-nodules, and masses of hmestone
are of frequent occurrence. The limestone is very often nothing but a mass
of fossils, generally the DUrupa plana. The followmg fossils have been found
in the "basement-bed" at the vanous places above-noted. : — Naiica glaucinoides,
n. sp., Calyptrcea trochi/bmiis, Fusus, Pleuroloma, Scalaria, jPectunculus brevi-
roslris, Cytherea obHqua, Cardium nitens, C. Flutnsieadiense, C. sp.. Pinna,
Modiola elegans. Oyster, Ditrupa plana, and Cancellaria (P). Of the London
Cla^ itself I do not remember any good sections.

The low-level-gravel is thick and plentiful near Eeading, far too much so
indeed to suit a neld-geolo^t, as it mdes other beds, and makes their boun-
daries doubtful. Mammahan remains may pernaps be found in it, as they have
been in the same bed near Maidenhead and at Hurley, near Great Marlow. It
is made up almost wholly of flints, chiefly sub-angular fragments, but partly in
the state of rounded pebbles ; the latter derived from the wearing away of
older Tertiary beds.

A more detailed account of the sections here noticed, and of some others in
the neighbourhood, will be found in the above-mentioned memoir, which will
be published very shortly. — I am, vours truly, William Whitakek.

P.S. Since wnting the above I have had occasion to spend a couple of days
at Heading, and I then noticed a section of the basement-bed of the London
Clay, at the kiln at Woolwich Green, nearly a mile to the south of Theale
station. The section is chiefly in the London Clay itself ; but at the northern
end the " basement-bed" has oeen cut into. Not much more than a foot of it
is now to be seen ; but in that small thickness there are two or three beds of
fossils, in which I noticed at least fifteen species. In the course of a few
weeks, when this bed wiU be cut further back, I should think that, with care,
many good fossils might be got from it. — ^W. W.

Age op the Wexford S.chists, &c. — ^Deak Sir, — ^Will you be so kind as
to oblige me by inserting in your next publication, and by way of adjunct to my
paper which apoeared m the " Geologist" of February last, that I consider
the Wexford scnists, slates, and grits, composing the coast -Ime from Dollar
Bay in the south to Arthurstown or Kingsbay in the north, as identical with
the Longmynd or Cambrian rocks of Wales ; and that the Llandeilo beds at
Duncannon referred to in my former observations lie in a trough or depression
among the more ancient deposits.

About twenty years since I obtained one species of Oldhamia and Arenico-
lites from the district now referred to — ^near Aldridge Bay, in the county of
Wexford. This I showed to officers employed on the government survey and
to other geologists ; but the specimens which I had procured after a laborious
research were regarded as not exhibiting sufficient organic structure to allow
of their being admitted on the list of fossus found in the United Kingdom.

I now make known my claim as to being the first to record the met of the
existence of Longmynd or Bottom-rocks in the county of Wexford. I laboured
for several years among those old rocks, breaking stratum after stratum for
many miles, therefore le^ much interest in everything relating to their history.
— Dear sir, yours truly, Thomas Austin.

Lamellae, Structure op Bocks. — Sir, — I would feel obliged if you
could give any information respecting the lamellar condition of rocks long sub-
ject to the action of the waves ? Bsdls of earth exposed to them soon become
hardened into concentric layers ; and many large t)oulders are to be seen on
the shores here whose centres are perfectly compact and as hard as gramte,
the influence of the sea in crystallizing and mouloing them being quite visible

392 THE GEOLOGIST.

in the outer concentric laminated layers of still nnhardened mud encircling
them. I can bring eyidence to show that this is no effect of disintegration ;
and I am anxious to know how far the laws respecting chemical segregation
under conditions such as described are ascertained, or if any relation can be
traced between such facts and the well-known phenomena of slaty cleavage—
the twisting, aa it were, of gneiss round the granitic centres of mountains, and
the contortions in various rocks hitherto erroneously ascribed to violent squeez-
ing^, &c. The manner in which water enters and leaves a given substance may
iiltimately produce a change of form, just as electiic currents passed throom
iron render it different from its former state. I have observed that where the
substance acted upon is a stationary mass of mud or sand, the layers all follow
one direction, until we come to a sort of axis, as it were, and there the direc-
tion of the laminae become reversed.

Now if the crystalline arrangement of bodies depend upon the weight of
their atoms, ana that the medium in which thej are placed, as well as the
motions to which they are subjected must be studied to produce artificial crys-
tals, why should chemists not be able to elucidate the laws by which la^
masses not only have an internal minute crystalline structure, but also a regolar
geometric arrangement into larger squares or circles, both these effects being
produced by the force of gravitation. Were it proved that the lamellar struc-
ture of rocks owes its origin to water, it would be an additional evidence that
granitic rocks are in reality not of igneous origin. — Yours, &c.. A., Belfast.

Manufactube op Stone Implements. — Sib, — ^The stone axes such as your
" Inquirer" describes having doubtless excited much interesting speculation,
it is to be hoped your next number will contain replies to some of nis queries
regarding implements which seem to have been manufactured by people singu-
larly endowea with the virtue called patience. Perhaps the author of the paper
on the " Giant's Causeway," which appeared some time ago in your magazme,
being an antiquarian as well as a geologist, would give some suggestions
reading their manufacture P

I have seen one, belonging to Lord Talbot de Malahide, the careful work-
manship and high finish of which might well call forth similar inooiries to
those of your correspondent. It was, as nearly as I can recollect, formed of
basalt also ; and being so well finished suggested the use of a metal in its
manufacture, which, however, may have been too scarce to have superseded the
use of stone-weapons.

Stones along a sea-beach are often perforated bv marine creatures, so that
handles could easily be adapted to tliem, but then they are always composed of
limestone, a rock which I have never known to be used for these stone axes.—
A. B. W., F.G.S. Sept. 8th, 1860.

Lias at Whitchurch. — Sie, — In the geological map that accompanies the
last edition (the 3rd) of Sir R. Murchison's " Siluria I observe a patch of
Lias marked as occurring between Whitchurch and Market Drayton.

I should be ^lad to know whether on that patch there be any accessible sec-
tions whence nught be procured specimens of the very interesting fossik of the
Lias formation. Being a new comer to the neighbourhood, and moreover a
yerv tyro in geological studies, I, on both these grounds, stand in need of a
little help in the way of information. — Faithfully yours. Omega.

P.S. Are there any geologists in this locality or neighbourhood ?

Pish peom the Coal-Meastjbes. — Sib, — ^lou will oblige me by informing
me in your next number which is the best work that treats of the fish of the
Coal-measures next to Agassiz's " Poissons Possiles." — Subscbibeb.

The fossil fish of the Carboniferous rocks are not yet fuUy described.
Beyond some scattered notices b^ Egerton (in the GeoL Quart. Jour.) and
others, there are no other descriptions except those in Agassiz's great work.

THE GEOLOGIST.

NOVEMBER, 1860.

GEOLOGICAL LOCALITIE S.— No. L

FOLKESTONE.

By S. J. Mackie, F.G.S., F.S.A.

(Contifmed fromjpage S57.)

RosiNUS, Walch, Lemery, and others writing after him followed not
in the new path opened out to them, bat reiterated former absurdities.

Bruckmann thinks them a kind of pholas, or boring shell ; Bonr-
quet holds to the old notion of their being teeth of whales ; Klein
even in 1731 regards them as worm-tubes, although three years later
he comes round to the opinion that they were nearly allied to the
Argonautes; SpirulsB, and chambered shells. Dufay, one of the
numerous writers who followed, states that burnt belemnites haye
the property of being luminous after having been calcined upwards
of five years. We have not tried the experiment, and cannot, there-
fore, speak to the accuracy of the assertion.

Capeller, in 1740, proposes to regard the Belenmite as a species
of Holothuria, the soft parts of which had become petrified; the
opening, in his opinion, being the mouth of the creature for seizing
its prey, and the alveolus a shell half swallowed.

Bromell, Bitter (1741), Da Costa (1747), lead up to LinneBus, who
in his " Systema Natura" has placed them somewhere near the mark.
Of the authors which now follow. Baker (1748) regarded them as
marine animals allied to Orthoceras ; Stobadus (1752), as a species of

VOL. III. 3 D

304 THB GEOLOGIST.

coral ; Brander (1764), as species of Argonauts, allied to Orthoceras,
the yoxmg being without cavities, the adults having alveoli. AlKoiii
(1767) says "Targionio Toggeto speaks in his voyages of having
seen a living Belemnite attached to red coral in the cabinet of Vin-
cent Capponi ;" but travellers, we know, tell strange tales, aud they
have told marvellous ones in respect to the cuttle-fish. Denys
Montfort represented a "kraken octopod" scutling a "three-masted"
ship ; and is said to have told Defiance that if this were "swallowed,"
he would in his next edition represent the monster embracing the
Straits of Gibraltar, or capsizing a squadron.

From Wallerius, Jean Gesner, Torrubia, Cartheuser (1755),
D'Argenville, Walch, Viallet (1761), Bertrand (1763), we get no new
notions ; while we ore favoured with the following from Le Monnier
— of their being polypes, composed of osseous articulations, living in
the end of the shell ; fix)m Titius of their being the claws or nails of
cartilaginous star-fish, by means of which they crawled along in
the sea.

Joshua Piatt, in 1704, however, makes another step. Agreeiag
with Ehrhart generally, he confirms his idea of the mode of growth
by supposing it to have been accomplished by the two lobes of the
mantle of the animal, after the manner of the shells of the Poicel-
laines.

Again passing over in the long list of authors the names of Bosiims
(1767), AndraBa^ Duluc (1766), Tressau, Firmin (1767, who pretends
to have found a living analogue, but really only a mutilated calmar),
Pallas (in the "Magasin de Stralsund), Walch (1776, in Knorr*s
great work on fossils), Guettard (1783, by whom considered as a
straight nautilus), we come to the nineteenth century, when another
step was made towards more correct knowledge by the investigations
which then began for the purpose of asoertaing the posUion of the
Belemnite in the body of the animal. M. de Blainville figures most
conspicuously in the list of authors of this period, amongst which
may be mentioned Sage, Deluc, Denys de Montfort (1808), Defiance
(who had the happy idea of separating the species of Belemnites into
those anterior to the Chalk Period, and those belonging to it) ; Ben-
dant, who showed the limitation of the range of rocks in which they
occurred j Faure Biquet, who diatinguLshed several species ; Cuyier

GEOLOGY OF FOLKESTONK — THE GAULT. 395

and Lamark, who of course classed them with the cephalopods ; Par-
kmson, who considej^ed their spathose structure as due to fossil-
ization ; Schlotheim, Ferussao (1822) and J. S. Miller, who in 1823
read a paper before the Geological Society of London, specifying the
nature of the Belemnite and its position in the animal, considering it
analogous to the bone of the sepia, but according that priority of in-
formation which was due to M. de Blainyille.

We now hand our readers a list of the classification of the cepha-
lopods, and shall then proceed to describe more particularly the
natural characters of the divisions which are essential for a proper
knowledge of the beautifal fossil forms of the Gault.

CLASS, CEPHALOPODA.

Order L — ^Dibranchiata = Acetabui.ipxsa.
Section L — Octopoda = 8 arms.

Family 1. ArgonoAiUdod,

2. OctopodndoB,

Section U, — Decapoda,

3. Teuthid(B,

4. BelemmAtes,

5. SepiadaB.

6. SpvruUdcB,

Order 11. — ^Tetilabranchiata 3= Tentaculip bra.
Section I, — Kautili.

Family 1. NcmtiUdcB,

2. OrthoceratidcB,

Section 11. — Ammonites.

3. Am/monitid(B»

Where the ornamentation of a class of shells is so various and inr
tricate as in the Ammonites, it becomes necessary to classify, as far
as possible, the general characters of the Jcmds of patterns or methods
on which the ornamentations are based. In the Ammonites these
variations are at once apparent and distinct ; we see some with keels;,
some with channels, or ftirrows along the back ; some with the backs
square ; some round ; some sharp and others crenated ; and these
again in varied stages, and susceptible again of minor divisions*
Quenstedt, whose work is generally taken as the basis of the olassi*
fication of the Ammonites, has thus divided them — ^an arrangement
whicb has been adopted by Mr. S. P. Woodward*

396 THB GEOLOGIST.

AMMONITES.

Section L — ^Baok with entire keeL

1. Arietes (ram-horn).

2. Faldferi (siokle-beajring).
8. OristaU (orested).

Section U, — Back crenated.

4. AynMhei,

6. RhoUymoLgemAes,

Section III. — Back sharp.

6. Disci (qnoit-shape).

Section IK — Baok ohaimelled.

7. Dentati (toothed).

Section V, — Back squared.

8. ArmaU (armed).

9. Cwpricorm (gort-hom).

10. (hiiati (ornamented).

Section VI. — Baok roimd, = oonyex,

11. HetefophylU (odd-leaf).

12. Ligati (constricted).
18. AmmlaU (ringed).

14. CoTonati (coronate).

15. Fimbriati (bordered).
16* Cassiam [complex lobes].

CTo be continued J

EBSEABCHES ON PSEUDOMORPHS.

Bt M. Delesse.

Translated fix)in the " Annales des Mines"* by H. C. Salmon, XG.S.

Metamorphism, considered in its widest generality, comprises all the
modifications which mineral substances undergo. It is natnrally
divisible into parts, according as its objects bear upon minerals or
upon rocks. It is the metamorphism of minerals which I propose
studying in this notice, and I shall describe it under the name of
pseudomorphism. But as certain associations of minerals present aJl
the appearances of pseudomorphism, with which they have been
often confounded, it is necessary, in the first place, to consider these
specially.

We know that, notwithstanding their great variety, the rocks

• Vol. xvi., p. 317 ! 6th livraison. 185&.

SALMON — RESEARCHES ON PSEUDOMORPHS. 307

which compose the terrestrial crust contain but a small number of
minerals* It seems even that certain minerals were unable to form
themselves without others being developed at the same time. Thus,
when there are felspars in a rock, we also most usually find the
micas, augite, or hornblende. Similarly it is rare for orthoclase to
be met with, without quartz. The associations of minerals are be-
sides observed as well in normal and in abnormal rocks. In addition,
as has been shown by Messrs, Breithaupt, Henwood, and B. Cotta,
the minerals have generally succeeded in the same order.f It can-
not, therefore, be doubted that minerals manifest a great tendency to
form constant associations.

There is eminently one particular case in which the associations
are very evident, and as intimate as possible ; it is when two minerals
are crystallized in such a manner that the one envelopes the other :
we then say that there is envelopment.

Envelopment.

The envelopment of minerals is well fitted to throw light on the
conditions in which they were formed, and has consequently attracted
special attention. The older geologists occupied themselves with
this subject, particularly Rome de I'lsle, De Boumon, Haiiy, Grer-
hard, GuUois, Germary Marx, Von Bom, Werner, Karsten, Mohs,
Chrichton, and Phillips. More recently, it has been noticed in
diverse circumstances by Messrs. Breithaupt, Naumann, Gr. Bischof,
Haussmann, Haidinger, Scheerer, Gr. Rose, SiUem, Zippe, Von
Zepharovitch, Tamnau, Wieser, Wiebye, A. Kjiop, Websky, Mar-
bach, Genth, Liebener, Null, Levy, Durocher, Sir David Brewster,
H. C. Sorby, SiUiman, Alger, Nicol, Jackson. But it is particularly
to Messrs. R. Blum, G. Leonhard, Kenngott, A. Seyffert, and
Sochting, that we owe the principal labours on envelopment. J

When we regard the question in its widest generality, one mineral
may envelope an almost indefinite number of other minerals ; the old
popular maxim, " tout est dans tout," seems to be verified for the
mineral kingdom.

However, the number of minerals enveloping and enveloped is not
so great as we might at first sight suppose ; indeed, they may be
considerably reduced if we limit them to those which are well crys-
tallized, and the most important.

The following is a table which gives a resume of these, and shows
us the envelopment of the principal minerals. The classification
adopted is that of Mr. Dana (" System of Mineralogy"). The en-
veloping mineral is given in the first column of the table, and the

* On this subject see my paper " On Bocks." " Greolog^t," vol. ii., p.p. 49
and 22.— H. C. S.

t Breithanpt, " Paragenesis der Mineralien." Henwood, " Phil. Mag. :" 1846,
p. 360. B. Cotta, " Erzlagerstatten :" 2nd ed., p. 72.

% *' NiBttnrw. Yerein in Halle," 1853, t. xi. : 6, Hollandische SocietS.t der Wis-
senschaften zn Haarlem : 1854.

JIL

li H L

«t iJ! I iitilfi

II. ...a

jl li ItfAiJl

llti

ij i dMii

iJiMil

400 THE GEOLOGIST.

•

mineral enveloped in the following ones. Although the mineralB
enveloping or enveloped are generally inorganic, t^ey may also be
organic, and these are also given in the table. A particular attention
has, besides, been given to the examination of minerals in which any
metamorphism has been noticed, and we shall see farther on that
this supposed metamorphism ofben finds a perfectly natural explanar
tion in envelopment.

The table shows at once that the enveloping minerals, as well as
the enveloped minerals, may appertain to every family of the niineral
kingdom. It informs us in addition, as to the most habitual associa-
tion of the divers minerals, and it enables us to embrace it at a glance.
Some interesting peculiarities merit pointing out in the first place.

Envelopment of va/rieties of one same mineral, — Envelopment may
easily be established, not only between different minerals, but also
among varieties of the same mineral. Then the name of this mineral
has been inscribed both in the columns of enveloping and enveloped
minerals. The following are some examples.

Among the best crystallized bodies, as the diamond, in the midst
of the most limpid sorts there are dull or even completely black
parts, which form in certain cases species of fixed asteries.

Hyalin quartz often encloses independent crystals of quartz equally
hyalin. In Iceland-spar M. Des Cloizeaux has observed crystels of
carbonate of lime which are perfectly distinct from it. The horn-
blende of crystalline schists is often formed of common (aluminous)
hornblende enveloping actinote.

The silver- white mica of granite frequently encloses another mica
which is blackish or pinchbeck brown.

Tourmaline presents, particularly, very distinct varieties in one
same crystal ; thus, that at ChesteAeld is green at the exterior, and
a fine rose colour in the interior. On the other hand, the opposite
may also happen, as is shown by a tourmaline of Mursinsk, in Siberia,
belonging to the collecion of Mr. Damour. In certain tourmaline
crystals we even observe several alternations.

The leucite of Vesuvius appears in small globules with concentric
zones, in which a transparent zone is comprised between two opaque

Fig, 1.— Leucite.

zones (Fig. 1). In the large leucite crystals of Eoccamonfina, the
transparent and opaque zones succeed each other in considerable
numbers. Sometimes it is the same with felspar, and particularly
with the orthoclase of the porphyritic granite of the Vosges.*

« " Beoherches snr lea Boches Globnlenses" (Bi^moires do la Sod^t^ G^lo-
giqne, 2nd s^rie, tome iy., p. 301).

SALMON — RESEARCHES ON PSEUDOMORPHS.

401

The idocrase of Arendal, according to Mr. G. Leonhord, presents
a series of crystals which fit well with each other; their lustre
diminishes as they recede fix>m the centre, and it may even occur
that their circumference may be formed of a returning zone of lustre.

The quartz of the Alps ofiers, in certain cases, a series of crystals
which fit each other ; and each successive increase is very well indi-
cated by the parallel zones of ripidoHte (lign 2).

Fig. 2.— Parallel Zones of Ripidolite.

A very small quantity of foreign matter, or a slight alteration in
the structure suffice besides to change the aspect of a mineral ; but
in several of the examples which have just been cited, the density,
the chemical composition, and all the properties have been com-
pletely modified. In reality, the envelopment of the tourmaHne, of
the hornblende, of the mica, has taken place between very distinct
minerals, which yet belong to the same mineral species.

The envelopment of varieties of one same mineral is easily seen in
the diamond, fluor, rock-salt, corundum, quartz, augite, hornblende,
garnet, idocrase, epidote, iolite, felspar, leucite, mica, andalusite,
kyanite, sphene, tourmaline, topaz, serpentine, wolfram, baryte, gyp-
sum, calcite, chalybite,. It is rendered perfectly sensible by the
changes in lustre, colour, transparency, by a mixture of organic
matters, of metallic oxides or sulphides, of argile, of chlorite, or of
any other foreign substance ; in a word, it is shown by the ' very
smallest differences, whether in the physical properties or in the
chemical properties. It may be attributed either to a slow crystal-
lization effected in a liquid, or in a medium of variable composition,
or to a severance occuring between the parts at the moment of crys-
tallization.

Recijproccbl envelopment. — The envelopment of two minerals is some*
times reciprocal. Thus quartz envelopes baryte ; and on the other
hand, the latter envelopes quartz. It is the same with kyanite and
staurolite.

More frequently, when two minerals present a reciprocal envelop-
ment, it is found in different localities ; yet, in certain cases, they are
not merely in the same locality, but united in the same rock. For
example, in the crystalline schists of St. Gothard, at times the stau-
rolite envelopes the kyanite, and at times, on the contrary, is en-
veloped by it. In the pegmatite of Moume, in Ireland, the orthoclase
impresses itself on l^e quartz, while in the cavities of this same peg-

VOL. III. 3 E

4i02 THE GEOLOGIST.

matite the quartz supports the crystals of orthoclase, and, on the con-
trary, impresses itself on them.*

Mr. G. Rose has pointed oat that in granite, the silver-white mica,
which is very alnminons, generally envelopes the blackish or pinch-
beck brown, which is ferro-magnesian. On the other hand, I have
established a reciprocal envelopment of the former in the granite of
Cornwall, which is employed in buildings in London ; its micas
form, in fact, agglomerations in which it is the ferro-magnesian mica
which, on the contrary, envelopes the aluminous mica (lign. 3).

Fig. 3. — Ferro-magnCBian Mica enveloping Aluminous Mica.

Finally, reciprocal envelopment is also observed in the same rock,
and, what is more, at the same point. For, according to Mr.
Scheerer, the orthoclase felspar of the syenite of Norway envelopes
the mesotype (spreustein), which, in its turn, envelopes a kernel of
this same felspar ; so that a zone of mesotype is confined between
two zones of felspar.

Mr. Blum has shown that the garnet of Pittigliano, in ItaJy, con-
tains in its cavities crystals of idocrase and garnet, which penetrate
and envelope each other mutually. According to Messrs. Seyfferfc
and Sochting, it is the same with rutile and hematite in the valley of
Tavetsch.

The following are the principal examples of reciprocal envelop-
ment : — Pyrite and fluor, galena and fluor, fluor and quartz, rutile
and hematite, magnetite and asbestus, magnetite and talc, magnetite
and chlorite, franklinite and willemite, chrysoberyl and quartz,
corundum and diaspore, quartz and emerald, quartz and garnet,
quartz and topaz, quartz and baryte, quartz and soheelite, quartz and
calcite, quartz and chalybite, augite and hornblende, emerald and
topaz, garnet and idocrase, garnet and gypsum, garnet and calcito,
epidote and scapolite, aluminous mica and ferro-magnesian mica,
mica and andalusite, mica and kyanite, mica and tourmaline, felspar
and tourmaline, felspar and mesotype, felspar and calcite, andalusite
and kyanite, bastite and serpentine.

To resume, reciprocal envelopment is observed among all the

• Bulletin de la Society Geologique, 2nd B^rie, t. x., p. 568.

SALMON — RESEARCHES ON PSEUDOMORPHS. 403

families of the mineral kingdom; it often occurs between the
varieties of same species or between minerals which have some
analogy in their chemical composition ; it is very frequent among
the silicates ; it is equally so with quartz, and in general with the
minerals which constitute the metalliferous deposits, or abnormal
rocks.

General results. — As is seen by Table I., the enveloping and en-
veloped minerals are very numerous, and still, far from being
exaggerated, their list might have been considerably augmented. It
would have sufficed, in fact, to join to it the minerals which are
formed in rocks ; for the saccharoid limestone, for example, envelopes
a large part of the known minerals, and these latter have crystallized
at the same time as it.

Besides, when a mineral has been formed, it has generally been
contaminated by foreign substances, amorphic or crystalline, organic
or inorganic, which have been mixed with it and have modified its
colour and other properties ; thus, when even a crystal is transparent,
it is extremely rare for it not to contain foreign substances. When
these substances are not visible to the naked eye, they are easily
recognized by the microscope, or chemical analysis. But the
minerals which figure in the foregoing table are only the most
common, and more especially those which, being crystalline, have
been observed in another mineral equally crystallized.

The enveloping minerals which are the most important, and which
enclose the greatest number of other minerals, are particularly fluor,
quartz, the micas, the felspars, garnet, idocrase, scapolite, tourma-
line, augite, hornblende, serpentine, chlorite, talc, baryte, gypsum,
apatite, calcite, dolomite, chalybite. It is easy to see that they are
very widely spread, and that they essentially constitute rocks. On
the other hand, certain minerals, equally wide spread, such as blende,
hematite, olivine, sphene, only rarely enclose other minerals.

The most common enveloped minerals are very nearly the same as
the enveloping minerals. We should, however, add the more widely
spread metallic minerals, particularly antimonite, galena, blende,
pyrrhotine, pyrite, towanite, magnetite, hematite, rutile, wolfram.

The enveloping and the enveloped mineral pretty often present a
certain analogy in their composition. Thus, the sulphides, arsenides,
quartz, and the silicates, phosphates, carbonates, are found especially
associated with minerals of the same family. However, there is no
general rule in this respect, and the minerals offering the widest
differences in their composition may readily be found associated.
We thus understand how, according to the table given, quartz en-
velopes at least a hundred substances, and is itself enveloped by some
forty; how calcite envelopes at least seventy substances, and is
enveloped by more than a score. Besides, the cases of quartz and
calcite clearly show that the enveloping or enveloped minerals may
belong to almost all the families. The simple bodies, the sulphides,
oxides, fluorides, the silicates, sulphates, phosphates, carbonates,

404 THE GEOLOGIST,

figure alternately among the enveloping and enveloped minerals.
There are even organic substances which envelope certain minerals.
These, on the other hand, are found in certain varieties of quartz,
topaz, and chrysoberyl ; I have shown, moreover, that they exist in
sinall quantities in most minerals, sometimes even in those which are
volcanic. Finally, organized bodies, vegetables or animals, are also
observed in rock-salt and in amber.

To sum up, whether they are enveloping or enveloped, the mine-
rals belong to all the families of the mineral kingdom. However,
silica and the silicates, carbonates and sulphates are much more fre-
quently enveloping and enveloped than the sulphides, arsenides, and
metallic oxides. It is easy, indeed, to understand this; for while
the latter minerals are exceptional, the former are on the contrary
"sery frequent, and constitute the greater portion of the terrestrial
crust.

As to the origin of enveloping and enveloped minerals, it is very
variable. The more frequently it is aqueous, but it may also be
igneous. It is even possible that it may be different for the two
associated minerals.

The decomposition of a mineral generally gives rise to an envelop-
ment. This decomposition is produced by oxygen, water, carboDic
acid, or indeed by any other chemical agent. It is particularly fre-
quent in the minerals susceptible of passing to a higher degree of
oxidation.

It is the minerals of the abnormal and metalliferous rocks that
visibly offer the greatest number of envelopments. This is to be
attributed to their mode of formation, which is usnally by successive
deposits, so one mineral must cover the one that has preceded it.

This preamble on the envelopment of minerals was necessary for
the understanding of pseudomorphism, which will now occupy our
attention.

(To be contintted.)

THE EVIDENCES OF THE GEOLOGICAL AGE AND
HUMAN MANUFACTURE OF THE FOSSIL FLINT
IMPLEMENTS.

By the Editor.*

In this notice we commence the first of a series of articles descriptive of tte
geological diagrams, of which last month we commenced the issue. The
notoriety which the discovery of flint implements of human manufacture of
Amiens and Abbeville by M. Boucher de Perthes has atl ained, and the amount
of research and investigation now going on renders it necessary for us to lay
before our readers the chief points of the proofs of the human workmanship of

• Beingr an illustrated explanatory article of Mr. Mackie's Geological Diagram, No. VT.

EVIDESCES OF THE GEOLOGICAL AOB, ETC. 405

those articles. Figures 1 and 2 represent in outline on a scale of one sixtli
the two principal forms of the brger kinds of flint implements, such as are
found in France, England, and ebewhere, wherever such remains have been

Fig. 1. — Large Flint bnplemait from fit- I Fig. 2. — Larga Flint Tranlfiment, probftblv
Achenl. CoDecUd b; M. Boacher de javelin heail. found by Mi. Flower. Nat.
Pertliw. I Size ; a inches by 3} inclieB,

found. Fig. 3 is the decisive implement aa to the correctness of the position of
the inatroments in gravela of reallj geological age, found by Mr. J. W. Flower,
of Croydon, at St. Acbeul, near Ajniens, in the presence of'^ Mr. Frestwich and
other geologists, in June of last jear. This specimen was extracted from a
seam of ocEreoua gravel ^2i of section below) twenty feet below the surface.
The section of the geolc^cal deposits at that place as given by Mr. Frestwich
(in descending order) are

Average
thickness.
1. Brown brick-earth (many old tombs and some coins)
with an irregular bed of flint-gravel. No oi^anic re-
mains, incisional plane betmeen 1 and 3 vmnen and very

o/lun iadenled 10 to 15 feet.

2a. Whitish marl and sand, with small chalk-debris.
Land and freshwater shells (Lymnea, Suceinta, Helix,
Bithynia, Planorbii, Pupa, Pinaium, and Jneglus, all of
recent species) are common, and mammalian bones and

teeth ate occasionally found 2 to 8 feet.

3i. Coarse sub-angular flint-gravel, white with irregular
ochreous and ferruginous seams, with tertiary flint peb-
bles and small sandstone-blocks. B«mains of sheili
as above, in patches of sand. Teeth and bones of ele-

40G THE GEOLOGIST.

Average
thickness.

phant and of species of horse, ox, and deer, generally
near the base. This bed is further remarkable for con-
taining the worked flints (" haches" of M. de Perthes,
and "langues des chat" of the workmen) 6 to 12 feet.

resting on

Uneven surface of Chalk strata.

In the stratum 2b the flint implements are found in considerable numbers.
Mr. Prestwich tells us in his paper read before the Bx)yal Society, that on his
first visit he obtained several specimens from the workmen. The late Dr.
Eigollet mentions the occurrence also here in the gravel of round pieces of
hard chalk, pierced with holes, which he considers were used as beads. Such
were also found by Mr. Prestwich on his visit, and recognized as small fossil
sponges {Coscinopora alobularis, D*Orb), very common in the Chalk. He ex-
presses some doubt about their artificial dressing, although he admits " some
specimens do certainly appear as though the hole had been enlarged and com-
pleted.'* We figure a specimen.

Supposed FoBsil Bead.

These gravel-beds at St. Acheul cap a low chalk hill a mile south-east of the
city of Amiens, and are about a hundred feet above the valley of the Somme,
ana are not commanded by any higher ground.

Pig. 2 is dso from the gravel of Amiens, and is a very good example of the
large pear-shaped implements. The specimen No. 2 is a type of another and
flatter kind, and was probably used as a javelin, or spear-head, while the largest
pear-shaped specimens like fig. 1 were probably used for digging roots, as the
upper extremity is unworked, and left bulbous in shape, as if for fitting the palm
01 the hand when in use. It seems there are two sorts of pear-shaped nints.

Flint Implement (c) lashed to a stout pole (a) by cord (^, as a spear-head; b, notch at end of

pole for end of instrument.

and that some were used like fig. 1 as javelin, or spear-heads. Sir Charles
Lyell has in his collection one of these worked fiints thus lashed on to a stout
pole, in illustration of their probable use as javelin-heads, of which we give a
representation below.

In the gravel deposit on which the town of Abbeville stands, a number of
flint implements have been found, together with teeth of Elepkas primigenm
and, at places, fragments of fresh-water shells. The section, however, which
Mr. Prestwich considers of great interest is that at Menchecourt, a suburb to

EVIDENCES OF THE QEOLOOICAL AGE, ETC. 407

the north-west of the town. The deposit there is very distinct in its character,
and occurs as a patch on the side of a chalk hiU, wnich commands it to the
northward, while it slopes down under the peat-beds of the valley of the
Somme to the southwara. The following is the section in descending order, as
given by Mr. Prestwich.

Average
thickness.

1. A mass of brown sandy clay, with angular fragments of
flints and chalk-rubble. No organic remains. Base

very irregular and indented into bed No. 2 2 to 12 feet,

2. A light-coloured sandy clay (" sable gras" of the work-
men) analogous to the loess, contaming land-shells. Pupa,
Helix, Clausilia, of recent species. Plint-axes and mam-
malian remains are said to occur occasionally in this bed 8 to 25 feet.

3. White sand (" sable aigre")* with one to two feet of
sub-angular flint-gravel at base. This bed abounds in
land- and fresh-water-shells of recent species of the
genera Helix, Succinea, Cvclas, Ptsidium, Valvata, Bithy-
nia, and JPlanorbiSy together with the marine Buccinum
undatum, Cardium edule, Tellina solidula, and Purpura
lapilltis. The author has also found the Cyrena conso-
brina and Litorina rudis. With them are associated
numerous mammalian remains, and it is said flint imple-
ments 2 to 6 feet.

L Light-coloured sandy marl, in places very hard, with
Helix, Zonites, Sucdnea, and Pupa, Not traversed 3 feet.

M. Buteux enumerates from this pit the remains of Blephas primigenius,
Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Certnts Somonensis, (?), C. tarandus, C. prisons, Ursus
ipekeus, Hyana spelaa. Bos primigemus, Equus adamaticus, and Felis.

Of this section, however, Mr. Prestwich remarks that the essential work has
yet to be done, namely, the determination of the manner in which these fossils
are distributed, which occur in strata Nos. 2 and 3. " A few marine shells,"
that geologist tells us, "occur mixed indiscriminately with the freshwater
species, chiefly amongst the flints at the base of No. 3. They are very friable,
and somewhat scarce. It is on the top of this bed of flints that the greater
number of bones are found, and also, it is said, the greater number of flint
implements." Mr. Prestwich, however, only saw some lonff flint flakes (con-
sidered by M. de Perthes as flint knives) from the peat-oeds and barrows.
There are specimens, however, of the larger implements, or " baches," from
Menchecourt, in M. de Perthes' collection ; one from a recorded depth of five
metres, and another from a recorded depth of seven metres. This would take
them out of No. 1 stratum, but leaves it uncertain whether they came from
No. 2 or No. 3. Prom this general appearance, Mr. Prestwich is disposed to
place them in bed No. 2, but M. de Perthes believes them to be from No. 3 —
if so, Mr. Prestwich thmks they must have come from some subordinate clay-
seams occasionally intercalated in the white sand.

With regard to the geological age of these beds, Mr. Prestwich considers
them as belonging to tne period usually designated as Post-pliocene, and
notices their agreement with many beds of that age in England. The Menche-
court deposit thus resembles that of Pisherton, near Salisbury ; the gravel of
St. Acheul is like some on the Sussex coast ; that of Moulin Quignon resem-
bles the gravel so well exposed in the great railway ballast-excavation at East
Croydon, and the gravel at Wandsworth-common, and many other places round
London.

408 THE G£0L0ai8T.

Besides the concurrent testimony of the workmen and of capable geol(^ts,
the flint implements bear evidence in themselves of their geological a^e. "It
ia a peculiaritv of chalk flints to become deeply and permanently stamed and
changed in colour, or to remain unchanged, according to the nature of the
deposit in which they are embedded, In clay beds the outside of flints
become opaquely white or porcellanic ; in sand their black fractured surfaces
remain almost unchanged, whilst in beds of ochreous and ferruginous sands
the flints are stained of light yellow, tawny, or deep brown colours, as is well
exhibited in the ordinary gravels of the London area. This change is the
work of very long time and of moisture before the opening of the beds. Now
in looking over tne large series of flint-implements in M. de Perthes' collec-
tion, it cannot fail to strike the most casual observer that those from Menche-
court are almost always white and bright, whilst those from Moulin Quignon
have a duU yellow ana brown surface ; and it may be noticed that whenever
(as is often the case) any of the matrix adheres to the flint, it is invariably of
the same nature, texture, and colour as that of the respective beds themselves.
In the same way at St. Acheul, where there are beds of white and others of
ochreous gravel, the flint implements exhibit corresponding variations in colour
and adhermg matrix, added to which, as the white gravel contains chalk debris,
there are portions of the gravel in which the flints are more or less coated
with a film of deposited carbonate of lime ; and so it is with the flint imple-
ments which occur in these portions of the gravel. Further, the surface of
many specimens is covered with dentritic markings. Some few implements
also show, like the fractured flints, traces of wear, their sharp edges being
blunted. In fact, the flint-implements form just as much a continuous part of
the gravel itself, exhibiting the action of the same late influences, and in the
same force and degree, as the roue:h mass of flint fragments with which they
are associated."

PROCEEDINGS OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES.

Geological Society of London, March 28, 1860.

1. " Notes about Spitzbergen in 1859." By James Lamont, Esq., P.G.S.

M. Lamont first visited Eoge's Land, which is composed of horizontal strata
of limestone, shale, and sandstone, with some coal. One of the glaciers on
this coast has a frontage of thirty miles. Black Point yielded some Carboni-
ferous fossils. The Thousand Isles are composed of greenstone, sometimes
columnar. Stour Fiord and Walter Thymen's Straits were next visited. The
shores consist of the same kind of horizontal strata, with trap-rocks. Bell
Sound and Ice Sound, on the west coast, \^ere also examined ; the. former has
high hills of grey fossiliferous limestone all round it ; the fossils, as deter-
mined by Mr. Salter, prove to be all carboniferous. At various points on the
coast and islands of southern Spitzbergen Mr. Lamont found bones of whales
and walrus at elevations of ten to one hundred feet above the sea, and at dis-
tances of from a few yards to half a mile inland. The bones are sometimes
embedded in banks of moss. Drift-wood (pine) also abounds ; some of it lies
thirty feet above high-water-mark.

In the supplement to this paper, Mr. Homer supplied a description of the
rock-specimens brought from northern Spitzbergen fcy Parry ana Poster in
1827. Prom the evidence thus afforded it appears that the islands and main-
land about the entrance of Waigatz Straits consist of granitic and gneis^

PROCEEDINGS OP GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. 409

rocks with quartz-rock and crystalline limestones — ^possibly the altered equi-
valents of the Carboniferous sandstones and limestones of southern Spitz-
bergen.

2. " On the so-called Wealden Beds at Linksfield/* By C. Moore, Esq.,

r.G.s.

The author recognized a similarity of appearance between the shales and
thin limestone-beds at Linksfield and those oi the Bone-bed series (at the base
of the Lias) at Pylle Hill, near Bristol, at Aust Passage and at Penarth, on
the Severn, and at the Uphill cutting on the Great Western Railway. The
author pointed out some close litholoncal resemblances, and stated that he
recognized the " white lias,*' the " Gotham marble," the " bone-bed," and the
gypseous, clay-bands of the south in the quarry at Linksfield. Cyprides,
Esikerug, remains of ffybodus, Lepidotus, Acrodus, and JPlemsaurua, Mytilua^
Modiola, Unto, and Oyclas, &om toe Linksfield beds, were amon^ the palseonto-
logical evidences supporting his correlation of the beds in question.

April 18, 1860.

1. "On a Well-section at Bury Cross, near Gosport." By James Pilbrow,
Esq. In a letter to the Assistant-Secretary.

This well, which was dug to a depth of one hundred and ten, and bored two
hundred and twenty-one feet deeper, appears not to have penetrated the
Bracklesham series of sands and clays, many of the characteristic fossils of
which, obtained from the well, were exhibited by Mr. Pilbrow, together with
specimens of the beds perforated. The yield of water in this well is very
copious, certainly equal to five hundred thousand gallons at about seventy feet
from the surface. When not pumped, the water rises to about nine feet from
the surface.

2. " On the presence of the London Clay in Norfolk, as proved by a boring
at Yarmouth." By J. Prestwich, Esq., E.G.S.

In 1840 Sir E. Lacon and Co. commenced a well, for the supply of water to
their brewery, and had a shaft dug to the depth of twenty-two feet, and then a
boring made to the depth of five hundred and ninety-seven feet, entering the
Chalk, but stopped by massive flints. The work was unsuccessful ; but the
specimens of the strata were carefully preserved : Mr. Prestwich and Mr. Bx)se
lately examined them, and the following is Mr. Prestwich's opinion of the strata
that they represent: — ^blown sand and shingle, about fifty feet ; recent estuarine
deposits (with Ostrea edulis, Cardium edule, Corbula Nucleus, Tellina Balthica,
T. planaia, Oyprina Islandica, Pecten opercularis, Mytilus and Balanus), one
hundred and twenty feet ; London Clay, three hunored and ten feet ; Wool-
wich and Readmg series, forty-six feet ; Chalk, fifty-seven feet.

This section is interesting as being illustrative of the estuary and its filling
up ; and of the extension of London Clay and Lower Tertiary deposits to a
more northerly point than had previously been ascertained.

3. "On some Foraminifera from the Upper Triassic Clays of Chellaston,
near Derby" By T. Rupert Jones, Esq.,T.G.S., andW. X. Parker^Esq.,
M. Micr. Soc.

Bluish-grey specimens of the mottled clay from the pits at Chellaston, three
miles south of Derby, whence the iJabaster is obtained, yielded abundance of
minute Foraminifera, a few Entomostraca (OythereJ, some Otolites, and sj^es
and plates of small Echinoderms, together with fine siliceous sand and p^rntous
granules. Of the Foraminifera nearly one-half consist of a small variety of
Botalia repanda, namely, R. elegans, D'Orb. The next most numerous group
are the Nodosarina, including varieties of Nodosaria, Dentalina, Marginulina,
Vaginulina, Planularia, Frondicularia, Flabellina, and Cristellaria. The genus
VOL. III. *d P

410 THE GEOLOaiST.

next in numerical force is Nubecularia, Polymorphina, Bulimina, and LUuola
are represented by a few individuals.

The authors stated that nearly all the varieties of the Nodosarina found at
Chellaston are present in the [Lias, in the clays of the Oolites, in the Gault,
Chalk-marl, Chalk, some Tertiary deposits, and in some of the western Medi-
terranean and other seas ; and the species of the other genera have also per-
sisted to the present day. One of tne Triassic forms was described as a new
variety under the name of N. Tibia. After describing the distribution of
Foraminifera in many of the Mesozoic strata, and pointing out that Nodosaria,
TextulariiBy Rotalia, and some other Foraminifera occur in the palsBOZoic rocks,
Messrs. Jones and Parker observed that altogether we have here some remark-
able instances of the persistency of life^types among the lower animals.
" Thoug;h the specific relationship of the palsBOZoic Foraminifera require further
elucidation, we feel certain that the six genera represented in the Upper
Keuper Clay of Chellaston by at least thirty varieties stand really in the place
of ancestral representatives of certain existmg Foraminifera, that they put on
their several subspecific features in accordance with the conditions of their
• place of growth, just as their posterity now do, and that, although we have in
this instance met with only the minute forms of a seven hundred fathoms mnd-
bottom, yet elsewhere the contemporaneous fuller development of these specific
types may be found by careful search in other and more shallow water deposits
of the Triassic period."

May 2. 1860.

"On the Physical Relations of the Reptiliferous Sandstone near Elgin."
By the Rev. W. S. Symonds, F.G.S.

Referrinff to Sir R. Murchison's sections of the Elgin district, in the Quart.
Joum. Geol Soc, No. 59, pp.424! and 428, which show a conformable sequence
of strata from the Old Red Sandstone of Foths to the yellow sandstone and
comstone of Lossiemouth and Burgh Head, the author stated that the sih-
ceous marly rocks, or so-called " comstones" of Glassgreen, Linksfield, Spynie,
Inverugie, and Lossiemouth are in reality very dissimilar to the comstones of
Foths and Cothall. He then pointed out the improbability of the so-called
comstones of Glassgreen continuing to dip north-westwardly under the sand-
stone of the Quarry-wood Ridge, especially as near Linksfield it is seen to dip
away from that ridge. Evidence also of a break in the strata at the Bishop
Mill quarries was brought forward to show that the sandstone beneath tliis
" comstone" (presumed to be the Reptiliferous sandstone) is probably brought
by a fault against the lower or Holoptychian sandstone, which latter towards
Spynie was shown to be surmounted by the Reptiliferous sandstone, and this
last conformably by a marly siliceous rock or so-called " comstone."

Beyond Spynie Loch, northward, the author supposed that another fault had
again brought up the sandstone with Stagonolepis and Hf/perodapedon at Lossie-
mouth. Beyond this a cornstone-like rock is again seen to cover the
sandstone.

2. " Notice of the Discovery of two Bone-caves in Northern Sicily." Bj
Baron Anca de Mangalaviti.*

May 16, 1860.

1. " Outline of the Geology of part of Venezuela and of Trinidad." By
G. P. Wall, Esq. Communicated by Sir Roderick Murchison, V.P.G.S.
The district examined by Mr. Wall extends from the 8th degree north lati-

* A full account of these caves is given at page 312 of tliis volume.

PROCEEDINGS. OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. 411

tude to the sea, and eastward of the 69th meridian. It includes the Serranfa
(as the mountainous region is termed) and the Llanos or plains to the south.

The most ancient rocks in Venezuela consist of mica-schists and gneiss, and
compose the author's " Carihbian Group."

These schistose rocks are highly distorted. In the western portion of the
district they have a breadth of about thirty miles, and rise to the height of
eight thousand feet.

Gneiss also is present, and is markedly interstratified with the mica-schists.
The transition is occasionally gradual ; but more usually it is sudden and
abrupt. The gneiss sometimes assumes the irregular structure of granite, but
is still distinctly bedded. It is occasionally auriferous. Very small propor-
tions of copper-ores and argentiferous galena exist in some localities.

The Serrania also compiises another great group of strata, flanking the
" Carribbian" rocks on the south, and in the eastern district rising to a height
of more than seven thousand feet, with a breadth of from thirty to forty miles.
These consist of sandstones, fossiliferous limestones, and shales, and form the
group provisionally termed " Older Parian."

These Older Parian strata must be nearly eight thousand feet thick. They
have been intensely disturbed. Though the fossils can rarely be separated
from the matrix, yet some were fortunately obtained from near Cumana —
namely, Trigonia and small Gasteropoda — probably of Lower Cretaceous age.
These Lower Parian rocks extend westward into New Granada, and are pro-
bably related to the Neocomian rocks of Bogota. Near their junction with
the " Caribbian Group" they are often interstratified and alternate with rocks
of imeous origin.

The Llanos are entirely formed of conglomerates and sandstones referable to
the " Newer Parian Group." In Trinidad a lower and calcareous portion exists.
Altogether this ffroup probably has a thickness of nearly four thousand feet.
Fossils are abundant in the calcareous division, and seem to represent the
Lower Pliocene or Upper Miocene series of Europe.

The upper portion of the Newer Parian series, which is often shaly, contains
beds of lignite, frequently admitting of exploitation. The lignite occurs at
several localities on the mainland, and alsp in Southern Trinidad. The ligniti-
ferous beds have locally undergone combustion to a great extent, from natural
causes, such as the decomposition of pyrites. The result is that the strata
have been indurated and baked for a vertical extent sometimes of seventy or
eighty feet, the clays assuming various conditions, and presenting the "porcel-
lanites" and " thermantides" of continental authors.

The asphalt of Trinidad and the mainland is almost invariably disseminated
in the upper part of the Newer Parian group. When in situ, it is confined to
particular strata, which were originally shales containing a certain proportion
of vegetable debris. The organic matter has undergone a special mineraliza-
tion, producing a bituminous, in place of the opdinary antnraciferous sub-
stances. This operation is not attributable to heat, nor of the nature of dis-
tillation ; but is due to chemical reaction at the ordinary temperature and
under the normal conditions of the climate. After the solution and removal
of the bitumen from wood passing into asphalt, the remaining organic structure
presents peculiar appearances under the microscope.

The occurrence of asphalt in New Granada and the Valley of the Magda-
lena in all probability mdicates the presence of the Newer Parian strata in
those districts.

2. " On the co-existence of Man with certain Extinct Quadrupeds, proved
hy Possil Bones from various Pleistocene Deposits, bearing Incisions made by
sharp instruments." By M. E. Lartet, Eor. M.G.S. In a letter to the President.

The author having for some time past made observations upon fossil bones

412 THE GEOLOGIST.

exhibiting evident impressions of human agency, was requested by the Presi-
dent, who had examined the specimens indicatea, to communicate the results
of his researches to this Society.

The specimens referred to are : — 1st, fragments of bones of Aurochs exhi-
biting very deep incisions, made apparently by an instrument liaving a waved
edge ; 2ndly, a portion of a skull of Megaceros hibemicus, bearing significant
marks of the mutilation and flajring of a recently slain animal. These were
obtained from the lowest layer in the cutting of the Canal de I'Ourca, near
Paris, and have been figured by Cuvier in his "Ossemens Possilis." Molars of
Elephas primigenius found in the same deposit are figured by Cuvier, who states
that they haa not been rolled, but had been deposited in an original and not a
remanie deposit. Srdly, among bones, with incisions, from the sands of Abbe-
ville, are a large antler of an extinct stag (Cervus Somonensis) and several
horns of the common Red-Deer. 4thly, bones of Rhinoceros tichorhinus from
Menchecourt, near Abbeville, where flints worked by human hands have been
found. 6thly, portions of horns of Megaceros from the British Isles. In
reference to the remains of the Gigantic Deer, M. Lartet alludes to the Rev.
J. G. Cummiuff's statement that stone implements have been found in the Isle
of Man imbedded with remains of the Megaceros, and that hatchet-marks have
been seen on an oak-tree in a submerged forest of possibly still older date.
6thly, fragments of bone collected by M. Delesse from a deposit near Paris,
and exhibiting evidence of having been sawn, not with a smooth metallic saw,
but with such an instrument as the flint knives or splinters, with a sharp chisel-
edge, found at Abbeville would supply.

If, says the author, the presence of worked flints in the gravel and sands of
the valley of the Somme have established with certainty the existence of man
at the time when those very ancient deposits were formed, the traces of an
intentional operation on the bones of Rhinoceros, Aurochs, Megaceros, Cervus
Somonensis, Ac, supply equally the inductive demonstration of the contempo-
raneity of those species with the human race. M. Lartet points out that the
Aurochs, though still existing, was contemporaneous with the Elephas primi-
genius, and that its remains occur in pre-giacial deposits ; and indeed that a
great proportion of our living mammifers have been contemporaneous with
K primigenius and R. tichorhinus, the first appearance of which in Western
Europe must have been preceded by that of several of our still existing
quadrupeds.

The author accepts M. d'Archiac's determination of the period of the sepa-
ration of England from the Continent as having been anterior to the formation
of the ancient alluvium or ** loess," but subsequent to the great rolled gravel-
deposits in which the flint hatchets of a primitive people are found. If M.
E. de Beaumont's hypothesis of these CTavels beinff due to the last dislocation
of the Alps be accepted, the worked flints carried along with the erratic peb-
bles affora a proof of the existence of man at an epoch when Central Europe
had not yet fully received its present geographical features.

The author also remarks that though there is good evidence of the chan^
of level having occurred since man began to occupy Europe and the British
Isles, yet they have not amounted to catastrophes so general as to affect the
regular succession of organized beings.

Lastly, M. Lartet announced that a flint hatchet and some flint knives had
lately been discovered, in company with remains of Elephant, Aurochs, Horse,
and a feline animal, in the sands of the Parisian suburb of Grenelle, by M.
Gosse, of Geneva.

PROCEEDINGS OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. 413

May 30, 1860.

1. " On certain Rocks of Miocene and Eocene age in Tuscany, including
Serpentine, accompanied by Copper-ore, Lignite, and Alabaster." By W. P.
Jervis, Esq., F.G.S.

Three distinct eruptions of serpentinous igneous rocks have been recognized
bjthe Italian geologists; two are considered to have occurred in Tertiary
times, and one previously in the Mesozoic period : dykes of diorite (also of
Tertiary age) are more rare in the same geographical area. Erom the abundant
occurrence of these eruptive locks, and the extensive development of Miocene
strata, unknown in England, arise many pecularities of Tuscan geology and
mmeralogy. 1st. The diallagic serpentine has |)ierced the Upper Cretaceous
beds, but does not enclose any fragments of Tertiary rocks. It is non-metalli-
ferous, and is employed in arcnitecture. 2ndly. The euphotide or " granitone,"
is unfit for building purposes. The contact of this with the dialla^c serpentine
has metamorphosed tne latter into the curiously marked " Ranocchiaja,*' 3rdly.
Diorite, penetrating the euphotide, and, like it, belonging to the Eocene age.
This and the serpentine acting on the " Macigno' has produced the " Gabbro
rosso." 4thly. " Grabbro verde," or serpentine, without diallage, of Miocene
age. This is much softer than the diaUa^ic serpentine. It forms dykes ; but
more generally it is the axial nucleus of hills and mountains, the strata of which
are much disturbed. In most cases the serpentine rocks, piercing the sedimoii-
tary strata, have upheaved them from all sides ; to this remarkaole species of
axis the author proposes the term periclinal, indicating that the strata fall off
in every direction. The limestones are often altered by the serpentine into
dolomite (Miemmite), and are otherwise variously affected Near Matarana a
mouse coloured limestone is changed (by the alteration of the carbonate of iron
to a peroxide) into a brick-red marble, often brecciated and veined with serpen-
tine and calc-spar (Ofiocalce")

June 13, 1860.

1. "On the Ossiferous Caves of the Peninsular of Gower, in Glamorganshire,
South Wales." By H. Falconer, M.D., E.R.S., E.G.S. With an Apoendix by
J. Prestwich, Esq., E.R.S., Treas. G.S., " On a Raised Beach in Mewslade
Bay, and the occurrence of the Boulder-clay on Cefn-y-bryn, in Gower.

This communication was a summary of researches made during the last three
years by the author and Lieut.-Col. Wood, E.G.S. The known bone-caves of
Gower, (of which Paviland, Spritsail Tor, and Bacon Hole have already supplied
Dr. Buckland and others to some extent with materials for the history oi the
Cave-period) are in the Carboniferous Limestone ; and, with the exception of
that of Spritsail Tor, which is on the west coast of the peninsula, they all occur
between the Mumbles and the Worm's Head. The most important are " Bacon
Hole," "Minchin Hole," "Bosco's Den," " Bowen's Parlour," " Crow Hole,"
"Raven's Cliff Cavern," and lastly the well-known "Paviland Caves." . Bone-
caves at the Mumbles, in Caswell Bay and in Oxwich B^formeily existed;
but the sea has destroyed them. One cavern named "Ram Tor" between
Caswell Bay and the Mumbles, presumed to be ossiferous, remains unexplored.

Before describine the bone-caves, the author briefly noticed that which Mr.
Prestwich had latefy traced, a raised l^ach and talus of breccia, for a mile along
Mewslade Bay, westward of I^aviland; and he pointed out their important
relationship to the marine sands and overlying limestone-breccia found in several
of the Gower Caves. Some patches of Boulder-clay had also been found by
Mr. Prestwich, on the highlands of Gower, and in Rhos Sili Bay.

" Bacon Hole" was first treated of. On the limestone floor of the cave are, —
(1) a few inches of marine sand, abounding with Liiorina rudis, L. litoralis, and

414} THE GEOLOGIST.

Clausilia nigricans^ with bones of an Arvicola and birds ; (2) a thin layer of
stalagmite ; (3) two feet or less of blackish sand, containing a mass of bones of
Elephas aniiquus, with remains of Meles tastes and Putoritis (vulgams ?) ; (4)
one to two feet of ochreous cave-earth, limestone-breccia, and sandy layers,
with remains of Elephas antiqitus, Rhinoceros hemitaschus, Hyana, Cants hpus,
Ursus spel^eus, Bos and Cervus; (5) irregular stalagmite, partly enveloping a
hugh tusk of an Elephant embedded below it ; (6) limestone-breccia and stalag-
mite, from one to two feet thick, with bones of Ursus and Bos ; (7) irregular
beds of stalagmite, one foot or more, with Ursus; (8) dark-coloured superficial
earth, kept soppy by abundant drip, with bones of Bos, Cervus, Canis vulpes,
horns of Reinaeer and "Roebuck, together with shells of Patella, Mytilusj
Purpura, Litorina, (probably brought into the cavern as food by birds), and also
pieces of ancient British pottery. The marine sand at the bottom of "Bacon
Hole" waa analogous to that on the rocky floor of the San Giro Cave, near
talermo ; but containing fewer species of Mollusca. The uppermost layer of
stalagmite is about thirty feet above high water. The Elephant remains belong
to at least three individuals, one of which was adult, and one young with milk-
dentition.

" Minchin Hole," the grandest and most spacious of all the Gower Caves, is
170 feet long, 70 feet where widest, and 35 feet high at the entrance; the
section ffave — (1) Loose limestone-breccia, three feet ; (2) Yellow cave-earth,
nine inches ; (3) Sand, one foot ; (4) Blackish sandy loam containing abundant
remains of Rhinoceros, Elephas, and J9a«, two and a half feet ; (5) Greyish-yellow
marine sand, varying in thickness from one to four feet, and resting on the rocky
floor. Some of the lower jaws of Rhinoceros from this deposit exhibit Litorina
and comminuted shells imbedded in the encrusting matrix : and the black sand
yielded Helix hispida, similarily attatched. In the interior, the cave-earth was
thicker, and the black sandy loam more unctuous. The mammalian remains
were closely analogous with those from Bacon Hole ; but the Elephant remains
{E, antiqutis) were fewer, and those of Rhinoceros hemitoechus were more numer-
ous, and better preserved. No remains of Eleph. primigenius or of Rhinoc.
tichorhinus were met with in Bacon Hole or Minchin Hole.

" Bosco's Den," a cavernous fissure, between '* Bacon Hole" and " Minchin
Hole," is about seventy feet high. Col. Wood, having succeeded in reaching a
hole called by the quarrymen "Bacon's Eye," found it to be an angular opening,
two and a hs\.i feet in diameter, at the top of one the the great vertical fissures
in the limestone, and leading into a fine cavern. Beneath it the fissure was
filled up with a mass of angumr fragments of limestone, with bones, teeth, and
land shells, impacted in ochreous loam, about twenty feet in height, resting on
a solid platform of breccia, beneath which, the fissure had to a great extent
been washed out by the sea. On enlarging the aperture, by undermining the
projecting mass of loam and breccia, a cavity was found extending seventy-six
leet backwards, with a vddth of from seven to sixteen feet, and a general height
of about fifteen feet. A line of fissures runs along the angle of the roof, and
towards the outer part of the cavern the crack widens into an irregular flue,
which had evidently communicated vnth the surface ; here the cavern rises to a
height of forty feet. The eastern wall only of the cavern was found to be coated
with stalagmite. The fioor was tolerably smooth and shelved down gradually,
from the mouth to the extremity, the deposits being thicker outwards. The
fioor having been excavated down to the hard breccia, there were observed. —
(1) at the top, a bed of sandy peat or turf, formed chiefiy of bits of sticks and
comminuted vegetable matter, about one foot thick, except under the fine,
where it formed a low conical heap. In or on this peaty covering were hones
of Ox and Wolf, and bones and broken shed antlers of Deer, of species or
varieties allied to the Reindeer (Cervus Guettardi and Cerv, priscusj, (2)

PROCEEDINGS. OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. 415

Stalagmite, regular, but usually less than a foot thick. At one spot it rose into
a boss two feet three inches high, which was found in a shattered condition, the
fragments being loose, but still in place ; thus indicating the operation of some
shock since the formation of the stalagmite, and even since the peat began to be
formed, as well as the absence of the drip in the cave since the shock took
place ; (3) sandy loam, one foot four inches, with fragments of rock and without
oones ; (4;) sand, four feet six inches ; (5) a bed of loose stony breccia, four feet,
without bones ; (6) ochreous loam, or the usual cave earth, six to seven feet
thick, resting on the solid cemented breccia, which forms a floor or diaphragm
between the upper and lower chambers of the fissure. Ursus spelaus, Canii
lufiusy C. vulpesy Bos, Cervus, and Arvicola occur in the loam, the latter in abun-
dance. The most remarkable circumstance about these remains was the great
excess or Deers' antlers above the others. Upwards of one thousand antlers,
mostly shed and of young animals belonging chiefly to Cervus Onettardiy were
collected. The lower chamber has been washed out by the sea to a depth inwards
of thirty-one feet ; and at its extremity a' compact mass of marine sand and
gravel, about nine feet thick. The solid breccia forming the roof of the lower,
and the base of the upper cave, increases in thickness from six feet at the outside
to a greater depth inwards. Its materials correspond with the bed of angular
debris observed by Mr. Prestwich on the raised beach of Mewslade Bay.

"Bowen's Parlour," or "Devil's Hole," is also a cavernous fissure in the
limestone cliff, between Bosco's Den and Crow Hole. It has been washed out
by the sea ; the former about twenty feet high at the mouth, the latter four-
teen. Thin tabular aggregations of sand afiiere to the lower surface of the
partition, showing that it was deposited on a bed of sand. The same phenomena
are repeated in " Crow Hole" with modifications ; the cave deposits being
still in situ : here remains of UrstiSy Meles, Rhinoceros, and some other forms
have been found.

" Raven's Cliff," presents a cavernous fissure broad and high externally, con-
tracted within. Here a thin crust of stalagmite formed a floor upon sand nine
feet thick, which filled the fissure close up to the roof, leaving only an empty
angular chamber about a foot high above the stalagmite. Upon the latter,
remains of Mustelafoina, Canis vulftes, and some Fish-bones and Bird-bones were
found. In the sand large coprolites of Carnivores, some fine remains of Felis
spelaea, bones of Rhinoceros, and the vertebra of a Pish were discovered. Below
the sand, as usual in the Gower Caves, there was a sandy breccia cemented by
stalagmite, about a foot thick. Upon it was a large block of limestone, smoothed
and polished, probably by the nboing against it of cave-animals, and patches of
polished surface were seen on the waJls of the cave. Bycmains of Elephas,
Rhinoceros, Bos, and Cervus, were met with above the breccia. Below the
breccia was a bed of dark-grey gritty sand, indurated by calcareous infiltration,
and attaining a maximum thickness of about eight feet. In this sand, and close
upon the rock-floor, teeth of Hippotamus major, young and old, and remains of
Ursus, Cervus, and Arvicola, were met with. There was evidence, on the cliff
beyond the aperture, of the cave and its contents having formerly been continued
farther seawards.

The author pointed out that in all these caves the bottom appears to have
been first filled with sea sand or shingle, with which were occasionally inter-
mixed the bones of pachyderms, ruminantsj &c., then living on the emerged
land of Gower ; that, when this deposit was elevated above high water mark,
stalagmite and angular debris of limestone rock formed a floor, on which subse-
quently cave-earth or other common alluvial materials, with bones and antlers,
often in profusion, were accumulated through the fissure above, during a long
lapse of time after the rise had been accomplished. At last, by a converse
action, of comparatively modern date, the level of the caves was depressed.

416 THE GEOLOGIST.

The raised beach at Mewslade Bay, which appears, according to the eyidence of
Mr. Prestwich, to be of later date than the Boulder-clay, has without doubt

Eartaken of changes of level similar to what the caves and their contents
ave undergone; dthough the marine deposits in the caves not bein^ at a
uniform level, either in relation to each other or to the raised beach, it is pro-
bable that there have been locally unequal depressions of level in comparatively
modem times. The author thinks that the sea has effected but a comparatively
slight inroad on the cave-deposits and raised beach ; and hence he infers that
they belong to a comparatively modem epoch, — ^seeing also that they are pro-
bably of later date than the Boulder-day period, and rest on marine sands
containing existing species of shells.

Paviland Cave was next referred to; but the author restricted his remarks to
the remains of Elephat primigeniu* and human bones that were found in it, and
argues that the latter, (». e, the skeleton of the " Eed Lady") are of more
recent date than the former.

In the cave at Spritsail Tor, under a stalagmitic bone-breccia, the irregular
fissure of the rocky floor was impacted with ochreous cave-earth full of bones
and teeth of Elephas antiqutu, E. primigeninsy RhinoceroSy iichorkinuSy Equtu,
Su^, Bos, Cervus, Lepus, Arvicola, Mus, Ursus speUeus, U. prisciis{?), Felu
spelaa, Hyena spekea, Cants lupus, C. vulpes, Meles tuxus, and Mustela. Cop-
rolites oisfy^pna, gnawed bones of Bos, Eguus, and Cervui, and a great abundance
of the detached molars of horse, gave the cave the undoubted character of
having been a HysBna's den. In the superficial sand on the stalagmite, the
antlers of a Reindeer and some human bones were found.

After a comparative review of the fauna of the Gower bone-caves in relation
with that of other cave-districts of England, and of Europe j]i general, the
author arrived at the following conclusions.

1. That the Gower Caves nave probably been filled up wi.h their mamma-
lian remains since the deposition of the Boulder-clay.

2. That there are no mammalian remains found elsewhere in England and
Wales referable to a fauna of a more ancient geological date.

3. The Elephas (Loxodon) meridionalis and Rhinoceros Etruscus, which occur
in, and are characteristic of, the *' Submarine-forest Bed" that iminediatelT
underlies the Boulder-clay on the Norfolk coast, have nowhere been met with
in the British caverns.

4. That Elephas antiquus, with Rhinoceros hemitcechus, and E. primiaenm
with Rh, tichorhinus, though respectively characterizing the earlier and later
lK)rtions of one period, were probably contemporary animals ; and that they
certainly were companions of tne Cave-Bears, Cave-Lions, Cave-Hysenas, &e.,
and of some at least of the existing mammalia.

[The Geological Society's Meetings are resumed on the 7th inst.]

Geologists* Association. — ^Bev. Walter Mitchell will read a paper " On the
Application of Crystallography to Mineralogy and Geology."

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Travertine Deposits along the Eoot op Kinder Scout, Derbtshirb.
— It will perhaps be interesting to Manchester geologists to know that a de-
posit of travertine is now forming along the base of the above hill. The
nearest deposits of this kind arc at Matlock Bath, in- the mountain limestone, a

NOTES AND QUERIES.

417

distajice of forty or fifty miles from Manohester. The above is formed by a
little stream which flows out of the hill-side, and trickles slowly down to join
a brook at the bottom. The bed is already about ten feet in tnickness at its
greatest, and about twenty or thirty feet in length ; in composition it is rather
harder and more compact than that found at Matlock, and like it contains in-
crustations and impressions of various leaves, lichens, and mosses, along with
shells of the common Helix, &c.

Kinder Scout is a hill about one thousand nine hundred feet in height, and
is one of the highest points in the Peak of Derbyshire ; its distance from Man-
chester is about eighteen or twenty miles. The upper part is composed of the
coarse millstone grit, containing rounded pebbles of quartz, and this passes
into hard flaggy beds towards the bottom, wnere the travertine bed overlaps it,
so to speak. The travertine is to me the more remarkable from its being
found on the millstone grit, its nearest distance to the mountain limestone
being five or six miles. The deposit is only known to a few individuab, and
has not been brought under the notice of geologbts before.

The locsality may be found by following the course of the Kinder Water from
Hayfield ; this stream skirts the southern base of the hill, and is joined by the
httle brook into which the petrifying spring flows, almost at its head. Masses
of travertine may be found in the bed of the stream towards the head, which
will serve as a good guide to the explorer. It is said that great quantities of
the travertine have been taken away.

The accompanying sketch is a view of the spot where the deposit lies ; the
flag?y beds of the sandstone are seen on the right, and the masses of travertine
on the left hand. It is well worth a visit, and will repay the trouble of making
one. — ^Yours, John Tatloe, Levenshulme.

American Eossils. — Sib,— »-Could any of your readers p|ut me in the way of
procuring a specimen of Maelurea, and a few other American fossil shells, by
exchange or otherwise. — Sioma.

Arrangement op Minerals. — Sir, — Your obliaing answer in the August
number of the " Geologist" to my queries on the subject of the best way to

VOL. III. 3 G

418

THE QE0L06IST.

make a catalogue of fossils, mduces me to trouble you with a few lines on the
subject of a catalogue which I have nearly completed of my small collection of
minerals.

I have arranged them according to the orders into which Professor Mobs
and Haidinger divide minerals, as giyen in Allan's ''Mineralogy."

Order.

I. Acid.
II. Salt.
III. Haloide.
lY. Baryte.
V. Kerate.
VI. Zerene.
VII. Malachite.
VIII. Mica,
IX. Steatite.
X. Spar.

Order.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIIL

XIX.

Gem.

Ore.

MetaL

Pyrites.

Glance.

Blende.

Sulphur.

B;esm.

CoaL

I have also divided them into the chemical classes of

1st, Earthy and alkalino-earthy minerals^

2nd, Acidiferous minerals,

3rd, Metallic minerals,

4th, Combustible minerals,
by adding a column for this purpose to the catalogue.

I enclose a specimen sheet, and shall be glad if it meets with your approval.
A few words on the subject of the principfe upon which the above-mentioned
*' orders" were institued would greatly oblise me.

I may mention that I intend to mark eacn specimen with the number of the
order to which it belongs, and that the drawers containing the minerals in each
order are also numbered. As the subject may not be wholly uninteresting to
some others of your readers, perhaps at your leisure you win kindly favour ns
vtrith a few more suggestions m a future number of your magazine. — I remain.
Sir, yours faithfully, A. B. M. W., Edinburgh.

Order XI.

Name of Specimen.

No.
1

Class.

Locality.

Gem.

Rock Crystal

Earthy mlnflnils

Snowdou

Caimgomm

&tto

Anran

Black Quartz

ditto

Spedea QnartE

Quartz Crystals

ditto

Cheddar

Chalcedony

ditto

Lead-hills

Flexible Sandstone

ditto

Thibet

Heliotrope, or Blood-stone
Yellow Opal

Bmn

SpedesOpal

ditto

Mexico

Order Xn.

Name of Specimen.

No.

1
2
3

Class.

Locality.

Ore.

SpecnlarL^m
Wood Tin
Brown Hematite

Metallic minerals
ditto
ditto

Blba
Mexico
Dover Clii!^

We recommend to our correspondent a copy of "W, Phillips' ** Mineralogy"
(any edition before the one by Brooke and Miller, especially the 4th), and
to arrange her collection in the order that Phillips* adopted and uses in his book.
It is the most practicable for general purposes.

Elliott's CJlinometbes.— Sib, — Some time ago you promised to pve an
account of instruments in use by geologists. Will it be convenient, in the
absence of this, to afford me some expls^tion of the two scales of the clino-
meter made for geologists by Elliott Brothers, Strand. The principal gradu-
ation on the brass arc is intelligible, beinj^ the quadrant divided mto ninety
degrees ; but the arc contains an inner line 1 | 1, 1 | i, 2, 3, &c. Qneiy.'

NOTES AND QUERIES. 419

What is their signification ? Again, on the compass side of the clinometer is a
table divided into yertical columns, the first marked degrees, the second contain-
ing parts of the inch, corresponding to the degrees. How do they correspond
With each other ? — Sigma.

The mark 1 | 1 signifies that the angle is such that the base is equal to the
perpendicular ; 1 in 2 that the base is double the perpendicular, and so on.
The second column does not signify parts of an inch, but for a slope of one
de^n^ee the rise is one in fifty-seven (one foot in fifty-seven feet, or one inch
in fifty-seven inches, etc., etc.). For two degrees the slope or gradient would
be one in twenty-eight and a-half, and so on.

HocHSTBTTBR ON CHINESE EossiLS. — Groups of Crystals and organic re-
mains are highl;^ valued in China as ornaments of opulent apartments, and
fetch most exorbitant prices. A group of common quartz crystals, of very
common appearance, was offered to Dr. Hochstetter at the price of twenty
Mexican dollars (about £4 4!S.). Plates of dark brown limestone embedding
splendid specimens of Orthoceratites, are, when polished and framed, highly
esteemed as ornamental furniture for state apartments. They are said to be
frequent at Yunnan. Their Chinese name of " pa^da-stone," adopted by Mr.
Mmrhead in his ** Manual of Geology," published m the Chinese language, is
derived from the general opinion that these Orthoceratites — showing mdeed in
their alveoles and in the septro going through them a certain simmtude with
the structure of these buildmgs — ^are formea underground in places on whose
surface the towers of a pagoda project their shadows.

Fossil bones and teeth of mammalia, as also ti^r bones are much in request
among the Chinese, on account of their supposea medical virtues, imd are con*
sequently sold by apothecaries at most reasonable prices. Two other sorts of
organic remains occu])y abo a conspicuous place in the materia medica of the
Cmnese, and are sold in a pulverized state at about Is. 3d. the ounce. One of
them is the " stone-bird" (Sa-ji), a brachiopod from the Devonian Limestone
of Tche-Saifii-tsi ; the other is a crab, extremely well preserved in a (probably
cretaceous) clay-marl, from Hainan Kukwang and Tch6-kwang-tsi.

The material generally used for ornamental objects is the well-known
Chinese steatite in its natural state, or artificially tinged with the most dLversified
colours. At Hing-'DO (one hundred and eighty sea miles south of Shanghai)
and Tse-kong-sa, wnere these objects are principally fabricated, they are ex-
tremely cheap, but in very low esteem compared with objects of crystalline
limestone or marble. Objects made of " tade" or " yo" (a denomination indis-
criminately used for any mineral substance of a hardness equal to that of
quartz, or at least superior to that of marble) fetch enormous prices. Trifles
are sold for 8s. 3d. to 21s. ; larger figures, dishes, vases, &c., are not to be
had for less than £2 2s., £4 4s., and even if particularly conspicuous, £105.
Further inquiries are necessary to establish a mineralogical determination be-
tween several ^en substances comprised under the general denomination of
"yo," and to distinguish how far their colour is natural or artificial.

Notes on the Ked and White Chalk of Yoekshebub. — ^Having lately
taken some trouble in getting specimens of the Red and the White Chalk of
Yorkshire, and in examining them chemically and microscopically, I was
interested in obtaining, with the aid of Mr. Deane, of Clapham, and of Mr. Nor-
man, some Foraminifera from both of these hard varieties of chalk.

Very little impression can be made on this indurated chalk by washing it
with water and a brush, the usual plan adopted for obtaining Microzoa from
chalk ; but Mr. Deane succeeded in breaking "up the Bycd Chdk in the follow-
ing method. He says, " Take any efflorescent salt (I prefer subcarbonate of
sooa^ for the chance of its acting a little upon the silica) ; make a strong
solution; boil the hard chalk therein till it is fully saturated ; remove it &om

420 THE GEOLOGIST.

the solution, and expose it either to the air or to the heat of an oven until the
water of crystallization has escaped ; then, this prepared chalk, when put into
boiling water will probably break up without greater force being employed than
a common painter^s saah-tool will exert upon it. The fine particles should
then be washed away ; and the remainder will probably be found to consist of
Foraminifera, and should be mounted in Canada-balsam, to be seen properly."

Some of the White Chalk of Yorkshire, however, requires to be sbced and
nolished before it can be examined microscopically. It is yery intractable, as
Mr. Norman, the well known microscopical mechanist, found, though he suc-
ceeded in overcoming the difficulty and m preparing some very good slides.

The Kcd Chdk from Elamborough, having oeen manipulated oy Mr. Deane,
was examined by Messrs. W. K. rarker and T. K Jones, and was fonnd to
contain the following Foraminifera : — Qlobigerina bulloides ; small, very com-
mon. Textularia pygmaa ; small, common. Botalia ammonoides ; small,
rather common. Dentalina communis; small, rather common. Crutellaria
rotulata ; of middling size, rare.

These gentlemen also inform me that the thin slices of the hard White
Chalk from Elamborough, when magnified fifty diameters, are seen \io be ex-
ceedingly full of minute chambers, or cells, of Globigerina and BetUalina ; the
former predominating. There are also a few Textularia observable. The
chambers are generaOy separate ; but here and there characteristic groups of
them remain attached to each other. The general appearance is that of very
finelv washed common chalk.

These Foraminifera indicate a deep-sea-condition to have been that of the
Chalk-deposit, and such as that of the mid-Atlantic or the Indian Ocean, where
Globigerina still abounds.

Treated with acid, one of the specimens of the White Chalk exhibited evident
remains of organic matter, such as what mav well be considered as disintegrated
dry sarcode of Foraminifera, It is chiefly globular; but sokne of it is
filamentous.

Chemically examined, the Red Chalk gives 70 per cent, of carbonate of lime;
the residue being quartz-grains and silicate of iron. Digested in very strong
acid, about 4 per cent, of peroxide of iron is obtained. The White Chalk
leaves scarcdy any residue when treated with muriatic acid. — ^Majoe-Gen.
Emmett, R.E., F.G.S.

Clat-Slate and Gbanite. — A correspondent in Halifax, Nova Scotia,
mentions the following interesting facts : — " This province has many points of
geological interest, which have been all ably dealt with by Dr. Dawson. In
the small way, it is curious to observe the nighly metamorphic condition of
* clay-slate' wnen more or less acted on by granitei I have a beautiful speci-
men of granite containing two stiU well-lammated fragments of slate. Another,
in which the fragment seems turned into a granitoid stone ; and ever^ stage of
the process is to be seen in all the chiselled blocks of ' ashlar* (granite) in the
various buildings hereabouts, a disfigurement to the white granite, it is true,
but very interesting to geological scrutiny. Also, this clay-slate has more
than a tendency, at times, to turn into mica-slate. Olice I caught it in the
fact of looking very like rudimentary hornblende-slate.

There is a large boulder of the metamorphic slate on the hill above here,
with equal tendencies to weather in coats, as we so frequently see in granitic
cheesewrings, basalt, trachytes, and I believe, all igneous rocks.

Another point is its extensive tendency to become white externally, as if it
were felspauuc."

Fossil Bones at Feogmore. — ^A fragment of a leg-bone of an Elephant,
another of Bos (?), a broken horn-core of Bos, and an antler of Cervus inier*
medius (?) have lately been met with near the New Garden, at Frogmore, in a

NOTES AKD QUERIES. 421

gravel-pit, which has been worked in the years 1858, '69, '60. They belonff to
Mr. Ingram, of the Bx)yal Gardens, ana were found at about the depth of
fifteen feet from the surface. The upper soil for about four or five leet is
sandy loam, then there is six or seven feet of red gravd, and three or four feet
of washed gravel, in which the bones were found.

It may be a question whether the old bed of the Thames in ancient times
may not have passed in this direction, or whether the river may not formerly
have been much broader than at present. — ^Q.

The Geology op Malta. — ^Dr. Gavina Giulia, a Maltese geologist, pub-
lished a short time since, in the " Ordine" of La Valetta, some observations on
the constitution of that island, which are not without interest. After establish-
ing, with Professor Forbes, that the strata of Malta belong to the Eocene, or
lower tertiary formation, he adverts to the fact that fossil remains of mam-
moth have been found on the island, including a piece of tusk seven and a-half
inches in length. Now, as it is not to be supposed that such huge animals as
the mammoth, the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, traces of aU which have
been found there, could have existed in so circumscribed an area as that of
Malta, it is not to be denied that at a more or less remote period it must have
formed part of the Continent, and must have been detached from it by some
convulsion. The mammoth has never been found in tropical latitudes, and
Professor Owen limits its existence to the northern hemisphere, within the
forty-ninth and sixtieth or seventieth degree of latitude ; but the discovery of
the primitive elephant or mammoth at Kslta, shows that it must have been dis-
psrsed much farther south than has been generdly admitted.

Mammalian Remains. — About thirty-eight years since, i. e. 1803, the
greater part of a skeleton of an elephant, with teeth and tusks, and teeth and
many bones of a rhinoceros were found " embedded in loam, in the midst of an
extensive accumulation of gravel," at Petteridge Common, Surrey. (See Man-
tell in Brayley's "History of Surrey," vol. i., p. 129, ed. 1841.)

Toads Living when Shut js Plasteb foe Yeaes. — " M. Seguin" (says the
" Medical Times"), " wishing to ascertain what amount of truth there is m the
marvellous tales told of batrachians being found living within the substance
of stones, has undertaken some experiments upon the matter. He enclosed
some toads very firmly in plaster, and left them for years in the middle of these
blocks of factitious stone. At various intervals he has broken some of these
blocks, and has found a certain number of the toads alive. One of the animals
had remained thus deprived of air during ten years, another twelve, and a third
fifteen years. Two still continue enclosed, and as M. Seguin is very old, and
fears that these two blocks may be lost to the purposes of science, he offers
them to the Academy of Sciences, in order that it may hereafter test the truth
of the phenomenon. M. Plourens announces on the part of the Academy its
willingness to accept them, intending, after a verification of the dates of seques-
tration, to have the plaster broken in presence of a commission ad hocP

Waste op Land by the Sea. — It is stated by a recent able writer on this
subject, in treating of the action of the sea upon its coasts, that on the coast
of Yorkshire four yards a year is the rate of decay. This loss for one million
of years amounts to no less than two thousand two hundred and seventy-two
miles ; and even at one yard of annual loss, Yorkshire must once have extended
five hundred and sixty-eight miles further eastward than it now does. — J. J.

Nagasaki Coal Mines. — Her Majesty's ship " Roebuck" has been cruising
outside, testing the Japanese coal, and trying to find out where the principal
mines are in this vicinity ; she proceeded to Yeddo direct, to try and obtain
permission from the Emperor to sbe the mines, and how they are worked, or
could be worked, and if possible to make contracts for regular supplies. An
engineer who is on board her states that from the appearance of the different

422 THE GEOLOGIST.

samples of coal he has had he is of opinion the Japanese, not nnderstanding
the art of mining, work indiscriminately for bad or good seams, thereby pro-
ducing a mixture unfit for general steam purposes, but that there must be
splenoid coal in the country, if they will only allow of the aid of a little science
in working the mines. — " China Telegraph."

Alton Museum. — Sir, — ^For the mformation of geologists visiting Sel-
boume, or any other place in the neighbourhood of Alton, I wish to state
in the pages of your journal that the museum of the Alton Mechanic's Institu-
tion possesses a collection of local specimens deserving their attention. They
are trom the drift,- the tertiary clay and sand, the chalk-marl, malm-rock,
gault, &c. They are not yet nilly labelled, but I shall be happy to giye in-
formation respecting them to any one who may pay us a yisit.

So much has been said of late in disparagement of local museiims ; they
have so often — ^and too often perhaps justly — been styled mere collections of
rubbish, that where their existence is known they may happen to be overlooked
and neglected when they may really contain much that is worthy of notice.

I may add that the Alton Museum contains, besides the coUection of local
fossils, one representing most of the British formations ; also others of British
mammals and bu*ds, eggs, and land and fresh- water moUusca, chiefly locaL

Besides these there are small collections in comparative anatomy, conchology,
mineralogy, &c., all of them sufficient for the illustration of lectures and of
class-te.aching. — I am yours, &c., Wm. Cuetis.

Ancient Indian Aerow-heads. — Sie, — ^Throughout Canada various relics
are turned up by the spade and the ploughshare which were in use among the
most ancient inhabitants. These relics consist of Indian arrow-heads from
one and a-half to four and a-half inches long, darts or spear-heads six to seyen
inches lon^, battle-axes or hatchets, gouges, and chisels, all being composed of
various kmds of stone and of copper, but principally of flint and chert.
Sometimes the larger implements are formed of bmestone, greenstone, or schist,
whilst the smaller, such as the arrow-heads, are formed of grey or fawn-coloured
chert or flint, and more rarely of red and black slates, and white chalcedony.

On the sites of ancient battle-bounds the arrow-heads are ploughed up in
tolerable numbers, but elsewhere isolated specimens are casually picked np. It
is a curious fact that no arrow-heads are found in any of the comparatively
modem Indian burial-grounds, but the stone gouges are sometimes met witli,
thus indicating the more recent origin of the latter.

If flint arrow-heads are encountered, with other relics of stone and copper,
among human skeletons, I think it affords an evidence of the extreme antic[uity
of the latter, which may probably be coeval with the Celtic neriod of Bntam
Some of the arrow-heads are exceedingly smooth, whilst the majority are
rough, vdth a number of facets, and seem to have been formed by chipping the
flint, and are not dissimilar to the ancient flint weapons of the British Isles. —
Geo. D. Gibb, M.D., M.A., F.G.S.

Ereata in De. Gibb's Papee on Canadian Caveens. — ^Page 132, 34th
line, for BuncheWs read Bouchette*s. Page 162, 15th line, for thousand read
hundred. Page 162, 31st line, for mall read wall. Page 168, 6th line, for
Mergan read Mingan, Page 169, 15th line, for Daric read Doric. Page 173
(foot-note, 2nd line) for Keep read Beef. Page 174, last line, for way read bay*
Page 217, 18th line, for Bay read Bass.

REVIEW^. 42B

REVIEWS.

Aa "Eiiay on the Causes of distant Alternate Periodic Inundations over the Law
Lands of Each Hemisphere, By Augustus Bergh. London: James Bidgway.

There are some topics now under discussion and investigation by geologists
which possess an interest even greater than any which have yet been worked
out by any previous efforts. Colonel James, in some excellent articles in the
" Athenffium," has shown that an evagation of the poles has not only been pos-
siblv caused by the projection and upheaval of mountain ranges, but that pro^
bably even this may be reckoned amount those causes which produced the
former higher temperature of certain regions of our globe which are now within
the temperate and arctic regions. Ana more than one essay, too, has of late
been wntten with a view to proving the possibility of periodic floods.

In the modest treatise before us some important facts and doctrines are
brought under attention. "Inquirers,** says our author in his preface, "in
their investigations of the different strata would discover cliffs ana bavs in the
interior of a country similar to those observed in their rambles along the
line of sea-coast, and the same view of steep abruptness or escarpments, with
vegetable and animal remains, in the interior as on the coast. Sucn (^coveries
would naturally lead them to consider that the whole country must have been
submerged by the ocean at some distant period; and on further investigation
they would nnd that these inundations have not only once occurred, but that
at several distant periods the ocean had encroached on the land, and the land
thus been coverea by the ocean. New layers of rocks, sands, ^vels, and
other marine productions had been the means of producing, successively, newer
strata and newer countries. The geologists would consequently arrive at the
conclusion that all these changes of strata and animal remains presented to
their view must have arisen from an overwhelming ocean."

Our author then endeavours, " by consulting the noble science of astronomy,
to find a cause for these periodi<kl disturbances and encroachments of the
ocean ; and his work consists of " considerations on the motion of the major
axis or revolution and change of the line of apsides of the earth's orbit ; its
causes, and the effect produced in its orbital revolutions through the ecliptic
from one hemisphere to the other, involving a certain number ofyears.

" Astronomers have observed that the line of apsides of the earth's orbit has
a motion through the whole ecliptic ; and it is observed that the major axis
does not always point to the same star, or, what is the same thing, the earth is
forced onwaris beyond the perihelion point every year to a certain extent, at
the rate of 61".761, as is proved by observation of the stars. * * That
part of the earth's orbit which is nearest the sun--the perihelion — ^is three
mMons of miles nearer than the aphelion, or most distant range of the orbit ;
and when tbe earth is at its perihelion point, it is (owing to the sun's force)
carried more rapidly through that part oi its orbit, that is, at the rate of about
sixty-one minutes per day. This increased motion,** our author considers,
" must necessarily increase and accumulate the waters of the ocean in the lati-
tudes of the southern, hemisphere, where the direction of the forces has its
chief action. In consequence of these forces, the ocean has so increased in
mass that it extends from the Pole to about thirty decrees of south latitude.

" We also find that the southern continents and islands have their southern
extremities worn into acute angles, while those of the northern are obtuse,
further proving that the united action of tbe solar and perihelion forces has

424 THE GEOLOGIST.

caused such an accunmlation of water in the southern hemisphere ; while, on
the other hand, we find in the northern hemisphere a considerably smaller
amount of water, bat a greater excess of land. K we divide the land and
water on our earth into one thousand parts, we shall find that there are bat
two hundred and seventy-five parts land, and seven hundred and twenty-five
parts water. In the southern hemisphere opposed to the perihelion, we find
sixty-five parts of land out of two hundred and seventy-five, while there are
four hundred and thirty-five of water out of the seven hundred and twenty-five
parts ; on the other hand, in the northern hemisphere, opposed to the aphelion,
there are two hundred and ten narts out of the two hunored and seventy-five
parts of land, and but two hunored and ninety parts out of seven hundred and
twenty-five of water. Can such remarkable facts and such a great disparity be
accounted for in any other way than as stated in our theory P

"As already stated, and being demonstrably proved, that the perihelion
moves round the ecliptic in twenty thousand nine hundred and eighty*four
years, we will, for example, divide this circle into four quarters of ninety
degrees, each of five thousand two hundred and forty-six years ; and also state
the change and amount in degrees of declination through which the perihelion
vnU pass, both north and south, for it is at these four points of declination
(that is, the two extreme and the two middle points of declination) that certain
dynamical effects are produced, which will most sensibly strike the reader.

*' At present, in the year 1830, the longitude of the perihelion is about one
hundred degrees, one minute, five seconds, or in about ten degrees, one
minute, five seconds of Capricorn ; if from this year we fall back some thou-
sand years, sav, from ten de^ees, one minute, five seconds of Capricorn, to the
first aegree of Cancer, a period of eleven thousand and seventy-seven years,
and take our starting point when the perihelion point had its place in the first
degree of Cancer, in extreme north declination, we may conclude that the low
lands in the northern hemisphere would be overwhelmed by the ocean, as is the
case with the low lands in the southern hemisphere at the present day. It
follows, therefore, that (relatively to the year 1830) it is now eleven thousand
and seventy-seven years ago since the northern hemisphere was last submerged,
or nine thousand two hundred and forty-seven years before Christ.

" The perihelion would then pass through Cancer, descend through Leo to
the first aegree of Virgo, where it would be at a middle declination of eleven
degrees forty-five minutes north, when the ocean would commence descending
either rapidly or gradually southward, and overwhelm the lands of the southern
tropics, while the northern hemisphere would be becoming gradually dry, at
the time of the perihelion passing through the sign of Virgo, and crossing the
equator : this would occur five tnousand eight hundred and thirty years ago,
or about four thousand years before Christ.

'' We may here remark the close agreement of our physical theory at this
period with many Oriental traditions, and the records of the Jeviish v^riters,
and also with the description in the first chapters of the Mosaic account.

" This completes the first quarter of ninety degrees of the ecHptic, in five
thousand two hundred and forty-six years of motion through the same circle.

" In commencing our second quarter, we find the periheKon crossing the
equator to the first degree of Libra, the ocean deseenoing and overwhelming
the southern tropics, wnere the lands would be exposed to the force of turbu-
lent floods ; this commotion would continue while the perihelion was descend-
ing through Libra to the first decree of Scorpio, at eleven degrees forty-five
minutes of south declination, ana while passmg through Scorpio, the rapid
descent of the ocean southwards would tnen gradually subside, having con-
tinued three thousand four hundred and ninety-eight years, while the perihdion
had been descending from the first degree of ^go, in north declination, to

B£yi£ws. 425

the first degree of Scorpio, in south declination, as stated above. This would
occur about the period when the antediluvians would feel the effects of the
floods, and be compelled to retire from the southern to the northern hemi-
sphere ; this would also seem to agree with the escape of Noah in his ark.
This occurrence would happen, according to our theory, about four thousand
and eighty-one years ago, or two thousand two hundred and fifty-one years
before Christ, the perioHi of the deluge.

" This discrepancy between our calculation and the scriptural chronology of
two thousand three hundred and forty-eight years, may be readily accounted
for, as we know not the date when the latter chronology was written, whether
at the bcffinninff, middle, or end of the deluge, an inundating period of up-
wards of tnree thousand years.

"After this period the inundating power of the ocean would gradually cease
towards the southern hemisphere, but would still slowly flow, for several thou-
sand years ; in the northern hemisphere, at the same time, a gradual retiring of
the waters would take place, and a greater comparative tranauility would
ensue in both hemispheres, after three thousand four hundred ana ninety-eight
years of commotion. The antediluvians would at this period be busily select-
ing dry spots in the northern lands whereon to fix their habitations. * * *
The perihelion would now continue to descend through Scorpio, Saggitarius,
to the first degree of Canricom, at extreme south declination, and the low
lands would then be commetely submerged in the southern, while the northern
hemisphere would be left dry, as we now find it to be from experience. The
ocean will continue slowly to retire from thp low lands of the northern, and
will as slowly advance in the southern hemisphere ; which process will probably
continue for about two thousand nine hundred years more.

" The perihelion has now passed from the first degree of Scorpio to the first
degree of Capricorn, in three thousand four hundred and ninety-eight years— a
period of submergence of lands in the southern hemisphere, but of a retreating
ocean from the hmds of the northern hemisphere ; the penhelion having alto-

f ether descended through the three signs, from the first degree of Libra to the
rst degree of Capricorn, in five thousand two hundred and forty-six years, has
thus completed the second quarter of ninety degrees, or half a revolution of
the ecliptic of one hundred and eighty degrees, from the first degree of Cancer
to the first degree of Capricorn, in ten thousaiid four hundred and ninety-twa
years.

" This period would be arrived at between nine thousand two hundred and
forty-six years before Christ, and one thousand two hundred and forty-seven
years of the Christian era (or relatively to 1830), five hundred and eighty-three
years ago.

" The third quarter commences at the first degree of Capricorn, from which
the perihelion will pass on to the tenth degree nrst minute fifth second of the
same sign in ^yq hundred and eighty-three years, which brings it to the year 1830
of our era ; the longitude of the perihelion being then one hundred degrees
one minute five seconds. The perihelion will now continue passing througa the
remainder of the nineteenth degree fifty-eighth minute fifty-fifth second of Capri-
corn, to accomplish which it wul require one thousand one hundred and sixty-six
years; it will move on, after this, through the sign Aquarius, to the first degree of
JPisoes, at eleven degrees forty-five mmutes of south declination, in two thou-
sand nine hundred and fifteen years, when the ocean will entirely cease flowing
to the south, and begin to encroach on the northern hemisphere ; and after
having passed throuen Pisces, it wiU have traversed the whole four southern
signs m six thousand nine hundred and ninety-six years, of which, up to the
year 1830, four thousand and eighty-one years have already expired, so that,
dating from 1830, two thousand nine hundred and fifteen years more must

VOL. III. 3 H

426 THE GEOLOGIST.

elapse before this passage through the four disturbing signs can be accom*
plished ; and thus no disturbances of any consequence have occurred since the
last catastrophe, two thousand two hundred and fifty-one years before the
Christian era, and none will occur till four thousand six hundred and sixty^r
four years after the year 1830, when the perihelion will anproach the e^juator.
It will then have passed, from the year 1830, about eignty degrees m four
thousand six hundred and sixty-four years. When the perihelion approaches
the equator, then the equilibrium of tne ocean might possibly be yimently dis-
turbed, and the ocean itself encroach forcibly on the northern tropics, and
cause much destruction, as we find was actually the case when last the perihe-
lion passed over the equator^ from Yirgo to Scorpio, about five thousand
eight hundred and thirty years ago. The perihelion having now moved over
the three signs, from the first degree of Capricorn, Aquanus, and Pisces, in
five thousand two hundred and forty-six years, completes the third quarter and
extends to six thousand four hundred and ninety -four years of the Christian
era, or, relatiye to the year 1830, will have advanced four thousand six hun-
dred and sixty-four years into the future.

"The fourth quarter will begin with the perihelion and oc^an passing through
Aries, and oyerwhelraing the northern tropics, similar to the last-mention^
crossing of the equator. When the perihelion point shall have arrived at the
first degree of Taurus, at a middle north declination of eleven degrees forty-five
minutes, the ocean will then overwhelm the northern lands, and so continue to
pass on until the perihelion shall have arrived at the first deCTee of Cancer, at
extreme north declination, when the northern hemisphere wm have all its low
lands submerged, all but its loftiest mountains covered by the ocean, as thej
were twenty thousaud nine hundred and eighty-four jrears before. The peri-
helion will now have moved over the two l^t mundating signs, namely, from
the first degree of Pisces to the first degree of Taurus, both of middle declina-
tion ; the former of south, the latter of north declination : and this ends the
fourth and last quarter of five thousand two hundred and forty-six years.

" Referring to future periods, this will extend from six thousand four hun-
dred and ninety-four to eleven thousand seven hundred and forty-one years of
the Christian era, or will have proceeded onwards from four thousand six hun-
dred and sixty-four to nine thousand nine hundred and eleven years into the
future. Then the perihelion point will have travelled from one nemisphere to
another in ten thousand four hundred and ninety-two years, and round the
whole of the ecliptic of three hundred and sixty degrees in twenty thousand
nine hundred and eighty-four years.

" How often the two hemispheres of our globe have been alternately sub-
merged and left dry in a tranquil state we £now not ; but we do know that
these phenomena of the alternate inundation and "retirement of the ocean will
be repeated at the same periods, and from the "same causes, so long and as
often as it may please the Great Designer of our system. * * Geologists
know how forcibly the surface of our earth has been oisturbed by a tumultuous
or inundating ocean at various and distant periods, as most of our strata testify
in the most striking manner ; and we may oe assured that these periodical dis-
turbances and inundations will be repeated as often as these forces approach
the equator ; this is evidently the period when these forces occur.

" It is when the peiihelion point of the earth's orbit is ascending or descend-
ing near the equator, that the equilibrium of the ocean is much disturbed, and
consequently inundation is the result. For instance : when descending from
the first degree of Virgo, at eleven degrees forty-five minutes of middle north
declination, to the first degree of Scorpio at eleven decrees forty-five minutes
of middle south declination, through sixty degrees of the echptic, in three
thousand four hundred and ninety-eight years ; and the same occurs when the

REVIEWS. 427

leKon is ascending through the opposite signs, from the first degree of
^isces, in eleven degrees forty-five minutes of middle south declination, to the
first degree of Taurus, in eleven degrees forty minutes of middle north declina-
tion, through sixty degrees in three thousand four hundred and ninety-eight
years*

"These two portions of the ecliptic amount to one hundred and twenty
degrees in a period of six thousand nine hundred and ninety-six years, whicn
may be strictly termed periods of disturbance and submergence of landbs alter-
nately in both hemispheres. This long period may appear as a misfortune, or
even as a great evil, to man and other creatures, but we will show it evidently
to be a real blessing and benefit bestowed by the Giver of iJl Good on his
creatures.

** We have given a brief view of the two disturbing periods of three thousand
four hundred and ninety-eight years of the ascending and descending signs,
both north and south ; we snail now endeavour to show what an ample com-
pensation the Great Designer has bestowed on hi» creatures for the above
comparatively short disturbing period of sis thousand nine hundred and ninety-
six years. A double amount of tranquility is given;; no less than two hundred
and forty degrees of comparatively tranqml motion of the perihelion in thirteen
thousand nine hundred and ninety-two years round the remainder of the ecliptic,
and free from any great catastrophe such as happened at the disturbing signs.
How can we, but with the most grateful hearts, praise and thank our Creator
for such a disparity in the order of His designs, so that it may benefit His
creatures f We cannot but acknowledge this as a great boon and blessing
when we take into ccmsideration how the overwhelming ocean remodels and
fertilizes these new lands ; seeing, indeed, that we are already necessitated to
ransack every part of the world for suitable manure, in order to {Mrevent the
utter exhaustion of the soil now under constant cultivation. Therefore, we
ought rather to rejoice than bewail at these periodic catastrophes, which are
more of a benefit than otherwise. We shall find we are highly compensated by
a long period of tranquil repose, when we consider the (ufference between
thirteen thousand nine hundred and mnety-two years and six thousand nine
hundred and ninety-six years.

" We have given the time and place when and where the ocean is disturbed,
enduring from first to last six thousand nine hundred and ninety-six years.
We will now explain the periods of the motion of the perihelion through those
siffns of repose, as before stated. These periods endure, first, while the peri-
helion is' passing through the four northern signs, from the first degree of
Taurus to the first degree of Virgo, both in eleven degrees forty-five mimites
of middle north declination, extending throu^ one hundred and twenty
degrees in six thousand nine hundred and ninety-six years > and secondly,
through the four southern signs, from the first degree of Scorpio to the first
degree of Pisces, both in eleven degrees forty-five minutes of middle south
declination, through one hundred and twenty degrees in six thousand nine hun-
dred and ninety-six years, and thus completing a period of comparative tran-
quility of thirteen thousand nine hundred and ninety-two years, through
two hundred and forty degrees of the ecliptic > the two periods together give
the whole revolution of the periheUoM of three hundred and sixty degrees
round the ecliptic in twenty thousand nine hundred and eighty-four years.

" In considering this long comparative tranquility of tbirteen thousand nine
hundred and ninety-two years, we are reminded how often we have noticed, in
perusing historical, astronomical, and geological works, remarks by the authors,
when referring to past ages, somewhat to the following effect, * We cannot
perceive that any material change has taken place from the earliest historical
times, in the natural events that have occurred for the last tliree thousand

428 THB GEOLOGIST.

years, and wc think these natural causes and effects are the same, past, present,
and to come.' Eor^cttin^ that our last three thousand jears have passed
quietly along a paraUel with the equator, and will so contmue until the peri-
heUou point shall arrive at eleven and three-quarter degrees of south declina-
tion, when its parallelism becomes angular, in which angularity the ocean
follows towards the equator, and then our tranquility ends. But what are
three thousand years of repose P Not one-fourth of the thirteen thousand nine
hundred and ninety years. It may appear to us, because we have three thou-
sand years of comparative quiet, that it must continue so ; and so it will for
perhaps three thousand years longer, after which, we may, with some degree of
certainty, assure our friendly geologists that our tranquil state in the northern
hemisphere will cease. It nas about eleven thousand years of comparative
repose, and has, as above stated, about three thousand more years to expect,
after which posterity must think of travelling southwards, as the antediluvians
had to do northwards about six thousand years ago ; and no doubt our pos-
terity of the northern hemisphere will be compelled to abandon their lands for
the southern, as their ancestors were forced to do towards the northern hemi-
sphere ; for, as already remarked, in about three thousand years after the pre-
sent, we shall have timely warning given us, by the gradual advance of the
ocean towards the equator, and its ultimate inundation of our northern lands.
Hence it is evident that these advances and retreats of the ocean uniformlv in
twenty thousand nine hundred and eighty-four ^rearsare the sufficient and'(3uef
great causes of the change, and of the otherwise unaccountable appearances
which are presented to our view when we investigate the various strata and
perceive these oceanic wrecks. What an ample and clear explanation is then
afforded of the singular intermixture thus found of varied organic remains, of
marine and land animaJs, vegetables, &c., and their amazingly varied matrixes
and beds ! These intgrmixtures, &c., clearlv prove how often they have been
turned over and over again; and how deposits have been alternately formed on
land, in seas, lakes, or fresh and salt water, and they likewise confirm how
often the perihelion has made those important revolutions, from which spring
such momentous and surprising results, and which wiU necessarily produce the
same effects ad infinitum/*

The author repeats that he can perceives no ^eat evil or misfortune in these
physical changes, Ivhich are not abrupt, as timely warning is given for one
thousand seven hundred and forty-nine years, while the perihehon is passing
through Pisces, and the sciences of astronomy and navigation, with the art of
sliip-building will give our posterity every means of foreseeing and avoiding
the danger.

in respect to the obliquity of the ecliptic, our author thus si)eculates. " If
we treat it astronomically, we imagine that it might have originally had an
angular expansion of forty-five degrees, or even ninety degrees, and constantly
diminished to its present rate, or perhaps became less angular at the last
catastrophe or convulsion of the earth's surface. On the contrary, if our
speculations take a mechanical direction, we can imagine that the immense
breadth of land of the Asiatic continent, with the immense masses of lofty
mountains, formed by the chain of the Caucasian, Tartarian, and Himalayan
mountains, might drag or pull over the earth's pole in an easterly direction,
and become at once the meridian of both poles of the equator and ecliptic,
which are about twenty-three degreei twenty-eight minutes apart, and if our
earth had not this inclination, its pole would probably have oeen located i»t
Baffin's Bay, for, according to the observations of Captain Sir James Koss, the
magnetic pole was observed in seventy degrees five minutes seventeen seconds
north latitude, and ninety-six degrees forty-six minutes forty-five seconds west
longitude. With regard to the diminution of the ecliptic angle, we conceive

REVIEWS. 4i29

that atmospherio moisture, rain, wind, and torrents, reduce and lower the moun-
tains, the torrents carrymg away the debris, by means of rivers, to the seas,
where it becomes levelled far out into the offing, and thus the mountains are
gradually lowered, and the angle of the ecliptic as gradually diminished. Such
IS our opinion : it may be so, or not ; it is quite hypothetical ; and so may also
be our opinion on observing the different inclinations of the axes of our planets,
sun and moon included : they all incline more or less to the plane of their
orbits, in an easterly direction, or towards the right hand, and that in a con-
trary direction to their orbital motions : perhaps we mi^ht except Uranus.
How is all this to be accounted for P Can they nave acquired this particular
inclination when first launched into an orbit, ana while in a more plastic state ?"

After some remarks on the orbital motion of the sun and on the astral systems,
Mr. Bergh turns to a topic of high importance, but which has been too much
overlooked by geologists — the mobility of the ocean. First taking into con-
sideration the rise oi lands, he very fairly asks, " How could islanas or conti-
nents be raised from the bottom of the sea, either gradually or suddenly, without
displacing the same volume of water P and coula such a displacement of ocean
water occur without altering the level for some time P Land and sea cannot
occupy the same space any more than other things." He then dwelLs again on
his tneory before expressed on the periodic transference of the ocean waters
from one hemisphere to the other ; and offers some remarks upon the inclina-
tion of the polar axis, the fixity of which he disputes, and remarks, amongst
other proofs, that ancient cathedrals and old dial-plates are no longer in har-
mony with those of modem times.

In conclusion the author considers that, " In looking back to the last catas-
trophe, we have sufficient evidence of a violent irruption by the ocean, from
north towards the south, which our earth's surface shows in the most positive
manner, and whereof also the enormous size of the erratic blocks and the
boulder deposit are no trifling evidence of oceanic forces. This disturbance
occurred aoout four thousand or five thousand years since, and is no doubt the
deluge related in Scripture two thousand three hundred and forty-eight years
before Christ ; and those we read of in history, such as the deluge of Ogyges
in Attica, which happened about four thousand years ago (relatively to the
year 1830) ; also the deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly, aoout three tnousand
four hundred years since ; all recorded at different periods, but all no doubt
referrable to the one general deluge narrated in Genesis, which latter differs
from our calculation about ninety-seven years, a discrepancy of no moment in
relation to a period of inundation of three thousand four hundred and ninety-
eight years, as before mentioned.

" Tne next time the perihelion and ocean cross t|jp equator, it will be to-
wards our northern hemisphere, in the year six thousand four hundred and
ninety-four of our era, or four thousand six hundred and sixty-four years to
come. Such a remote period can but little concern us, when, after the lapse of
one hundred and forty generations more, perhaps both our nation and the
name of our country may be forgotten, and lie buried beneath the deep, pro-
bably for the next seven thousand or eight thousand years."

Such is a full abstract of the opinions of Mr. Bergh. For the present we
put them before our readers without comment, because these and kmdred sub-
jects being now taken up by M. Ardhemar, Colonel James, and others, in a
powerful manner will compel us hereafter to elucidate the subject in detail.
We merely at present recommend these theories to the impartial consideration
of our readers, expressing ourselves as dissentients, however, from the calcula-
tions which give only four hundred and fifty thousand years as the time elapsed
between the granitic era of Mr. Bergh's taoles and the present time.

430 THE GEOLOGIST.

Letter on the Rapid Choking Up of Poole Harbour. By Philip Branson, C.E.

Poole : R. Sydenham, High-street.

Last year a letter was addressed to the quay trustees and corporation of
Poole on the state of the harbour there by Mr. Brannon; the following ex-
tracts from which give excellent illustrations of the rapid formation of sand-
banks along a costal line, and as having a valuable bearing on some points
connected with the rapid formation of ancient sandstones.

After many years close acquaintance with the coast in the neighbourhood of
Poole, the author is convinced that not only the bar, but even the whole of the
sand-shoals are comparatively modem, and that their formation has taken place
with great rapidity. His belief is that at the time of the Christian era the
bottom was almost entirely of day, ironstone, and other beds which now
appear above the surface ; and that not onlv was the harbour capable of being
entered in a straight line south-east, but that over the site of tne Hook there
was free passage with a clay bottom below, precisely similar to that found on
sounding in a line with it off Flag Head ana the Iron Rocks. This state of
things continued, as it appears to him, long after the Saxon times, and it is
quite possible that there was no considerable formations either of sand-banks
below high-water mark, or wind-blown dunes above it, until long after* the
twelfth centurv, and probably even as late as the fifteenth. The cause of the
formation of the Hook, and at a still later period of the bar, was the rapid in-
roads of the sea on the coast eastward. As long as the sand-cliffs of the
Branksome and Flag Head district stood southward of certain lines of bearing
with the Isle of Jrurbeck, all the sand which arose from the ruins of the
western cliffs was swept clear out to sea, and was deposited in the depths of
the British channel. So soon, however, as the soft cliffs of that part were
washed back within those lines of bearing, the sand brought down came more
and more within the influence of the deflected and reflected currents or eddies
between the ebb waters of the channel and those of the harbour ; and accord-
ing to the invariable result in such cases was deposited in a yearly increasing
ratio within the area of a delta, of which North Haven formed the norlh side,
the channel ebb the south-east, and the harbour entrance channel the west.
When this bank increased so as to rise above low water mark, during the ebb,
the off-sea-gales drove up the sand on the shore, and thence formed the lofty
dunes of the " Sand Huls." At first the bank was probably quite in a line
with High Horse Manger, and as late as Henry YIII. the author believes
there was very little sand deposited on the site of the present Hook. Every
inch that Flag Head ret:jjed, nowever, gave the channel waters power to force
these sand-banks north-westerly a great many feet. This vast bank of sand
originally was formed, or at least deposited, in its present position in little
more than one hundred and fifty years, or between the reigns of Henry VIII.
and Charles II., and that if any difference from this be the fact, it would be in
favour of a much later and shorter period. But there will be no doubt as to
the truth, when the following results are considered. Their significance, too,
will be more clear, if we previously remark that during the period which has
since elapsed, nearly two hundred years, the harbour of Christchurch, then
deep, commodious, and of considerable capacity, has been entirely silted up
and rendered useless, in the same way that Poole harbour wiQ be, unless mea-
sures both energetic and prudent be taken.

The original direction of the entrance-channel was in the line of the baying
in of the five fathom line, one and a-quarter miles south (magnetic) of Flag
Head, and three quarters of a mile east of the northern red buoy, and bearing
more than one and a-half miles east of the Handfast line, or in a direction

BEYIEWS. 431

south-^t midway between Old Harry and Lobster Rocks. And it appears
that this must have continued till nearly as late as 1700, and that if not then»
at least at no very remote date, that cluumel had a depth of above four fathoms.
By this date, however, the eastern cliffs had been so lar abraded as to bring the
power of the channel waters to act energetically on the harbour ebbs, within
the area of the present Hook, and by the middle of the last century the channel
had wested more than a quarter of a mile, and its original bed became the one
mile swashway, the swashway of Mackenzie, which long retained a depth nearly
equal to the present entrance ; and ^he easternmost point of the Studland
sands was then cut off by the new channel, and became the point of the
rapidly westing Hook. Ultimately the seventeenth century channel, after be-
coming the one mile swashway, was almost wholly obliterated, and now only a
varying difference of a few inches greater depth of water serves to indicate the
proximity of its site.

The eighteenth century channel is the one shown in Mackenzie's chart, and
in order to bring the measurements to an intelli^nt datum, we shall call the
line from Old Harry to South Haven the " clear Ime." We have seen that the
original channel was more than three quarters of a mile east of this, and in. a
short period wested a quarter of a mile, or more, and the process of westing
having once commenced has gone on, and is still proceeding at a continuidly
increasing rate, each successive westing bringing a decreased depth, a super-
ficial expansion and subdivision of the currents, a continually decreasing power
of wash, and a rapid rolling in of the sands northerly into the bed of the re-
maining clear channel — ^the prelude to a niischief worse than any other, and
which, when it once takes puice, will be utterly incurable, namely, the sUting
up of the harbour itself, precisely as has already taken place with Christchurch.
This late or eighteenth century channel evidently had a depth of three
fathoms, and perhaps much more. The current daily yielding to the westing
continually became more curved, and afterwards scooped out the commence-
ment of the present entrance. The power of wash thus diverted gave up the
channel to silting, which itself continually reacted in throwing new force into
westing. Notwithstanding, as late as 1784, during the survey of Whitworth,
the depth was sufficient to excite little alarm, and to leave the attention of
improvers wholly directed to the interior of the harbour, and the following
year Mackenzie made his chart, giving ample proof of the state of the entrance
then, and of its former line of bearing. This channel, by the Admiralty edition
of Mackenzie, corrected by Sparke in 18^9, is shown to have been still in
existence, and even then to have retained a depth of two fathoms. The
entrance thus remained thirty years ago nearly half a mile east of the clear
line, with a depth of two fathoms, and that the pro^ss of change up to that
time did not appear so threatening in its rapidity is evinced by the fact that
the talented Mr. Bendle, in his surveys and plans, both antecedent and sub-
sequent to Lieut. Sparke's survey, directed his chief attention to the interior
of the port.

The present channel is therefore obviously the result of agencies acting with
such force and rapi^ty that in twenty years alone, between the surveys of
Sparke and Sherrmgham, the channel had wested half a mile. The current
completed the excavation of its present course across Studland sands, and
brought it within or west of the clear line, cut off the bar from the Milkmaid
Bank, and united it to the Hook, of which it is now become really the extreme
horn. The noble and direct channel of the eighteenth century was in this way
converted into the one and a-half mile swashway of only six feet depth ; and
thus the entrance to Poole harbour, once most direct, easy, and safe m access,
became not a channel at all, but an expanded shallow, tortuous, difficult, and
dangerous.

432 THE GEOLOGIST.

The shallowing and westing are now increasing with such s]ieed, that thev
may be measured almost from week to week, and eight feet is probably au
that can be secured at low water spring-tides ; this wifi be speedily decreased
to seven, then to six or live feet, and the triiiing swashway, the memorial of
the fine channel of 1820, will fill up and be obliterated.

The silting up of the harbour is almost wholly caused by the inwash from
the sand-shoals of the Hook in the last few years. This result will follow in
more rapid stages so soon as the sand-banks, which are northing as well as
westine, shall liave northed to a certain line across the mouth of the harbour.
Towaras this line the sands have moved in twenty years a quarter- of a mile in
the three fathom depth. For a time the ratio of northing will be possibly a
retarding, and not an accelerating one, but in a very few years — ^perhaps thirty,
or less — the bar will have advanced northerly to a line with the sunk vessel.
For a century, and slightly for two centuries, every tide had taken in sand, but
a portion was swept out again. But during the last fifty vears every flood
tiae has taken in increasing quantities of sand, while no ebb tide ever takes
any out. When the bar shall have passed a certain line, the sand will come
within the direct influence of the prodieious velocity and power of the water
r{ishmg into the confined and narrow entrance, and mO. mSve in great qnanti-
tities ; and although a little may be forced back on the bar at the ebb, a ^reat
deposit will be made internally, and one of the finest harbours of Great Britain
will be converted into a mere marine marsh.

To remedy this, Mr. Brannon proposes to restore the entrance to Poole Har-
bour to a straight channel of four or five fathoms depth ; or greater if desired.
The indispensable work for which would be a breakwater or pier from South
Haven, to secure a new channel coincident with the ancient one, or between
that and the eighteenth century openine:s.

The Geology of Weymouth and the Island of Portland. By Edbebt Dahok.

London : E. Stanford, Charing Cross. 1860.

A writer in the " AthenaBum" a short time since described the requisites of a
guide-book as consisting in having the matter good and reliable, and well
arranged, without any superfluity in the shape of fine writing or grandiloquent
descriptions. It is certainly something to have all the materials so well arranged
that you know where to turn at once for anything you want to find; and so
far as reliable matter and this principle of arrangement are concerned, Mr.
Damon's " Geology of Weymoutn" is a model guide-book, and no tourist or
amateur geologist should visit the beautiful neignbourhood in which he resides
without it.

The illustrations are well selected, and generally well executed, something
to say of a geological book illustrated by wood engravings ; for the generality
of these in works on that science are execrably bad, as any one may be satisfied
by turning even to some of the works of our best authors. The printer, how-
ever, has done nothing towards showing them off.

Mr. Damon seems to have taken great pains to produce a useful and good
result, and we hope the sale of his little book may bnng the appropriate reward.

THE GEOLOGIST.

DECEMBER, 1860.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE SEVERN VALLEY RAHiWAY.

A SKETCH BT

GEOBGB E. BOBEBTS.
AUTHOR OF "The BocKa oi Worcestebshibe."

Deep cuttings and long tnnnels are regarded by railway-contractors
as things to be avoided, though lessons of the greatest instruction
are derived from, them by the student of geology. But as safety in
transit demands the easiest gradients, and a Ime as straight as pos-
sible, the lesser inequalities of the surfisu^ have ofben to be cut into,
so that no insignificant part of geological teaching is derived ^m
railway- work. And oft-times a way that puzzles the contractor to
make '' good," or a hill-slope that, lacking knowledge of its springs,
he has cut into only to see it slip continuously upon his line, are
great aids and helps to comprehending the natural formation of a
district, and so, a contractor's poison becomes a geologist's meat.

There are many such instructive points upon the Bridgnorth rail-
way, which after briefly noting I hope will be looked at with pleasure
by observers. In the mere name of the line there is a certain spice
of geology- — " The Severn Valley ;" its whole course being along a
narrow and in places deep valley, scooped out like a channel between
England and Wales. Perhaps everyone knows that at no very dis-
tant time, the tide which now laves the beaches of Cheshire, came
rolling down this arm of the LHish sea, bringing shoal sand, and
banking it in places about its course, and rolling the pebbles along
its current till beaches, as well marked as those of Rhyl and Llan* ,
dudno, were laid in Imes parallel with the flow. Everybody sees
evidence of this in the gravel-beds which he upon the red sandstone
in so many places in these border-counties, and specially to be noted
in the neighbourhood of Bridgnorth, at Acleton and Worfield, where
TerebroBy Siose slender trumpet-shells so abundant on the Welsh
coast, may be picked up in sand ; at the Knowl — ^more firm sand, by

VOL. III. 3 I

434; THE GEOLOaiST.

the bye, than gravel, and at Upper Arley, where there is a grand
cutting through thirty feet of these gi^avel and sand deposits, on the
railway, worth going miles to see, even if the collector of ancient
life-remains unsuccessfully searches for the common whelk \JBuccinum
undatum), which has been found with fragments of other sea-shells
among the smaller pebbles, just as they were left by a retiring wave.
And here, too, in lines of shoatsand, exposed in the face of the cut-
ting, may be seen black "pockets,'' partly filled with carbonaceous
matter, to wit, the remains of drift-wood, and perchance of sea-weed,
cast on shore by strong gales. All this is very easy to understand,
especially to those who pay regular visits to the coast, and note the
ever-active agencies at« work there, building up in one place, and
throwing down in another ; heaping together pebbles and sea-driffc
upon the beach, and deeply-mining, with the battering stroke of
great waves, the rocky faces of the cliff.

But these modem inland evidences of a former coast-line, though
useful as teachers, are very great hindrances in our attempts to make
out the real constructive features of the district, for they cover up
all the older beds, all the rocks whose decomposed and disintegrated
layers give us the deep rich soils of our wheat-lands and gardens —
rocks older in time than themselves — mineralized beds of water-
sediment containing shells and fishes and corals, treasures laid up of
old to bear testimony to us ; so that we who would learn of them
have thanks to give to rail way- work for having in many places cut
through this coverlid of gravel and sand down to these older rocks,
and introduced to us local differences in their natures, which other-
wise we should have been ignorant of. And in every place where
this is the case, both along the line of railway and elsewhere, we see
one notable difference between the gravel-beds and the underlying
old rock ; the gravel is i in fiat, level measures, while the sand, or
lime-rock, uptilted by volcanic action, dips more or less frt>m the
horizontal. Therefore if geology did not teach us by evidence else-
where that millions of years elapsed between the deposition of the
New Bed Sandstone, as a sedimentary accumulation, and its conceal*
ment beneath the slowly-laid gravel and sand-drift of the Channel,
our senses would give us the notion of some great lapse of time, long
enough to alter the whole physical condition of the district, and to
permit the slow elevatory movement to die away in a period of
quiescence and repose.

The cuttings along this line of railway being one great lesson*
book, we must, in studying it, begin with the earliest pages — ^that is,
with the bed of hardened water-sediment (called rock by us in com-
mon parlance), laid the earliest in time ; and to see this, Bridgnorth
students of this marvellous science must betake themselves to Ben-
thall. I envy them the shortest day's work in that wonderfiil
treasure-house ; for the proximity of the line to that great limestone-
cliff of Silxirian rock affords great scope for study, and advantages
of collecting relics of primeval life almost beyond any other place.
Gain the top of the " Edge" as soon as you can, and make your way

ROBERTS — GEOLOGY OF THE SEVERN VALLEY RAILWAY. 485

along the line of old quarries that runs parallel with the flow of the
river beneath. Eveiywhere through these quarries lie spoil-banks
of debris and ^gmentalia, heaps of rubbish to practioal eyes, but
treasure-houses of much value to geological ones, for I have but to
stoop over them — ^putting on my best eyes for the work — and I can
pick up shells, and corals, and zoophytes, aye, and shelled insects
too, (Trilobites) sea-woodlice, whose hard enduring shields, protect-
ing them in life, have been mineralized into panoply of stone, that
shall tell me a certain and reliable story of their habits and position,
when each was tenanted by a living, moving, feeding creature. Let
those of your party who choose look afker the thousand and one de-
tached fossils which are strewn over the ground ; but the lover of
antiqxdties shall come with me, and study a slab whose surface shall
be al relievo with life-remains : in truth, a very old page of earthly
history, writ in strange, uncouth, almost undecypherable characters.
To this a Persepolitan cylinder, graven vrith arrow-headed glyphs, is
a record of yesterday ; to this the tablets of Seth, on which were
written the wisdom of the pre-delugian age, are of modem date. No
" Open Sesame !" of Professor Fehretmout or Dr. Dryasdust will open
to the day and reveal the secrets of these times, for here is a chron-
icle of Nature, writ so long ago that

'* Monntainfl have arisen fiince,
With cities on their flankn."

No mere poetical saying, but a sober scientific fact.

The great outcrop of these Silurian beds at Benthall is continued
westwMtl to Wenlock, and there, in the "Edge," developed to an ex-
tent which has caused this division of Silurian strata to be known
everywhere as the Wenlock series. Some of its layers are little else
than a mass of life-remains, corals especially, of which about forty
species may be found with yerj little search. There is no other ex-
posure of this old rock elsewhere along the course of the line : more
modem deposits eveiywhere cover it up.

Next above the sediment of the Silurian ocean lie the sandy and
brashy beds of the Old Red Sandstone lagoons; dark-red rocks,
with bands of compacted fragmentalia, locally known as comstones.
There is an open cutting through a dome- shaped protrusion of these,
a mile south of the Victoria-bridge, but the line hugs the Severn too
closely to permit a further acquaintance with this^ the typical rock
of Herefordshire. The Old Red, however, approaches Bridgnorth as
nearly on the west as the Lease wes. Old Hay, and Harpswood, from
which places it has the surface all to itself westward through Corve
Dale to Wenlock Edge. And a very fertile land that surface is, for
the comstone makes notably ffood wheat-land. In our local deve-
lopment of this red rock, so distinct in appearance from the bine
limestone, there are no traces of shells or coral, though doubtless both
were abundant in the seas of the age. We prove, however, the ex-
istence of fish in that waterj for both in comstone and sandstone we

436 THE 0E0L00I8T.

find the bard china-looking defensiye shields of some cmrons spedes.
Those who care to know what these are, and to search for them in
Old Bed quarries at Chetton, Glazely, and Oyerton, will find them
described in my '^ Bocks of Worcestershire" (London: Masters; 1860).
Upon the Old Bed Sandstone lie the Carboniferous beds — the next
aocnmnlation of time. The line near Idnlej cats through some
fresh-water (?) deposits of this age, in which are bands of hard
cream-colonred limestone, containing estuarine biralTe-shelled Crus-
tacea (Cypris or OythendcB), and very tiny teeth, hard, black, and
shining, of small predatory fishes. The ontcrop of rock crossed here
by the line extends as a belt of surface varying in width from two
hundred yards to a mile, due south, but does not again approach the
riyer-channel until we reach Hampton's Load, where low hills,
shutting in the channel westward, introduce us again to the poor,
dirty clays that lie above the coal.

iVom the ferry to the Victoria bridge the line has its course through
deposits of this age, though in some places — chiefly on the has^
opposite Upper Arley — a tibickness of twenty to tiiirty feet of Severn
Strait gravel and sand obscures the Carboniferous measures. Here,
however, the line is carried by a cutting deep into the underlying
yeUow sandstone rook, and a very inatructiye seoidon of that important
member of the coal-rock group is obtained. Beyond the crossing of
the river there is an extension of these coal-beds into EymoorWood,
in fact the picturesque cliff of Seddey Bock points clearly to related
measures in the hills eastward of the river.

A nule south of the bridge we run into Old Bed, aforesaid, at the
Hill Wood. Half a nule of cutting through this and then coal-
measure rock shuts in the line, resting on natural position against the
dome. For two miles this, once again along the course of the Severn
Valley Bail way, forms its surface, very greatly to the pleasure of the
geologist, for here is a notable exposure — ^thanks to the raQway-work
— of its fossiliferous measures. Several layers of sandstone and shale
with plant-remains, may be noticed in the banks on each side ; but at
a point parallel with Northwood Cottage, a pretty white house front-
ing the river, we ran through a cutting of grey shales, with brown-
black seams of fem-coal, every layer of which contains fossil plants^
in greater or less abundance. Lideed, if a braken bed had suddenly
been overwhelmed by a flood, and the ferns buried beneath the muddy
sediment just as they grew, no richer deposit of plants could have
been got togetheiv Ferns chiefly, belonging to the genera Fecopterisj
Neuropteris, Sjphenopterisy and Dictyoptens, of which latter genus, (a
noticeable one among the group for having reticulated venation), a
species recently discovered in a continuation of these measures a mile
north of this spot, is here very plentifrd. This has been descrihed
by Prof. Morris, under the provisional name of WoodwardUes (?)
Bohertd* but it must be identical with a Dictyopteris of the Dresden
coal-field.

* Geol. Soc. Joum., vol. xv., p. 82.

BOBEETS — GBOLOGT OP THE SEVERN VALLEY EAILWAY. 437

This brown £eni»coal should be carefhlly ezaimned,for any thin fibns,
nataral shavings of the bark, which will show the cells, or vessels, or
tissues of these ancient plants. A similar bed, belonging to the lower
ooal-measnres of NovsrScotia, has yielded many instmctive fragments
of this kind ;* and we are indebted to the coal-measnres of Moscow
for others.t Let ns search for them nearer home.

A great deal of rock has yet to be removed at this place, so that
many rare and beautiftd plants will be brought to light, and, let me
hope, rescued by geological students, induced by this sketch of its
fossil wealth to pay the bed a visit, before the treasures are carted
away to other parts of the line. Mr. Edward Baugh, of Bewdley,
has a noble collection of these fossils, obtained from this and near-
lying places.

Above the coal-measures are other red rocks, called Permian.
These are of special interest to the geological observer, because they
evidence, by their mineral constituents and fossil remains, the appear-
ance and productions of the surface at the close of the first great
division of ancient time, the PalsBozoic epoch.

Astley- Abbots is on these sandstones, which there lie against the
hilly coal-measure ground of Tasley, a line continued due south to
Oldbuiy and Chelmorch, with the same relations of natural position
to the westward band of coal-rock. Plants, allied to palms of the
tropical zone are the clearest indication preserved to us of the flora of
this age ; but I do not think any have been found in railway-cuttings
through the Chelmarch country. However, when the line is opened,
I hope Alveley will be reached by the " Bridgnorth Naturalists' Field
Club," and the quarries near the village, and at Shropshire farm
examined and studied, both for the character of the rock, and the
fragments of fossilized palm-stems that occur in it.

To learn the next page in our rock-volume, we need not stray &r
from Bridgnorth. Unfruitfdl of fossils, and unstable in quality as the
New Bed Sandstone is, it has so much to charm us in its picturesque
water-worn rocks as exampled at Quatford and Stanley, and in the
deep dells and valleys . about Apley and Badger, that I question
whether other systems, though richer in relics of ancient fauna and
flora, have an equal place in our regard. No doubt the question will
be asked by many enquiring minds — ^looking up at the deep cutting
into New Bed Bock at the Knoll, or at the stiLl greater thickness of the
same measures (the Lower Soft Sandstone), upon which the castle
stands, and through which the tunnel takes a circuitous and utterly
incomprehensible way — why is it that no life-remains are found in
these rocks ? Sediment of a former sea they undoubtedly are ; could
that water have been a lifeless barren element ? And to these natural
enquiries we can return no certain answer ; though the presence of
oxides in the old water to an extent sufficient to colour the whole of
its depositions a ferruginous red, seems enough of itself to explain

* Dawson's Sap. Acadian Geology, p. 25, and Greol Soc. Jonm., vol. zv., p. 626*
•f Hemoires de la Soc. Imp. des Nat. de Moscoa, torn, xm., p. 39.

438 THE GEOLOGIST.

why if shells and fish and crabs lived therein, their remains sLonld
after death be destroyed by such mineral agencies, in every condition
of the sorfaoe antagonistic to conservation. Bnt whether the whole
bed — of no mean thickness be it remembered, and evidencing a great
lapse of time — can Aumish no trace of its former life, is yet to be
proved ; and I do not by any means advise local observers to give vp
search, especially in the Hghter-colonred strata.

This lowest member of the rock-group, known as New Bed, is the
highest, most recent deposit — excepting the gravel of the Severn
Strait age — crossed by the railway near to the town.

But at Mount Pleasant^ south of Bewdley, the line is taken by tnn-
nelling through the central conglomerate, or pebble-bed rock, which
forms the commanding fort of Pendleston, or the High Eock,
near Bridgnorth, and at Wilden, two miles south-east of Mount
Pleasant, the upper soft Bed Sandstone is cut into by an excavation,
the rock-walls of whidi tower to the height of sixty feet above the line ;
while at the terminus of the railway, near Hartlebury, the cuttings
show that the ascending order of geological deposits, which, since we
crossed the dome of Old Bed at the Hill Wood, north of Bewdley, we
have rigidly kept to, has brought us up to the Waterstones, a sandstone
rock, easily dis^gnishable from those we have seen, by its containing
small shining scales of white indestmctable mica.

I hope no one will look upon this sketch, which an intimate know-
ledge of the Bridgnorth district enables me to give, as exhaustive of
the. subject, or other than a general introduction, upon the broadest
basis, to the geological histoiy of that locality. And among the lessons
learnt from it, this one I trust, will be the longest remembered — ^that
man's enterprise is an instrument in the hand of the Creator, for
farthering knowledge of BKs works, and displaying to us, in rock-
cutting and tunnelling, the operation of His hands — ^whispered truths
of hidden and secret nature — " whether we will hear them or whether
we will forbear!"

ON ISTEW BRACHIOPODA, AKD ON THE DEVELOPMENT
OF THE LOOP IN TEREBBATELLA.

By Charles Mooee, F.G.S.

At the time of the commencement of Mr, Davidson's monograph on
British Brachiopoda, published by the Palaeontographical Society,
little had been done towards their systematic arrangement and classi-
fication. Sowerby had figured many species ; but valuable materials
were accumulated, and many new forms waiting for description in
the cabinets of different collectors, which have since been done jus-
tice to in the above valuable publication.

MOORE — ON NEW B&ACHIOPODA, ETC. isSO

At the time referred to bnt fourteen species, of the genera Lin-
gala, Orbicula, Spirifer, and Terebratula had been figored from
the three divisions of the Lias, but I had succeeded in discovering
twenty- new species in the Middle and Upper Lias of Somerset, in*
eluding the genera Thecidenm, Leptssna, and Crania, genera which
had been previously unnoticed in these formations.

Of the genus Thecideum, the Middle Lias of Somerset yielded me
three species, viz.. T. Botichardvi, T. triang^daris, T, Moord. In this
formation they are rare, and when found are almost invariably
attached to the pHcated exteriors of RhynchoneUa serrata or B. tetrae-
dra. On a specimen of the former shell, which has been figured by
Mr. Davidson, there are seventeen examples belonging to the three
species I have mentioned.

The Upper Lias of the west of England, especially in the neigh-
bourhood of Bminster, rarely exceeds in thickness ten or twelve feet,
and is sometimes reduced to four or five feet. In the clays at its
base the genus Leptaana occurs of several species. About the time
of their discovery, one species, the Lepixena liasicma, had been found
in France, which I had sought for in vain in this country. During a
visit paid me by Mr. Davidson, as we were approaching a section of
Upper Lias, he remarked how interesting it would be to find the
French species in association with those I had already discovered. To
our great dehght the first object that presented itself to me was a
httle shell, which rendered the L. liaeiana a British species. I have
never found more than four specimens, so that it is very rare.

Before the publication of Mr. Davidson's "Appendix," in 1853, I
had examined the Inferior Oohte of Dxmdry for Brachiopoda, and
found there eight species of Thecideum, five of which were new,
together with the T. BoiLchardii and T, triangularis I had previously
obtained from the Middle Lias,, and T. Beslongchomvpm of the Upper
Lias. The same locality also furnished me with a series of Httle
shells, which threw light upon some I had previously found in the
Upper Lias, forming a passage between the Thecideidfle and the
TerebratulideB, for which the sub-genus Zellania has been created.
These, with a little shell named Spirif&ra oolitica, were shortly
noticed by me in Mr. Davidson's " Appendix," but have since been
fig^ured and described in the Journal of the Somersetshire JSTatural
History Society for 1854. At the time of its publication I was con-
vinced that the discovery of many new species of Brachiopoda might
be expected from a continued investigation of the secondary forma-
tions ; and it is to new species found since I now desire to direct
attention.

On Hampton Down, near Bath, there are extensive excavations
where the Great Oolite was formerly largely worked. Latterly a
new quarry has been commenced, and in order to reach the workable
beds of freestone, the following beds in descending order had to be
passed through : —

440 TUE GEOLOGIST.

Ft. In.

1. Thin bands of ^estone 4 6

2. Brown raggy coralline bed 9 0

3. Compact grey limestone 6 0

4. Workable beds of great oolite 20 0

The grey limestone (No. 3) contains many organic remams, but
owing to its hard and intractable character few are to be extracted
entire. In its weathered edges may be seen the lAnia cardiiformis,
TrichiteSf Lithodomi, and many corals.

The raggy bed (No. 2) is very incoherent, and appears to have
been an ancient coral reef, it being in great part composed of corals
and sponges. Intermingled with these branching corals are myriads
of beantifol organisms, which, from the nnconsohdated nature of the
bed, are easily extracted. They consist of dismembered ossicles of
starfishes, the plates and occasionally the bodies of the Bradford
Encrinite (Apiocri/rms Parkmsoni) , spines and shells of Echini, OystraeaB,
and other molinsca, and with them very many specimens of a small
Brachiopod, which has hitherto been considered the yonng of Tere-
hratula maxUlata, but which I shall presently show is to be referred
to Terehratella.

The Brachiopods obtained at Hampton consist of Terehratula
earddum, T, coarctata, T, digona, T. hemispherica, T. maoBiUata, Bkyn-
ehonella condnna, B. ohaoleta, Grama a/nUquior, It will thus be seen
that only three genera of Brachiopods have hitherto been known in
the Great Oolite, and the bed under consideration. To these I have
now to add four other genera^ viz., Terehratella, Terebratulina, The-
cideum, and Zellania.

Terebratula maxillata. Sow. PL xiii., figs. 6, 7.

The adult form of this shell is found at Hampton, though usually
either in single valves, or in a crushed state. The young ages of
this shell are externally hardly distinguishable from the Tereh'otella
Biickmamf described below. It differs from the latter shell in its
beak being more truncated, and the foramen more rounded ; it is
also usually longer than broad, a character it loses when more adult.
Internally the generic difference is at once apparent, as this shell
possesses a short reflected loop, which in Terehratella is doubly
attached.

Terebratula hemisprsrioa. Sow.

A pretty little shell, originally figured by Sowerby under the name
of Terehrahda hemiaphcenca, is not uncommon at Hampton Cliffs.
This was subsequently removed by D'Orbigny from that genus, and
placed with the Terebratellse ; and on the authority of the species to
which I now refer, that author carried the latter genus into ibe
oolites, in which he was followed, although with some hesitation, by

MOOEE — ON NEW BRACHIOPODA, ETC. 441

Mr. Davidson. It will be seen from what follows that two species at
least of Terebratella are to be found in these beds ; but when D'Or-
bigny placed the Terebratula hemisphcerica in this genus, he could
not have seen its interior, which, in several examples I possess, have
the short and simple loop of Terebratula, and the shell in question
will therefore have to return to its original position.

Terebratella.

Terebratella Buckmakii. Woodward, MS. PI. xiii., figs. 1-5.

Shell generally a little longer than wide, rounded in front, and
tapering to the beak ; valves moderately convex ; beak short, very
slightiy incnrved and truncated by a foramen, smronnded in part by
the extremity of the beak, the umbo of the dorsal valve, and two
small labral deltideal plates. Internally the adult shell is provided
with a doubly attached loop, the first pair of lamellsB extending con-
siderably before becoming reflected to form the loop. Shell struc-
ture punctuate. Dimensions of the largest example hitherto
observed : length, 3^ lines ; width, 3 lines ; depth, 1^ lines.

Oba. — ^I had collected a considerable number of these httle
brachiopods from the oolite of Hampton ChfFs, under the idea that
they were the young of the Terebratula maxUlata, my object being
to prepare dissections showing the loop of that species. I was much
interested in finding in the example I first opeued that it could not
belong to the young of that genus, although outwardly it is almost
undistinguishable from it. The difference in the loop proved it to
be a true Terebratella. My observation does not show that it
attained larger dimensions than those mentioned, but it had then
assumed the character and development peculiar to the loop which
characterizes the genus to which it is referred. In an early stage of
my examination, modifications in the shape of the loop were noticed,
and observations extending to several hundred specimens resulted in
showing the curious changes effected by age in the form of the loop,
which may be seen by referring to plate xiii., figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5.

The first stage of development I have been able to observe is
sketched in fig. 2. Therein it may be perceived the two first lamell89
are united to the hinge-plate, and to a free rudimentary mesial plate,
which is, in fact, the first origin of what at a later period becomes a
mesial plate. In this state it is free, and does not touch the bottom
of the valve, although when viewed in profile spinqs may be seen
passing downwards, which afterwards join the mesial septum.

The loop has not yet been formed, but a plate projects between
the lamellsB, and appears as if longitudinally split to a certain depth
in the centre.

The second stage is exhibited in fig. 3. In this we find the two
lamellflB with the rudimentary plate as in fig. 2, and, besides, the
origin of the reflected portion of the loop, presenting in this first
stage of its development but a very small and rudimentary aspect.

VOL. III. 3 K

442 THE GEOLOGIST.

The third stage may be obseired in fig. 4, where the diflferent
parts are still more developed, but the mesial plate has not yet
reached the bottom of the valve.

By gradual changes we are thns conducted to the fourth stage,
^g. 5, where the loop has attained its complete development. The
central plate, which was freely suspended in the shefl before, has
now reached and become soldered to the bottom of the valve ; the
first pair of lamellae are still attached to its upper sides, and the re-
flected portion of the loop has become fully developed, the extremities
facing the front of the shell being considerably prolonged, as is seen
in fig. 5 of our plate. Numerous long spines also project from the
outer edges of the lameUee and loop, giving to the interior a very
peculiar appearance.

The subject of the development of the internal calcified supports in
brachiopoda is of considerable interest, and much may yet be leamt
by a careftd study of recent specimens of this class. The importance
of attention to the subject is the greater when it is remembered that
the classification of many of the brachiopoda depends more upon in-
ternal than external form, and that had the different stages of
development shown by the Terehratella Buckmanii been observed
under other circumstances, or from beds of different geological ages,
each would probably have been constituted a distinct genus.

The Terehratella Biickmami is the prevailing sheU at Hampton
Cliffs, and many hundred specimens have passed through my hiids.
It has before been remarked that the young of Terehratula ma^laia
also occur at Hampton, though this species is comparatively rare.
It requires considerable experience to determine by the exterior to
which genus the different shells belong. Both possess the same
contour, and are strone:ly punctuate. In general, however, the
Terehratella Buchma/nii may be distinguished by a dark longitudinal
line in the centre of the ventral valve, due to the mesial septum,
and by the characters previously noticed when speaking of Terehra-
tula maxillata.

It is due to my friend Mr. Woodward I should remark, that whilst
my investigations on this shell were in progress, having been the
means of conveying a series of them to him, he noticed it to be a
Terehratella ; and in a communication to Mr. Davidson suggested
the specific name of Terehratella Buchmami for it, which I have much
pleasure in adopting.

Terebratella furcata. Sow. and Moore. PI. xiii., figs. 8-10.
Terehratula furcata^ Sow.; T, orhicularis, Sow. ; T, cardium, Lamarek.

Shell small, rounded — ^both valves moderately convex; valrea
coarsely plicated, varying in number, and may be seen on the inner
side, bifurcating occasionally ; surface punctuated ; beak truncated ;
foramen large ; loop doubly attached.

This little shell was originally figured by Sowerby tmder the name

MOORE — ON NEW BRACHTOPODA, ETC. 413

of Terehratula furccda, but snbsequeiitly he considered it might be
the young of Terehratula orhicidcm^, Sow., the Terebrakda cardium
of Lamarck, in which he was followed by other naturalists. The
jT. cardium is found at Hampton Cliffs, in association with this
species, and from the close resemblance it bears to it, might reason-
ably be considered its young form. Having succeeded in opening a
beautifiil example showing the interioi of the shell, the double
attachment of the loop proved it to be a Terebratella. The interiors
may be seen by referring to pi. xiii., figs. 9, 10. The profile shows the
upper lamellsB of the loop, after leaving the hinge-plate to be pos-
sessed of a pair of crural spurs. About the centre of the sheU the
lamellsB are attached to an elevated mesial septum. The front of the
loop, as well as the reflected portion, is broad ; and projecting towards
the opening of the sheU, and on the under side of the lamellsB, are a
number of closely set spines. This shell is very rare at Hampton,
owing to which I have been unable to make any observations on the
development of the loop as in Terebratella Buchmanii, The fact of
the shell under consideration proving to be a Terebratella at once
suggested the possibility that Terehratula cardium might also belong
to that genus ; and I learnt from Mr. Davidson that he could not
speak positively on this point, as the shell from which his interior
was figured was not clear of the matrix, and only partially exhibited
the loop. I have taken much trouble to establish the correct position
of the T. cardium ; and after the examination and dissection of many
specimens, am able to say that the loop, as figured by that gentle-
man, is correct. This species must therefore remain in its present
position, but the examples supposed to be its young forms will have
to be placed under Terebratella ; and, retaining Sowerby's original
specific name, must be called Terebratella furcata. Two species of
this genus are therefore added to British Jurassic beds, and the
Terehratula hemispJicerica, which was supposed to represent it in this
age, removed, I have obtained a portion of the interior of a small
brachiopod; showing a mesial septum, from the Upper Lias, near
Ilminster, which convinces me that the genus may also be found in
that formation.

Tebbbratulina.

Terebbatulina raduta. Moore. PI. xiii., figs. 11-14.

Shell small, nearly as broad as long ; thickest near the umbo, and
thinning gradually to the front and sides ; front rounded ; valves
convex, flattened, with numerous fine stnations ; foramen large,
rounded ; area flattened ; the exterior of the ventral valve shows a
mesial depression, with a corresponding elevation in the interior of
the valve. The loop is short ; after passing the crura it forms a semi-
circular ring, slightly thickening in its centre.

This little shell is not uncommon in the oolite of Hampton Cliffs,
and is the first Terebratulina recorded in British Jurassic beds. In

444 THE GEOLOGIST.

its external form it is not tinlike TerebratuUna mhradiaia, but it does
not, in any example I have seen, attain one-tenth the size of
that species. It is also more circular, less convex, and has a more
pronounced sinus in the ventral valve than that shell.*

The T. radiata appears to have continued upwards from the Inferior
Oolite, as I am unable to separate from it some specimens I have
obtained from Dundry, near Bristol, the only distinction being that
the latter assume a more elongated form, which is to be observed by
comparing pi. xiii., fig. 14 (from Dundry) with figs. 11, 12 (from
Hampton Clifis).

Zellania. Moore: 1854.

Three species of this genus were described by me in the Transactions
of the Somersetshire Natural History Society, for 1854 ; one being
from the Upper Lias, the other from the Inferior Oolite of Dundry.
To these I have to add another from Dundry, and a fifth species from
the Oolite of Hampton Cliffs. The genus also occurs in the Coral
Rag of Lyneham, Wilts. Its range is therefore shown to extend
from the Upper Lias to the uppermost beds of the Oolite.

Zellaitu globata. Moore. PL xiii., figs. 15-17.

Shell very small, globose ; valves moderately convex, rounded at
sides and fiint ; exterior surface smooth ; beak slightly projecting ;
foramen encroaching on both valves, rounded.

Ohs. — ^I have five examples of this shell from the Oolite of Hamp-
ton. The interior of the dorsal valve possesses a well defined circular
ridge, entirely encircling the inner portion of the shell. In this
species I have been unable to observe any trace of a central septum,
which in those previously figured is well defined. The examples
that occur in the Coral Bag, at Lyneham, are of the same species,
and are equally rare.

Zellania oolitica. Moore. PI. xiii., figs. 18-20.

Shell small, triangular, rather longer than wide ; front rounded ;
valves tapering to the beak, smooth, distinctly puntuate, thickest at
the umbo ; sides thick, flattened ; hinge-line very short ; foramen
rounded.

This species is found with the Z. Davidsoni and Z. Labouclierei
It is a thicker and more triangular shell than the former, and is de-
void of the strisB noticed on that shell. In its triangular and less
symmetrical form it is to be distinguished from Z. Lahottcherei ; and
it also wants the concentric lines on the valves characteristic of that
species. The shell structure of the genus is shown by the Z. oolitica
to be distinctly punctuate.

* In all the examples that have come under my notice, the crural processes,
which are usually joined in this genus, are disconnected.

MOORE — ON NEW BRACHIOPODA, ETC. 445

Under the microscope the shell shows a nximber of widely-
separated, circular punctuations, which are arranged in longitudinal
lines.

Lept^na Davidsonh. Eng. Deslongchamps. PL xiii., figs. 21, 22.

The figures representing the above species are taken from speci-
mens for which I am indebted to M. Eugene Deslongchamps, of
Caen. They were found in the Upper Lias of May, associated with
several of the species found in this country. It appears to be abund-
ant in France, and to attain larger dimensions than any other liassic
Lept89na.

I have found a single dorsal valve of this species in the Upper
Lias of Ilminster, wluch though not in good condition, sufficiently
identifies the Leptcena Davidsomi as a British species.

EXALANATION OP PLATE XIH.

Fig. 1. Terehratella Btuikmami, Woodward. Interior, showing the perfect loop.

2. . Interior of shell much enlarged, showing the

loop in its first stage.

'3. . Second stage of the loop, with a rudimentary

reflected portion.

4, , , Third stage, with the reflected portion of the

loop now enveloped.

6. . Perfect shell, enlarged.

6. Terebratula maayillatOi Sowerbj. Yonng shell, enlarged.

7. . Interior, exhibiting the loop.

8. Terebratella fwrcata, Sow. and Moore. Enlarged exterior.

9. . Showing perfect loop.

10. . Profile of ditto.

11. TerehrainiUna radMbta, Moore. Perfect shell.

12. . Exterior of ventral valve.

13. . Interior, with loop.

14. . Elongated variety, from Dudley.

15. ZeUa/nia global, Moore. Much enlarged.

16. . Side view of ditto.

17. . Interior of dorsal valve.

18. Zellama ooUUca, Moore. Perfect shell, much enlarged, showing punc-
tuated structure.

19. . Exterior of ventral valve,

20. . Profile of shell.

21. Leptcena Damdsoni. Exterior, natural size.
22, . Ventral valve, ditto.

[The longitudinal lines indicate the sizes of the specimens, all of which are

enlarged.]

(To be continued.)

THE QEOLOOIST.

ON A NEW GKNUS OF ECHINODERM, AND OBSEEVA.
TIONS ON THE GENUS PAL^ECHINUS.

Bi Fobt-Majos Thouab Adstik, F.O.B.

Genos, PROTOECelKDS (Anstm).
Species, Protoechinue anceps (Anstm). Natural size.

Test. — Shape not well defined in tbe specimens obtained. Ambo-
lacral areae wide ; tbe two rows of porea in double pairs near the
margin, witb alternate additiooal perforated plates near the widest
spread of tbe ambulacra ; where these additional plates intervene
the pores become qoadrnple ; in(«ranibnlacral areas wide.

Differmcea and Affiaities. — The Frotoecbinos differs wboUy iroia
Paltechinns ; aad bears bnt little afBnity to any recent or foEsil
echinoderm with which I am acquainted.

LoMlity and Stratigrapkieal Bangs. — The only three epecimenB yet
diacoTered were foond in the lower beds, bnt not tbe very lowest, of
the Carboniferona Limestone, at Hook Point, coimty of Wexford.

Some years ftinoe, when visiting the Hook distiict, in company
with my son, Mr, T. Austin, this new and beantdfiil seo-iircliin waa
discovered ; bnt nnfortnnately, in my son's eager endeavonrs to ex-
tricate the fossil from the matrix, part of it vies deslsxiyed. Enough,
however, remains to prove that it is generically distinct from Pi&-
chinos. I obtained a second specimen, bnt the plates are a good
deal displaced, and the ambulacra are not so well seen as in the one
figured. jVootber and more perfect specimen was subsequently ob-
tained ; but before I conld secure it, it iinfortunately fell into un-
scientific hands, and was lost to science.

AUSTIN — ON A NEW GENUS OF BCHINODERM, ETC. ^1

Althongii present daring the removal of hnndreds of tons of lime-
stone, and diligently and repeatedly searcliing every bed and cranny
in the locaUty, I was unable to detect the least indication of a fourth
specimen. It may therefore be inferred that Protoechinus is of rare
occurrence ; and that when the Hook limestone was accumulating at
the bottom of the Carboniferous sea, it had just appeared on the
stage of life among the then living echinoderms.

As far as can be judged from the three specimens procured, I con-
sider it to be a true echinus, and in all probability the primitive form
of that now extensively diffused genus. Behoving that Protoechinus
was one of the first, if not the very first true echinus, that appeared
on our globe, I have adopted the name as suggestive of that fact.

Observations on the Oenus PalcecMnus,

From specimens of Palsachinus which I have in my cabinet, there
is great reason to infer that the different species belonging to that
genus possessed columns similar to the true crinoids, and were
attached to the ocean-bed as the crinoids were. I had long con-
sidered this as probable : and, on carefully re-examining my speci-
mens, I found one in which the indications of the fact are so apparent
that they almost force conviction that my first surmises were correct.
In the specimen alluded to the ambulacra are seen terminating at,
and against, a circular plate with radiating strisB on its surface, and
close along side is a short portion of a column, each of the radii on
which is a fac dmUe of those on the body-plate, from which the
column has apparently been separated, and but slightly displaced by
the pressure that broke assunder the columnar support, and left it in
close proximity to its original place of attachment

I was first led to entertain a doubt about Palaechinus being a free
echinoderm from finding portions of columns lying close to specimens
of that genus, and which I could not refer to any known crinoid.
The striae on the articulating surfaces of the circular columnar joints,
which probably belong to Palaechinus, are more deeply grooved near
their margin than in Actinocrinus, or other allied forms.

Another circumstance that rather favours the supposition that
PalsBchinus possessed a column is the fact that it is occasionally found
lying on its side, a position the true crinoids are mostly seen in ; and
as the lower or under side has a larger and more depressed surface
than the rotund, or highly convex, lateral ones, it is a natural in-
ference that some restraining infiuence produced this almost uni-
versal identity of position, and what more probable than that a
column was the cause of this uniformity ? Of course the presence of
a column would prevent the Paleechinus, after death, falling in any
other way than on its side. Among the numerous specimens which
I have examined, I have never met more than two that differed in

448 THE GEOLOGIST,

this respect in the slightest degree, and the same exceptional cases
as rarely occur among the true crinoids.

If we examine the echinoderms from the Oolite, the Chalk, or the
Tertiary beds, we find them one and all reclining on their hroadesfc
diameters, in fact, obeying the laws of gravitation, but which appears
to have been overcome in Paleechinus by some countervailing
influence, which resisting force was probably an elongated column.

It must be understood that I do not positively maintain that
Palaechinus was attached to the sea-bed by a jointed flexible column,
but that one evidence in favour of such an addition to its character
is strong, if not convincing.

GEMS OF PRIVATE COLLECTIONS.

UNIO AND PALUDINu^E.

From the Wealden Beds of Kent, in the collection of
Mf. W. Harris, F.G-.S., of Charing,

The Sussex Marble, or Bethersden Marble, as it is indifferently
termed according to its occurrence in Kent or Sussex, is found also
in Surrey, near the foot of Leith Hill. It occurs in thin courses of
variable thickness and extent, but seldom presenting a bed one foot
thick, in the weald clay.

It is made up chiefly of the shells of Paludince, whole or in frag-
ments. Occasionally the shells retain their form, as in the specimen
figured, and weather out on exposure ; but often only their casts are
exposed, the matrix being calcareous matter derived from the disinte-
gration of the shells. The shells of XJniones also occur ; rarely, as
in the specimen figured, retaining this form ; more often as casts,
Cypridee also occur in abundance ; but the small size of the tiny shells
or valves of these little entomostraca cause them to be overlooked.
The Cypridea Valdensis is the common species. The animal matter
of the Paludin83 appears to be often preserved in this marble, and
gives to the polished sections the dark grey and black markings so
characteristic of the stone. Purbeck marble is a similar stone, older
than that of the weald clay, and formed of a Paludina of smaller size.

The Paludina of the Sussex marble is scarcely to be distinguished
from that of the existing rivers and ponds, namely, the P. vivi^ara ;
but Sowerby points out that it has a thicker shell, and is somewhat
turbo-like in aspect ; and has termed it P. fluviorum, (Min. Conch.,
pi. 31. fig. 1 ; vol. i, p. 77, and vol. vi. p. 192). A larger form from

GEMS OF PRIVATE COLLECTIONS^ , 449

the weald clay of Sussex is named P. Sussexi&iisis by Sowerby,
in the Geol. Transact., 2 ser., vol. iv., p. 178, pi. 22, ^g. 6.

Other Paludina, but of smaller size, are found in the wealden beds,'
namely, P. carinifera, (Sow. Min. Conch., pi. 509, fig. 3 ; and Geol.
Trans., 2 ser., vol. iv., p. 178) ; and P. elongata, (Sow. Min. Conch.,
pi. 509, fig. 2.) Fig. 1, of the same plate, shows a similar Paludina for
East Peckham.

The Uniones of the Sussex marble appear to be Unio conupress^is,
(Sow. Min. Conch., pi. 594., fig. I, and V. antiquiis, Sow. Min. Conch,
pi. 594, figs. 3, 4, 5. The specimen figured in our plate (pi. xiv.), is
probably the latter.

The other Wealdeu Unios are Unto adimcus, (Sow. M. C, pi. 595,
fig. 2) ; U, cordiformis^ (Sow., M. C, pi. 595, fig. 1) ; U, jporrectm,
(Sow., M. C, pi. 594, ^g. 1) ; U, Valdensis, (Sow., M. C, pi. 646) ;
U. Mantellii, (Sow., Geol. Trans., 2 ser., vol. iv., pi. 21, fig. 14) ;
U, suhtruncatus, (Sow., ibid. fig. 15) ; Z7. Oavlterii, (Sow., ibid., fig.
16; and U. Martini, (Sow., ibid., fig. 17.) Several of these are from
the sandy beds far below the weald clay, that is, in the Hastings
sands and their associated beds.

The Bethersden Marble used to be very extensively for build-
ing, and for making long narrow causeways along the wet and muddy
roads of the wealds of Kent, Sussex, and Surry ; but in both respects
it is now less used. There is an account of this stone and its localities
by Dr. Griff Hartley, entitled, " On Fossil shells in Kent/' to be
found in Mr. Lowthorp's Abridgment of the Philosophical Transac-
tions, 4th Edit., vol., vi, p. 426. This old-fashioned philosopher refers
to the Paludina bed in the blue clay " at Hinton, five miles from
Maidstone, in Kent ;" and at " Pluckley, in the wild of Kent."

At the former place, Unios, (or, as they are termed, " bivalvular
stones,") appear to be rather numerous (as they were, indeed, near
PlucHey and Bethersden); but the "turbinated," or "wreathed
conchites," formed the majority. We may remark that Dr. G. Hartley,
according to the mode of the day, found good reasons " for their never
having been the spoils of animals;" but stones (" lapides sui generis"),
formed, perhaps, of " the salts of plants or animal bodies, washed down
with rain, and lodged under ground," and " disposed into such little
figures !"

T. H. J.

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454 THE QEOLOOIST.

PROCEEDINGS OP GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES.

Geological Society op London. — June 13, 1860. (Continued.)

2. "On some Arrow-heads and other Instruments found with Horns of
CervM megaceras, in a Cavern in Languedoc." Bj M. E. Lartet, Tor. M.6.S.
(In a letter to the President.)

In a cayem of the limestone at Massat, near Tarascon in Languedoc (Depart-
ment of Ariege), examined by M. A. Pontan, the floor was found to consist of
a blackish earth, with large rounded pebbles, among which were mixed, in great
disorder, bones and Horns of a Chamois, Cervus pseudovir^manus, (7. megaeerMi
and Bo8f together with implements of stone and bone, to which MM. Isidore
Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire and E. Lartet have referred to in the ' Comptes Bendas'
ofMaylO, 1858.

M. E. Lartet in his letter, has furnished drawings and descriptions of some
barbed arrow-heads of bone, some having indented grooves, probably for the
appliance of poison ; also needles, and a flute-bevelled tool of bone, a splinter
or knife of hard flint, and the horn of an Antelope hacked at the base, probably
when the animal was flayed.

3. " On the occurrence of Crag Shells beneath the Boulder-clay in Aberdeen-
shire."^ By T. E. Jamieson, Esq. Communicated by Sir B>. I. Murchisoo,
V.P.G.S.

In a former paper (Q. J. G. S. vol. xiv., p|). 522>525) the author referred to
the existence of gravdly beds containing marine shells underlying the boulder-
olay between Couden and Slains, on the coast of Aberdeenshire, over an area
of about six miles by three and a half ; these shelly sands and gravels he has
since more carefully examined, and he refers them to the age of either the Eed
or the Mammaliferous Crag of Enghmd. Cyprina rustica, C, Islandiea,
Astarte, spp., Fenus, spp., Artemis lincta, Cardium spp., Pecten cpercularisyy^.
Audouini, JP. maximus? , P. princepsFy Pectunculus glgcimeris, TeUina
solidula, Mya truncata? , Fmsus antiquus and its variety contrarius, Mangelia,
Purpura lapillus, var. crispata, occur in worn fragments. Cyprina hlandica
is the most abundant.

Chalk-flints are common among the materials of the beds in question; also
fragments of fossiliferous Hmestone and of red and grey sandstones, of undeter-
mined ^e.

4. " On some small fossil Vertebrae near Erome, Somersetshire." By Prof.
Owen, E.R.S., E.G.S.

In this communication Prof. Owen described three minute Vertebwe dis-
covered by Charles Moore, Esq., E.G.S., in an agglomeratiC occupying a fissure
of the Carboniferous Limestone, near Erome in Somersetshire, in company with
teeth of a smaU. Mammal allied to the Microlestes of Plieninger. The vertebrse
are stated to correspond in size with the ittX\ioi Microlestes ^hxii to haveEeptiliaii
characters, especiailv in their biconcave structure, — a character common in
Mesozoic Saurians, but rare in the existing genera. There appears to be but
very slight grounds for supposing that such a character may have ever belonged
to any Mammals, although some of the existing Monotremata have peculiar
vertebral modifications somewhat resembling, in these respects, the structural
features of Reptiles. In their large and ancnylosed neural arch, however, these
little vertebrse present a mammalian character.

Kemains also of small Saurians and Eishes occur in considerable numbers
vdth the vertebrae in question, as well as the more rare mammalian teeth.

PROCEEDINGS OF GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. '455

November 7, 1860.

1. "On the Denudation of Soft Strata." By the Rev. 0 Tisher, M.A.,

r.G.s.

The author first described the general features of the north-eastern portion
of Essex, with the table-lands of gravel, clay valleys, and tidsd rivers. The
present configuration of the district cannot be due, in the author's opinion, to
the action of such causes as we see now in operation on the coast, combined
with a slow elevation of the land. As a rule, the sea wares cannot excavate
long narrow islets in horizontal and homogeneous beds, such as the gravel and
clay of the district under notice, but give rise to long, approximate^ straight
lines of cliflF. The rounded sides of tne Essex valleys seem to show they were
not formed by wave-action ; nor are there any evidence of shingle-beds at the
foot of the hills. Mr. Eisber believes that the surface of this district, and that
of many other districts composed of yielding strata, must have been formed by
a superincumbent mass of water drained off from a flat or slightly dome-shaped
area. Slight depressions, cracks, or lines of readily yielding njaterials would
determine the drainage-streams as the water retreatea ; and these channels would
be more or less scoured out according to the velocity of the water. Where the
gravel covering of such a district was cut through, the clay beneath would be
channelled with a narrower valley ; and where the gravel was wholly removed,
the valleys would be wider and the intermediate high ground rounded instead
of being flat topped, just as is represented in those parts of the district where
the clay composes the surface.* Similar appearances may be seen on a small
scale in the mud of a tidal river. Tidal action, however, is not, according to
the author, calculated to excavate narrow valleys in horizontal beds.

Mr. Eisher suggests that the land must have been elevated by a sudden
movement sufficient to have caused a rush of water from the raised portions to
seek a lower level, — either the land being raised high and dry at once, or the
sea-bottom raised to a higher level, though still remaining beneath water. Such
an elevation might be repeated again and again, with intervals of submergence;
and such conditions appear to have obtained in Norfolk as well as in Essex.

The author states that, in his opinion, escarpments, such as are so common
among the secondary and tertiary beds, are rarely old cliffs, and their often
rounded forms must be due to agencies similar to those which have produced
the vfidleys of Essex. In some deep gorges of the Chalk near Dorchester the
author has seen flints and great block^ of Tertiary puddingstone so arranged as
to leave little doubt of their havmg been left by violent currents of water The
position of the Marlborough " Weathers" is alsQ attributed by the author to
torrential action.

Brick-earth is in part referred by Mr. Eisher to the deposition of sediment
from turbid waters ; but also in great part to the unlading of icebergs.

With regard to the manner in which the uprising of the land, which brought
about these aqueous cataclysms, has been effected— whether by one slow and
continued movement, or by one or more sudden movements, or by a mixed
succession of these, the author argued that a slow and gradual elevation is not
in accordance with the contour of the existing surface of our softer strata ; that
the elevation of the land previous to the period of the great-mammalian fauna,
when its present contour was mainly given, was not gradual ; and that, after
subsequent depressions, there have been sudden depressions since that period.

Lastly, it was pointed out that sudden vertical movements of the surface on
a grand scale are of as probable occurrence as those lesser movements with
which we are historically acquainted, because, both in the case of strata pre-

• Compare with Mr. Frere^s remarks in the " Archeeologia :" 1797. Ed, Gboi*.

456 THE GEOLOGIST.

Tiousif unbroken and in that of strata once faulted but at rest, the pressure
requisite to rupture or to fold them will accumulate enormousljr before they
yidd to it, when, after some slow and gradual moyements, they will be thrown
up or down with a sudden movement, with or without flexures, as the case may
be. Thus, by mechanical considerations, the author is led to believe that the
ordinary nature of movements of the earth's crust must be sudden.

2. " On an undescribed Fossil Fern from the Lower CJoal-measures of Nova
Scotia." By Dr. J. W. Dawson, F.G.S.

In a paper on the Lower Carboniferous rocks of British America, published
in the 15th volume of the Geological Society's Journal. Dr. Dawson noticed
some fragmentary plant-remains which he referred with some doubt, the one to
Schizopteris (Brongn.), and the other to Sphereda (L. and H.) With these
were fragments of a fern resembling Sphenopteris (Clyclopteris) adiantoides of
Lindley and Hutton. Since 1858 the author has received a large series of
better-preserved specimens from Mr. C. E. Hartt ; and from these he finds that
what ne doubtfully termed the frond of Schizopteris is a flattened stine,
and that the leaflets which he referred to Sphenopteris adiantoides really
belonged to the same plant. Mr. Hartt's specimens also show that what Dr.
Dawson thought to be Sphareda were attached to the subdivisions of these
stipes, and are the remains of fertile pinn», borne on the lower part of the stipe,
as in some modem ferns. This structure is something like what obtains in
the Cuban Aneimia adiantifolia, as pointed out to the author by Prof. Eaton,
of Yale College. No sporangia are seen in the fossil specimens.

Dr Dawson offers some remarks on the difficulties of arranging this fern
among the fossil Cyclopterides, Naggerathia, and Adiantites ; and, placing it
in the genus Cyclopteris, he suggests that it be recognized as a subgenus
(Aneimttes) with the specific name Acadica.

The regularly striated and gracefully branching stipes, terminated by CToups
of pinnules on slender petioles, must have given to tins fern a very degant
appearance. It attainea a great size. One stipe is twenty-two inches in dia-
meter, where it expands to unite with the stem ; and it attains a length of
twenty-ouQ inches oefore it branches. The frond must have been at least three
feet broad. The specimens are extremely numerous at Horton.

The author then notices that the long slender leaves so common in the Coal-
measures of Nova Scotia, and hitherto called Poacites, though sometimes like
the stipes of Aneimites, are probably leaves of Cordaites,

On some specimens of Afieimites Acadica maildngs like those made by insects
have been observed ; also a specimen of the Spirorhis carbonarius,

3. " On the Sections of Strata exposed in the excavations for the South
High-level Sewer at Dulwich ; with Notices of the Fossils found there and at
Peckham." By Charles Eickman, Esq. (Communicated by the Assistant-
Secretary.)

In the autumn of 1859, open cuttings were made at Peckham, in connexion
with the " Effra branch of the Great South High-level Sewer," for the " main
drainage" of the metropolis south of the Thames ; and in the following spring
a tunnel (330 yards in length) was being constructed under the Five-fields at
Dulwich. The beds exposed in both sections beloneed to the ** Woolwich and
Beading Series" of the London Tertiaries (Prestwici).

Four shafts were sunk to facilitate the driving of the tunnel ; and the foUowng
beds were exposed ; but as some of the beds are not persistent, but die out
even with the extent of the tunnel, the several shafts dinered as to the sections
obtained from them.

1. Soil, nine inches. 2. Loamy Clay (probably London Clay) ; twelve feet.
Not in shaft No. 1 (the most easterly), nor in No. 4 (the most westerly), owing

PROCEEDINGS OP GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. 457

to the convex surface of the ground. S. Light-coloured Clay ; six to nine
feet. 4. Reddish sand; five feet. Not in No. 4 shaft. 5. l)arkclay; one
foot, ten inches. 6. Blue clay ; two feet. Not in No. 4. 7. Dark clay ; one
foot. In No. 1 only. 8. Paludina-bed ; six to fifteen inches. Eossils : JPitAa-
rella Rickmani (Edwards), Paludina lenta, P. aspera {f). Bones and scales of
Fish. Leaves. 9. Cyrena-bed; one to two feet. Gyrena cunei/ormis, &c.,
10. Oyster-bed ; one to three feet. Ostrea tenera, 0. pulchra, 0. Bellovaeina,
O, el^hantopus, 0, edulina, Bysso-arca Calliaudi (?) Gyrena cunei/ormis, C,
deperdita, G. cordata, G. obovata, Melania inquinata, Melany^sis brevts, Modiola
elegans, Fusm (fj, Galyptreea trochiformis, Gorbula, 11. Loamy sand; eight
inches. In No. 4 only. 13. Blue clay ; fwo feet six inches. Leaves. 14.
Dark sand; eight to twenty-eight inches. 15. Blue clay: eighteen inches to
nine feet. Laminated ; ricn in Leaves, Lignite, Seed-vessels. Rissoa, Gyrena
Duliciehensis (Rickman), G. cordata, G. deperdita, G. cunei/ormis. Melania
inquinata, Melanopsis, Neritina, Pitharella Rickmani (Edwards), Unio, Teredines
in Lignite, Scutes of Crocodile, Eish-scales, Chelonian and Mammalian bones.
19. Clay ; fourteen feet and more. Reached only by the main shaft. No. 3,
which appears to have been sunk at the apex of a low anticlinal ; the beds
gently dipping away east and west.

All the fossils appear in their respective beds both at Feckham and Dulwich,

Glasgow Geological Society. — ^It is a great pleasure to us to acknowled^
the first printed paper of this society, a paper on the geology of the Campsie
district, by Mr. J ohn Younff, one of the Vice-Presidents ; and an excellent
paper it is. The locality is lucidly described ; sections und borings properly
recorded ; and a very careful list of the Carboniferous fossils appended. Mr.
Davidson in his admirable monograph of the Scottish Carboniferous Brachiopoda,
published in this journal, has acknowledged the great assistance and stores of
material he had received from the Glasgow geologists ; and thev are well-
deserving of praise for the persevering and proper manner in which they have
set to work at the geology of their own territory. During the past year they
have had lectures and papers on the hypothesis of " Creation by Law :" by their
President, J. P. Eraser, Esq., E.G.S. " On Volcanic Phenomena:" by Professor
H. D. Rogers. Four lectures for beginners : by Thomas Struthers, Esq., Vice-
President. " On British Mining :" by Mark Fryar, Esq., of the Scnool of
Mines, Glasgow. " On Certain Pomts of Contact between Geology and History :"
by James Bryce, Esq,, L.L.D., F.G.S. ** On the Succession of Extinct Organic
Forms :" by William Keddie, Esq., Free Church Collcffe. "On the Relative
Antiquity of Existing Species," and " On Osteology :" by John Scouler, Esq.,
M.D., L.L.D. " On the Structure, Affinities, and Geological Range of the
Eurypterites, or Gigantic Crustaceans of the Palseozoio Era. :" by David Page,
Esq., F.G.S. " On the Boulder Drift, Raised Beaches, and Parallel Roads,"
and " Some Account of the Latest Extinct Terrestrial Animals, and the Traces
of Primeval Man :" bv Professor H. D. Rogers. " On the Philosophy of Geo-
logy :" by David Page, Esq-, F.G.S. " On the Natural History of the Iuvot-
teorate Aiimals in connection with the Extinct Species :" by William Keddie,
Esq,, Free Church College.

Besides which, during the Summer Session, there have been Excursions under
the able direction of the members of the Council, every alternate Saturday.
The places thus visited were Dumbuck and Auchenreoch Glen ; Nitshill and
neignbourhood ; Campsie ; Strathblane and neighbourhood ; High Blantyre ;
Craigenglen. ; Corrie Burn ; Coatbridge and Airdrie.

The Lectures announced for the ensuing year are : — Four InitiatorvLectures
" Upon the Principles of Geology :" by Tnomas Struthers, Esq., Vice-President.
vol. III. 8 M

458 THE GEOLOGIST.

" 9n the Useful Minerals :" by Mark Fryar, Esq., F.G.S., Glasgow School of
Mines. " On the FormatioD of Amygdaloides :" by John Sconler, Esq., M.D.,
L.L.D., President. " On the Methods of Scientific Investigation, with special
application to Geology :" by Rev. H. W. Crosskey. " On the Permanence of
Species :" by John Scouler, Esq., M.D., L.L.D., President.

Besides these, the Council have determined on having an Exhibition of Exx;ks,
Metals, and Possils, during the present Session, and circulars requesting con-
tribution have been issued. The time is fixed for the 27-and 28th of December;
and the Exhibition will take place in the Merchants' HaU. The Carboniferoiis
fossils are expected to be very numerous and excellent, as several of the mem-
bers of the association have paid great attention in collecting and arranging
their cabinets of specimens.

This last is a very desirable proceeding, and cannot but be productive of
good results. The Society now numbers upwards of one hundred and seventy
members ; no small number for a conitnercial city, like Glasgow, where every
hour from business is regarded as so much pecuniary loss ; and, therefore,
we may well believe what we hear from every quarter, that the members are all
animated with the determination to work out their department of Scottish
Geology and Paleeontology.

We all know how much good work the Gotteswold, Malvern, Worcester, New-
castle, Cornwall, and other English Eield-Clubs have done ; but the comparison
of the first number of the Glasgow Transactions, not only shows itself to be worthy
of ranking in the first classof local productions, but augurs well for the future
advancement of Geological Science by the Glasgow men, and we shall regard
with great interest their future doings.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

Structure op the Scales op Lepidotus aot) Lepidosteus. — ^Few de-
partments of pal8Bontology are of greater interest than the microscopical
examinations of organic structures ; and the interest is increased where a com-
parison can be made between the organization of fossil specimens with that of
recent beings of the same or allied genera. The accompanying figures give an
example of such a comparison. It is well known that in the Wealden beds
there are remains of a fresh-water fish, called the Lepidotus : its scales are
amongst the most frequent fossils of this formation. It is also known that an
allied genus, the Lepidosteus, or Garpike, which is one of the few heterocercal
fishes (or those which have the verteorsB prolonged into the upper lobe of the
tail), is now living in the rivers of America. Tne figures give enlarged views
of very thin sections of scales from the two fishes, magnffied about two hun-
dred and fifty times, and etched direct on the copper by means of the camera
lucida fitted to the eyepiece of the microscope. (See pi. xii.)

The upper figure is from the recent Lepidosteus, or Garpike, of the Missis-
sippi. The lacunsB and the canaliculi ramifying from them are beautifully
shown, and are very characteristic ; but the chief interest of the plate arises
from the comparison of the structure of the upper, or recent specimen, with
that of the lower figure, which represents a section of a scale from the fossil
Lepidotus, found in the Wealden formation of Sussex. The organization seems
to be almost identical ; and if the plate were reversed, and the letters erased,
it would be difficult for an unpractised eye to say which was the recent and
which the fossil scale.

Recent Lepidosleus or Garpike
of the Mississippi.

Lepidohis Fittoni from the
Wealien of Sussex

NOTES AND QUERIES. 459

When we consider the immense lapse of ages which have intervened between
the time when the Wealden beds were formed, and the present age, it certainly
is an object of no common interest to find almost the identical organization
made use of when a similar being is called into existence, even after the lapse
of countless ages.

Does not this fact point rather to some universal law, according to which cer-
tain structures were associated with certain forms, predetermined by Him, to
whom time is as nothing, rather than to a law of incessant change or develop-
ment through successive ages ? — John Edw. Lee, F.G.S.

British BRACHiopoDA.^Extract of letter from T. Davidson, Esq.] —
*' I can assure you that I have never worked harder than during the pre-
sent year, and I shall have got through a considerable amount of, I hope,
food work. You will be glad to learn that I have been attacking the genus
'roductus, and have made out thirty species in the British Carboniierous
strata, rejecting many old ones, however, and introducing others new to England.
Among these I may name Prod, armineus, P. proboscideuSy P. sinuatMs, P.
Keyserlingiana, P. arctmretts, P. Wrightii, and one or two more. I have
spared no trouble in assembling all the best British material. I shall try to
complete my Carboniferous Monograph next year : it will contain fifty or more
plates ; and hope to be ready soon with another part for the Palseontological
Society. I have also workea out the Indian Carboniferous species, and have two
or three more papers in hand for the winter."

Exchanges and Purchases op Fossils and Books. — Sir, — I think many
of your subscribers will be, like myself, desirous of making exchanges of duph-
cate fossils, without knowing to what gentlemen to apply. I think it
would be well if you could invite geologists to send in their names and places
of abode, and particularly also the characteristic strata of their localities, that
we might enter into correspondence with one another, so as to make such ex-
changes as we desire for our private collections. Example. — Cretaceous Eorma-
tion. — Upper Chalk, Middle Chalk, Red Chalk.— Robt. Mortimer, Eimber,
Malton, Yorkshire.

We shall be happy to assist in these exchanges, as we have said on many
former occasions, it seems to us, however, that the best way would be to
open a page in our advertising sheet at a small fee, where we would print the
names of fossils offered, and those required in exchanf^e. Erom numerous
applications for the purchase of geological works, we think it would also be desir-
able to do the same with regard to books, quoting those offered for sale and
those which are wanted for purchasers. — ^Ed. Geol.

Meteorite of Agram. — Director Haidinger communicated last year to the
Imperial Academy of Vienna the original document, written in Latin, concern-
ing the fall of this iron mass, as observed by eye-witnesses and confirmed by
the official testimony from the ecclesiastical authorities of Agram. Another
contemporaneous document, illustrated by a drawing, gives an account of the
same pnenomenon, as observed at Szigethvar, fifteen Austrian miles east of
Agram, by some officers and clergymen. The apparent diameter of the fiery
globe, as observed at this place, was equal to that of the sun, which (if its
altitude, as calculated from this and other observations, amounted to about ten
Grerman miles) answers to a real diameter of more than three thousand feet.
This, if compared with the solid mass which fell to the ground (fifty-seven feet
in all), indicates an enormous development of ignited gaseous substances.

The luminous train of the bolide perished more or less distinctly from six to
ten p.m. The apparent point of its departure, as made probably "by the direc-
tion of its orbit, was the constellation of Perseus, from which next to Leo the
majority of igneous globes are apparently proceeding, as observed by MM.
Olmsted, Heiss, Tul, Schmidt, &c.

460 THE OEOLOQIST.

CuBious Fossil Plant pbom Coal-Mbasuees, South Wai.es.— Beae
Sib, — I have lately added to my collection of coal-plants a^very singnlar fossil,
for a description of which I have searched the works of Sternberg, Lindlej,
and Hutton in vain. I have therefore delineated it, in the hopes that some of
your readers learned in the flora of the Coal-Measures will name it for me. If
any body lias discovered a similar specimen I shall be glad to know, that we
may compare notes. The stem, as will be seen in the drawing, appears to be-
long to the Lyoopodiaces, and these big leaves (if they be leaves) evidently
belong to the stem, and are not lying by its side by chance, because on the in-
side they all merge into it, there oemg no marked line of junction; and,
besides, they follow the peculiar bend of the branch, both decreasing in size as
they approach the terminal point, which in fact is formed by a leaf. Yet there
appears to be no connecting branch to the leaves, unless we except the one
which appears to be torn on near the beginning ; but as the specimen is some-
what confused at this point, we cannot mstance this particular leaf as an ex-
ample of how the others are joined to the stem. In fact, at the attached
margin they appear to be sessile as regards the branch, having the opposite
margin free or unattached. As regards each other, they are apparently doselv
imbricated, each leaf somewhat reniform in shape, and marked distinctly with
a number of short parallel veins coming directly from the upper mar^m, hut
with a slight tendency to meet at the base. Whether they are contmued in
this manner behind each leaf, I cannot sav ; but, judging from the two or three
first detached leayes, which appear to nave a well marked lower as well as
upper margin, I should imagine not. The great puzzle to me is the likeness of
the stem to the LycopodiacesB ; but, if it is so, either the little leaves which
embrace the stem and fall o£P, leaving badly defined scars, are not leaves, or
else these other portions are not leaves. And, if they are not leaves, can it
be a species of innoiaescence ; because, according to Lindley, the LyoopodiacesB
are flowerless.

I shall be very grateful if you or any body else would solve the difficulty
for me. And while on the subject, I wish some one of our fossil-botanists
would begin a new edition of Lmdley and Hutton, the last being thirlr years
old. Since those plates, as well as those of Sternberg, were puDlished, there
have been many new species found, which sadly want naming, figuring, and
describing. I nave in my own cabinet several which, for want of better in-
formation, I have been obliged to name provisionally. — ^I am, dear Sir, yours
faithfully, G. P. Bevan. Beaufort, Mon.

Teetiaby Plants of Austria. — ^Prof. Unger has prepared the materials
for the description of some Tertiary plants, to be pubhshed under the title of
" Sylloge Plantarum Fossilium," as a continuation of his " Iconographia Plant-
arum Fossilium, published some years ago in the Transactions of the Vienna
Academy, and with special reference to the species enumerated in his " Genera
et Species Plantarum Fossilium." Besides otner collections, the immense stores
of the Imperial Geological Institute of Vienna have furnished valuable
materials. The first number of the "Sylloge" is illustrated with twenty
colour-printed plates, and describes plants of the families Characeae, Salviniacea,
Equisetacea, Musacea, Com/erne, Santalaceay Myssticea, Proteacea, OleacetB^
Fraxinea, Sa'potacece^ Ampelidede, Annonacea, Ma^mliaeea, Mdlpi^hiaceat
Sapindacege, Ju^landea, Anacardtea, and Burseriacea ; most of them with their
fructification, and generally with particular reference to the neuration of their
leaves, compared with those of analogous recent forms.

Pteraspis and Cocosteus. — We nave lately found the Pteraspis near New-

gort, and I have also secured two or three fine fossils from the Old Red. At
rst I thought they belonged to Pteraspis ; but I now suspect that they are
the dorsal plates of Coccosteus rather pressed together. They are rather buger.

NOTEB AND QUERIES.

Fouil Plant from CDal-UeosareB, Bouth Wales.

462 THE OEDLOOtST.

Both these are new in the red«ind of the neighbonrliood.— [Extract of letter
from J. E. Lee, Esq., Caerlton, Monmouthshire.]

Extract of a Llttek fhom a Ludlow Geologist. — Dbas Sm, — I amuse
myself over the fire thb evening bj writing (with a nuserable pen) the tesulta

of our dftj'a walk. M . and I went from here this moming to Pedwardine.

and had the good fortune to find plenty of the Dktyonema loeiale. The Lin-
gula beds are well shown in the bottom of the first cross lane from Brampton

a a, 'Uau&mery Bedi ; h. Loner Uandoyer; Beds.

Brian dipping at about this angle fifty degrees to the west ; and the Llan-
doTCiy beds cover them unconformably, with a gentle dip to the east. The
first Llandovery bed is thin — two or three inches only — and of a yellow earthy
character ; the neit is a fine conglomerate bed (coarse sand and fine gravel),
about five or sin inches ; then a thicker earthy yellowish bed. Above this the
rock is milled up with soil and penetrated by roots, and becomes obscured.
Nearly at the east extremity of the Lingnla fiaea there is a crush, twisting the
strata a little out of place ; and higher up the lane are seen the massive beds
of coarse Llandovery conglomerate, the same that are seen at the bottom of
Brampton Brian Park.

We could Gad no trace of anything eioept Dictyonema, unless it be a small
round shell, which I suppose may be a mmute Lingula: it is quite smooth.
Of this we found several. The Lingula beds are all thin papeij beds of fine
smooth silt.

We then crossed over, to try and find another place where M . had

found Hiclyoneina, in the road lading up under Wiginore KoUs to Adforton,
but could not meet with any. The only beds we could see were WenloA
Shale, and in general very barren, but in some places containing fragments of
trilobites, &c. My friend declares that he found the very same Dietyonma
here, and in these same Wenlock beds ; but as the genus is known in strata of
that age, in America, it is possibly another species. Ton will be glad to know
of its occurrence here in any form.

We have just got from the quarry here a fine specimen of Palteocriniu firox
showing the five arms ; the centre ts a rotten mass, yet 1 think it is ibe best
specimen, altogether, I have seen. Yon know that the Protatter Mittoiti, (as
well as F. vermi/ormia,) is found at Trippleton roadside quarry. We have also

NOTES AND QUERIES. 463

Churchhill quarry is ruined ; and, believe me, the men who find anything
there are well aeserviug of their pay on a liberal scale, for it is almost impossible
to find any starfish, unless by many hours of slavish labour, or by great good
luck in breaking up all the debris, lying about the quarry — ^almost as hopeless
as Falasopy^e himimg. We could find nothing yesterday, in four hours, but,
one indifferent encrinite, and a few fragments of starfish, which, however, we
preserve with care. My friend is so disgusted, that he says he shall not
trouble the quarry again. — R. Lightbody.

Mountain Limestone Fossils. — Sib, — Have the Mountain Limestone
fossils (mollusca) been described and figured P When P By whom P Hugh
Miller (I quote from memory, not havmg a copy of the Old Red Sandstone
by me at present) says old ]5avid Ure figured and described, after a manner,
every fossil he collected, belonging to the Coal Measures ; whether the Lime-
stone fossils were described I know not. Since I have been in this locality,
rather more than a year, I have collected about three hundred specimens of
Limestone fossil mollusca, including, I know not, how many genera. I want
now to know the names of them, so that I may arrange them according to the
directions you advised a brother student some time since. I like not to be-
come obtrusive, but I should like very much to enter into correspondence with
any fellow labourer in the geological field, where an exchange of thought and a
barter of fossils would serve both parties.

Allow me to express my thanks, though the utterance comes from the mouth
of a working man, for the new Ughi you have thrown on the geology of the
Bottom-rocks. After I had paid five shillings for the "First Traces of Life"
I assure you I demurred, " because it was so thin ;" I have been, however,
compensated by the " thickness" of the contents. No book that I have read
during the last year has made me think more than yours. There are some
chapters that I have read and re-read with additional pleasure every time I
opened the book afresh. — Yours faithfully, G. R.. Vine, Castlemaine-street,
Athlone, L-eland.

There is no published separate list of the fossils of the Mountain Limestone.
TJre figures several in his " History of Rutherglen ;" Phillips, several in the
" Geology of Yorkshire," 2nd vol. : a great many are figured by M'Coy, in a
work on the Carboniferous fossils of Ireland; as also many are by Prof. De
Koninck, in his " Animaux Possiles du Terrain Carbonif ere de la Belgique."
Others are to be met with iu different works on various localities.

Cbyolite in Manufactubes. — Sir, — Can you be good enough to give me
any account of the history of the introduction of Cryolite for use in the manu-
factures P It is just now most interesting in relation to aluminium. I think 1
have seen somewhere that it was used on the Continent first in the manufacture
of Soap. — J.C.S.

There was a paper on Cryolite in the Geological Society's Journal, about
four years since, by Mr. Taylor, communicated to that society by Professor
Tennant. There was also a paper read before the Society of Arts, on "Alumi-
nium," by Mr. Forster, the Secretary, about three years since. Some of our
readers may be able to give a more definite reply to this query.

Alabastee and Lignite in Tebtiaby Rocks of Tuscany. — Pure
alabaster appears to be peculiar to Western Tuscany. It occurs in
ovoidal masses, often three leet in diameter, in selenitic marls of Miocene age
in the Yal di Mannolajo. Coloured alabaster is also found in some of the
Pliocene beds of Tuscany. Gypsum is widely distributed wnere serpentine has
pierced limestones, as at Matarana and Jano.

At Jano the Palee'ozoic coal is represented by isolated plants converted into
anthracite ; it is the only locality on the Italian continent where Carboniferous

464 THE GEOLOGIST.

fossils liave been found ; but Miocene lignites are abondant in Italj. At
Sarzanello in Piedmont, six and a half feet of Miocene coal occurs. This is
used in the Sardinian steam-nayy. At Castiani, in the Maremme, good lignite,
three feet four inches thick, is worked; and at Monte £amboli, also in Tuscany,
one bed four feet two inches, and another two feet thick, have long been in use.
— [Abstract of pi^r by W. P. Jervis, Esq.].

REVIEWS.

On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection ; or the Preservation of
Favoured Species in the Struggle for Life. By Cha£L£S Darwin, M.A.
London: John Murray.' 1860.

We could scarcely let this year pass awaj[ without some notice of a book
which at least will make 1860 remarkable in the annals of natural history
science. Whatever opinion may be entertained of the speculations on the
origin of species sketched out by Mr. Darwin in his introductory work to the
fuller and more explicit one he announces for some future day, there is no
doubt that in its entirety his theory is one which for many years to come must
receive the earnest attention of the scientific world ; for whether the law of
the necessity of organic variation and development as dependant on external
circumstances attendant on the general "struggle for hfe" be universal in
application or not, Mr. Darwin has at any rate opened out a new vein of re
flection and investigation which must be followed out until the new theory he
either disproved or proved from its first causes to its final results.

Nor must we be prevented from the true examination of its value and merit
by any previous prejudices, nor deterred by the objections and abuse of those
who are ever reaay to attack new opinions on the old and ridiculous grounds
of a real or pretended dread of an antagonism to Holy Scripture, as if the
Word was not based on the sure foundations of truth. " I must express my
detestation of the theory," says one opponent, " because of its uiminching
materialism ; because it denotes the demoralized understandings of its advo-
cates. Look, too, at their credulity. Why Darwin actually believes that a
white bear, by being confined to the slops of the Polar Sea might be turned
into a whale ; that a lemur might be turned into a bat ; that a three-toed tapir
might be the great-grandfather of a horse ; or the progeny of an ass may have
gone back to a buffalo." Such, however, are mere verbosities, baseless asser-
tions, unwarranted attributions of irreligion and gross ironical misrepresenta-
tions of an author's writings, too transparent not to be seen throuA by the
well-versed student of Nature. There is, however, a speciousness of appear-
ance in the positiveness of diction of this style of attack which misleads the
unreflecting as the flame aUures unwary moths, and which often caujses such
inflated pomposities to be mistaken for acknowledged facts. Time waa, and
not so long since, either, when fossils were enigmas even to the learned ; when
thoughtful and sapient men discussed with heat of temper and with angry
tones whether such organic remains of past creations embeaded in the soil were

REVIEWS. 464

really shells, and bones, and plants, or whether they were plastic forms ^
modelled in the dark recesses of the ground. Even now a-days some literary
adventurers and -crack-brained sages — and we are sorry to say, some men, too,
of better note but mistaken views — now and then attempt to palm off this
long ago exploded whim under a specious guise upon an intelligent world.
The daiiger from such productions is small, and few indeed of those worth caring
for would think a fossil bone or shell aught else than the treasured fragment
of some ancient living being.

More dangerous, however, are the wilful pervertors who argue with a
specious show of knowledge ; and such detractors Darwin's theory, like every
other, is sure to bring forward against itself. " Species have been constant,"
says one, "ever since they first existed; change the conditions, and the old
species would disappear. New species would come in and flourish. But how ?
by what causation r By creation. What is meant by creation P The opera-
tion of a power quite beyond the power of a pigeon-fancier, a cross-breeder, or
a hybridizer, in which one can believe by the legitimate conclusion of sound
reason drawn from the laws and harmonies of nature, and, believing, can have
no difficulty in the repetition of new species."

Dickens, in one of his novels, verjr shrewdly remarks that the advice given to
street-boys about to fight "to go in and wm" is very excellent if they only
knew how to foUow it ; and when one naturally asks how new species which
geology shows us appearing from time to time^.*^ began, the answer, by crea-
tion is as easy to give and about as useless as the advice offered to the street-
boys. It is, after all, a mere assertion, an evasion of the question, a cloak for
ignorance. We see different races from time to time leaving their relics en-
tombed in the solid rocks of the earth, we see the remains, however, only of
the perished race ; we have no proof, no trace, no evidence whatever in those
great entombments of the origin or first appearance of the progenitors of those
races. Those races might have sprung from single pairs, or the primitive indi-
viduals might have been created in hundreds, few, we think, would incline to
the opinion of the direct creation of hundreds of the like animals or plants at
one time ; but if, on the other hand, we incline to the direct creation of a single
pair, we must admit that that pair must have been created ages before its race
could be useful or necessary on the face of the earth ; must have been created

provide for the necessary propaga

cient numbers at the period when they should usefully abound. We should
incline to think that a theory which proposed to view the development of the
required races or species as concurrent with the physical changes rendering
necessary their presence, — and as consequently necessarily developed by natural
laws, like we see everywhere else around us so vdsely and immutably pre-
ordained, apparently from the beginning of all things, by the Almighty Designer,
— would be preferable to the idea of direct creations, and affording a more
reasonable reply than the mere assertions of the miraculous agency with which
our query is so commonly met.

But "the assumption of the direct creation of species is an hypothesis," says
another, "which does not suspend or interrupt any establishea law of nature.
It does not suppose the introduction of new phenomena unaccounted for by
the operation of any known law ; and it appears to be a power above established
laws, and yet acting in conformity with tnem." It may be due to the astute-
ness of our intellect, but we cannot see how a power can be above and not be
necessarily antaaonistic to established laws, ana consequently how it can be
possible for sucn a power to be in conformity with such estabfished laws.

"The pretended physic and philosophy of modem days," says a third,

Yoii. III. y N

466 THB GSOLOQIST.

** strips man of all his moral attribates, and holds as of no aoconnt his origin and
place in the created world. A cold atheistical materialism pervades the senti-
ments of modem philosophy. The new doctrine is untrue and mischievous.
It is opposed to the obvious course of nature, and the very opposite of induc-
tive truth."

Why should it be considered atheistical to believe the laws of the Great
Perfection to be perfect. The inscrutable Eternal cannot err ; why then should
His laws be so defective and imperfect as to require repeated efforts of creative
energy ? Is this world like an old watch so much out of order as to require
contmual oilings and repeated repairs ? Why, too, should it be objectionable
to consider the laws He has given to nature as worthily and incessantly sub-
servient to His willP Or why should it be thought irreligious to' believe the
Maker of all things in His Jirst designs should have foreseen the necessity of
fature modifications to future altered conditions, and have provided accordingly
in His^r*^ type-plans for their future illimitable adaptations to the ever-chang-
ing scenes presented in the progress of our earth s ever-altering conditions?
Why, indeed, may we not Iook around us and believe in the universal bowing
of all nature hourly, daily, unceasingly to the unerring laws and sustaining power
of God? Why should we not see m every change Jdis presence and His will?
Why should the high position of man be brought in on all occasions in our
natural history researches when we do not at present know of any link wludi
binds him to the brute creation?

If these remarks on our part seem strong, let it however be known that we ace
not professedly defending Mr. Darwin's doctrines, but attempting to pourtray as
forcibly as we can the unjustness and uncharitableness of such attacks upon a
new and well-studied theory. Let a new doctrine be always well and impar-
tially examined, and justly accepted or rejected according to our honest opimons
of its merits or failings. Mr. Darwin's theory briefly resolves itseOf into this.

First. — There is a natural strugale for existence. — " Look," he says, " at a
plant in the midst of its range ; why ooes it not double or Quadruple its num-
bers ? We know that it can perfectly well withstand a little more heat or
cold, dampness or dryness, for else it ranges into slightly hotter or colder,
damper or drier districts. In this case we can dearly see that if we wished in
imagination to give the plant the power of increasing its number, we should
give it some advantage over its competitors, or over tlie animals which preyed
on it. On the confines of its geographical range, a change of constitution
with respect to climate would clearly be an advantage to the plant : but we
have reason to believe that only a few plants or animala ranee so far that they
are destroyed by the rigour of the climate alone. Not untu we reach the ex-
treme confines of life in the Arctic regions or on the borders of an utter desert
win competition cease. The land may be extremely cold or dry, yet there will
he competition between some species, or between the individuals of the same
species, for the warmest or dampest spots. Hence, also, we can see that when
a plant or animal is placed in a new country, among new competitors, diough
the climate may he exactly the same as in its former home, yet the conditions
of its life will gradually be changed in an essential manner. If we wished to
increase its average numbers in its new home, we should have to modify it in a
difierent way to wnat we should have done in its native oountij ; for we should
have to give it some advantage over a different set of competitors or enemies.
It is good thus to try in our imagination to give any form some advantage over
another. Probably m no single instance should we know what to do so as to
succeed. It will convince us of our ignorance on the mutual relations of all
organic beings ; a conviction as necessary as it seems difficult to acquire. All
that we can do is to keep steadily in mind that each organic being is striving to
increase at a geometrical ratio ; that at some period of. its life, during some

RBYIEWS. . 467

season of the year, during each ^neration or at intervals it has to straggle for
life, and to suffer great destruction. When we reflect on this struggle we may
console ourselves with the full belief, that the war of nature is not incessant —
that no fear is felt — ^that death is generally prompt, — and that the vigorous, the
healthy and the happy, survive ana multiply.

Secondly, — There is in nature ^ principle of natural selection. — "How will the
straggle for existence," says Mr. Darwin, '' discussed too briefly in the last
chapter, act with regard to variation P Can the ptrinciples of selection, which
we nave seen so potent in the hands of man, applv in nature P I think that we
shall see that it can most effectually. Let it b^ borne in mind in what endless
number of strange peculiarities our domestic productions, and in a lesser degree,
those under nature vary ; and how strong the hereditary tendency is. Under
domestication, it may be truly said that the whole organization becomes in some
degree plastic. Let it be borne in mind how inflnitely complex and dose-
fittii^ are the mutual relations of all organic beings to each omer and to their
physical conditions of life. Can it, then, be thought improbable, seeing that
variations useful to man have undoubtedly occurred that other variations useful
in some way to each being in the great and complex battle of life should some-
times occur in the course of thousands of generations P If such do occur, can
we doubt (remembering that many more individuals are bom than can possibly
survive), that individuals having advantages however slight, over others, would
have the best chance of surviving and of procreating their kindP On the
other hand we .may feel sure that any variation in the least degree injurious
would be rigidly destroyed. This preservation of favourable variations and
the rejection of injurious variations I call natural selection. Variations neither
useful nor injurious would not be affected by natural selection and would be
left a fluctuating element, as perhaps we see in the species called polymorphic.
We shall best understand the probable course of natural selection by taking the
case of a country undergoing some physical change, for instance, of climate.
The proportional numbers ofits inhabitants would almost immediately undergo
a change, and some species might become extinct. We mav conclude from
what we have seen of the intimate and complex maimer in which the inhabitants
of each country are bowid together, that any change in the numerical proportions
of some of the inhabitants, independently of the change of climate itself, would
seriously affect the others. If tne country were open at its borders, new forms
would certainly immigrate, and this abo would seriously disturb the relations
of some of the former inhabitants. Let it be remembered how powerful the
influence of a single introduced tree or mammal has been shewn to be. But in
the case of an island, or of a country partly surrounded by barriers, into which
new and better adapted forms could not freely enter, we should then have places
in the economy of nature which would decidedly be better filled up, if some of
the original innabitants were in some manner modified; and had tne area been
open to immigration, these same places would have been seized on by intruders.
In such case, every slight modification, which, in the course of ages chanced to
arise, and which in any way favoured the individuals of any species, by better
adapting them to their altered conditions, would tend to be preserved, and
natural selection would thus have free scope for the work of improvement.
We have reason to believe, that a change in the conditions of life by specially
acting on the reproductive system, causes or increases variability ; and in the
foregoing case the conditions of life are supposed to have undergone a change
and this would manifestly be favourable to natural selection, by giving a better
chance of profitable variations occurring, and unless profitable variations do
occur, natural selection can do nothing. Not that, as I believe, any extreme
amount of variability is necessary ; as man can certainly produce great results
by adding up in any given direction mere individual differences — so could

468 THB OBOLO0IST.

nature, but far more easily, from having incomparably longer time at her dis-
posal. Nor do I believe that any mot physical change, as of dimate or of any
nnnsnal degree of isolation to cheolc immigration, is aetually necessoiy to pro-
duce new and nnoocupied places for natmal selection to fill up br modifying
and improving some of the varying inhabitants. For ba all the innabitants of
each country are straggling together with niceh^ bahmoed forces^ extiemdy
slight modifications in the structure and habits of one iidiabitaat would oftoi
give it an advantage over others ; and still further modifications of the same
kind would often still farther increase the advantage. No conntry can be
named in which all the natural inhabitants are now so perfectly adapted to each
other, and to the physical conditions under which they live tnst none of them
could any how be improved ; for in all countries the natives have been so hi
conquered by naturalized productions, that they have allowed fordgners to take
firm possession of the land. And as foreigners have thus everywhere beaten
some of the natives, we may safely conclude that the natives might have been
modified with some adyantage, so as to have better resisted s«ioh intruders.
As man can produce, and certainly has produced, a great result by his methodical
and unconscious means of selection, what may not nature effect P Man can
act only on external and visible characters; nature cares nothing for appearances,
except in so far as they are useful to any being. She can act on every internal
organ — on every shade of constitutional diiference — on the whole machinery oi
life. Man selects only for his own good ; Nature only for that of the b^ng
which she tends. Every selected character is folly exercised by her: and the
being placed under weU-suited conditions of life. Man keeps the natives (^
many climates in the same country ; he seldom exercises each selected character
in some peculiar and fitting manner ; he feeds a long- and short-backed pigeon
t>n the same food ; he does not exercise a long-backed, or a lon^-le^ed quad-
ruped in any peculiar manner; he exposes sheep with long- and short-wool to
the same climate. He does not allow the most vigorous males to struggle f(»r
the females. He does not destroy all inferior animals, but protects during eadi
varying season, as far as lies in his power all his productions. He often b^bs
his selection with some half -monstrous form ; or at least by some modification
prominent enough to catch his eye, or to be plain and useml to him. Uinler
nature the slightest difference of structure, or constitution, may well turn the
nicely-balanced scale in the straggle for life, and so be preserved. How fleetii^
are the wishes and efforts of man ! how short his time ! and, consequently,
how poor his products will be compared with those accumulated bynatore
during whole geological periods ! Can we wonder, then, that nature's produc-
tions should be far '' traer" in character than man's productions — ^thst they
should be infinitely better adapted to the most complex conditions of life, and
should plainly bear the stamp of far higher workmanship P It may be meta-
phoricaUy saia that natural selection is daily, hourly scratmizin^ throughout the
world every variation, even the slightest ; rejecting that whidh is bad, preserving
that which is good; silently and invisibly working whenever and wherever
opportunity offers, at the improvement of each organic being in relation to its
organic and inorganic conditions of life. We see nothing of these slow changes
in progress until the hand of time has marked the lapse of ages, and then so
imperfect is our view into long past geological ages, that we only see forms of
life are now different from what they formerly were. * * * Slow though
the process of selection may be, if feeble man can do much by his powers of
artificial selection, I can see no limit to the amount of change, to the beaufy
and infinite complexity of the co-adaptationS between all oi^auc beings, one
with another, and with their physical conditions of life, whkh may be effected
in the long course of time by nature's power of selection."
The eviaent modifications of primitive type-plans^ which indisputedly we see

SEVUBWS. 469

m past and present forms of life» are undoubtedly the strongest arguments in
favour of Darwin's theory of progressive development by nature selection.
But as gedogy alone must be the sole source of knowledge for testing or
learning the effects of great periods of time in the gradual transmutation of
species^ so wiU our efforts be resultant of efficient proof onlv in proportion to
the perfection or imperfection of the ^ological record. This record Darwin
justly says is defective. No doubt, it is ; no doubt there are great gaps in the
earth's past history of which no trace remains — ^and many, and far more nu-
merous gaps which scientific investigations have not yet filled u^. Still, ^e
may hope to find, and by patience and research no doubt we ultimately shall
mark out, the great points m the picture around which the detaUs may reliably be
filled in by correctly drawn inferences. If we tabulate the number of known
species of any particular class of animsJs or plants, we find the numbers in-
variably in the aggregate ranging bigher until we attain a maximum in the
present creation, notwithstandm^ theace are occasional deficiencies of individual
getiera between certain gedosical formations which shows that we have not yet
a perfect knowledge of all the forms living during tiiose eras in which such
deficiencies occur. Such results, however, are important in their bearing on the
doctrine of the natural development of species. Takine^ for example the totals
of known moUusca, we commence in the Silurian period with 317, and close in
the recent with 16,000. It follows, then, that if in the pre-Silurian age life
be^an on our planet with the same number of definite type-plans, such as the
glol}ular, the radiate, soft-bodied, the vertebrate, &c., which we see so prominently
d^ned in the existing races ; and taking the molluscs, for example, of that
pre-Silurian period at unity, or as the first commencement of their special or
direct creation; and reading such special or direct creations as the miraculous
interference of the Deity, then we have as a result an ever increasing ratio of
miraculous inteferences, and we must also regard creative energy as sixteen
thousand times more active in our time than in the pre-Silurian period. A
condition of things few of us would be inclined to admit. On the other hand,
this natural radiation of numbers — ^let us put it down by a diverging figure
(see woodcut, p. 470) each line of which is representative of hundreds — ^is so
representative of the natural radiation of life-forms by the splitting up of
species by natural variations into new species,-~one species first naturally
divided into two species, these two into four, these four mto eight, and so on,
as would naturally result by the operation of natural laws carrying on gradually
and incessantly the transmutation and subdivision of old into new species, — as to
incline the mind at first sight to faith in the past operations of such natural
laws in the production of the very numerous species now living around us.

The proportions of the level lines indicating the horizons of the various
periods which the tree of increase of species aoes not cover, represents, of
courae, also the successively available spaces for the geographical spread of the
species existant at those dates, for the earth's surface cannot exceed a defimte
limited area, the maximum of which may be considered to be represented by
the border Imes of the diagram.

The struggle for existence by the multiplied species seems thus to be con-
tinuously iacreased by a continuous and rapid decrease of available terrestrial
space by the ever increasing sub-division and restriction of the geographic^
area.

It should also be borne in mind that the diagram shows only the increase of
specific forms of one class of the animal kingdom— the mollusca. Taking these
as having increased from unity to sixteen thousand ; and taking the increase of
all the otner classes — ^the Radiata, Crustacea and Insects, the Vertebrates terres-
trial, aerial, or aquatic, &c., — ^as eaual only to this sum ui the aggregate of their
slmLflar specific increase, we have for the animal kingdom an assumed total of

THB GE0L00I8T.

thirty-two thousand. TEtL'ng the like sam u lepresentatiTe of a similat increase
of species in the Tegetable kingdom ; uid we ODtain then, as a final result, the
oonclusioB that the creative action as exetted in the direct creation of species,
commencing in the pre-Silurian period at unity, has been successively and con-
tiuaoiul; intensified erer sinoe, until now it has obtained an intensity sixty-fonr

,jj<^^

dEach line of tha Tree ot Numerical lacreasB of Specific Tarwi repnaeata 100 Bpeoiee.]

thousand times greater than when it commenced; or upwards of twenty-one
thousand times greater than ft was at that point in past tune— the Silorian era
— to which we can trace back the records of its action.

The radiata, the vci-tebrata, or any other class, eihibit the like resolts
with the mollusca, coufirming the impression of the protificness of exist-
ing species as due to the natural snWirision by natural tiansmutating

BEVIBWS. 471

Operations during postages of a fewer number of original forms. We cannot
follow Mr, Darwm through all his arguments in support of his theory, nor do
we always agree with his teachings, still so many important problems can be
feasibly solved by the application of his doctrine, as go far to convince one
that it has a really good foundationfor three great natural truths — ^the undoubted
influence of the struggle for Hfe; the necessitous interference of external
physical circumstances upon the varieties and conditions of life and vegetation
at all periods of the earth's history; and the existence, at least, of a principle of
natural selection. We should on some points be inclined to go further than
Mr. Darwin, especially in regard to the matter of time. Grantmg his position
that the changes produced by natural selection usually re(][uire great ages of
time, we are still disposed to consider that such changes might, under favour-
able or active circumstances be rapidly accomplished, and that in some cases
they might even be brought about m the range of two or three or even of a
single generation.

The greatest objection, it seems to us, which can be brought against the
theory is its reliance on natural causes and chance in effecting the changes.

We should be more inclined to refer the modifications which species of
of animals or plants have undergone to the direct will of God, for it seems
difl&cult to conceive how a being totally ignorant of its own structure or
conditions of living should so commence modifying its structure, form, or
habits, as to adapt not itself, but successively its progeny to new forms and
conditions of life. Tate ourselves — some few who have undergone severe anato-
mical studies excepted — and how much do we know of our bodies ? What do
we know of the organs in their interiors P. Do we know how often in a day our
heart beats, or our luofirs palpitate ? How many ounces of blood run in our
veins? If we are ill can we tell what organ is anected P or diseased internally
can we say where or why P Do we of ourselves, untaught even, know either
the existence or use of one of our unseen and not external organs P Even of
those which are visible what do we knowP can we tell why the will causes the hand
to wril^e, or the feet to walk P Or what is the means of communication between
our will and our limbs P Did our progenitors, however remote, conceive the
idea of nails to our fingers, ejrelids to our eyes, or lashes for our eyelids P Do
we conceive any improvement in our offspring ? Could we suggest «ny possible
improvement of our present structure P Could we add one beautiful bne to the
face P or one more emciently constructed limb P Could we suggest any more
convenient arrangement, or disposition of our parts P And if we^ standing at the
highest pinnacle of knowledge, cannot suggest a sportive variety, even, of
ourselves, how much less can we consider that mere brutes, or insensate plants,
should have any innate power of themselves to cause the slightest improvement
of their organization P If we could not suggest one improvement of our con-
dition, how mudi less can we bdieve that the alpine partridge effected his own
power of changing the colour of its feathers, or the insect assume the colour of
the leaf it feeds upon ; and still less can we conceive how the peach could
assume of itself its downy surface, or the plum its purple bloom, ouch results
if naturally produced can only emanate from divine laws. The beautiful perfec-
tion of our bodies — ^the wonderful adaptations in the forms of animals to render
them efficient for their purposes of life seem so skilfully planned, that it is im-

Sossible to regard them as effects of chance, and not as inapproachably perfect
esigns. K we could accept the transmutation doctrines, we must concede the
transmutatory laws as of pre-eminently divine origin and maintenance, purposely
conceived to be ever forcibly acting in direct antagonism to the necessity of
destruction and change, to which all nature seems subject. In this light we
might accept it, and trace back the natural divergence of life-forms to the first
vital force thrown off from the hand of the Creator, who threw off with an

472 THE afiOLCKHST.

eternal and ever enduring foroe the yast clouds of vapouis that have in the^
roll of ages collapsed into the myriads of worlds and suns that swarm in the
heavens ahove and around us— ^f which we can neither see the limits nor con-
ceiye the expanse — but which may yet be the smallest and least wonderful of
all the myriads of world-clusters with which the same great Creator has star^
dusted ma course through the realms of boundless and mterminable space.

Bej^noldi Oeologieal Atlas of Great Britain, London : James Reynolds,

174, Strand.

This is a series of thirty-three small quarto maps folded and bound into an
ordinary octavo book — a very conyenient and useful size. These maps are
yery neatly and cleanly executed ; and on them the principal roads and rail-
ways, both those constructed and those constructing, are laid down, and the
geoloncal features intelligibly and neatly coloured in, but not always quite so
carefully as to areas as ought to pass out to the world under the authority of
Professor Morris, whose assistance the editor acknowled^. The maps, how-
eyer, offering a really 0ood foundation for every essential detail, there is no
reason why, under the mrection of so able a jgeologist, all such errors should
not be instantly corrected before the issue is made to the public. For ex-
ample, in our copy the district from Hythe to Folkestone is coloured in as
Upper Greensana and Gault, instead of as Lower Greensand, as every geolo-
gist knows it is from the memorable paper of Dr. Fitton " On the Strata below
the Chalk," and which work is quoted as one of the authorities on which the
geological information of the present series is based. Again, the ton^e of
land outside the river Stour, in front of Sandwich, and between Deal ana Pe^-
well Bay is coloured down as Chalk, while every antiquary, and we thou^nt
everybody else, knew that tract was open water to the old B^oman port of Bich-
borough, and formed the mouth of the estuary which, passing between the Isle
of Thanet and the mainland, was up to medieval times, indeed, used as a pas-
sage by ships voyaging to London.

Thisi map was sent to us in time for review last month ; but Mr. Beynolds
having; foimd out some errors in his map of Scotland, requested us to withhold
our criticism until that map had been amended, which has now been done. As
far, however, as the executicm of the maps, and the size, style, and small cost
of the work are concerned, Mr. Beynolds has dcme well his duW as publisher;
and if he will pass his maps under the careful inspection of his niend Professor
Morris, we have no doubt that the atlas will be relieved of such slight
blemishes aa those which have caught our scrutinizing eye, and be justly en-
titled to a general favoritism with students and travellers, as weU as for use in
schools.

We sincerely wish success to all such efiPorts, but we are nevertheless bound
to look for defects in all new publications of this class, as in their general
accuracy consists their chief value ; we desire at the same time to give nonest
criticisms, both for the guidance of those of our readers who rely on our judg-
ment, and for the just encouragment of producers, an enoouragment we are the
more pleased to give when we see a desire manifested, as in the present case*
to attain correctness, by retaining the services of gentlemai wno, by their
knowledge and talent, are able to secure it.

END OF VOL. m.

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