George L. Mosse Collection 1878-2001

Als ich mich anschickte das Buch zu schreiben wollte ich

nicht noch ein Weltkriegsbuch schreiben, sonder mich

»»• .-»-<•-..». _ __.^.

beschäftigte ijan ganz konkrete f ragerfstellung: wie konnte es
sein das nach dem blutigfn Ejfrsten Weltkrieg - schliesslich
die erste Erfahrung mit dem massen - tod für millionen -die
Kriegsbegeisterung weiter leben konnte, oder, jedenfals.

keine

richtige

Ff-Y

anti- kriegsbewegung auf die dauer
\i< ^ entstad. Man kann die Frage auc4^ etwas andersV^modulioron;
der massentod hat unsrem Jahrhundert seinen Stempel

i/pÄ' . aufgedruckt, und hier ist die Verarbeitung des massentodes

Li ^

H^«^ .

im I. Weltkrieg entscheidend, denn hier wurden , wie ich

^*. . -■ '- f -*■

schon sagte, millioi^nen von Manner§/n zum erten mal mit
dieser art des Str|febens konfrontiert. Es war eine konrekte
Erfahrung im besonderen des Schutzengrabenkrieges wo die
Soldaten vom Tod umgeben waren, so nahe und dauerhaft wie
nie zuvor.

Diese Verarbeitung des Krieges war naturlich
verschieden bei deneM die diese Prufing duchgestanden
hatten. Aber mich interresierte nicht "^^ die private
Verarbeitung des Krieges, sondern wie die verarbeitunjig ein
politikum wurde, in Deutschland aber auch in anderen

nationin^, denn obgli^ch Deutschland im ff ittelpunkt der

Diskussion steht, so glaube ich d^ch das i-d^ vergleichende
Geschichte uns eine bessere PeFpepe^ktive geben kann. Hier
habe icn, z.b. im besonderen England und "Titalion
Die Verwandlung einer Vwirdrigen in eine glorreche

W

Vergangenheit

^ %..-.w-,i t-»-''

..fcw"

setzt die

Verwandlung

des

realen

Kriegserlebnisses in ein mythos vom Krieg voraus, ein mythos

welcher den Krieg verklart und ihm einenjihm einen höheren,

übergeordneten Zweck giebt. Hier wa|i naturlich die r^atlon

fc-... -...■-.,. . ^^.,

von Zentraler bedeutung: für sie hatte man gekämpft und war
für sie gestorben, und der mythos des Kriegserlebnisees war
zum gross^ten Teil ein nationaler mythos. So kann das Buch
a-uGh ■ alo — Bttch auch als ein Beitrag zur geschc^hte des

Nationalismus verstan);(den sein. Aber der mythos hatte^^^^T^

. i-jr. »>*

und J;<m3^ of f entll^iche Seite, un^d .„..^-„„^^
vgrsuGkt auch ihr gerecht «n werden. Hier beschäftigt ifs der

«

versuch den Krieg zu ti^^iVialidieren, difch Kitch,
Schlachtfeld tourismus mit comTor€i15TeiTr'Hotels, Nippes und
Eri;inerungss^tucketf, Die Illustrierte Postkarte spielte hier

eine wichtige rolle ( beschreibe

11

Ostern". (p.l63) .

Fröhliche
tiatüillL^h — c*er

i^ilU4:l^!:f___^^ \ ^

^TTtrfr^in

Postkarten (" Die beiden Schicksale". p.203). , ^ ^^_

Es muss herausgestellt werden das wie immer sich de7~mythös
artikulierte er ein grundliegendes bedurfnis der menschen in

;~v.

•■'''^"'-"0^^»«-?"<"'*>»-r •-^.--.-•-j«.-. ■-

der modernen Gesellschaft ansprach, so das Bedurfnis nach

Kameradschaft, sich für etwas zu begeistern, seine

*-».^ - — „ ^ _ , ..

mannlichkeit unter bewahrung zu stellen.

Der Mythos selber wurde in vieler hinsieht von

- den Freiwilliiwigen^ geschaffen die 2um ersten mal in den

• ^ J: Napoleoni

^fi^ zuerst die hauptsachtlichen Trager und Verbreiter d

ichen Kriegen zu den Flaggen^ilten . Sie waren

'•-: ■ • . j:_..j»

das Buch auch nci^t mit dem Ersten
Weltkrieg s^ondern mit den Deutschen Befreitungskriegem ,
mit Theodor Korner und Ernst Moritz Arndt, aber auch mit dem

Kult der Märtyrer

und ekre Totenkult

der Franzosichen

VtA

Revolution, Wegbereiter für die spateren ausserungen des
Mythos. So4 wie das Buch als ijen Beitragii zun Geschichte des
Nationalismus verstanden sein will, so will es eine
Geschichte der Kriegsfreiwilligen zeichnen und hier geht es

•>•«^'T«»I^•rt»i^.,

■*^-j.-.wSj<<l

Über den Ersten Weltkrieg hinaus zu den Freiwilligen im
Spanischen Burgerkrieg mtJL denMiropeaischen Freiwilligen in

.. ,-,i,--^-rrA*t-'''-*

vv«^ U-^.."»--*»

der SS im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die^ nichT der Vollständigkeit
halber - dieV^Geschichte der Freiwilligen muss noch

geschrieben werden, -

sodern

als

die Trager des

«»ürfor-v^'if »■»*»*

Kriegsmythoses, der Verwandlung der eigentlichen Erfahrung

"■•TjwsiMi ■»urjiiii? j»tt«w<^

'■••.■\.'l»k;~J«»'Jil

des Todes in ein Erlebnis das der hohfpunkt des Lebens"

%',;'■' « v».^»->. .».,f.ji«

sollte.

f)i?Ä

Das Bedürfnis nach ei»«r integration in eine
^^wirklii^h^ Gemi^n^chaft spielt hier ein Rolle,

eine

Gemeinschaft die höheren Zwecken dient und doch personliche

tnlur«*raU

*«%*i.i,

Beziehungen fordert, die in einer schnell- veränderlichen

Welt, unveränderlich ist, die, wie man sagen kann, ein Stuck
ewigkeit in oe-r menschliche Üben hinabzieht. Die Nation

konnte die5z^ funktionen übernehmen und durch politische

Rituale ausjlclucken, so wie ich sie in meinem Buch, Die
Nationalisierung der Massen v beschrieben habe. Die Gefallenen
waren das Zentrum des nationalen kults, hier trafen fast

■■-- .'-r--" " ,

■"■- < r*.

alle anderen Seiten des Mythos zusammen: die beschworung der

Kameradschaft, die begeisterung für etwas hohc/ere<$ - das

«ij.- ■— ■ ■>«n ■'■*

herausgerissen sein aus der langweile des Taglichen Lebens,

die Aneignung nicht nur der nation sondern auch der Natura
(i.b. auf Kriegerfriedhofen)^i><f'^ ^'"^^^ ^^^ /-?->PX [^^^j^ ^P^^^^'

Genau wie die konstrucf -i nn Hoe «Tr4.v>^«

**"■ ^ ^-^ — Ji^^ion des mythos aussah/ welche

^°''"' SS. ^'J.1?»»*"'>'^3^ analysiert das Buch dg^ich die

<5e.f£]Üi£hte der_militarfr^dhofe, d^er Kr^^denkmaler; IqerV-"

Symbole, so wichtig im visuel orientiertem Zeitalter der
moderne. Immer ist die^ Verarbeitung, oder vielliecht besser,
die versdihleierung des wirklichen Krieges d*a« yhem: so,
2,b. bei den Kriegerfriedhofen wo die entwicklumng stark

druch

die

Waldfriedhofe ge&eigt wi-rd, oder die
demokr/atiäferung von Kriegerdenk^lern duch die Inschriften
einzelner Soldaten a«»J^^«t-i^trd^-B«,^_&fat^_,j^^^l,g^,^^
S^f^ä^tTen als die Zentrale Wahlfartstelle der Nationenwird
auch einige Auyfmerksamkeir gewidemt.

Ich konnte noch viel langer über die _ diversen Aspekte des
Mythos und wie so konkretisier wurden sprechen, aber ich m
«ochte nuft noch einen ziemlich starken sub-text erwähnen den
man eigentlifch wenn es um Krieg geht erwarten^ kann, aber
aj£ f^st ein Tabu nie '^^^^ochen wird: den dir
mannlichkeit. Seit den Befreiungskriegen stotfsen wir auf das
wort " niannlich" we^n vom Krieg die Rede ist. Moritz i^dt
schrieb e« koyfmeS^ blutinge Mannerstreif nach der Sch^la^t
von Leipzig, und die Freiwilligen und Dichter die nach Ihm
den Kreig in ein Mythos erhoben ^betonten die mannlichkeit, -^^
eigentlich etwas was selbstverständlich sein sollte. So ist
mannlichkeit hier/ Kods__Wprtrf^rmK^ Haltung, eine
persona", das •• soldatische" das immer mitschwingt. Der
'^'^iüfJ ""^ff.JT Inbegriff der mannlichkeit, nicht im
^ ^ " L^^f JLJiäj^^'-goi^de^n als ein symbol der Schönheit, der
st^arke, der harte, der sebst -kontrolle. Alle so-genannten

II

männliche*» Eigenschaften die schon seit dem 18 Jahrhundert

hi

dabei waren, wurden duch den Ersten Weltkrieg gestßäkt.

M:s HitlerVT^n Mein Kampf söh*4Äb das IJungens in die
Schlacht von Langemrack marschierten und als Manner

herauskamen. Dort habe are " Mann gegen Mann" gekämpft. ( ^^J
Das schloss eine gewisses ideal der ritterlichkeit nicht
auS/ besonders unter den Kampffliegern, die " Ritter" am
Himmel auf die v^ieleif vom Mythos projeziert wurde, vor

\ allem das ideal der Freiheit von? taglichen Leben, des

eg unte^egenagen war. Die

Abentuers dass im

eft Kri

h»^-*-^.-^*

Stellen über das Fliegen im Buch haben uberigends lefäteV^
jähr eine AusteJ^lung im Air and Space Museum in Washington

a«.i'i • iTTi I >.

riirmoir "rriWrt.i riimTiii^i'ni^i,in^,_

angeregt, "Legend, Memory and the Great War in the air". die
meiner Meinung nach sehr gelungen war.

Der Mythos von Kriege, das Mannliche, war ein wichtiger
Faktor in de^r brutalisation der Politik nach dem Krieg in
Deutschland. Ich habe dem ein Kapitel gewidmet. Hier wurde
das Mythos de^ Kriegserlebnisi weithin von der politischen

V

Rechten co-optiert als teil Ihr^ Nationalismus. Der Erste

Weltkrieg hatte >w^ ge-endet und nun musste der InnreV wrd

ci ,

a««er« Fei^ brutal bekämpft werden. Der Rational

^1 ' '

Sozialismus ging hier am weiteste^ er baute auf die

Frontkameradschaft auf, für Heinrich Himmler, z.b. war

Deutschland seit alten Zeiten ein " Mannerstaat". Hier leigt

auch die bedeutung des immer wiederkehrenden Wortes "

harte". Es fasst die mannlichen Tugenden der selbst

-kontrolle und der Kraft zusammen. Zu dem was hier möglich

war erinnern wir un an Himmler 's Rede zum Personal in

MMin^M»*

5a

Dies schloss alle mannlichen qualitaten mit ein, die
stereotype_mannl icher Kraft and Schönheit. Hitler sprach von
dem festfiü_3-ritt der Jungens die zu Mannern gewo'^rden waren,
der Korper__war hier auch symbol des angemessenen Geistes

(>

Auschwitz:\ wir wissen was es bedeutet von tausenden von
Leichen umringt zu sein, und t4och dabei hart zu
bleiben. /Genau so erinnerte ein führender Artzt in Auschwitz

,•-- *.■ «i J^«*— ar?-. -.

einen jüngeren un^ zögernden Kollegen daran das man im Krieg
auch buchstaBICH DURCH Leichen gewatet sei/.

Sicher zieht sich ein Faden von dem Mythos des

den

Krieges

zum

grossen

Massenmord

in

Vernichtungslagern. Hier wie da sind gangige moralische
Werte mit der Vernichtung menschlichen Lebens^ verquikt . Es

war ein schöner Tod vor dem Feind zu fallen, aber es war
auch schliesslich glorreich zu kämpfen und zu toten. Aber

Xf.y.J»»'«'!.,

^fMa»ir,V<m"4!t^^imir--'~- -

r;

hier ist nasturlich ein qualitativer Unterschied Mt dem
Toten von wehrlosen Menschen, obgleich der Mythos des Kriges
oft hari^fbeschworen wurde um das unannehmbare schmackhaft
zu machen: hier auch dachten die Manner die diese Tat

Vi.

vollbrachten das sie " anstand ing" s^i^nen und die
moral-gesetze verteidigten. Es ist df«rr Wert dies zu erwahene

-njqht im Buch voirkomm^- uip eine KontJ.nuitat
aufzuzeigen, die kons equen^^.aiujhj'em ausserstern Punkt.

Das Nazi regime versuchte durch den Mythos vom

letzten Krieg den nächsten Krieg vor' zu- bereiten, und es
sind die Nazis, sowie der Faschismus im allgemeinen, der
ohne ein Verständnis diese> Mythos, dieser Verschleierung,

nicht

in allen seine Dimensionen verstanden werden

)/

kann. Faschismus

ist

schliesslich
«4i

sn weraen 'ArA/i)
ein überhöhterer

- -"JWVO^'O».»^

nationalismus undf: so wie cfoch Buch seinen Bebtrag zur

Geschte des Nationalismus im ganzen machen will, so muss es
j auch als ein beitrag zur Geschichte des Faschismus gesehn

\M^<4

\

werden. ManVver suchen die Geschichte _jdes national ismus und
des Faschismus von _innen her zu fassen, wie sich die
na^tionalisten oder faschisten sej.ber verstanden und nich/
wie nur zu oft, besonders in Deutschland, nach eine* von
^a^Hiteeftlier^ aufgepirschten Theory odern einem boconders
Ekondmischen Determinismus der an d^er Wirklichkeit vorbei

V«:-.---^''»*

geht.Villeicht ist darum auch der Krj^eg.smythos w^ie ich Ihn
hier definiert habe, warum er Menschen ansprach, wie er Ihre
sieht der Nation be*- einf lusste,noch nicht wirklich

angesprochen worden. ( ^j^ ^ ß^^^/sn^-t/^

Ich habe versucht über die Epoche des Fascismus hinaus
ZU gehen um das schiksal des mythos weiter zu verfolgen, in
die Jahre nach dem 2. Weltkrieg hinein. Und doch schon 1939
had der Mythos weithin versagt, es gab in Deutschland ( von

*»—•>—•'•

Italien garnicht zu sprechen) keinen Kriegsenthusiasmus als
wirklich eintrat. 1939 sollte nicht wider 1914 sein. (

-'«*»**.»((**,.;' • *

Hiterls/fe fahrt zum Reichstag). Ich habe spekugdert warum das

so war wenn es auch nicht alle Teile der bevolkerung und
sich^f le-r Nazi elite b^rl^raf. Es scheint mir das dies etwas
mit dem hervordringen der wirklichen Kr iegser iinerungen im
ÄciNufete eines neuen massen - Sterbens zu tuen hat - die

-. . '■

nerung we4fi41 aus, und

eg das was dem als oft

nach einem

sinnlose

1

verschreienen sinn giebt. Aber eine neuer Einbruch in das
Leben kann leicht^~\^'''erTrmerungen wach rufen an eine

»».-jt

'/;

verg^angene Katastrophe die man verdrangt ha*«. Auch habe/v'
sich^ Vorbereitungen für den Krieg, wie^ Luf talarm>-^^ngste
ausgelost. Aber wie^/s um den Mythos nach dem 2. Weltkrieg

bestellt, einem so ganz anderem Krieg?

-^rt^- II

il>.lit«Hl|IMIP

8

Es war nicht leicht__jäamit zu Rande zu kommen, eine
Zeit die man selbst schon als mit Spieler erlebt
hat. Naturlich ist das auch for die 1930ger so gewesen wo
viele von uns in Sa^>ftian^'~e"ngagTert waren und hier unsere
einzige Chance sahen den fascisnyos zu bekämpfen. Aber nach
dem letzten/Krieg hatte man die Probleme doch in noch

tin

.-.«-■w'V'''^''^

grosserer haut -nahe erfahren, die konsequenzen die sich vor
dem Krieg kaum jemand vorstellen konnte, selbst engagierte
Gegner des Dritten Reivches wie wir es waren. So stosst das
letze Kapitel dieses Buches in diese Welt vor.

Wie konnte hier ein Mythos des Krieges wirksam sein wenn

der schrecken des Krieges den unterschied zwischen Front

und Etappe verwischt

kriegsteinehmer

realistischer und konnte auch garnicht verschleiern was alle

hatte, wenn alle Deutsche
waren? Sebst die ^ Kriegspropaganda war

V • —«*...,.»,„•*.»-*.•■-■*■'■

■.1^«^a^<^»»'*

tagrf4.ich sahen. Das alleine muss dem Mythos noch keinen

«I ■! fll

<.^I8»

Abbruch tuen, auch im Ersten gab es z.b. ungeschmikte
beschreibungen einer Schlacht zb. bei Ernst Junger aber

2Ti»Q-m»en mite einej/ hereosierung des Krieges^wift wir ihn -aus

^ ' ' ' ...--^^

dem — 1 . -We rtlrrtrHlg — jc^nngn^ All das^ konnte den Bruch mit der
Vergangenheit nach der Niederlage nicht verhindern. Es muss

r-

schon etwas wunderlich gewirkt haben als in mitten aller
Trümmern Hitler's Tod am 30. April 1945 als den eines fürs
Vaterland gefallenen Frontsoldaten dargestellt wurde, ganz
dem Kult der Gefallenen des 1. Weltkrieges angepasst.

?

Nach dem 2^eltkrieg gäbe es keine traditionellen
Kriegerdenkmaler mehr, sondern Mahnmahle wie die Kaiser
-Wilhelm Gedächtnis Kirche in Berlin. Nach dem 1. Weltkrieg
gab es vielleich 5 oder 6 " nie wieder Kreig Denkmaler" in
ganz Europa, jetzt gab es die traditionellen Denkmaler nur
'" ^°li!U"^^^^"'^ ( Expl._und auch hier hier unters hied
(Treptow) Brachte der 2. Weltkrieg denn das Ende eines Mythos

der xm Zeitlater der Franzoscishcne Revolution und der

allgemeinen Wehrpflicht begonnen hatte?

Man darf die Starke eines Mythos nlch unterschätzen,

le -enschllchen Be^arfnisse die er Ansprach, nach

'^^^^i^'^^'" "=^llf»»*«it' enthusias-us und Hingabe an ein

"•l°5!5£®«" Ziel sind nicht so schnell aus der Welt zu
schaffen. Die Probleme unserer Modernen Gesellschaft haben
sich nicht so plötzlich gewandelt. Das Buch versucht
kontinuietaten an zu sprechen. Die Freiwilligen die so eine
entscheidended Rolle in der Verbreitung des Mythos gespielt J
haben sind eigentlich verschwinden. Es giebt sie noch ^^[1^ '
Veteranen der SS/ Brigaden und als solche waren sie
besonders i. Frankreichs^ der 60ger Jahre
ruhrig. Schriftsteller wie Saint-Loup ' oder Mabire. Die

V

«w*»»»»-

■eroiren die dann erschienen ( und derJinfor.elle Klub
Librarie Hebert), sowie die^Zei^tschrift der Deutschen
ehe«aligen SS, Der Freiwillige waren sehr gute Quellen für
diesen Abschnitt des Buches. Wie i«ier «uss .an versuchen

^^^ ''a^*^ ''°"*^^" ^^L ^" ^9"if en - in diesem Falle wie
diese ehe.aligeS>4reiwmigen sich selber war nahmen,- bevor
-an sie soj.u sagen ,yon aussen analisiert.Die Freiwilligen

lo

\

n haben Ihre bedeutung verloren, aber die einzelnen Teile des
H Kriegsmythos leben weiter, wenn uch unter anderen

^«»»»•Mrt;».jijiK»i .w»

wenn

^°'^5^AP*'®°- "^e I^ee der KaBeradschft spielt, z.b. eine
wichtoge Rolle in den meisten Kriegsromanen seit 1945, aber
jetzt nicht mehr als agresalve -die Kameradschaft gegen den
Kf^^^'" sondern oft als recht f er tignng für den Kampf selbst

■»«iVW»«'***'^

in einer Jetzt als ungerecht bezeichneten Sache. ( Kirst,

Z.b.) Hier wird auch die Anständigkeit im Kriege gewahrt

hinein gerat, lasst Ihnen Ihr Charakter keine andere

wf-^f

moglichkeit als die der KameradschaftJ[ Peter Bamm, Die

Unsichtbare Flagge, 1952).

Auch heldentum ist present, doch jetzt erweist es sich nicht

mehr als aktiv sondern im duldgn, wie Jochen Pfeifer in

seinem Buch über den Deutschen Kriegsroman 1945 -1960 (

1952) darstellt. Es giebt hier keine - innere Lust am Kampf- { ^-^ V-^

mehr, und doch ist noch oft von den schon erwähnte

"'^'^'^^^^**®'* Tugended die Rede, und der Individualismus der

jetzt allgemein gepriesen wurde, wird oft etwas verschmitz

gegen die - masse- ausgespielt, die es jetzt tut, der

einselne ist im Krieg nebensach^ geworden ( Willi Heinrich,

Das geduldige Fli(esch, 1955) als ob das_ nich auch schon im

1. Weltkrieg weithingehend so gewesen wäre. Selbst wenn

nach des 2. Weltkrieg die Vergangenheit hier nicht wirklich
verarbeitet irird, sondern teils verdrangt, teils umschrieben

'Vit4*M::tf^rvv.^i>««,^^

*^'**;*/^^ spielt doch der Kriegsmythos so wie wir ihn kennen

*®^"V-?°^^® ■®*»'^ -ausser in einigen Werken der extrem
Rechten in Deutschland und der neo-Konservativen in

//

Frankreich, aber da auch nur bedingt.

Es scheint mir etwas anders um die Jugjepd und
P°P3ÜiI]^^l^^^ bestellt zu sein. Hier scheint es als ob sich
der anhaltende Zog zur Gewalttätigkeit im Kino, Fernsehen
und solcher literatur auch dieses mytl|oses bedient
hatte. Die Beispiele die ich im Buch vorranging analysiere:
die Landserhefte und Konsalick's Der Artzt von Stalinarad.f
1958) stehen nicht vereinzelt da. Die Landsherheft die ich
vor Jahren in der Münchner Bahnhofshalle entteckte lassen an
brutalitat nichts zu wünschen übrig, obgleich sie heut zu
Tage hinzu fugen das Krieg schlecht ist. Aber diese Heftchen
sind zur gleichen Zeit. Kriegy und Ah^n^»no^ r-^o^Kj ^v..„„ ^^^
werden sicher von vielen als Abenteur Geschichten
.^%\%T verstanden, dasselbe kann man von den meisten Kriegsbuchern

'^^V'^^J "^"^^ ^^^ beiden Weltkriegen sagen - die Weltbuhne bespracJ^^
i.'t'' rfv6^-' ^®"'^^<'"e's Im Westen nichts Neues unter dem Titel, ••
^ LPazif istischer Abenteur Roman". Man konnte auch Rock Musik

wie die •■ Guns and Roses" einmal nach dem Kriegsmythos
durchforschen, ich glaube hier wurde man auch noch eine wie
immer indirekte Verherrlichung des kämpf es finden.

Aber ich mochte nicht zu weit von meinem eigentlichen
Thema abkommen. Heute muss der Mythos, wenn er existiert,
sich selber^^Tirste^en ( wie in den Landserheften), sich so
zu sagen die spitze abbrechen. Aber schliesslich, so kann
man sagen, wa^s^ur einen Unterschiedjiat das schon gemachr,
es gab mehr Kriege nach 1945 wie je nach 1918. Der
nationalisrous,der Nährboden des Mythos ,ist noch immer in
^ Europe zu Hause, geschweige denn in der übrigen Welt. Und

a

doch schliesst das Buch auf einer., aptimisti sehen Weise mit
•^^^ Vie.tna"' Mauer in Washington als symbol für eine
neu-artige>w^iH?hrung ohne das der Krieg verherrlicht oder
nur angespochen wird. Und diese Mauer ist vielleicht das
einzige noch wirksame Kriegsdekmal im westen heute.

°^^^^^^" £^ ^M Vaterland soll kein einfaches Traktat
gegen den Krieg sein, sondern Fragen auf werfen und
Denkansatze geben über eines der wichtigsten Probleme die
uns heute noch heimsuchen: wie haben so viele Menschen den
''''i!.!.^?^^"^"^^'^*^'^' i" ihi: Leben als etwas naturliches
einbezogen, und wie hat man^ den massentod verarbeitet , eine
Frage die wiederum auf die schon erwähnte verinnerlichung
•^^Hf'^^®^ hinweist. Hier giebt uns der Mythos des
Kriegerlebnisses und nicht wie der Krieg wirklich war
aufschluss, die maskierung der Wirklichkeit als ein

t^^B^l''^^JSll..^.^^2^I^^^ nationalismus. ( Man denke
nur einmal an die Rolle des Grabes des unbekannten Soldaten
als das Zentrum der nationalen selbst -darstellung ). Aber
man kann von dem Mythos auch so einiges über die Note
""^ü.i^^°^^^ll^^^^ft ablesen, die Bedurfnisse von Menschen
die vielfach heute noch auf ihre erf ullingTarten. In so
fern ist der Mythos obgleich er sich, wie ich schon sagte,
verstecken muss, noch heute von^bedeutung. Es muss klar sein
dass wir hier nicht von einer einfachen Verherrlichung des
Krieges prechen, sondern von einem viel mehr-schichtigen und
tiefer -S'^eif^nden Mythos der ein wesentlicher Teil der
Problematik dTs Nationalismuses und unserer' Gesel/sJhafT"''^
darstellt

w-~*

/}

Latent ist der Mythos mit seinem Kult der Märtyrer der
Nation noch immer bereit in einer tief sitzenden Krise ein
zu springen. So kann das Buch selber ein Mahnmal sein.

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U)(\fiZ Mh iOf^MlOfiS

N.D.

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Wars and Warriors« I

««»1

I would like to explore with you in these lectures some the vital
effects of the war experience upon what we may call the European
and this case the specific German conscience: the rejection of the
horror of war^ indeed its acceptance because no such horror was
said to exist^ the acceptance and even exaltation of death -
indeed the new cult of death which seems to me crucial to an
understanding of this change»- consciousnesS| indded the changed
perception of human brutality* On this levell the " war experience"
fefi into the violence between the two world wai^^ the dulled conscience
of so many peepie when it came to the clashes within society and
against the so called enemy abroad nad at home« " battle as a
condition of life*\ as Ernst Junger called it in 1920 looking
back to the war but also forward into the peace«

Historians have Studie j^at some length thi social^ political and ven
the intellectual rootä^'^d of Weimar Germany, but little^ attention
has been payd to the natire of the war experience itself as I have
described it. To be surei especially in ^rance^ the history of death
has recently been the object of study by Philip Aries and others^
but this for the early modern period and not in connection with
the experience of the last two centuries, and specifefically within
the context of nationalism and war. But it is precicely this which
must interest us and we will prject it into the post war world -

for if we have grapsed the importance of a change in basic attitudes.

/

/^ /VA/ •/ -^ thenkre can ask an additional questiont why this change was taken up

//

{-•«'-;•'' by the political right and why the political left could never come

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to terms with the ** war experience** and wh^t this was to mean in

^ ' , / ) terms of political effectiveness.

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The first World was experience was total but not unique: every
hei%i- historicaln.events is set within a tradition. In ^ermany thdbs

H

«MWP

2.

A war of national liberation stood at the beginning of modern ^erman
history, and as we know today such wars are singularly ideological
sÄnd brutal against the enemy^

this tradition went back to tho wars^of liberation againet ^^apoleon:
the first national wars which were partly fought by volunteers^and
not by mercenaries. and-~ev^Ätually-by-conßcipts as vell« These war
foreshadow^ ij^-pnly to a degree^ wha*- the war ex-perince of the
First World War.' The youg students who made df the core of thÄ
volunteers, in particular, had a total committment to the new
religion of nationalism and a total willingness. indeed longong
for sacrifice« ^eath and battq(ie were part of a peotry which

transcended the htnff^irum of dailj ^ ^ ^,

'" ' '^ of poems by -^heodor Körner^ for example, was to be of lasting

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importance. War as the Solution to boredom, to the burdens of
daily living^ as a way out of familly responsability» as the
idealisation of the Buad of man - all this we find in -tfee
these wan at the beginning of the Century a^d in the First World
War*' Indeed alrea^^y during the?. years warV Theodor AbJ had
praosed death for the fal?herland as eeme^kabHg passion and
action contrating with the sober rationalism of his time*

But now such ideas of " sjjftipping away the pphemarial of
daily lige" ( ^ttot Braun in the First Worl^War) or war as a
" festij6val" ( which we fibd both in the wars of liberation and

/>*^ '''['[ the First World War?)^informed the idealism of the volunteers*

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This -Is-important : we have no study about the volunteers in war:
but such coneepts^ Xxke the song 4ä the wars of liberation whrch
exalted Imat üfe and children were left behing whüe life now
became a sacrifice and festicval cafi-be -tracedrdn— ^ermany from
theses Kars^-of- national liberation^ to'^^the First Wolrd War^ t<>-
törö^voluteers f-ronr^ny parld ur-^urQpa.,jtfho J^ined 4;he SSi in the
Second World war. Indeed we must remember the the so called
free corps of volunteers in the wars df liberation were JfiAf lfi!i^5

i^HMP

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bi«es in Chrfüch before they Joined the army: " Now we are

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made sacred". Indeed th. ideal of war as a sacred festival v«
'f-roo-the bginning combined witb death-dn^war^s-eaorific« whlch.
was_in imitation of the death of Ohrist, an imitatio Christi fol

^the-sation,- Just as the war itself wircomparJd to the easter f
of the nation ( t» k!fJ?'' ^fhenltendorf , I9I5: the fatherland /

IS resurrected, what a wonderful easter.
biee4-e*-%he-fa*he3e8-ie-*he-eB«ei*i«-ef-*l»e-eirava*i©»-e*-*he

tferid. The-^mtatitm-^tei«it-i«_Aiso-^ne-^^^ Chief themes^,
4>f-^e First World-^i«. Walter Flex. perhaps one of the most
populär writers of the war ( who was killed himself ) put it this
way: the war is a last supper, it is one of the greateast'revela-
tions througn which Christ illuminates the world. The sacrificial
death of the best of our people is only a repetition, willed by
God, of the passion of Christ. ( «achtgedatonken) But here gain

1

this tlyought had already been voiced in I8I3 when that war was
also called a last supper. ( Johannes Klein, ^aiter Flex).

Thus the war was not only a sacred and welcome change from daily
life but those who took part and feil in battle were repeating the
passion of Christ .But this meant not dying at all, for the resu-

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liberation are* as yet not^ explicit, but the First World war with
its mass death made resurrection a part of sacrifice. While we
find this dea voiced during the war itself ( for example, in a
book called the " fass in war (1914)" were the life and death of
soldiers is intigrated with the rythm of the mass itself). it is
especially after the l?o«rt-war that such ideas of resurrection
attain prominence as a way of copin^ with a sacrifice that some
thought in vain, with the dirgorni»ntatit>n which followed defeat.
A ; Tribute to the Army and (^avy in 1920 puts it as follows: the

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*

went hand in hand with a change in the concept of death for the
n.ntion. Earlier, before these wars, Herder had still thought of
death as a gentle sight of rest and tranquility. But now the
death in war was exalted^ something natural enough« But it was
excalted partly as the fulfillment of life - relate to that
expetionality as opposed to daily life of which I spoke* Theodor
Korner rhymed" shall I dy prosaically? Poetry you source of fire
un leash your destruction, but quikly". ^et more portentuous then
the mere flight from the prosaic was the association of death in
war and the death of Christ: the absorption of Christianity into
the struggle of national liberation« Analogies with Christianity
were the order of the day, and especially with the passion and the
fesurrection. As ^ax Schenkendorf sang in IQIJ: the fatherland is
resurrectedi what a wonderful easter«

Death in battle as a prel de to^ resurrection^ indeed the neccessity
of sacrifice for salvation became one of the chief themes of the
First World War» Obviously this was a way to transcend the horror
of the trenches but it was pIso a way to accept and glorify that
horror and to become used to its terror«

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fallen: the fallen still have found no rest, they wander around.
Their pale masks of death are as immovable as at the moment they
gave their life for Germany. They are returning in order "to
reduvenate the Volk"."Tifight. to die . to be resurrected that is
the essence of being. Prom out of yoxir death the Volk will be
restored." Such sentiments came not only from right, but a
a bock about the 700 war memorials publiehed officially by the
Weimar Republic repeats these ideas: the fallen rise from their
gravis and Visit us in the dead of night in order to exhort us
to resurrect the fatherland. The purpose of resurrection can be
varied: Thus the l;|emorial book of the Westphalian Pire -brigades
((1920) asserts that the fallen will not only ensure patriotism
but also revive the grandeur of the individual in the face of
the dangervTsecoming part of the masses.

eath is explained away, inded as Franz Schauwecker and Alfred
Rpsenberg put it in the I920tie8: death and life c'^nnot'be'o gerate,
they are not opposites. Pinally, the Chorus of Hitler Youth will
proclaim on %morial day: " the hest of our people wi4l not'«^ thAT
THE LIVING Will- might die, but that the dead might come alive",

This explaining away the horror of death as in aimitatio
Christi both in passion and resurrection, was closely linked to
ideals of camera^ry. Nowhere is this better Musstrated, isdeed
wha-L I Lave bald suiuuied-up and made concrete then in the cult of
the dead in the war cemetaries. This, is, once more. a sub:1ect
not yet investigated'and Vhat I have to say here must at this
stage of research remain fiATHER HYPOTHETICAL. The disctinction made
in I9I5 between spidiers cemetaries and bourgeois cemetaries can
lead US into the subject: bourgeois cemetaries are materialistic
in the exxagurated boastfulness of their monuments, but soldiers

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cemetariss are simpl«, 89v-.io_^jatOTw=and all graves ar« equal
in-«xo(jution symbolising the war time camrofiADERY. " Gravestornss
through their simplicity and uniformity, like soldiers in battle
lead into serious and reverent mood". The military cemetary does
not date back to the Wars of Liberation« oiäy at that time the
equation between toombs of soldiers and simplicity of design became
populär, largey because of the influence of classical forms. Such
a sitaplicity, aboandoned in the war of 1870, did becomm^S^rT^

üwJtNthe mxlitary cemetary cows from the first mass wär^^he
civil war in the United States. Then the dead were collected from
^ the battief ield and buried togeth^ af ter the battle of Gett^'sburg^^
^';;;;,r/"national cemetaries ijörang up in the United States wiiSiJ^^ot'"'''

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i,,n. kfi«wn in Europe at the time. Just as an unknown soldier was already

1 / <

honoured in the Mexican war, while in Europe such honour is not
bestowed until after the First World War.

Yet I have rarely found mention of the American Civil «'ar as precedent
Rather here, i;}i fact, the Monument aux Worts in i'ere ^achaise (1899)
seems to have .'an impression, especialljf inras much ^ere ^achaise
itself as the earliest important cemtary outside City -walls (1814")
had served as model for'Gftrman and i^üs-h cemetaries. The Monu=
ment was indeed symbolic f^ the overcoming of death, reconci Ration
with death, an " optimistic bourgeois concept" by Bartholome its
creatör, as a contemporary French Journal put it. But a contempofiARY
German publication repeated tfcris praise, and Max Nordau helped
popularise the Monument and it- s sculptor. f^f^)

Such examp^e was theoretical^^-'ln war the Germans preferred simplicity.
Grosses, such as were traditional at waysides ©y-i»- and rejected the
kind of allegoriea of the Monuments des Morte «s opposed to the
ideal of sacrifice. Jndeed it seemed best that' such cemetaries

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»pirrtr-ot life

lie stressed the fact that this symbolic monument was free of any
taint of Utility, indeed of any attempt to fit it into a material
setting. Nordau'a praise combines emphasia on the " out of the
ordinary " of the Monument with its peei**eH beauty. It is
a kind of festival in stone. but a festival of those who found
a tranquility were no one can bother theffl «i^^/^f ^^*^5,J^-*J:^1»
were the mystery of death hafl-*rou^ht reeeH©i4ia*iea^-in-the

^lJa%ip%±onüf^- .r.-h/^a-^p1f»ndid life in th»-6pi^t1r-

Such example was theoretical and abstract. It was a
precedent in as much as it was symbolic f or the transcendence of
death. But in real the reality of the war, the Germans prefered
simple traditional crosses ( such as were seen at the wayside,
for example) and reöected any allegory ( such as we have in the
monuments aux Mortsjas opposed to that simplicity which could
best symbolise the' ideal of sacrifice and hope. This simplicity

came to be associated with cameradery and manliness^: Jiarking back
to the 18. Century revival of antiquity and the " U^ greatness'
Winckelmann had seen in Greek sculpture. Indeed, as I mentioned,
the graves of the fallen in the war of liberation were inspired by

the same ideal*

• Such cemetary must represent a sacfed atd well defined space.
Here'^^Äe'anology to'i"'chrmrch whose sacred space is clearly
seperated from the rest of the ordinary' world.- There it became
mandatory that such cemetaries by enclosed by walls or dfences:
forming a unity, evenif it was part of a general burial ground.
Moreover, the First World War led to a new form of military

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cemetary alltogether*

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should- be placed withiir the landscape a^K^efined jspaces. seperated
/ . ^ ' /^ walls / X y^."^ >

froni their gurroundings by f enoas or hödge«^- pe^vlditlg.^'^saKred

Space analogous tg a Chnrch«

The new form of militaiy cerftary in the First Wolrd war was the so
called " eldenhein"! wood of heroesC ThiT^es back to the oack
as a sacred national tree, an idea strong in the war of liberation,
taken up after 1870 in the planting of oacka to celebrate thde
ocöasion^^Now such a wood symbolised Germany: a Germanic sacred
Space» close to natura^ a priemieval life force* I^et us remember
also that for soldiers like Flex trench warfare had meant a particular
intimate experience of natnre ( which he, in trun linked to the
Christian sacrement^^ The quest for sacred spaced to celebrate

the fallen was met here in a specially relevant manner: ^ermanic

nature, the analogy of the reüwal of nature and the resurrection

of the dead, of life and death as idea^^i^al, of simplicity ( often

ae-ev^s^^-asaifißt French pomo and bombast) could be satisfied by such

a cemetary. W^thin^tha ffonfi^AQ A:e^K4^tr-7^p«7^^ ^f^nirrnTTry Gymbbliccd

1^hrough-the--e<^ualirty-of-Tiremör^äi:s'l[n^^ need

manly Symbols^,— a&-^u4>Qolc-written tn the PThibit^ion-of^ -desirable
war ^raves which toured-€^e3?ffiai

W^- must--now-mak^--0iear_that The idea of Philip Aries and others
that since the 19. Century death was supressed, as it were, cannot
standVclose examination of nationalism and war experience. Here
death was explained away, made acceptable, but nit by supression but
instead by its assipiilation to Christianity and nature, to the drama
of natioal salvation as an intigral part of the i^ai^ba^i^n-^f -Christ
V and the ryjthm of nature ««-B^enr^Ä-^be-aÄ^terature-aboalr-the heroe' s
vroö*--or-i7h«--wood-eeaetary. But violence and brutality were included ^^i:

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War was supposed^ in Junger' s wordS| to unleash the elemental
forces and he mad* the parallel between catastrophies of nature
and war* This was not meant to be negative, but instead to
recall man to his genuine being^ to produce a new race. " All
^ermany bdcame one Single heroic poem in tbe trenoheß", Thus
nature^ poetry and Christian symbolism wera all mixed up together
in Order to describe the war experience but also to determine the
intermittent resting place of the fallen - intermittent because
of their return to inspire the living.

J-

T. *t^'n^<^^ A Uh^U'J 9i^ l*i f/fz-Ä/iFVtc' VN ftfiPt^ tiA/^Y

V^t

In one sense these were included by the fact that war itself waa
made into sacred aot outsidWaüy-IM.^^esirable-as fulfillment. tut
^orrdS^i:^4¥(eFT£f '^ 4^ the n,any picture boolcs which appeared
in Germany. They were read by lÄ' too young to participate in
thewlri For example one picture book, The World War in Pictures
(1926) asserts that what is important for future generations is
that out of the noise of battl« grew heroic f iguers who even aCter
defeat 4iÄe*-i- death did not loose faith in "ermany. "These
Dictures of true and noble comradeship remind ye«- us of that fact".
I do not have to teil you what sort of ''pictures of-^iOK^er these were.
Franz Schauwecker presenting 200 battle pictures writes bluntly:
whoever can only see the material and pyyical destruction presented
here is^^äSÄi^^ii^^e«t. Por German nationalism was renewed through
this destri/ction. To live a life devoted to such nationalism means
a^_iia_6a«e-*4iBe to die ( Mitleben heisst mitsterben). It was Oswald
Spenger who connected such ideas to a ^erman revolution wfeieh-B«et
be-eaBPied-*h*e«gh of blood and iron (1926) which again is similar to
Jünger' s view of '^' permanent battle which transcends ««^r^^^d peace.

War as a transcendsri^t experience legitimised war^ «%ounding
and killing. It made the'reality a^ceptable. Not to all. but mainly
to the young, those young who as far away as the wars of liberation
had filled the Free Corps ( and were to fill those Free Corps after
the war which continued the battle. and in turn took sometimes their
name f rom the wars of national liberation) . A Study of the German
Soldiers song made in I9I6 held that older soldiers prefered signs
of home. nostalgia. wife and child. But thaj th^e young volunteers
pref erred songs of battle and death ( many from the wars of libera=^
tion). Another. more patriotic study, of the same 7^^^^^^?^^^^:;^^^^
soldiers songs Ss- contain^ a strong religious eiemepint-ms ^id the

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songs of I8I5 - her« we are back with th» Christian drama which

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has occupied as so much# That cameradry was important in all these
ßongs is born out by this study as well, and by one of the moat
populär songs from the wars of Liberation ( for which it was
written) aiad the First world war " I had a comrade" by Uhland.

The themes I have outlined are not purely German: we find
them repeated in France and Italy (-the heroea-wood in ^atioli
in £x)ia^. The theory behin^Weris^ cemetaries does not vary much,
though the '^erman claimed that the English wanted more i^formity
in graves then they would permitt« This in an attempt to coraine
some individualism with the symbolism of equality« Paul Fussell's
important The Great War And Modern Memory ha^ in it implicitly
many of our symbols« Xe*-lH-SHgiaH4-aiBe-waF- ^et he also prooves
that English literature in the post was years in its majority

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i^iV'^ Dc^yfiL*

reflected .a negative attitude towards the war which is not foundM.n
Germany, Italy or France» Two polls on how tfee honbur the war dead
taken among French intellectuals in 191? stress the need for
symbolism rather then individuality, the neccessity for simplicity,
of natura and the example of the Monuments des Morts» to give but

a sample. '

Everywere the " war experience" was transcendant, lifting men out
of the boredom of life into a sacred drama were they could play
meaningful roles« Especially in defeated Germany, but not only
there* this war experience deepened the aeeeptaaee- concept of
peacecas a continuation of war: political war, politlncsHTviolence.
There is some i:öte3?est in the evidence of a ffluaal for returned
veterans published by the"'Republic IB^iah recall;^ them to reality:
the pre war laws are f still valid, the beaurocracy still exists
to pay your Claims. But eea^4)- infused with the sacred it was not
easy to adjust to the profane«

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9a.

Ther© is a heroes wood in the parioli district of Rome wer«
every tree bears the name of a fallen soldier, and in France
Eduard Herriot as Mayor of Lyons propoaed a " Jardin funebre"
composed of old treea, flowers, grand and simple monuments.
Herriot referred to the memorials of the ancients which. as we
have Seen, also pla^^their role in Germany,

9b.

M

aurice Barres in his story " Riae-H- The dead risa up" has tha
dead in %he trencheo literarilly risa up again to defaat tha
ivading Germans»

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It must be clear that what I have analysed-i^abasic dimen^
of the post war world: the veterans who continued the rhetoric
of the war ( as we have seen), the political partiee chiefly of
the nghtVwho used the frieBd—^^goe^icture whi^h^ame^ro the
wa#-agaißs1?H;hei5-e&effii«s. For let us, finally» remember that
this friend-foe pie%«t3P«- relationship also dates from the wars
of liberation wese-S©ä?fflaHe-«ail©4w when the French were called
the enemies of the ow3?ld", dogs and robbers. Wian ^rndt wrote
/ '• ^/ *^ ".-^® ^^^"^ ^^^ ^renchmen without distinction - in the name of

.K 0.r\A cr^A ^--U^ «.^^^T^

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ission

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^■^ '"'' iMJ-'^^^ °^^^^ cloarl-y^that-^ftfl Christian ideas were absorbed into

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;^.-^ j^ ptu>'--*'\ the transced^Ht sacrifice of war, the Christian reservations about

hate and brutality were being abolished. The religiojib of nai-iona»
lism was absorbing the religion of Christianity and secularising it
in the process#

Just as I believe that on this perhaps more subtle- levell of
the acceptance of warYtEepost warv war w^rld oonotructod-its-own
violence^ just so it seems to me that the absorption of the
Christian symbolism by the symbolism of war was, in the end more
important for post war Christianity then the obvious " war theoloeiy"
preached by so many^ministers. Sue^-^4aioter3 ^nd the war chaplains
were not too populär in the trenches in any case, and healthy
scepticism about the cpntantion that God is with you, or that
( as one ^erman minister put it) whoever kills an enemy does
Service to Christ was not extended to tha Imitatioa Christi of
actual death and sarifice#

ir I ttiirHR^it€^^^^bOT[t^-1;h»-ftatiare of tfeLo war experience»- then indeed
the post World war I. world had to come to terms with- it^hadr- to
ab«e3rf>-dt. This was easier for the right then the left^ for those

mmmmmm

lOa.

To be sure there was no death and resurrection f or the enemy
dead - but we must go one step further« The martyrdom hf the
fallen also removed killing the nemy from a kind of murder into
a part of the sacred drama« The famed dramatist Gerhad Hauptmann
reflected such ideas in I9I^s readiness to sacrifice one's own
life makes ]j:illing no murder^ and he was not the only one to
express such ideas ( Cysarz)

Clearly then^ it is vital to understand how

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saw themselves at war against the Republic, against Bolshevism
then for the left whicfi viewed the war as an evil brough on by
a Society gone wrong« M^uch has been written about the right in
this regard which saw itself 3ajnarcontinuety with the past and
whose positive attitude towards the war infused the post war world

with much of that violenct I have mentioned^ S)Äe dulling of

conscience not unrelated to* ^azis and holocaust* How lasting
the attitudes which have been our coücem could be» can be
demonstrated through a book otf memo/Sry of 1952: The unfulfilled

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life of the fallen is funnelled into our own life» leading to
a deeper feeling and more effective action: the undefeated who
will win» But let us not make specific accusations against any
one nation nntil we have examined how all nations dealTwith

their fallen*

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difference in the

iiAi „./^ Next time I want to talk about continuty and di

Second V/orld war, but above all w±th the post war confronäation
with the war experience, not on part of the Right but on part of

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the left, Thisin order to examine wether an alternative to the
war and*^nationalism we have examined prooved possible iö those

years

even

, we%heg-%e-eeR4effiH-%ka:e-wai> and ir as typi^^— that
the left had to come to terms with the war as transcendent
experience. But once we have* exmanined this problem we then
have a clearer view not only of relevance of -ouii-^tiieffie for the
^'nakfs'^but al^so for the II* World war ands its aftermath. A matter
which cannot be taken lightly föii-^fefeoe«-wfeo , ia-^he eeidiese-eeHg,
beüeve with the Austria^^ Grillparzer " from hamanity to nationalism
to bestaility" ( which this lecture seems to have proclaimed), or
whc/believe that an alternative nationalism 'is possible.

V.,

War and Carrions II

The warvexperience created a separate world within which sacrifice

for the fatherland was assimilated to the -aaxrlHce and resurrection
of Christ: death lost its sting« Moreover^ war was regarded as
lifting man out of the dreariness of dialy l±fe into a festival

and a sacred festival at thattpLast tima I triad to show how tha

brutality of war and its horrors became accaptable and even ai;
ti-roeß desirable as the fulfillment odt an otherwise meaningless life
A belief the war unleashed genuine, elemental forces and brought
man close to natura was another ideal; and in this way Christianity
and natura herseif were assimilated into the war experience in
Order that it might be transo^ndad • Tha now fox^ma uf milltary

cemi

t-thaBa--ifflpBratlVes •

Small wonder that the violence of the post war world was informed.
encouraged, by this^war experience • ^hat veteri^as had difficulty
leaving this sacred for the profane aad-^misorable, that youth Ion»
ged for the kind of löeaning war and battle gave life» The European
Right exploited such feelings, it had no scruples about the conti«
nued glorification of the war experience. The ^^azis, for example,
built much of their ideology upon it, after^the war had also been
the greatest and most lasting experience in Hitler' s own life.
( though the first Nazis were workers and not primarilly veterans).
W^ already quoted the Cho^s of Hitler Youth and Alfred Rosenberg
to the effect that when sacrifice for the fatherland was at stake
life a'tid death were identical, that the 4e«- fallen would rise
again and inspire new victoriesi'' As Goebbles put it* sqldiers
put^ their sacrifice upon altar of the future, ^ermany is illuminated
by the dawn of their resurrection. The ^azis presented themselves
as maki-^g possibla such an event, as being tbe-4HeeFpe- filled with

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la.

" ..war is beautiful ( and sacred). Its greatness lifts man's
heart high above individualism, the daily life". as'Foerster. an
emjuijr uf war, characerised the spirit of I914.

I

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r

2.

the spirit of the fallen which^ as I quoted last time, enter the
living at night to encourage them to victory» Indeed Hitler was said
to have layd bis military Victor; es upon the graves of the fallen
of the First World ^ar, as partly thij&r belated gift to a movement
which understood. To be sure, after the First World War these
ideals of the war experience had helped face defeat and to explain
it away/ and-even-flu^zi movy" of 1957 bas the lines "••posterity
will measure us not by the greatness of our victory but the
dimensions of our sacrifice". ^Hh^rß~4K>wever^ säw a permanent
war i^ which Versailles waa-atiHL-nterrirption, others again meant
the " war experience" when they sought ar-oont^rast-<tonboürgeois

* i- »

1-ife. Indeed the ^^azis especially used " anti- bourgeois" in such
a fashion, as it had been used by soldiers against homefront during
the war^ and as military and bourgeois cemetaries had been contrasted
Bourgeois was pomp, absence of manliness, devpid of facing death
and resurrection and^nature. In the hands of a writer like Paul
Alverdes the war became indeed a thing in itself , detached from
itd environment, a sacred space iiTvmrah ^Ehe deä^ do not dy^V -"^''^'-^''^'''_

But even the Weimar Republic was inf ected^ by this ideal:
the bourgeois were Be%- attempting to come into line with the
war experience* For example, the so called day of mourning
( Volkstrauertag) mirrored such thought. Thus in .1926 the official
guidelines of how to celebrate that day urged the preformance of a
play by Richard Elster in which a fallen soldier returns from
the beyond in order to liberate ^ermans from rapacity anddisloyalty
to the fatherland» The Day of Mourning was supposed to be a day of
hope. When the ^azis took it over they commented that those who

participate should not be depressed but instead takeh out of their
daily H-vies«

' «1

y

mm

2a.

As a famed slogan of Franz Schauwecker put it: We had to loose
the war in order to gain our nationW". This iH-a-»evei-Äfee«t
as the frontispiece of a novel about the battle of Verdun.
Yet the Nazis continued this reaction to defeat by explaining
it as victory:

■ma

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Ja

5.

The war experience seemed to continue into the post war world. But
what should be the attitude of the left towards this phenomena?
This is an important question, for it raises the possibility of
alternatives. The left had reluctantly agteed to the war, had
increasingly opposed it, and indeed the ideology upon which it
was built miti^ated-^eainst glorification of war. In fact the
excuse of the Gerraan left in as much as it accepted the war was
t.lmt it wnnto dootroy reactionary Russia ( and in France, that the
reactionary Kaiser was to be 'd^^^y). These aims wWe- were now
accomplished. And yet the continuty of the sacred war experience
had to be faced: it was too powerful a driving jsi^'in politics.

Here, once more, we can only hypothesise, for no research has
been done on this vital question, indeed the question has not really
been asked. T e sloagn " maas slaughter" which many socialists
voiced after the war did not solve the problem, but aggravated it.
for it could not help fa6e def eat a nd death. ( let us remember that
there was hardly any German familly who had not lost someone near
and dear in the war),

S.-cial Democratic Youth Organisations attempted to harness the
war experience to the new Republic. And although several socialist

novels attempted to tranf er the ideal of cäWdery from the war
to the Republic. Frank Trommler is no doubt cor^ectV that' the spurt of
Mterature about ---ity^b^enefitted the Right rather then the left,
for this wasV-communityWhich knew no classes or cl^sswarfare. But
it was the Reichsbanner Schwarz. -Rot Goj/ wh^i<.fr.^k%^mpted led by the
SPD but including other.^j^^'f iVigdly to the Republic thich ever
since its founding ( 1924 ) attempte/t<f Ä^Ut 'dernl'tt ''• ^^'"^ )
Typically enough, at first, The Reichsbanner took the larg^st and

mm.

*

conservative vetern^s Organisation, the Stahhelm, as its model.
It marche^, wore uniforms, worshipped the flag - playd- xilitary,
which so we are told, was especially enjoyd by tha Reichs r,cr.r.%r 's
youth Organisation, It used a vocabulary that was taken from the
war and similar to that of the right " Volkegemeinachaft", the
Community ot bourgeois and Proletariat«: to forge an iron band
of uermanism outside all class concflict, It läos had a leader
( Horsing). But such remanants of the war experience, attempts
to harness the veterans to the Republic were highly ambivalent.
Paul Lobe, the SPD leader\ for example, affirmed that socialists
were opposed to uniforms and militarism " but if we can harness
youth through this to the Republic", thenw are acting out of
political neccessity. Such, youth another Reicsbanner leader
asserted are jpept from joining the murderous volkish bandits.

^"he Weimar Republic was not quite as naive äa its
defesne as has sometimes been picture^*: we mentioned last time
how the cult of fallen heros wae-«ee4- and their resurrection was
used in the offical day of mourning. And yet there was conflict
within the opgaaie Reichsbanner about its " xnilitary pretensions"
which opposed the strong pacifism within the SPD. One way to
solve such a conflict was to ignore the First World War on
behalf of the revolution of 1848 which had given the Republic
the colours of its flag. The official hymn of the Reichsbanner
after praising these colours called them " holy" - for these
our ancestors once died. The flag of the First World War was
of cours black red and white«

But this redirection of the war experience to a different conflict,
which we will find repeated in the " Red Fighters ^eague" of the
Communists ( when it is the red army and the October Revolution

^mi

mm

mmmmmm

«ti

i^»

5.

aHeb-whirch-ie-THE-warr' seems problematical

The veterans had been

through ^ specific and unique war and not through 1848 or the October
Revolution» The Reicsbanner showed its own ambivalence: drums
were muffled, soldiers songs were sung less loudly and less
feit and indeed marching according to army regulations was forbidden*
Military decorations were not forbidden, but rarely worn» When in
1950 the Reicsbanner put up so calles " troups for protextion"
Q Schutzformationen, ffemelrhi-og the SS wa&-»upposed-ta-be for the
Nazis^at tho t^ime)- the military was emphasised, but at the same
time the " leader" of the Organisation became the'chairman and the
constant undertone that war was, after all evil^, came increasingly

fog^jbte at of:

— ' 9

Reichsbanner collapsed easilly in 535- I933« The inner contradictions

of an essentially socialist Organisation attempting to attract

veternas througlVwar experience ppeve4-a-#aiiHape -wae- aroused

much comment at the time. It proved a failure. '

What about the newly formed Communists who were not handicapped

by undue pacificsm or loyalty to the State? The so called

Rmtfrontkampferbund (1924) prided itself as over against the

Reichsbanner on the absence of rank - in reality the Rotfornt«

kämpf erbund attempted to " cultivate memories of the war experience"

ju»t-^as"the hated SPD snd Republican rival» Thus thejf also praticed

the cult of the flag, had uniforms, vspecial gpee^iagy- salutes,

and rakn. In fact at first the offical KPD was sceptical of all

this " reactionary Wilhelminian pomp". It wasxonly in 1925 when
'^phalmann was candidate for President that the party came to agree

with the aims of the Bund of which Thalmann was, after all the

cha±rman. Now they became the " shock troups of revolution".

At the same time, however, theata?-a4»-wae-cl»ee'^ed-away-iPpem-^ke

mmmmm

mmmm

wmm

J

5.a

^et the^was an effort at last minute renwal: the Iron Fron was
foußded in I95I eis the shock troups of the Reichsbanner» It hired
as Propagandist a fascinating character: a former Propagandist
for the bolshevik revolution who had emigrated ( no bnows why,
perhaps he had Tenschevik leanings) : Tschachotkin. ^e was
pupil of pew-low's and interested in crowd psychology. His slogan
was to beat the weai^ inazis with-th^3tiL-owxi w%apons: the SPD had
been too rational and logical in argumenta This was good for only
a minority but the majority must be i/g3?aBped by their emotion*
Thus he got the ^ron Guard to demonstrate its power through massed
marches, to use only short Slogans. But as a result the bourgeoi=
sie was fvightened^and theciron Guard w«?ö a purely SPD association.

VAt

*^>»v

^1 r^

We must note^'this imitation of the Nazis,vi^ot confined to
the Reichsbanner, but also attempted by the Communists ( this time
including anti semitism) - not only in appealing to national emotion,
to a Show of power but* also in forming shock troups: the SS, the
Iron Guard, the Rotfrontkampferbund ( of which more in a minute).
The Reichsbanner did loose 50 dead in fights with ^^azis but mainly
Communists. The "^ron Guard came too 'late, was too narrowly based.
( Tschachotkin also advised the Chief German-'^ewish Organisation,
by the way). The doctor could not lead to patient to victory.
The internal contradictions I have mentioned were at the root:
socialm was rational, pacifist for the SPD and internationale

mmmmm

sauaa

6.

while the "sacred dead" of the world war were remembered, the

war itself was condemned* Here there was indeed no equivocation

as in the Reichsbanner^ The war had been dx^dfifl experience,

foisted upon the workong classes by capitalists« It was an

" imperial war*\ while the true war was the class struggle«

The Constitution of 1926 stated specifically that the aim of

the Rotfronkamferbund was the cultivation of class consciousness

and the fight against nationalist nad military Propaganda.

This fight, however, was conducted militarilly: disciplined,
uniformed in street battles ia- or UH protecting the Communist
speackers oi^^eraonstrations- from-righ-t--wing^ violenee - and
£»e^Hi?Hä:ag-iike-eeiH-%e-%hefflT taking revenge ^oiT^ the Right. One
.has the feeling that the " war experience" was displaced into
the Aufmarsche ( entry's) with their massed flags, bands and
uniformäi into the civil war which would soon begin to rage
between extreme right and left. Activism served to mitigate
the difficult transfermation of the sacred war experience into
that o§ having beeir^uped in an imperialist war* Eventually,
moreover, as the Russian Communist party gained ever greater
ascendency, the war experience was ia-af^ieial-rhetoric
. transferred away from ^ermany alttogether: now it was the
red army which became symbolic of the right kind of heroism
and sacrifice. The common ideale of the war experience were
rejected. . •

The Rotkampferbund also failed eventually, and here again this
failure is surely connected to its use of the war as a warning
and not*' a sacred experience, its attempt to project the concrete
experience"^ upon the future class struggle or a forei^nV red^army.

The left could not truly accept the 'war experience, and

\ ■

mmmmmm

7.

tjds was surely a handicap in post war poli^^ics^ Just how big

a handicap future research will have to show us«
Even sO| the ^orman left votornas associations I hovo montionod
contrast with, for example, the French Association Hepublicaines
des Ancien CpmbattantS| founded by Henri arbuseeVänd also a part
of the Communist mo^i^^ement and party. farbusee aiso called his
Organisation a " party of order" thus continuing ideale of
discipline from the war experiance« ^e also contrasted thase
who had experienced the war with those who had not^ and saw
in veterans a true^ Community. But here'^EHe similarit^ends*
There was no imitation of militarism: the condemnation of ihe
war as an imperial adventure was not diluted by the repetition
in peacetime of war time behaviour. Tafeaily-cpposed- to* the
condi^ionin&-to~war- and death of-^erman-iKysI; war picture books
whlch^JLjientioned .last timer^ one writer speacking for -afeae- ar=
busse's Organisation distinguisged two patriotisms: that of the war
of 191^ whichbyouth shoulcT-liate, and the lyric^ tender love of
fatherland. This, foi^^-^^i^büsse was not exclusive but included the
veternas of all countries. In one sense being a veteran trasncended
nationhood ( and an international veterans Organisation was indeed
founded). People, Barbusee, told the foundi'äg meeting^ln I9I9 are
everywere the same, have the same aspiration and the same enemies.
The veterans must point the way: %he-ea^-ve%ep they must fight for
socialism and against war. Barbusee even called upon them to use
the general strike^in their fight. The great and noble ideals for
which one dies, wrote Vaillant -Couturier, are justice, freedom and
law. The tohe is qu^te different from that.of the German left, but
then ^ermany was defea:fed, had undergone a cycle of revolution and
counterevolution and was soon drifting into an undeclared civil war

«

wmmmm

wm

8.

Yet thi brief gaince at the ^rench left and the war experience

heightens our understanding of the German Situation: how rauch
closer the-^left came to accepting the political neccessity of the
continuty between war and peace and how it partly broke^on its failure
to reconcil© its tradition with that neccessity«

Let me summarise at this point what I have tried to outline in these
lectures: The earlier wars of national liberation against ^^apoleon
and the First World War absorbed ideas of Christianity into the
religion of nationalism - complete with death, resurrection and
slavation. The war experience by the use of such a secularised
Christianity and praise of the «iemental, the "festival of war"
which removed men from the responsibilities of daily life, created
a myth and powerful one of war and warriojirs» This myth laid
«some of the foundations for the violence in Weimar and was so
pervasive that even the left had to come to terms with it and thus
in a sense to play into the hands of the right which did its best
to further this myth. [^^^) '

But today, you might say Justly^ all this is swept away as if it had
never existed. '-^'he Second World War did not create such myths* This
is certainly true in great part even in Germany. A war of materiell
buried the last tradition of war as the grand experience. ^ndeed,
interestingly enough, some English had alreasy noticed this change
after the battle of the Somme: war was becoming impersonalised^
greatly to their regret. But for all that the First' World War with
its trenches, shock troups, even cavalry could still produce myths
which the Second World ^ar could id longer maintain pa?operly. ^'^oreover^
f-ep^,alijaie tny17t^^=5^4;'^laa been a myth and when it came to actually
repeat the war experience there was little Joy not only in England
or France but even in Germany. To bo sure, the ^azis did tboir bont

■■

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8a.

^

•^'jt:

Small wonder that Simone Weil writing "to^^ernanos in 1958, and
lookmg at ^ermany, wr6te 4n^ deep depression: " As soon as men
know that they can kill without fear of punishment or blame, they
kill} or at least encourage killers with approving smiles. If
anyone happena to feel a slight diataste to begin with| he keeps
quiet and he soon begins to supress it for fear of hie-fflaHüaeee.
seeming unmanly ". Simone Weil had grasped' intuitivly the
essence of what so, many called the " spirit of 191^" and which
they wished to perpetuate.

f * I

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wm

mt^-mtym

\}

fr"

"v:.tt-"7

i '

V 9

9.

to continue the tradition we have analysed. But two things'are
typical for a changed athmosphere even for the so called " inheritors
of the war experience". Firstly Propaganda , and especially the
Film, went back to older traditions then th« Haa- First World War,
such as that of Frederick the Great, for example; but above all
concentrated on non political entert»inment. Secondly. Hitler was
very careful to blame the war on the internal enemy, the Jew, thus
denying responsibility for having unleashed the kind of war of
revenge that he had constantly promised. Even though he did so
mainly to have an excuse to exterminate ,the Jews, he still also
-^?£.-'-.®°*®*^ *^® difference between I9I4 and 1939., This time in defeat
there was no repetition of the continuation ofJUeo^ar ejcperience

into *he pea^^ Yet for all that some constants remain:

The Symbols of death, the military cemetery, for example - as a

>i X

•V.

,,../-* ,,*^"'sacred space, as" burial gpeupd were equality reigns, that- is the

/«.

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^ V

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«..•»

s -*•/

17 I

t •*

, r

cameradry of war expressed through th« similar gravesy the\discipline
rthrough Order. Nor is a war literature lacking which expresses
the ideal of Community byond classes (m Arthur Berkow and others).

But these are weack continuities. The only place we still
find the old war myth alive is among groups like the veterans of
the SS. divisions. There, in a Journal typically enough called

The Volunteer" ( itself recalling on whose Shoulders much of
the myth had rested in the earlier wars) we read about the dead
rising again and invading our dreams and giving us a new faith.
This recalls in 196? that praise for the Army and "avy of 1920
which I cited last time. There we also find nostalgia for the
First World War which was not yet dominated by the " inhumanity of
mashines". Such SS. divialons attempt to cayy on an elan and a
cult which had informed their volunteers during t&war. " Kagig"
afftiiatiön" a inftmher of the division Cha^].AjT,prrr,« ppivo^ ^-;^

9a.

Alexander von Bormann has analysed the soldiers songs of the w
2. World War in ^ermany* And while 'some of them repeat themes from
the First World War ( and when the handgranate goes off, ones
heart laughts in one's body), he found that mostly such songs are
characterised by a pathos: to be soldier meana a, certain coraportinent
a certain proud attitude in face of death, But this is combined
with a certain fatalism and realism as well* ( whoever understands
what a bullet is*^out, faces it in a relaxed manner) • Thus the
tone seems to be different even here despite efforts at popularisisng
ideas of the the blood sacrifice. Yet von Bornkamm^s study is only
^partial and again we face a hypothesis rather then something prooved.

We can also hazard that a kind of boredom was missing so
Wide spread among bourgeois youth in 191^ ( and present a-lready in
the Youth Movement and the suicide rate) - a boredom which made
war seem a way out of routine and to meaningfulness. Between the
wars there was little of such boredom, in waa?- revolution, inflation,
depression, all the new in the arts and in thought, the challenges of
left and right. I feel sure that this is a factor in the different
attitude in 1959 in Germany, at least: there was precious little
routine to be disrupted. The existaCnce of all the ^azi festivals
which meant mass participation ( not justVparades) made war as a
festival less neccessary* These factors must be weighed in with
the increasing mechanisation of war.?7>r^r

«1

w^m^mmmm

10.

Affiliation" a member of the Division Charlemagne called his
membership in the SS. during the war. ( De "^a Maziere,?!).

Yot ßuch Rroups are emall and unimportant: intorootinc; only

«^.

i'l>! j' L i\

for a continuity which in reality seems to hetve vaniighed. The

new type, the new race of warriors of which men like Junger and

von ^almonon dreamt after the war did not last, was not even

rejuvenated during the second world war which should have been

the culmination of that message of resurrection brought by the

fallen soldiers to the livin^. But the very men who had done

so much to propagate myth during th5_gegublic^ withdrew in

^^'THlketrunger äiid Salomot^
üorror and contempt when the ^azis tried to make it reality,

when the Fuhrer laid his conquests on the toombs of those who

had sacrificed theor life in the First World War. Hapilly the

contmutty was broken , hapilly the war experience no longer>'

' ^^T' ''T^U'^'*

infLj^ ^JlAH^c^f^r^^t^t* iyjnt^l/^H j^^fV^yciiar

tran&c^nds death and-ybunJin^ ^^nd Ts~nö¥~äpt to do so teday
when wars are brought into the living room on television. In a

; ti

world were so much is amiss, we can take heart thapough this

<Jf- VC

development: most e#-HB- have forgotten the exaltation of the
woriä— ^ wars and warriors which was very much)({alive only
40 years ago, and not merely in ^ermany itself»
The^Economist can in 196? write about the "unloved soldier",
pointing out how uaimpffeesed some visitors to a second world
war military cemetary were unimpressed and without reverence.
But perhaps thas change is best symbolised by an advertisment
for a medal Struck in honour of Jonathan of Entebbe ( ''anuary
25* 1977) • " It is not for the way he dies that we honour him,
but for the way he lived"«

«i«

Wars and Warriors. I

r. l'

I would like to explore with you in these lectures some the vital
effects of the war experience upon what we may call the Etiropean
and this case the ßpecific German conscience:l|€he rejection of the
horror of var^ indeed its acceptanoe becauae no such horror was
said to exist| the acceptanoe and even exaltation of death -
indeed the new cult of death which seems to me crucial to an
underetanding of this changei- conscionsnes», i£4£id the change*
peroeption of htiman brutality^ On this levell the " war experience"
fet into the violenc* between the two world waxT, the dulled conscience
of so many ]deei^ire when it came to the clashes within society and
against the so called enemy abroad n|Ld at home* " bettle as a
^ condition of life»\ as Ernst Junger called it in 1920 looking
back to the war but also forward into the peace« [ /^/- \ v'^^*^'-
Historians hare Studie/ at some length th4 social, politlcal and
tke intellectual rootÄrüid o? Weimar Germany/ but little, attention
has been payd to the nati're of the war experience itself as I have
described it. To be sure, especially in France, the history of death
has recently been the object of study Tij-^il1p Aries ind nthors
but this for the early modern periodand not in connection with
the experience of the last two centuries, acd specikfically within
the context of nationalism and war, But it is precicely this which
must interest us and'we will prject it into the post war world -
.__jj>J^ i^_ ^^ ^^^•. grapsed the importance of a change in basie attitudes.
^<r^i( '^°-'*^* ^*^ *"*^ "^ «dditlonal questiont why this change waa takan up

'*''^V^r ^7 ^^^ political right and why the politic^l left could never come

^^^^ u ^

^f%\h^ *ö terms with the •• war experience" and what this was to mean in

l)^^^^ terms of political effectiveness#
'"^l The first World was experience was total but not unique: every

hsi%i- historicalireyents is set within a tradition* In ßermany tUb«

\

This condition was based upon the " new world of the trenches",

"«r

5Sjia_jK5-«»»'~*»^ ■""*• "•

as Paul Fussell has called it, though this wotld was not entirely

new - everything Orders itxelf into a tradition^ including the

war experience» That tradition 'Ws the wars of liberation, partly '

because both war experiences were carried upon the Shoulders of,

volunteers. It were these volunteers who lifted the war out of

reality into the world of myth - and as such the " war experience "

went on into the post war world, A study of soldiers songs in the

First world war has shown that volunteers sang songs of exaltatiom

and victory^ while the older conscitps sang songs of nostalgia

for home and hearth,

That is excatly the point: the war experience was strengthened

as myth by the clesir cut division made at first betWen the ^'

soldier'^'^Lnd^^^e^reist of the population. Regiments were conse«

crated in Church before going out, ever since the earlier wars

of Liberation, " we are made holy"# Fighting became a sacred

duty, a way out of boredom, familly responsibility: and ideali-

sation of the Bund of men, o f male cameradery, all this is

crucial to the " war experience" • " Stripping away the

ephemaral of daily life" ( ^tto Braun) /'^agnus Hirschfeld speacks

of the " Erlebnisrausch", thd " extasy of ecperience" - fttidPüling

bt longi-ttg-

•: to have lived to the füll

War as sacred, as a festival, is an outcome of büredom with
daily life« Here not an indivödual but a national adventure,
a putpose a sarcifice. Always it is stressed that only now

can men dy a meaningful death -^ o]

-feeighlrening of

a>riu de anecle theme whicn aiso came &p^ boredoni'.to die nowt
after the great experlöiice""- E prea^onlst^s, ^sear W ide come to

miffd readil2y here

^N^

2Va.

Such desire, elevated to a potent myth - a way of facing the
horror of war and overcoming it - is reminiscent of the ideale

■ "; ■ -11-

of Impressionistgt Expressionists and the Fin De Siecle in general
before the war«
All these movements share the longing for new experiences^ clearly

seperated from boredom: Befehle, the poet who wrote many^war poems

* •' — ■ — *j ■*

earlier had criedl" sing me the song of death and life.*we float
above the life which seems to cling to us*0^ ( Hermand,42) The
"cult of the episodic" seems to continue intö the war itself^
and in one sense the deatA of ifi«>iade in vhich the height of pain
is paired with lust can be traced into the discussions of a
meaningful death which we find in war. (157, ^7)* As a follower
of Nietzsche wrojB in 4910: 14et war come! It is lurking all about
in glittering spires of clouds. .perhaps^then something higher will
be bFe» born. ( Sokel, 68) Such ideas from before the war will

'p^"

continue among many intellectualsVwho were "the myth makers, who
defined and determined the nature of " war experience" and passed
it on to the post war world«

5V.

The disillusionment which we know overcame many a volunteer in

■I ^111 ■■IUI

the trenches^ did not defeat the myth, Indeed confrontation with the
sacrifice, the meaningful death, as it was called, ne«4ed ag^Tn^
kind of transcendence of the daily and damp misery« War as a sacred
festival, as the exp^etional, the enthusaism of ecperience, is linke«
to the cult of the fallen soldier. The " baptism of fire" was
suceeded by a sacred death. Both mafcfo war and death acceptable,
first for those who experienced them and then as myth for the
post war World. V My, war is beautiful. Its austere grandeur
lifts the.humsn heart high above the earthly, daily life" as a
Youth Journal puts is graphically.
What^ about death?

V

,'/)

(f}^

/

Mrees in OhftjQch befor© they joined th© armyt •* Now v© ar©
mad© sacr©d"#flnd©ed th© id©al of war aa a sacrad fastival ^9m

|V., <r~*-

^^^ /from th©-%glaaiBg 0^Bl^iB©4-with d©ath in war a© 0aorjtfltyr"¥5tüi

waa>-jrn imitation of tba 4©a%h -ef Ghristi an imitatio Qfaristi fo

©nv©tually
;th©^nation^ juat as tha war itaali^ iras eöinpa2*©d^~To^%©^-©aat©r

Max von Schenkendorf ^ I9I5: th© fathcrland
of th© nation^ (-fey-»©ib©l-a#%©»-%h©-wa»-.©f-i8?I^v A2pb4%^-%)i©
is resurrected, what a wonderful easter«

^bl©©4-©#-%li©-#a%k©]pa-is-%he-©3p»©i#ix-©f-%h©-©lav»*i©»-©#-%h©
rarid. Th© ImitatioB- Ohyiait ia also on© ^#-th© chief 1;h©flreaLV
th© girat World ^aj^> Wait©r Pl©Xt p©rhaps on© of th© most

cC phte^P

popul

^y^ ^ü/HHE^' vay: ^j^^ ^^^ j|^g ^ j^^^^^ snppar^ it is on© of th© greateast revela^

tions througb which Ohrist illuminatea the world. The sacrificial
death of th« best of our peopl« is only a repetition, willod by
God, of th© passion of Christ. ( ^achtg©da^nk©n) But h©r© gain
this tfrought had alraady been voiced in I8I5 whan that war was
also callad a last suppar. ( Johannes Klein, ^altar Fl©x)«

Thus th© war was not only a sacrad and welcome change from daily
lif© but thos© who took part and föll in battl© w©r© r©p©ating th©
passion of Christ* But this meant not dying at all, for th© r©su«

.<::;-

rreötion ia an integral part of the passionP Here the wars of
liberation are as yet noti^explicit, but the First World war with
its mass death made resurrection a part of sacrifice« While w©
find this ;d©a voiced during the war itselfK 4^v f^TampIfr, in a
book^"^rall^edr-tb©— y-Pasa ^tt war-"<-i9i*t\rer©-bha=^=^^ of

s^4iar» i^ inti«i?a:tad_with th©-^pyth»-af--bh© uiaBB Itaalj
especially after the Bliest war that such ideaa of r©8urr©ction

^^t is

attain prominence as a way of copin« with a aacrific© that som©
thought in vain} with th© dioopai©ntfttit^n which follow©d d©f©at*
A RTribut© to th© Army and (^avy in 1920 puts it as followai^^H^

5a#

went band in band with a change in the concept of death for th«

nation^ Earlier, before tbese wars, Herder bad still tbougbt of

deatb as a gentle sigbt of rest and tranquility* But now tb«
deatb in war was exalted^ sometbing natural enougb. But it was
excalted partly as the fulfillment of life - relate to tbat
expetionality as opposed to daily life of wbicb I spoke« ^beodor
Korner rbymed" sball I dy prosaically? Poetry you source of fire
un leasb your destruction, but quikly"» ^et more portentuous tben
tbe mere fligbt from tbe prosaic was tbe association of death in

i^

Li

ft^^ war and tbe deatb of Cbrist: tbe absorption of Cbristianity into

tbe struggle of national liberation. Analogies witb Cbristianity
were tbe order of tbe day^ and ecpooially witb tbe passion and tbe
fesurrection* As ^ax Schenkend orf sang in ::^5: tbe fatberland i«
resurrected^ wbat a wonderful easter«

Deatb in battle as a prel*^de to^ resurrection, indeed tbe neccessity
of sacrifice for salvation became one of tbe cbief tbemes of tbe
First World War* Obviously tbis was a way to transcend tbe borror

«

of tbe trencbes but it was -Iso a way to accept and glorify tbat
borror and to become \»%<ä to its tterror»

(',v^; 'f'/'' -^/v

(.

/

*.

i?«i±«ii: the fallen still have found no rest^ they wand er around»
Their pale masks of death are as immovable as at the moment they
^\[^ff gave their life for Germany. They are returning in order "to

rejuvenate the Volk".''T^fight, to die , to be resurrected that is
A the essence of being. Prom out of your death the Volk will be
^ ^^y restored." Such sentiments came not only from rights but a

a bock about^^^ 700 war memorials published officially by the
i\ Weimar Republic repeats theae ideas: the fallen rise from their

gravis and visit us in the dead of night in 03?der to exhort us
to resurrect the fatherland.^The purpose of resurr ection can be
varied: Thus the (^jemorial book of the Westphalian ^ire -brigades
((1920) asserts that the fallen will not only ensure patriotism

Mi» Hl—in ■>

but also revive the grandeur of the individual in the face of
the danger VT>ee^min^_^pÄ3?%-«f the masses« J

r- ..^y

•^eath is explained away, inded as C^ranz Schauwecker and^Alfred
Hpsenberg^^put it in the I920tie8: death and life canngt be oeperated»

they are not opposites* Finally, the Chorus of Hitler Youth will
proclaim on emorial day: " the best of our people wiHLl not Sy thAT

THE LIVING Will- might die, but that the dead might come alive''*' f^^l

This explaining away the horror of death

kimitatio T*m<

Christi both in passion and resurrection^ was closely linked to
ideale of camera^ry^Nowhere is this betterMusstrated, 4«4eed
wliat I hare said summed up and-made eepege%# then in the cult of
the dead in the war cemetaries« This, is, once more, a subject
not yet investigated^'and What I have to say here must at this
stage of research remain BATHER HYPOTHETICAL, The disctinction made
in 19^3 between spldiers cemetaries and bourgeois cemetaries can
lead US into the subjecti bourgeois cemetaries are materialistic
in the exxagurated boastfulness of their monuments, but soldlers

Just as the passion and resurrection of Christ led to
salvation^ so Its repetition by the fallen was used to
invoke the eure for all ills especially after the war*
But this was not mere a ^erman phenomena, it ia worth
recallingj In England the anniversary of its entry into
the war ( 4.. August, I9I4) was depicted during the war
in the symbolism of crj/cifiction and the resurrection. as
-^15^^* Mai^tln has shown in his book on the Anglican Chruch
and war (p*l55) in Italy the huge» military cemetary of
Redepuglia tsas dominated by three cros^es^ siluetted against
the sky, and official fascist commentary described them " as
recalling calvary". f c^^^iw piCTi^^^^)

In Germany the theme was accentuated after the war because

iL

of the defeat; that fallen had not die^ in vain. This could be

done without Christian symbolism^ as in Weimar books about war
memorials or in ^ermann Onckaa's memorial speech of 1919 for
the fallen Heidelberg students. were the dead are said to be
a " Geisterheer" which mediates between the old Germany which
is dead and the new Germany which, is not yet born. This is typically
enough paired with anti- intellectualism: the fallen taught us that
life and death are more powerful then knowledge andperception
( Erkennen und wissen). Here is again something of the tone of war
as a festival, as an extraordinary experience which I have mentioned

earlier.

In this final resort

4c.

"neTer i„ lif,. so a m,„„Pial book for 1915 t.Us us ( "eld^lo-an».)
doe. „an exparinc. tha „aaning „r ,i,i^ .j, ^, ,„ ^,^ oomunity.
Thxa „ar has taught „a that". I„ raturn the co^aity itaalf .«.
»ea.aa t.e lau.al wPaat. Tor ita haro'a Asain. „ aotica „ar con»ai„d
as so.ethine apa^rt Jro. t.a routin. of Laoe ti.e, a aacrad action
which gives meaning to life. ^

U

(f

>v

liu)

\

5V.

cemetaries are simple, symbolsising war time cameradery. " gravestones
through their simplicty and untformity, like soldiers in battTe lead
^;^^? serious_and reverential_mood>*;> I cannot here not go into
fthe precendence for such cemetaries and their Symbols, exept to say
that the quest for equality in the French revolution p»©d«ee€l-the
^ii?e%-appe«i-|5ea?-ii-a?ew-gi?aveB"furthered row grave ( cemetary of
montmartre) but also sanitary consideation during the enl.

-«.«.*,..... >>..»,^-*x,^,^,^,^^,^.^^ , I . , g-i-ti II I will I iw I IUI II I nii.

( sometimes corpses were exhumed to be buried with their famillies).
But above all the classical revival, with its emphasis on simplicity
( Winckelmann).

But such cemetaries must also present a well defined space ( walls are
vevy important, and even in civilian cemetaries, fallen are beried
in a seperate space, Reason: analogy to^ the Church and its sacred
Space sep erat ed from the ordinary world« Those who had been blessed
as they went out were still considerec apart, sacred as it were*
Those who had die*- a meaningful death.
But the war also created a totally new type of cemetary:

^,> r^

5.

■}

c»m.tari.. «• simpl., «»in n,[,.«r, »nd all graVM^ar, equal

symbolising the war time camrefiADERY.<^' Graveston««
through thair simplicity and uniformity, like soldiars in battla

i I

lead into serious and revarent mood".24'e military cematai^^äoas
not data back to tha Wars of Libaration: oaiy at that tima tha
aquation batwaan toombs_of^oldiar8_andjdm^ '

populär, largay bacauaa of tha influanc a'^'ä clWiSlSS!^'' ^Such^'"'^
a simplicity. aboandonad in tha war of 1870, did b'icoma^^^SS^"'^ '

iHwtNfcha military cametary ca»»s from tha first mass wajy^ha
civil war in tha Unitad Stataa. Than tha daad wara collactad from
.- ^^J:.^* ^^**~'**''^<^ *^^ ^^^i«^ tog";^^;;^ aftar tha ba?tla of G.tVs'S!^^
l^iff ^**^°°*' o^'^^t^les ij6rang up in tha Unitad Statas ^iiS^Ä^^ol,'^^^

Äll^'^''*^ ^" "^^uv^Vt^J^* *^'"*- ''"^* *« *° '^^^^^'^ «»Kii«' was alraady
'"■^y^ ^°°°"''** ^° tha^-Mexican war, whila in Europa' suclTh^ur is not
W^. 9 bastowed until aftar tha First World War.

Tat I hava raraly f ound mantion of tha Amarican Civil «ar aa pracadant .
Rathar hara, ^i^ fact, tha Mgnumant aux Mprta in ^'aie ^achaisa (1899)
saems t^^avavan imprassion, aspaciall^ i«ras m«th Para ^achaisa

i«"^' ** *^* **^^ ttr*fi^°''**°* cametary outsida City walls (I8I4)
had sarvad as modal f or'Garman and E^iiSh* camatarias. Tha Monu-
mant was indaad symbolic i£c tha ovarcoming of daath, raconciUation
^ with daath, an " optimistic bourgaois concapt" by Bartholom". it«

craatör^ as a contamporary Fr.nch Journal put it. But a contampoSART
Garman publication rapaatad t^is praisa, and Max Nordai hTlpad
^opularisa tha Monumant and'it^s sculptor, f-fV

<. ^{pf^ -i">y

V-Such axampja was thaoratic^,,<^n wwftha G.rmans prefarrad simplicity.

crossi

AlJegoriM,
id^al or sacrif ic#*

meh as ^ifare t

kin^of al^egoria^ öf th« Monuman

it saemad -IJest t

LitijgjMil at waysid

M

rajactjid tha
bsacl to

cematarlaa

1.

shouli* be placed withi^ar the;L«n^ape M^e^itftd spapes^ saparated
from/^heir a^roundii^ by/l^ncr^ or hMgaiT^ pe^^r£dlli&^^

sp-ace analogous tQ/''a Ch|itch«

^a new form of military cemtary in the First Wol^d war was the so

called " "eldenh^in"« wood of heroifi^ / Thi s~goes back to th« oaok

f/r^

1>^

as a sacred national trae^ mn idea strong in tha war of liberation^
taken up af ter 1870 in the planting of oacks to' celebrata thde
occJasionlTNow such a wood symbolisad Germany: a Garmanic sacrad
spaca, close to natura^ a priemieval life forca^J^et us ramember
also that for soldiers like £lex trancFwarfare had meant a particular
intimate experienca of natura ( which ha, in trun linkad to tha
Christian sacrament ) .J Tha quest for sacrad spacad to celebrata
the fallen was met hera in a specially relevant manners ^ermanic
nature, the analogy of the rem^al of nature and the resurrection
of the dead, of life and death as identieal, of simplicity ( oftan
a»-eyag against French pomp and bombast) could be satisfied by such

emetary. Warthin thn r.T'nfjrifwi of HIiIm apüice the cameradry-^yiimblised
t-hpough tha eeualitT of memurl&ls and cröasma^ " '''^j

manl:

iC\c\V wr^^i-^^Ti -Kn -hh^ ^YhiM

irable

war grav

wf

.f

^

t

it the idea of Philip Aries and others
that since the 19. centuiy death was supressed, as it wer«, cannot
standvclose exammation ftf nntiironalism and war oxperienoe. Her«
death was explained away, made acceptable, bot oft by supression but

■»I I

instead by its assd^ilation to Christianity and nature, ^ the drama
^ of natiqal salvation %m an intigral part of the ^mi^Ti-hl onol ^hrlit
iV \ Vand the ry.lthm of natura ^ i^nn in i-h^ i?*..U,:«.m„^ ^^i^^ul tUa liei^a' s

I ^^^'^^Afn^^

But violeaca and brutalj

7a.

•«fcOi-u^

War was supposed^ in Junger' s words, to unleash the elemental
rorces and he »ad* the parallel between catastrophles of nature
and war. This was not meant to be negative, but instead to
recall man to his genuine being^ to produce a new race. "All
^ermany böcame one Single heroic poem in the trenches". Thus
nature, poetry and Christian symbolism were all mixed up together
in Order to describe the war experience but also to determine the
intermittent resting place of the fallen - intermittent because
of their return to inspire the living.

».v-»"«

8V.

These perceptions were not confined to the world of the trenches.

To be sure, this was seperate world - directed not only against
the unseen enemy but also against the home front. And yet this
very^home front mimicked the war experience - sought to partici«
pate m battle. We come here to the process of trvivialisation

which accompanied the process of myth making^^ and indeed made

t^ ^"""^ . 1 1 - -- I ...^

the myth agrx^eable^comfortable by drawing its sting. The

war time theatre and the war time circua can aerve is illustrations.

Plays, such as Der Hjas ( one of the most populär peices)

contained not only stereotypes of soldiers and officers but also

^ battle scenes at Tableaux Vivantes.' Ciruces, above gilt Put on

Jrv

\i^\wi^ such preformances as " ^st and West" - great patridtic spectacle

^''W''-*^/'/*^ °^ *^-^?^t?®"* *'^^<^^ included storming a fortress. (Koppen 2?)
/['y^^'^i^^^ fameä_Sarasani circus. preformed " Europe in flames" , which

/y»^'^ p-ctured the war against Russia. The scenes included the elaborate

Staging of a battief ield with a cavalry Charge. The list of Ijrops
filled with costumes and flags also includes two machine guns at

the cost of 200 marks.

■■■* ^^ difficult to speculate upon the fiffect of such a spectacle.
On the stage, however, dying and even being wounded in battle was
often made to seem harmless and sentimental: there are higher goals

, for we stand guard with flaming swords, as one play puts
it in 1915. Wether plays or circuses surely they are not inimportant
in accustoming people to war and helping them to transcend the
experiences - trivial sing vS^as 'Thrills and adventure watched
from the confortable stalls.

War as myth, waÄ as trivia^was transmitted to the post war world:
thg- cemetaijp (.uiilliiuys to repreaent tho aaopedt but he:

8V. 2

as. Sacred, as the cult of the fallen - but also pulled down to

um !■ II I «

everyday life and thus trivilialised, The picture books which
recalied what happened, the Flanders plains as a tourist attraction.

y

^

e Si*H^£ ^^ ^^It^^^ ^ ^>*/i^^ ^^ >^ ^>P^^i^*^ic^ VH^ffiTvH/friY

In one s«ns« thes© were included by the fact that war itself was
made into sacred act (Mitaida daily ifff i dasirabla as fulfillmen^t ^.^'
mora di*#e«y"TFEer the war toi the many picture books which appeared
in Germany/^They wäre read by »Ä««r too young to participate in

•A-tj»"- d»

the war> For exampl« one picture book, The World War in Picturea,
(1926) asserts that what is important for future generationa is
that out of the noise of battle grew heroic figuers who evenafter
defeat ii*-»e*-i- death did not loose faith in "ermany. "These
pictures of true and noble comredeship remind ye«- us of that fact".
I do not have to teil you what sort of »'pictures ef horrer these were.
Franz Schauwecker presenting 200 battle pictures writes bluntlyi
whoever can only see the material and p^ical destruction presented
here is*?^d2h2jtÜiii*««t. For German national ism was renewed through
this destrVction. To live a life devoted to such nationalism means
at'thT "■-■ *r— to die ( Mitleben heisst mitsterben). It was Oswald
Spenger who connected such ideas to a ^erman revolution whieh-a«Bt
be-ea»»4ed-*h»©«gli of blood and iron (1926) which again is similar to
kf Junser's view of^JjJ»«- permanent battle which transcends war and peace.

^^^V^
<>^/,>^

ri^ar as a transcend^t experience legitimised war

T/^

wounding

1 1- III '•-•■

and killing. It aade the reality a.xsceptable. Not to all, but mainly

c- ■

to the young, those young who as far away as the wars of^liberation

had filled the Free Corps ( and were to fill those Free Corps after
tS'wM'^^whUh continued the battle, and in turn took sometimes. their
name from the wars of national liberation). A Study of the German
^if^*c. Soldiers song made in I9I6 held that older soldiers prefered s^ns
l/t^^'^ of home, nostalgia, wife and child. But that the^ young volunteer«

preferred songs of battle and death ( many from the wars of lit>«f*-
tion). Another, more patriotic study, of the same years^ »»jj^^j^^se
soldiers songs «8- containi«B a streng religious elemejhit~»o. *li the

^L)

>^

4.

/v (/4<€A^

Vimfi

songs of I8I3 - l:iere we are back with th# Christian drama which
has occupied as so much» That cameradry was important in all these
songs is born ont by this study as well^ and by ona of tha most
populär songs from the wars of Liberation ( for which it was
written) a^td the First world war " I had a comrada" by Uhland»

The themes I have outlined are not purely German: we find
them repeated in France and Italy (-•

in Home)» The theory behinj^Ws cemetaries does not vary much^ *^
though the ^erman claimed that the English wanted more i«fformity
in graves then they would permitt# This in an attempt to coBfi.ne
some individualism with the symbolism of equality »/ Paul Fussell's
important The Great War And Modern Memory ha« in it i«pl4eitly
many of our Symbols« Xe*-lB-EHgiaH4-«iBe-wa3P-(iet he also proove«
that English literature in the post was years in its majority
reflected a negative attitude towards the war which is not founSD^^
Germany^ Italy or France« Two polls on how 'bW honbur the war dead
taken among F^ench intellectuals in 191? stress the need for
symbolism rather then individuality^ the neccessity for simplicity^
of natura fand the example of the Monuments des Morts^ to give but
a sample'J ^

Everywere the " war experience" was transcendant^ lifting man out

of the boredom of life into a sacred drama were they could play

meaningful roles« Especially in defeated Germany^ but not only

there^ this war experience deepened the aeeeptaHee- concept of

t*/H 7*/ ff Vl4^^ €f^ Tum T^tutHti

, peacecas a continuation of war: political war, politlCTGPviolence»

jL i< There is some iatepest in the evidence of a «uflal for returned

(^y\^r veterans published by tne^Republic IHMböh recall^ them to realityi

fk^^^ the pre war laws are f still valid, the beaurocracy still ezists

,;/p- to pay your Claims». But ^eea44^ infused with the sacred it was not

'wf

easy to adjust to the profane*

^

9V.

l(AUt

Karl -Ksc^s in his Tourist Trips to ^ell in 1^20 reprints an

advertisement for a battlefield tour: while this is supposed to

convey " the quintessence of the horror of modern var'\ lunch with

wine and cofee is included, and ^raus is right to remark that you

will realise how comfortable survival is made for you« " The tourist

trip was worth the war". This exploitation of the battle fields started

almost directly after the waf : no doubt at first tourist s were mostly

returning soldiers or relatives looking for their dead among the

numeous cemetaries constr^uctted during and after the war. The Guide

Bleu for Belgium of 1920 notices the reconstruction^ the trenches

and Shell holes which \(ere being filled up« But memorials were left:

not only the ever present military cemetaries, but also the interior

of the fortresses aroung Verdun which became tourist attractions»

'^ ^C^PlP^ji^ —"

^enry Williamson, in his moving The Wet ^Ibaai^egs Piain of 1929 gives

a moat moying description of the contrast: the sacred and the profane«

the " most confortable Hotlfe in thd^'Salient" and the still present

Bayonet trench, were men had died with their bayonetts sticking up

over ground« The ve^ present souvenir trade with Shells, hemets and

rifles at the bottom of Hill 60 were tens of thousands dies« -^erhaps

the best summary is an advertisement for a tour: " You may go to

Shrapnel Corner or Tynecote cemetary - absolut ely largest in the

district, about 12,000 graves". "

Such trivilisation must be considered as part of making war acceptable:

■■■

in all its brultality here explained away not through any imitation of
Christ or symbolism but through making the unfamiliar, familiär«
This needs much more research: not so much on war time kitch ( Binden«
bürg mugs and the like), but through a mimiking of the actual war
experience as I have tried to describe it«

lt.

^ )

It must be clear that what I have analysed^^a basic diW»^on

of the post war world: tha veterans who continued the rhetoric
of the war ( as we have seen)^ the political partiee chiefly of

the rightvwho used the fpiend foo pictuge vhieh üame fpo the

wa:fr against thoi-g enemies>, For let us, finally^ remember that

this friend-foe pie%«ipe- relationship also dates from the wars
of liberation weye-SeM«He-eaiie4w when the French were called
the enemies of the o%«?ld", dogs and robbers. V^ian ^rndt wrote
thathe hated all ^renchmen without distinction - in the name of

God and the people.*^!;

■dioouooion

Wff^

OtQtO

■*feat -Äfl Christian ideas were absorbed into

^;^>^the transced^t sacrifice of war, the Christian reservations about
^hate and brutality were being abolished. The religio Jfc of nai^iona«
lism was absorbing the religion of Christianity and secularising it
in the process«

Just as I believe that öä this perhaps more subtle- levell of

^ ^^>h , m

[»Y-thepost

viol«nce, just so it seems to me that the absorption of the
Christian symbolism by the symbolism of war was, in the end more
important for post war Christianity then the obriotis " war theoloef"
preached by so manyi'ministers. Such ainia^era and The war chaplains
were not too populär in the trenches in any case, and healthy
scepticism about the c^ntantion that God is witlT ^u, or that
( as one ^erman minister put it) whoever kills an enemy does
Service to Christ was not extended to the Imitatioa Christi of
actual death and sarifice.

If I mm w'ni-hi>.-yhTnTl> l>.ft ■ivtnre of thio

the post World war I. world had to come to terms wjr-feirir», had'to"(i'V>;^

abs^arb^^This was easier for the right then the left/for those l¥*^

ih

^

11.

What conclusions can we draw, however tentative?

Gertainly the myth and trivia has something to do with the post -

— w» 'will w I II amw— 1WU»- ^MHMSnM^i^Ma«i^M^^M«a^M*«i^w«wP««

war violence in Germany, but also in other defeated nations.

■1^«

T3?vi¥iai4ea%ion Triviliaäisation and heroic myth both neccessaiy

«■■Kill

not only to face the dimensions of the war and mass death, but

^i^^Mi«MaiiiMiiMa«MMr»^\

also through facing and overcoming -^h^^e, making mass violence

i»e#e acceptable in the post war world.

In the last resort analysing such moani»g of the " war experience"

leads into a study of the brutalisation of the European mind -

^ ^ «> ——■-..

something historians dimmly associated with the First World War

•— — — — ■' . _^ ,

as a watershed in modern history^ but yrhich has never really been

articulated properly or analysed. For us that should mean facing

■ — •♦- w- - «•

the natura and consequences of modern war as a totality^ how it
changed the perception of men and nations. For us that should not

mean as it did then to Qveroomo'^

^G^p

- but

to r^verse this process. To exorcise war by grapping war as myth
and as trivia, oppooing bothi attemptin^to reverse the^politics
ox confrontation and brutalisation which^made men accept the
unaccep table.

lOa.

On the one aide the rhetoric could and did undergird the political
violence at the beginning and end of the Republic. But this violence
was also tamedt through Image of Christianity ( passion and resurrection
trasnceded not o ly death but also chaos and violence), but also through
the taming the " extraordinary" of war - not only its sacred nature but
also that detachment and joy in seperation from dialy life and familly
which 1 metioned earlier. This was tamed through nationalism itsel?.
As one tract by a veterans leader put itj war was out of ^dinary - but
what did we like about it most? home - leave. Why? because war furthered
love of fatherland and familly. ( Bartram, Stahlhelm). This a-^ctiriou«
argumet to tame the love for the extraordinary into bourgeois life,

How successful this was has not yet been investigäted. ^or opposed
to the hope of such leader was the strong friend - foe image brought home
from the war: the cameradry on one side and the hate of those outside
this cameradery on the other»

/

10^.

To be siire thare was no death and resurrection f or the enemy
dead - but we must go ona stap furthar. Tha martyrdom bt tha
fallan also ramovad killing tha namy from a kind of murdar into
Fa part of the sacrad drama« Tha famed dramatist ^erhad %uptmann
1 reflactad such idaas in I9I4: raadinass to sacrifica ona's own
lifa makas Ifilling no murdar^ and he was not tha only ona to
axpress such ideas ( Cysarz)

Clearly than^ it is vital to understand how

9b.

Maurice Sarres in bis story " Rie«-»- The dead rise up" has th#

dead in %ke trenchee literarilly rise up again to def eat the
ivading Germans«

9a.

/ 1

V

Ther« i« a heroes wood in the parioli district of Rome wer«
every tree bears the name of a fallen soldier» and in France
Eduard Herriot as ^ayor of Lyons proposed a " Jardin funebre"
composed of old tree«^ flowers^ grand and simple monuments.
Herriot referred to the memorials of the ancients which, as we
have Seen, also plapr^their role in Germany*

'J^.^

t

saw themselves at war against the Republic^ against Bolshevism
then for the left whic^ viewed the war as an evil brough on by
a Society gone wrong. M^uch has been written about the right in
this regard which saw itself a»ngrcontinuety with the past and
whose positive attitude towards the war infused the poat war world
with much of that violence I have mentioned, We dulling of
conscience not unrelated to'^azis and holocaust» How lasting
the attitudes which have been our concern could be^ can be
demonstrated through a book of memoiry of 1952: The unfulfilled
life of the fallen is funnelled into our own life, leading to
a deeper feeling and more effective action: the undefeated who
will win« But let us not make specific accusations against any
one nation until we have examined how all nations dealTwith
their fallen«

Next time I want to talk about continuty and difference in the

Second World war^ but above all w*tli the post war confron4ation

with the war experience, not on part of the Right but on part of

the left« Thiein order to examine wether an alternative to the

^w " ^

war and^^nationalism we have examined prooved possible itf those

I we%heip-%e-eeH4emH-%kie-wai

years

typioal that even

the left had to come to terms with the war as transcendent
experience» But once we have exmanined this problem we then
have a clearer view not only of relevance of our tbeme for the

i^»''

is but also for the II« World war ands its aftermath« A matter
which cannot be taken lightly Iru^thoee who^ ia-%he seidie3Pa-ee»gt
b^üeve with the Austria^g^ Grillparzer / from hmxnanity to nationalism
to bestaility" ( which this lecture seems to have proclaimed)^ or
who^believe that an alternative nationalism 'is possible«

>

12.

I et one wonders wethar the myth of the fallen soldier construcfd

over so Ipng a period of ti.a, finmg so deep a human need. can
i evar really change? Especially a myth which was made concref
throughjy^bols: the military cemetary, the sacred wood. th,
war memorial, a myth so closely raalated to Chrll^Ianity and
patriotism - indeed one^ that^ fused both these deep roof d
longings and traditions. "" ^^

The analysis I inted to give next time will, I hope, further
ütr^lttj the diD^mi, whcih arose and perhaps still arises for
men of good will through this confrontation. I-eaawrtr^rSirse

He stressed the fact that this syrabolic monument was free of any
taint of Utility^ indeed of any attempt to fit it into a material
setting» Nordau s praise combines emphasis on the " out of the
ordinary '!^of the Monument with its pesi^ie» beauty# It i»
a kind of festival in stone, but a festival of those who found
a tranquility were no one can bother them with mundane matter«^
were the mystery of death kae brought reeeaeüria^ie»»— (— iiar^he

Such example was theoretical and abstracto It was a
precedent in as much as it was symbolic for the transcendence of
death. But in reai the reality of theWiir^ the Germans prefered
simple traditional crosses ( such as were seen at the wayside,
for example) and rejected any allegory C such as we have in the
monuments aux Mortsjas opposed to that simplicity which could
best symbolise the ideal of sacrifice and hope« This simplicity

came to be associated with cameradery and manliness : harking back
to the 18* Century revival of antiquity and the " simple greatness"
Winckelmann had seen in Gpeek sculpture» Indeed, as I mentioned,
the graves of the fallen in the war of liberation were inspired by

II I I rninn«! ^^^^,

the same ideal #

Such cemetary must represent a sacfed aM well defined space«
jf^ — - Here Mb ^ht anology to m Chrmrch whose sacred space is clearly
seperated from the rest of the ordinary world** There it became ^
mandatory that such cemetaries bf enclosed by walls br dfencesj
forming a unity, even if it was part of a general burial ground«
Moreover, the First World War led to a new form of military
cemetary alltogether« . '

Ja«

:Prom a different point of view tha poet Rainer ^'aria Rilke
expressed the change which thevvar had brought: writing in
— 21^,,^^ l^ni^nted that nowheres deea-tke-iHci^ividHal:- is the
individual anymore in the centre of life h^A eopeoially death*
In the past, the cry of a downing man, and be it the village
idiot, brought everyone to the rescue, everyone was on on
his side: trying to save his life from annihalation* But now
eaiy- nothing belongs to one's individuality anymore: no feeling.
no hope - suff ering depair have been used up by the war as if ±M
only the whole existed and not individual manTThis passage is
worth ci^ing here: for what Rilke dimly realised was in fact
the far reaching result of sacrifice for the nation, and thus
a constant theme of what I have to say here« (55)

A war of national liberation stood at the beginning of modern ^erman
history^ and as we know today such wars are Singular ly ideological
nd brutal against the enemy«

this tradition went back to the wars of liberation againat ^apoleons
the first national wars whieh were partly fought by yolunteeri^^and
not by mercenaries. a»d— eTemtnally by eena^ipte aa iir(a3rl# These war
foreshadow^ i:P-pg^3F- to a degreey wha%-> the war ex-perinee of the
First World War«' ^he youg students who made ät the core of thA

volunteerÄJin particular^ had a total committment to the new

?/^ü

ittO^

religion of nationalism and a total willingness^ indeed long^ng
for sacrifice. Death and batt^l, vre part of a p^otry whioh
transcended the

li(äu*XiUif

of daily life« This ideal, the oubject

e^f pnamn hy ^\\mfsAf^i/^ Kn-nn^r>^ f'cM^ »yaropl ^ ^ WaS tO be Of lasting

importance« War as the Solution to boredom, to the burdens of
daily living, as a way out of familly responsability, as the
idealisation of the Bum of man - all this we find in >t^e
these waö at the beginning of the Century aad in the First World
War«'^ I«deed""H±rga^-V during thy^y- years way^^MPfagr^döi? Ab^ had

pradaed death -for lUe füJbherland as seae^hJbng. pnAslon and

But now such ideas of " s]5ftipping away the ^hemarial of
daily life" ( ^ttot Braun in the First Worl^^War) or war as a
" festijival" ( which we fiM both in the wars of liberation and
the First World War?)^informed the idealism of the volunteers«
This ie -imp^rtant^ we have no study about tl» volunteers in war:
but such ceecepts, l^Serhe song;^ 4« the wars of liberation wMoh

Hrfa and children were left behin^ wM^e life rsmi
became a sacrifioe and festixval

from

tbeses «are of nQti03M^3~^^DaratlOtt^^Tb^the First Wolrd War, %^
▼oluteers ff— ^■-■»j ^j^i'«!^ iiir..,JinT»r%pi| ig^g. ^r^A^^ß^^Äjk^^ ^5%i^-|£*
Second World war« Indeed we must remember the. tha so ealled
free corps of Tolunteers in the wars df liberation were fifififlfAll

8*

The cult of the fallen had in thi« «»^ -^

naa xn this way xts myths and symbol, alwava

connected with the sac edness of the war e^^r-s /

in Ghur^oy. ■ experience « troup« blessed

m Church ever since war of liberationA i», • •

^iberationO. The imitatio Christi, the
laeai of nature and camer adrv an o,,^.«

^ ^^ e:cpressed, but in the final resort

death in^ its glorificatlon mto peaoe ti.e. T^^Z'^ZJ' 7Z
ahmi-h ^->,^ . ^. ^® pictire bookß

about the war wh.ch appearea i„ 0,^,^ .„„ „„, ^^.

life ..r T '"" ^' *'^ "'""' *^^-P^ °^ -^-t .ade

life wol?th while. ( P9 - 4^T*f^i1

Finally, it seems to me thn-h -hK^o«. v

, , * *^^^* ''^«^° -^^^s "^d Symbols at least as

important as Krieesl-hö^i «n^ ,. " oi' as

Kriaeatheology, parhaps «ore so. Ohristianity alraady

.^taX.saUo„ o, ... .^opaan conacianca. T,e .a.a«o.3Mp „, .Ma
new v.e. o, aeat. to the Poet „a. v.oUnoe .a.a.p3 to Pa ipveati«at.a.

( contradt Jonathan of Entebbe medal January 25. 1977s " It is not for
the way he dies we honour him but for the way he lived"

. ' ^

■i

ih.^-

Frank Trommler, Sozialistische Literatur in Deutschland,
( Stuttgart, 1976) 579ff ( cameradery beneifitting Right)

1, Alfred Rosenberg: Weltanschauliche -^eierstudöen der NSDAP,
( Munich, 19^) 137

2. Joseph Goebbels, -^er Angriff; Aufsatze aus der Kampfzeit,
( Munich, 19^2), 251 ( from a speech, 7. November, 1927)

5. " Unternehmen Michael" (1937) quoted in Erwin Leiser,
^Vzi Cinema ( -^^ew York, 1975), 31 "^

5. cited in Theodore Ropp, A Century Of War And ^eace (1863-
1963), A Festschi»ift for Frederick B. Artz, ( Durham,
North Carolina, 196^), 108

^

^. but vs. Trommler: Gameradry on the front with its experience

at clasless society could lead some of those Coming from bourgois

youth movement to make breackthrow after the war to proletarian

youth: Alfred Kurella, Hans Koch, for example led into a socialist •

rather then volkisb Utopia. Kurella: got to know workers and peasants,

saw corruption among officers. (82) Ulrich Linse, Die Kommun» der

deutschen Jugendbewegung: Ein Versuch zur Überwindung des Klassen«

kämpf es aus dem geist der bürgerlichen Utopie. Die 'kommunistische

Siedleung Blankenburg' bei Donauwörth 1919/20 ('Munich, 1973)

Gross der Frontstudenten verhielt sich ablehnend zu rev. vorgangen
in der Heimat ( 94) Die waren von politischen Bewegung der Heimat

abgeschnitten, aber libksburgerliche Studenten, veivundet oder
deserteure hatten sie mitgemacht. (94-)

1 ■■■

V

dottrina dannunziana della guerra bella. (14)

Wai? gives to the outh capacity to illuminate their exitence
through a higher ideal: cpurage of war carries over into
peace - the high qulity of soul. (28)

^reface " Dicembre 1917» dopo ^aporetto, by Guiseppe
Prezzolini to Tutta la Guerra ( Milano, 1968 -^ first ed. I9I8)

Here also emphasis on volunteers like the Arditi.

/\

r

/.

\

/ V-( w-a-;

1/4^^^

rui^ k/^ß^

The question of how we got tfats way is often asked and an
unending one. Today I want to explore one corner of it:
now IS it that we came to accept mass death and even

— — — . — » ■ ■■ »

violence a#%ey in our Century? To explore this question

means talking about the so called " war experinece" of the

First World War - for this was the watershed. Everyone has

a dim realisation that this war changed the security in which

much of Enrope had lived, inferoduced a new dimension into

European life. Tht dimension is, I submitt, closely connected

with the confrontation with mass death, with the horrors of

— : ^ V>M -^ — "

war, in short with th#' experience.

But the experience had two dimension: the reality, disillusioning,

dreary and the myth which helped face trench life but which also became

The war experinece as it was csirried to the post war world» Thus we

must talk about myth more then reality: how war & death were accepted

through certain myths which became blinding after 1918, how the y)'^\\Z

trivialisation of the war itself helped for the home population^/^
- the mimicing of the war, is atbwere, through^circuses, theatres

and the battle fields as tourist attraction« From the sacred, as

you will see, we come to the profane, - but both made it possible

to face mass death and both brutalised consciences« J U^ ^ '^^^^

f*

7

\)

^ ^^ /<^<v*^ i>i^^<^^^

y /

-c..^

^ar and Warrions II

The warvexperienc# created a separate world within which sacrifice
for the fatherland was assimilated to th« i^mislce and resurrection
of Christ: death lost its sting. Moreover» war was regarded as
lifting man out of the dreariness of dialy üfe into a festival
Hi^.??5red festival at that..^Last time I tried to show how the

brutality of war and its horrors became acceptable and even a-t

9

t-i««e desirable as the fulfillment o« an otherwis« meaningless life.
A belief the war unleashed genuine, elemental forces and brought
man closejjo naturei^rfas another ideal; and in this way Christianity
and natura herseif were assimilated into the war experience in
Order that it might be tranooended. The new fexius uf mililary

Small wonder that the violence of the post war world was informed.
encouraged, by thisVwar experience. That veteri^s had difficulty

i?*^^^^^ ^^^® ®*???^ '<^^ "^^® profane aÄd-^juis^MtWre ^ that youth Ion«

— ' ' ~~'*~*-| •

ged for the kind of löeaning war and battle gave life4 The European

Right exploited such feelings, it had no scruples about the conti»

nued glorification of the war experience» ^e ^^is/ for example,

built much of their ideology upon it, after^the war had also been

the greatest and most lasting experience in Hitler* s o%m life.'

( though the first Nazis were workers and not primarilly veterans).

We already quoted the Cho>^s of Hitler Youth and Alfred Rosenberg

to the effect that when sacrifice for the fatherland was at stake

life atid death were identical, that the äea- fallen would rise

again and inspire new victoriel, As Goebbles put it: soldiersv^

p«t/ their sacrifice upon altar of the futvire, Germany is illuminated

by the dawn of their resurrectionV The ^azis presented themselves

as maki-jg pojBsible such an event, y. being the-iHeeFpe^ f med with /

la«

c

ti

war is beautiful ( and sacred). Its greatness lifts man's

heart high above individualism

euüUi^ ul war, characerised the spirit of I9I4#

WJL*^^^

daily lif©'\ as' Foerster, a|i

" Not the rattling of swords ieaete-%e- pleases the ^erman heart ,
but a more frofound joy in war and a longing to live according

to war.".

Mo-i

Quoted in Fr. W. Foerster, ^^ein ^ ampf gegen das militaristische
Deutschland, ( Stuttgart, 1920)

2.

Ü.Ü

the spirit of the fallen which, as I quoted last time, enter the
living at night to encourage them to victory. Indeed Hitler was said
to have layd bis military victor; es upon the graves of the fallen
of the First World War, as p«*l)^^g^r belated gift ^9. movement
which understood* To be sure, after the First World War these
ideals of the war experience had helped face defeat and to explain
it away/ aßdr--ereii=Är^i(^r ffierr of 1957'bas the lines "••posterity
will measxire us not by the greatness of our victory but the
dimensions of our sacrifice'^ Othero however, s«w a permanent
war ipif which Versailles was an Interruption, others again meant

the " war experience" when they sought VVQntraiH^4?c^'"b^^ ^
3rtfe* Indeed the azis especially used " anti- bourgeois" in such
a fashion, as it had been used by soldiers against homefront during
the war, and as military and bourgeois cemetaries had been contrasted,
Bourgeois was pomp, absence of manliness, devpid of facing death
and resurrection anS^ature. In the hands of a writer like Paul
Alverdes the war became indeed a thing in itself , detached from ,
itd environment, a sacred space inniTHTcB^Efie ^a^il'db n^ ^^i^ttii/^^^.

l^ B6t feVen the Weimar Republic was infected by this ideali
the bourgeois were ae*- attempting to come into line with the
war experience. For example, the so called day of mourning
^ Zf?.L^£.^£?!^?^s) mirrored such thought. Thus in .1926 the official
guidelines of how to celebrate that day urged the preformance of a
play by Richard Elster in which a fallen soldier returns from
the beyond in order to liberate Germans from rapacity anddisloyalty
to the fatherland^/^Tke Day of Mourning was supposed to be a day of
hope# When the Nazis took it over they commented that those who
participate should not be depressed but instead takeh out of their
daily'ari^s. J^ J

2a.

As a famed slogan of Franz Schauwecker put itj We had to loose
^he war in^order to gain our nationW. This 4a-a-»ewl-afee»t
as the frontispiece of a novel about the battle of Verdun.
Yet the Nazis continued this reaction to defeat by explaining
it as victory:

The war experience seemed to continue into the post war world* But
what should be the attitude of the left towards this phenomena?
This is an important question, for it raises the possibility of
alternatives* The left had reluctantly agteed to the wap^ had
increasingly opposed it^ and indeed the ideology upon which it
was built ffiitigatod agaiiist glorification of war. In fact the

excuse of the ^erman left in as much as it accepted the war was
that it was'to destroy reactionary Russia ( and in France^ that the
reactionary i^aiser was to be d^s-broy). These aims %rwe- were now
accomplished* And yet the continuty of the sacred war experienceV
had to be faced: it was too powerful a driving wr in politics«

Here, once more^ we can only hypothesise, for no research has
been done on this vital question, indeed the qnestion has not really
been asked* ^^e s^Loagn " maas slaughter" which many socialista
voiced after the war did not solve the problemi but aggravated it^
for it could nf>t belp fBöflrdefeat a nd'Teath» ( let us remember that

there was hardly any ^erman familly who had not lost someone near
and dear in the war)«

SiiJ'Cial Democratic Youth Organisations attempted to harness the

war experience to the new Republic. And although several socialist
novel« attempted to tranfer the ideal of c8*radery from the war
to the Republic, Frank Trommler is no doubt correctV^hat the spurt of
iiiterature about Community benefitted the Right rather then the left.
, for this wasVcommunityUrhich knew no classes or classwarfare^ But

SPD but includmg othert paPta.oo-f Jir^ndly to the Republic thi

„. ^. ^^. - ,. , ^„^, . C /^O flH \'i ThiSit** rh4,^t*^
smce its foundxng ( 1924 ) attempted to attract veternarf. v

A led by the

Typically enough, at first, The Reichsbanner took the largest and

conservative vetern^s Organisation^ the Stahhelm^ as itö inodel#
■^'^^^^^^^•^ ^^^* uniforms, worshipped the flag - playdi^military^

*-

which so we are told, was especially enjoyd by the Reichsbanner' s
youth Organisation. It used a vocabulary that was taken from the
war and similar to that of the right " Volksgemeinschaft" ^ the
Community of bourgeois and proletariate: to foree an iron band
Of ^ermanism outside all class concflict. It Üos had a leader
( Horsing). But such reM&iants of the war experience, attempt»
to harness the veterans to the Republic were highly ambivalent.

Paul Lobe^ the SPD leader\ for example. affirmed that socialists

•■»-■•-

f were opposed to uniforms and militarism " but if we can harness
I youth through this to the Republic", then\e are acting out of
political neccessity. 'Such, youth another Reicsbanner leader
asserted are l^ept from joining the murderous volkish bandits.

m i^

-Lhe Weimar Republic was not quite as naive ik it»
defe^ne as has sometimes been picturer; we mentioned last »Arne
how the cult of fallen heros wa0-«ise4- and their resurrection was
used in the offical day of mourning. And yet there was conflict
within the OFgaaie Reichsbanner about its " military pretensions"
which opposed the strong pacifism within the SPD. One way to
solve such a conflict was to ignore the First World War on
behalf of the revolution of 1848 which had given the Republic
the colours of its flag. The official hymn of the Reichsbanner
after praising these colour» called them " holy" - for these
our ancestors once died. The flag of the First World War was
of cours black red and white.

But this redirection of the war experience to a different conflict ^
which we will find repeated in the " Red Fighters ^eague" of the
Communists ( when it is the red army and the October Revolution

5^ ^

aaj^ which io THE wai<J" seems problematical. Tnel^eterans had been
through a specific and unique war and not through 1848 or the Octobap
Revolution« The Reicsbanner showed its own ambivalence: druma
were muffled^ soldiers songs were sung less loudly and less
feit and indeed marching according to army regulations was forbidden*
Militai^r decorations were not forbidden, bnt rarely worn« When in
1950 the Reicsbanner put up so caliejr " troups f or protextion"
( Schutsjformationen, gpmethljg the SS wi

>d--%o~be for the

the military was emphasised| but at the same

« LI

time the " leader" of the Organisation became the chairman and the
constant undertone that war was, after all evilj, came increasingly

-^nspitJe' ais erj

j

— - — •

Reichsbanner collapsed easilly in iJJ- 1955 • The inner contradictions
of an essentially socialist Organisation attempting to attract
veternas throug^^war experience ^Feve4-a-#aiiHiPe -wae- aroused
much comment at the time« It proved a failure«
What about the newly formed Communists who were not handicapped

^" ■'"■ I ■ ■ «Wim ■■■ ■ n

by undue pacificsm or loyal ty to the State? The so called

Rttfrontkampferbund (1924) prided itself as over against the

Reichsbanner on the absence of rank - in reality the Rotfornt«

kampferbund attempted to " cultivate memories of the war experience"

dT»^-«s"the hated SPD »nd nepublieaM rival« Thus thejr also praticed

the cult of the flag, li*d uniforms, vfipecial g2»ee%4iigv- salutes*

andjsebkn* In fact at first the offical KPD was sceptical of all

this " reactionary Wilhelminian pomp". It wasxonly in 1925 when tV^^
^halmann was candidate for President that the party came to agree

with the aims of the Bund of which Thalmann was, after all the

el»±rman* Now they became the " shock troups of revolution"«

At the same time, however, ^ke4ip*ain-wa0-4i»ee%e4-away-fFeB-^ke

« .

5*a

^^

et the/was an ef f ort3t_JLaai minute renwal: the Iron Fron was
fo«i4^ in 195I as the shock troups of the Reichsbanner* It hired

iii<ii'i>iiiiw mt

as Propagandist a fascinating character: a former Propagandist
for the bolshevik revolution who had emigrated ( no taows why,
perhaps he had rfenschevik leanings) : Tschachotkin. ^e was
pupil of pewlew's and interested in crowd psychology# His »logan

was to beat the wea^ r^azis W3.th t

^ THi^l'fi Pi^^H jf%.n^

s: the SPD had

been too rational and logical in argumenta' ^hic was geod for only
a^minority but the— majority miist Jbe.ie3g&0p#d^-^^y^-th:g±r-eiito^on
Thus he got the ^ron Guard to demonstrate its power through massed
marches, to use only Short sloganÄtßutas a result the bourgeoi»
sie was fvightened^and theclron Guard w#e a purely SPD associatipn.

We must note^^this Imitation of the Nazis ^not confined to
the Reichsbanner, but also attempted by the Oommunists ( this time
including anti semitism) - not only in appealing to national emotion^
to a show of power but also in forming shock troups: the SS, the
Iron Guard, the Rotfrontkampferbund ( of which more in a minute)#
The Reichsbanner did loose 50 dead in fights vwl^fe — aziis but mainly
Oommunists« The "^ron Ouard came too 'late, was too narrowly based»
( Tschachotkin also advised the chief German-'^ewish Organisation,
by the way)« The doctor could not lead to patient to victory«
The internal contradictions I have mentioned were, at_the roott

socialm was rational ^^'pÄciftBt-^for^tBe^SPD and international«

WA Symbols, Slogans, activism vs. speeches and statistics ( as he put
it in his memoirs: The Rape of the Masses (I955)"-**""^^W5e arrows,

of freedOM " •

6.

while the "sacred dead" of the world war were remembered, the
war itself was condemned. Here there was indeed no equivocation
as in the Reichsbanner» The war had been dgedfui experience,

«

foisted lipon the work(>ng classes by capitalists« It was an
" imperia]/ war", while the true war was the class stmggle«
The Constitution of 1926 stated specifically that the aim of
the Rotfronkamf erbund was the cultivation of class consciousness
and the fight against nationalist nad military Propaganda,

This fight, however, was conducted militarilly: disciplitied,

uniformed in street battles iH- or i«i protecting the Communist
J

speackers o^^^jj^mongLtrations-froB- right-

e - and

YpPH

-iike-eei»-%e-%fee«T taking revenge «»i the Right« One
has the feeling that the " war experience" was displaced into
the Aufmarsche ( entry's) with their massed flags, bände and
uniformi, into the civil war which would soon begin to rage
between extreme right and left* Activism served to mitigate
the difficult transfermation of the sacred war experience into

thaet o^. having bppTNta^^tf-ii» an imperialist war# Eyentually,
moreover, as the Russian Communist party gained ever greater
ascendency, the war experience was in offieial rhetoric
, transferred away from ^ermany alttogether: now it was the
red army which became symbolic of the right kind of heroism
and sacrifice# The common ideale of tneYwar experience were
rejected. 'J^/!^

The Rotkampferbund also failed eventually, and here again this
failure is surely connected to its use of the war as a warning
and not*^a sacred experience, its attempt to project the concrete
experience^upon the future class struggle or « f o3?eigiiV^etf'"firi^,
The left could not truly accept the war experience, and

%,J^

7.

tids was surely a handicap in post war poli^ics» Just how big

a handicap future research will have to show us. ( ^^)

,,JjBf{f ^ V

Även €o^ the ^erman left veternas associations I have mentioned

contrast with, for example, the French Association gepublicaines

desj^ncien Cpmbatjbants > f ounded by Henri ^arbus'eeV^rd'^'i^'^^

of the Communist meuvwmn^ ani-party^ 6arbusee sDsUo called his

Organisation a " party of order" thus continuing ideals of

discipline from the war experience. H© also contrasted thase

who had experienced the war with those who had not, and saw
in veterans a tru^community. But here""thre similarif^y'end^^
There was no imitation of militarism: the condemnation of the
war as an imperial adventure was not diluted by the repetition
in peacetime of war time behaviour. Totall;
coRditioning to war-^and-death-of-^erman post irar-^rcTure books
whxch^ mfintioned- Igifit timf^, one writer speacking for %^f- -^ar«
busse's Organisation distinguisged two patriotisms: that of the war
of 191^ whichbyouth shoSd^*^ate,/and the lyric, tender love of
fatherland* This, f^^^ytoblisee was not exclusive but included the
veter^s of all countries. In one sense being a veteran trai^cended
nationhood ( and an international veterans Organisation was indeed
founded). People, Barbusee, told the foundi^g meetingVin I919 are
everywere the same, have the same aspiration and the same enemies*
The veterans must point the way: %fee-e«^-ve%ea? they must fight for
socialism and against war« Barbusse even called upon them to use
the general strike^in their fight, The great and noble ideals for
which one dies, wrote Vaillant -Couturier, are justice, freedom and
f law« The toHe is quote different from that of the German left, but
then ^ermany was defeafed, had undergone a cycle of revolution and
counterevolution and was soon drifting into an undeclared civil war*

7a<

<^tfi/LM f^P-

0X

H^

f^

This handicap existed despite the enormous successYof Erich ^aria
Remarques All Quiet On The Weatem Froat (I929)# ^ere the Symbols I
have discussed »^re reversedj dea/, cpmrades, for example^ will also
be resurrected after the war^ but Renarqu* askes with some irony -
thej will march against whom? For whom? ^ere also there is no fear

of death but terror of death instead* Indeed All Quiet on ^he Westema

1

FuDnt is a novel of despair about the post war world, of what wal^had

made of this woi^d ( nothing can be expected of yputh once the

war is over) and this fitted the mood, but hardlj the kind of optimism

political movements» needed for success« Thus the ^erman left parties
. — ^ — ~— ' '-" ' ^St^'-iS^^ ^^ Ck^*'^ A *p^^ ^cU VC '^' ^^uM^ ,^

also playd with the war experience as something positive^ ts« Remarque)
sometümig^tlLal could ue uoed to rally the masses* 4-

it

8.

y©t -Wi» brief CTi»ce at the ^rench lef t

heightens our und erst anding of the ^erman Situation: how much
closer the^left came to accepting the political neccessity of the
continuty between war and peace and how it partly broke^on its failure
to reconcile its tradition with that neccessity*/ 5^1
Let me summarise at this point what I have tried to outline in these
lectures: The earlier wars of national liberation against ^^apoleon
and the First World War absorbed ideas of Ohristianity into the
religion of nationalism - complete with^eatn^KresurrectionT and
slavation» The war experience by the use of such a secularised
Christianity and praise of the <9.emental, the "festival of war"
which removed men from the^responsibilities of daily life^ created
a myth and powerful one of war and warriojllrs« This myth laid
fsome of the foundations for the violence in Weimar and was so

^

\>^

perv^Lsive that even the left had to come to terms with it and thus
in a sense to play into the hands of the right which did its best
to further this myth# (^^/

But today, you might say justly, all this is swept away as if it had
never existed. '-^he Second World War did not^^create such myths. This
is certainly true in great part even in Germany. A war of materiell
buried the last tradition of war as the grand experience. Indeed|

iterestingly enough, some English had alreasy noticed this change
after the battle of the Somme,: war was becoming impersonalised^
great ly to their regret. But for all that the First' World War with
its trencheSi shock troups, even cavalry could still produce myths
which the Second World ^ar could id longer maintain properly. ^Weover^
foap-^all::=ife^-inytt^^i4rTi^^ been a myth and when it came to actually
repeat the war experience there was little doy not only in England
or France but even in Germany. To be sure^ the ^azis did their best

8a. .

^ndeed as Frank Trommler has recently shown^ the german anti- war

left in I9I9f especially the young socialistSi di^ sustenance from

•^arbusee^ for in Germany itself such a clear anti wair stand and

l^fi "püsiliüUig Pur class struggle had been swamped by the " spirit

of I9I4" with its emphasis upon volk Community ( Indeed Le Feu ''f irst

published in the mögt important German anti- war paper ( ^ie Weissen

in erman, 191?
Blatter, published in Swizerland by ftene Schikele). But the ^erman

/•/K '"■^"-^

tradition of the war expeience^'too deep rooted in the loag pui^, for

the majority of the left to recieve and absorb arbusse's kind of
internatio^alism«

Knm^n,^- ,1»-^ i.,.^ *^J. «,. .ia.-j_

app^arance^ For example in thVFilm* In A Guy %med Joe t( 19^3)» iH)r
example^ a dead pilot ( Spencer Tracy) does not die at all but is
resurrected to teach the next generation of pilots ( D'Annuncio's
idea that dead close ranks with the living). ^he young pilot meets the
4e«4-«ÄHe- fallen hero .s girl and is encouraged by him to marry her«
More such examples are vailable, But inspite of this continuty the
Second World war is not so filled with the Imitation GhristiagL as the
first, and the post war weird no longer contiuned these myths in any
case*

\

\

8|.

f(

^.

ßfC Small wonder that Simone Weil writing to^Bernanos in 1958. and

resM^n: " As.soon as men

looking at Germany^

T^**"^

know that they can kill without fear of punishment or blame, they
kill} or at least encourage killers with approving smil.s. If
anyone happens to feel a slight distaste to begin with, he keeps
quiet and he soon begins to supress it for fear of
seeming unmanly ".Simone Weil had grasped * intuitivly the
t essence of what so many called the " spirit of 19I/1." and which
theyj|ä^eijfe^_gerpetuate. As a matter of fact she was echoing
w^atr William James had alredy written in bis Moral äquivalent to
Wap_ (1910) " showing wars irrationality and horrror is of qo effect..
the horrors make the fascination. War*, is life in extefmis*^ Kopp).

•^he war itself did not modify bassically ^ames purely theoretical
smÄlysis, but instead seemed to turn it towards^a more positive
abftoacption of * life^o^attle pni dtath, B>^V^ ^ ^^^^^^^^ X/*<^-

l

9.

to contmue the tradition we have analysed. But two things are
typical for a changed athmosphere even for the so called " inheritors
of the war experience". Firstly Propaganda , and especially the MhC/
Film,^weht back to older traditions then the Na«- First World War^
- such as that of Frederick the Great, for exsunple? but above all » ^

lih^^ ^^^^®^"^^^'^®^ ^^ ^^^ political entertainment* Secondly, fiitlerVwas
I ^J^j ^^^ careful to blame the war on the internal enemy^ the Jew, thus

denying responsibility for having unleashed the kind of war of
revenge that he had constantlypromised. Even though he did so
mainly to have an excuse to exterminate the »^ews, he still also
^^ /x__3f£^ the diff erence between I9I4 and 1939 >y This time in defeat

there was no repetition of tiirncim^Tmratri:on--of:^^
i4a4;a-^^e j)eace»^ Yet for all that some constants remain:

■ -IM! HUI w^ii n,^, ,

i«v5vr*.

The Symbols of death^ the military cemetery, for example - as a

7)^(f^^ '^^^^'^sacred space, as^'burial gi^e^pd were equality reigns, that-±s the
\cy^*\tf^ cameradry of war expressed through the similar graves: theVdiscipline
^^\ ^^^\,<^^^^^S^ ^^^®^* ^^^ ^* ^ ^^^ literature lacking which expresses

the ideal of Community byond classes (m Arthur ^erkow and others).
But theae are^weack continuities« The only place we still

\jji/

K

*!/*''' ;

c^

'^i

find the old war myth alive is among groups like the veterans of
the SS. divisions* There, in a Journal typically enough called
^^^^-^--T^'^^^^®^^" ^ itself recalling on whose Shoulders much of
the myth had rested in the earlier wars) we read about the dead
rising again and invading our dreams and giving us a new faith.
This recalls in 196? that praise for the Army and "avy of 1920
which I cited last time. There we also find nostalgia for the
First World War which was not yet dominated by the " inhumanity of
mashines". Such SS. divisions attempt to ca^ry on an elan and a
cult which had informed »keit volunteers during the^ar. '^■■»iügi^

afftllirtrron^ a member- of^he~jiiv4Ai(

^^ i*f(-«ijifi-ai»f.««i.i«^

9a.

6^

Alexander von Bormann has analysed the soldiers songs of the w
2# World War in ^ermany« And while some of them repeat themes froin
the First World War ( and when the handgranate goes off, ones
heart laughts in one's body), he found that mostly such songs are
characterised by a patbos: to be soldier means a, certain comportment
a certain pgoud attitude in face of death. But this is combined
with a certain fatalism and realism as well« ( whoever understands
what a bullet is*±)Out, faces it in a relaxed manner) • Thus the
tone seems to be different even here despite efforts at popularisisng
ideas of the the blood sacrifice« Yet von Bornkamm^s study is only
partial and again we face a hypothesis rather then something prooved«

We can also hazard that a kind of boredom was missing so
Wide spread among bourgeois youth in 191^ ( and present ae&eady in

— - — m^^^dnß^

the Youth Movement and the suicide rate) - a boredom which made
war seem a way out of routine and'^^to meaningf ula#€Mr; ^etween the
wars there was liftle of such boredom, in wai?- revolution, inflation,
depression, all the new in the arts and in thought, the challenges of

•— H » I ■»■ Mi « , . il.i

left and right. I feel sure that this is a factor in the different

attitude in 1959 in Germany, at least: there was precious little
routine to be disrupted.'Mlhe existiCnce of all the ^azi festivals
which meant mass participation ( not justVparades) made war as a
festival less neccessary« These factors must be weighed in with
the increasing mechanisation of wari^^f^f 4^ ^^ ^JffinG'>f^t

Pw*»**

w< « f'^

7

10.

^Affiliation" a member of the Division Oharlemagne called his
membership in the SS. during the war. ( De a Maziere,?!).

Yet such groups are small and unimportant: interesting only
for a continuity whick in reality seems to betve VÄ»i«hed* The

r

^ nev typei the new race of warriors of which men like Junger aad

voiuIiBi'aefteii dreamt after the war did not last, was not even

re^uvenated during the second world war which should have been

the culmination of that message of resurrection brought by the

fallen soldiers to the livin^f^ But the very men who had done

so much to propagate myth during the^R^guMic^Lj^thdrew^

^ rTXke^nger aad '^alomol^
horror and contempt when the ^azis tried to make it reality.

when the Fuhrer'^laid liis conquests on the toombs of those who

had sacrificed theor life in the First World War. HapilLy the

continutty was broken , hapilly the war experience no longer"V"

transeiaos death and'-Woun^Tng^ - and is not apt to do so ^äway

when wars are brought into the living room on television. In a

Iworld were so much is amiss, we can take heairt thae^ugh this

I development: most e^-Hs- have forgotten the exaltation of the

/ we344-^ wars and warriors which was very muchi^alive only

^ ^0 years ago, and not merely in ^ermany itself •

The^Economist can in 196? write about the "unloved soldier",

pointing out how H»i»i»yee©ed some visitors to a second world

\iB.T military cemetary were unimpressed and without reverence.

hangev^is best symbölised'by an advertisment

But perhaps this change\

aai ü

for a medal Struck in honour of Jonathan of Entebbe ( anuary
25» 1977) •\" It is not for the way he die^ that we honour him^
but for the way he lived", '^

i

6a»

To be sure some expressionist and left wing intellectuals of
Pfemfert's Adtion haä seen the Russian revolution as part
of drama of the sacred resurre¥"tion of minkind ( Kolinsky^ I?)
but this was in isolated phenomena.

N

{

Frankl, Paul T.

New dimensions; the decorative arts of today in words &
pictures, by Paul T. Frankl. New York, Payson & Clarke
Itd. [^928]

79, [1], [88] p. of illus. front., illus. SU"^.

1, Art — Hist.— 20th cent. 2. Decoration and ornament. 3. Art In-
dustries and trade. 4. House decoration. 5. Architecture. i. Title.

Library of Congress
Copy 2.

O

28-13982

Copyriglit A 1074753

N6490.F7

l3,

'■'..m «M '««ijHB

/

JS/^

u

#^

K/lo COAf^TßoPxG? COLLEGE l^(pS

\

w^U^Cdte^ 7^^ s; rfcS'

fn

iM,d^

ylCiU^

" How can a good man survi"H4 in an evil world?" These word of

Niccolo Maohiavelli written over f o"ur hundred years ago caii serve

as a theme for a historical conside4»ation of relativity in raoral

life. Biit they can serve for a theme only: for Maohiavelli himself

■■!■ 'I I ■liirr'iiirr'U

J.

had a definite view of morality: not that of Christianity but that

Mit, dOc r^>^»><^*»<^i

of the Roman Republia» Indeed the very posing of this problenTtis

of a relativly modern date.

If we contemplate the centuries between Maohiavelli 's and oiir own

one feature Stands out: the belief in a truth as an absolute which

has inf ormed irvery age - until our ovn Century» This is so for the

age of the R¥f<Di^tiön7 ^äWoIic^ all the*'^

,r- nnii ~- "

differences eacxh of these branches of Christinaity admitted that

the other came from a common stock, however corrupted. Even when
the Christian impetus comes to be challenged in the 17. and IS*-

centuries the dawning age of the Enlightenment also preaiipposed

an absolute moral truth: that of the good ness of man and of the

»•••mat«

power of his reason» But we can go even further: the 19» Century ^ -
the Century of the great industrialisation of ihirope destroyd "o^scci^
traditional bonds which had bound men together» But it attempted _

to counter the alienation of man from his society, the acquisitive

Society ( now at its hight) with a compion and strict morality,

A morality derived from the austerity of niddle class endeavour,

from the evan^elical revivals of the 18 » Century » John Welsley's
Work, pray and save; the idea of the Christian gentleman whose

character is inf ormed by stricrt morality of duty, faimess, and
application to his w^rk© At the very time when it might seems that

.f

2.

the pragmatism of the Bnlirfitennent might produce a pra/matism

in morals as well, the niddle classes replied withi a Christian
morality which became the morality of the West: though we still
call it " Victomianism" "by its Knglish name«

In previous Century we can surely say that the vast majority of all

populations in Burope stood by their inherited Christian morality,

•MMaHMaaBaMMBll« «B»«»>»«-fc~— -^ ■-* -■

as they conceived it. In a peasant society, this was primitive, to

be sure, and partly superstitiuous : but Standard was there and it

«S'3k<a2a9!tnRBKK*'«r»

was a common Standard > With industrial revolution this society was

disrupted and now the middle classes atterapted to spread their^

morality to the working classes: again to provide a moral eamest-

ness which woiild biiild character and prevent licence. Even the

•"»"'^•'»mm^

revolutionary movements of the Century feil in with this: Kai*l

fiarx revived tlie 18* Century ideas of human natxire of itsrationality

and its essential goodness if not corrupted.' He took over the

middle class pictiire of familly life, and indeed idealised it7

We raus-e~löoIc eTsewere for the endto moral certainty and för"~
a beginnrng of that moral uncertainity which characterises cur own
age« It haß been said that the Reformation itself by throwing~ —
dispute over the proper Standard of religious knowledge into the —
marketplace was partly responsible* But as I have said Christian —

Burope still had a common Standard of morality, and variations were
of degree rather then in essentials. The sceptical movement of

the 17. Century is a better forerunner of modern dilemmas, but
-X)nly partially so. For the sceptics most assuredly believed in a

•* ■ ■ -

moral life but they took it down from heaven to earth: it was a_

3.

_part of the " clear ideas" man should have through his own reason«^

There was little of relativism about the moral life most of them

QLQJ^gj-ly.^QQQ^J-'^Q^f 'b^'t they did detach this life from it's mooring

inasupemat-ur al , eternal, religioiis belief» Here some of the

18» enlightenment followed siiit and gave this an ever more prag-
matice emphasis, But it was not to last, the 19. centiiry undid

naich of this and the Christian gentleman hecame a model which

MHMiBMHMiklMMnNUM-

J«*,-t^*^jiRL»" ■ ^

penetrated deeply into our civilisation.

*°-" — < - . ^ -

«»II»»

A rauch more important starting point exists within the moral framework

itself - that common Christian morality. I can characterise it very

briefly hy sa3''ing that the framework of what was allowed was con-

tinually heing streched. This

rocess which starts in the

Renaissance and at that point were modern politics first begin

mmn

to intrude upon the moral sphere, Morality in private life was
distinguished from morality in matters of State: in one the

Standards raiist be kept, in the other they could be jettisoned«

Tn a woriar~of~wars , economic crises ( with the first begihnihgs of

commercialisation and industrialisation) and of power politics
the pessimism about man deepened. It is a phenomena which we can

ii

See alr^dy before the Reformation» The resixlt I can simply

suramarise through the wordsof a devout Calvinist, a leader of his

Chiirch at the beginning of the 18, centiiry: if God himself came

down from heaven to confront scovmdrels, He also would behave like
a scoiXdrelo We are back with the theme which Machiavelli had first

recognised

^^^ ^/v^ ? /f>^ The distinction between private morality and public morality was

4o

diificult to uphold, and a whole series of casuists was much

concerned with this problem.

Two things then happened to Christ ianity in the 19. Century: firstly

*il i!j

the norally allowable was streched ever more, and here the wave of

nationalism came into play: it virtually subjected Christian morality

to the national ethos, to the national interest. Eisenhowea?: " head in

the clouds, and feet on the groamd". Becondly, it

ed the

s tri et middle class morality of which I have talked» On the one hand

■i. «^ ^t*<*«3yte><*<wa»- *«-*M.; «^t

«fc»«e*«?»f#

it seemed to hecome so hraod as to meaningless, on the other hand

it seemed so strict as to stifle human creativity.

tWiiMtf*

wm

Such is the historical dimeneion of the problem as we confront modern

timea. These considerations seem to me more important then the warfare
between science and religion, thou^ this did contribute by further

». :^mf^ ••^^•fcT.-

i»a»«fl0iMai

either discrediting the fundament of Christianity, the Bible, or~
Coming to the aid of nationalism and racism against Christianity»

We stand at the beginnings of our times: and that means in' ~
the vital last decades of the 19. Century, The revolt in this period
against Victorian morality is well known, it took in the most arti- -
culate younger members of that generation. The important thing to —
notice that those who revolted tended to be critics rather then

founders or renewers. The Slogan was " shobk the bourgois", point
out the stifling atmosphere which they had created. It was time of.
chaotic longingii and the German Friedrich Nietzsche became the newr.

— i^X" ■.■»■ ■

Crodof these young intellectuals all over JJhirope - not just in Grermany,
Here all the traditional morality was denied» ^ In ^oetic,

I

extatic tones, Nietsche tourJit that every man must create his own

5.

iL U^Jh

jaorality without regard to that anyone eise. Christianity was slave
morality, and here he thoußht of that middle class morality I liave

soughti'^ to analyse for jsrouo Man thrown upon himself alone and all

depended upon his own strengtli of will» The exhaltation of the

Ol Hwtammtmmmmtmmm

human will is important here: it not only abrogated the old but

riiä-Mim

agressivl^r so, The earlier Systems of morality, wether of the

diverse forms of Ghristianity or of the Enlightenment had depnded

lipon disciplining man into a commTknityo This needs no elaboration

-«ta

for the Catholic Chiirch, but even Luther 's, often misread, indivi-

W»«n'

aü^-timt-i*'fi

dualism had been directed towards forming a '* Community" of Gliristians

ft.*'^?'^''- ■ ^ -

through faith and grace, It never occurred to Luther or those wha

iWi >!<■—>

came after him that this inner grace, this faith, could work against

the Community of men, towards a nacked individualism. Man might

ühmmh

MHHMi

stand alone before God, but in this world he was bound to moral

tr ^V£" Cfii^^ t/fit*Tf j_ _ .: !__!_ ülTÜ*!""

code^ "

Nietzsche was the ver^r oppo8ite~öf this, and for all his apologists

he was the true destroj^er of whatüad been ä^eed morality. He was

taken up avidly and the f irst world war higlitened his appeal. As

men came back from the debacle all over Europe: many now believed
that indeed only struggle and force counted, that man must fight"

" without banners" simply for the sake of nacked survival, These -
were the storm troupsof fascism through out Burope. r*^^'*^

But the elan of Nietzsche coul.d not be maintained, even in his own

«M

time. He was tamed by the majority of men: the individual's strength
of will meant leadership, but in a cause. The irrationalism remained-

and the cause was nationalism. The lesson was this:/ will power is

6.^^

what counts, not the old norality, But this will power mißt be
used in the national cause. ^

You can easilly see what this did: it advanced the national interest,
the ethos of the nation, to the sole arbiter of morality, Were earlier

t

attempts had been made by casuists, however boradly, to connect

public ooncems to Christianity, this was now given up* The dis-

tinction between private and public morality vanished in favour of

pMi«<M*iflHmaaMi«tuHnnb««^

public morality. All life was a concem of the nation. This is

the tum of both fascism and Gomraunism. Pascism in particular

used history to justify this: whatever ha's been historically

jWiifuiirtiFili nriBYii»

successful must be good. But even were the nation had a definite'

ideology, as in Nazi Germany, all morality was relativised towards'
it s goal« The national will was the important thing. ~

■iii*i#< «*— afa».

. J

The activism, the nihilisia of Nietj'-sche did not vahishJ it was

^1- '■

directed towards the enemies of the nation within and without.

*■ ' "»liMU

itbMMMliasaM«*«

Violence was legalised on the streets and in international relations.
In this way our Century saw one abolition of the old moral —

JUr-^- -.-»<*• "■■■ ■.,.,

criteria of the past. Morality was relativised towards the ^^ation,

towards a h\iman coramunity. And thus what was proper morality at one

moment coiad be improper morality in the next. Morality was " directed'*
by the state. And I wish I could say that this had remained onljL

Communist or fascist - but even in other nations it became a reaction
to fear: when morality becomes public morality and is thus directed _
by the leadership in the momentary national interest. Loyslty Oaths
are one common expression of this.

But there is another relativising trend which comes into ou*

own cent-ury from the final decade of the last - it has been

called the '* rediscover of the imconscious". This means a hightened

■ IL'M'.'iJ'ili.,, ^ l'< iw.wj— — >

•m

MM

sense of irrationality, a hightened belief in the irrational as the

"»'/■'■■*<^'->:

i<V*n^-T^

'-••• •laiiiii' ir 'rcwm

real. Once nore it comes as a revolt against artifical civilisation

•smiktt

and with it against an artifical morality» Man must look into himself

alone , understand his irrational natura. This has much in coniaoni

<k'^.*'*im»m

with Nietzsche, but it lacks the emphasis upon the human will, the

activism and the agreesivness. T^is trend is symbolised by Higmimd

Freud 's intepretation of Dreams which appeared in 1900 - the same

lt--ää^i.:jt

year that Nietzsche becane permanently insane.

önce sai^ that he could never understand Nietzsche: and sioall
wonder. For Freud was a rationalist of the 18. Century and he came

»tpHiTli— Ml

-' ». fv ;_

to his discovery via a deep believe in science. He was s doctor,^
and wished to adjust disturbed people to rationality: ta a moral-

System that was both traditional middle class and rational. FroM —
OUT point of View Freud opened the door, but it his disciple and —

then his enemy Carl (hißtav Jung who is more important. For he put

the irrationality of the subconscious into the foreground. Each men_
had his " archety^^e" made up of primordial Images. Jung was much

»»mtm^MtMtti

».^ ...-rl*»

concemed with morality and especially with religion. But he believed
that the psychological approach was the only way: that religious
fe^ling must be reconstructed in terms of man ' s own primordial nature
But in 1930t ies he despaired: in Nazi Germany he saw the archetype

run riot into blue ^^-onder. It had escaped any contro3JL. He had not

** ■

found what he called the " bridge" between archetypal Images of v\sxi
and dogma: that is disciplining it within a religious 'framework.

8,

Freud and ^img were serious thinkers: but they injected into

sMmm

ÜM-

the post war world the belief that anly maix's subconscioiis co\mted,

■^•'■■'■*'<''[*%W»

irf * rjm

that this was true nature of man according to which man must act.

t^^wj-i^i— ■— -

■■■•'' ■ '>fe'-- .

This led to a withdrawal, an ighoring of society or, at best, the

regarding of society as the enerny who had to be fought in the name

«M

HHMMrs- . : .^-«, .. -üüf.:-^,

a^

of one*s tinie seif, however twisted that seif might beo The coniaiinity

iiiiiiwwWiliiiHHItiiilÜ

of men was beside the point, it was indeed hostile.

If the Nietzschean liquidation of the old morality had ended up

in relativising riorals in regard to the nation, psychology ended up

fg.jta-"^'"^

a^üs^msrnrnsf»

m relativising morals as regards the individualV It became an
explanation for everything and an exciise, it becane an explanation
f or the reality of the world - as dreary and twisted as the psyche

-äi

itself. Illustrations jire legion, for this is still a strong teimd:
the angry ^roun nen in üJngland ( John Osbom), Algee pop\ilar play —

MM»

Whose afaraid of Virginia Wolfe. Such popularisations of psychology-

rob life of any raeaning exept the one of selfish indulgence in onee

own Impulses.

To be sure, Christian moralit^r had also looked inward, to man 's soul -
but it had also stressed mans conscience as a disciplining factor.

'^ifteDaiiRHi

The Reformers, Gatholic or Protestant, had seen that man lived in

a Community and that this comrnxmity was also a gift of God, and
that it must be improved as a Community.

The relativising of moralitjr has meant the loss of a sense of

Community based on permanent criteria of bahaviour common to all

the great religions: harmony, peace and love. Now the pessimism

I talked about earlier triumphed: morality is shifting according to

ensure national ß\irvival, all that man can do is to withdraw

into his ar che type, I need hardly mention in addition to vogiie of

* II «i—— i— I

i*f iii I um» m

exstitentialism: Sartes Wall were one faces death with merely a

ir-#^*T*lt1c. -^ ; .^ .^.,

shrug and blames onesself for taking anything seriously at all.

Or indeed the abandonment of all discipline in the modern dance

"-^--'•— - ti'r ■^'^■-''

and the use of alcohol. Finalyy, the phenomena of the beatnick

who is very much like his counterpart at the end of the last

■ — ■ — -■ — '•"—'• q{j|^^.4pi m 'B*^ «tf'Mlk — ■ ■ - -■—

mkL^

Century: a critic rather then a builder, and a despairing critic

«K

MMMMr

at that.

Did Ghristianity once more respond? It Ad through Karl Barth after

the first world war, 13ut here once nore it seems to me that \mtil

"b^e I930ties the response was too mixch a disentangleraent from this

World, a rejection of conmunity - something which Barth ascribed

rr'^i-^^. T.ü—

to the Reformei^ in a speech in Berlin even while the Nazi 's were

taking power. But all this changed, Tliroiigh the confrontation witfo

•'^ ' IHM,

the Nation in its ultimate form ^rotestantism, at least in Germany,
recaptured something of the spirit of the Reformers, It came to rea-

v;«^*-.-*. j», .

IV -

lise the individibility of the religion and the Community; of

the soul and morality, Casuistry was rejected for the sake of

a fearless confrontation, But not all i'rotestants joined, and hard-
iy any Catholics, After the second v/ord war, the initmate involve-
ment with not only politics but political parties once more put
into question the moral example, the broadness of tfie "süTöwable ,

What I have said is obviously only a sketch, and nothing

more, But I mean it to give you one dimension of how we got to
were we seem to stand, Perhaps a>*Kiekegarrd said in the 19, -

10,

_cent"ury, we miist first leam again" fear and trembling before
God" befolg the age of moral relativit;^ can be rooaptuyed. But

above all ( and both Barth and öiiiiefe Kierkegaard objected

to this) we must de sloganise morality and religion# For in all

■■£«..'

■W?^»«SBh

the development I have sketched the terminology of Christ ianity
remained. We are called a *' Christian nation": but in what sense

«H

■MMMMBMMMlbtMM

is this to be taken? In Iih.irope political parties call themselves

" Christian" - but does that nean more then the licence to be

good politicians? K>urely there is little historically Christian

in our art and literature - wether in the plays I mentioned or in

imMm^mmofr-v^,

John ^sbom's Luther» A culture reflects the soceity in which

*'^*™'' - T'rrti

flourishes*^

Our young peaple seem to thing of their society not in terms of

Kierkegaards confrontation, but in terms of Kafka 's Castle: a

Vi' »I im». » HkIkj»" - _--j

tmmmmm'^'imtm

nightmare confrontation with an unknown beauracracy»

And yet there seens to be some light^ and it comes not the way

öf a religious revlval but in the way of ä sense of social justice^

M

which is profoundly religious» We all know that the civil rights ~
movement has sparked what I might call a new religiuous Kenaissance
which isVSro- a Christian Renaissance > Here many of our best people
had drawn the limits to a moral relativity» And the limits once

xlrawn here may also penetrate other regions» In these terms it not
longer makes sense to withdraw into one*s own psyche, there is work

ttm

-to be done within a moral imperative, From this Hantage point it

does not make sense to say let the nation dictate my morality.

-but instead it means the assertion of a morality against many of

/i

II.

,,>fm^*

J^

J^^Q^PO^ej^s that bea How rauch briglitejr^the pictiire lookB for the.
_United States then for Kxirope, were no such breackthrourh is
readilly discemable.

ii>MrH»BMlW

mHT

You all may now Blake '^s famous Hyinn; to build Jerusalem in
Britains CIreen aiid pleasant land. Relativity in morals is

|- TTifi»«! mMM

connected with the abandonment of this tasko Luther wanted a
total refornation" and so did nany within the Church before

ili?* ^'^?£2ii5^ ^^^ society nust be connected. What I have told

you today is in reality the story of how they becane disconnected:
by the distinction between public and private morality, even

by the '» Christian gent&ftman" who for all the efforts to the
contrary remained connected to a^class and not to the people.

We raiist be less concemed of how a good man can survibe in an
^^^ World , then how we can built a world were for all men
Eiorali^y triumphs over evil - no System of morality has ever

survived without the Vision of new Jerusalem: a irision of a
just communit^rin' whichlieTther modern nationalismnor modern
introspection have a i^art» "

II

H/I!

(jj) B I f I ACi,. C<^C\ U «.ti ^ O. u

/i^M^ ; /^//^

ii

/n.

^a^^Ai'^^ fo

ff

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^OJ^^^I /^^

^f7

1

Summary: Some theses about Weimar Oulturo.

Buill upon trends of the f In de siecle, some of which were

strengthened by.th© war,

Even so, Weimar ctilttire came tdi stand for eoüething not merely

' I ■ ^mam-m^mmmmmmmmi^ m ..,1.»

ajjontinmety. Berlin, in a sense, now dominated European
culture, Berlin vs. Paris. Why in a defeated nation, rev. and
coubter^rev. only brief period of relative stability 1923-29.

Perhaps just becauee open alternatives, and yet

^ci^^^^l^^^ of intellectuals ( and that is

what becoraes ^identified as Weimar culture) wha^fe--tey--tai46e-a^
made alternatives attractive, but at the same time the emphasis
upon cultural rather then social and economic change. Seen
in Weiiaar Schopf, Bauhaus, but also very much on the new right
( ^an Den Brück: Weimar lacks an idea). Wanted change: socialism
or dictatorship ( Moller) but culture was primary, Obsession
wit^ theory. g^^j^fj^^^^e^ fv^TZn^fi^C ("' ''"''' /J;r.''<t

3^7? v^ intellectuals role since rev. right and left
" Council of brain workers". New kind of Status anyhow, 4core
of that now. But not merely i%ndarins ( Germany, on the right),
'^'^'^ ^^y.^^^^ ^?^^?^s^'^y* I^iterat especially. Again since fin
de siecle, even earlier. Culture as bourgois " higher things"
( Treibel) receptive, bourgois youth took it over, even
socialists. .^2., Bourgeois ^ anti- bourgeois rev. we have
.^^ talked about so much, phenomena with youth revolt, avant garde
"^^^ f ^in de siecle. I ''JSfow with lifting of censorship etc. comes

vH

.'^

^

into its own. Bxperimentat ion ( into social: new housing,
new welfare Programms as well- only not in politics and
^conomics^- that Republic)^, 3. Outsider co\xld get a place
in the s\m, even important as theorist, writer. True left
and right. a«y right as Outsider as insider - only not

M I .««1» ^^

•«H

■«■•«»*'

2.

not insiders either, Now Mannheim invents ^ free floating

intellectuals*^.: those thatare above political parties and

'S

classes. Back tothis " conscience of the nation "^ idea shared
by lef t ^nd right but not by centre, the real politics, or
the new mass movements» \ Tin^ circi

Yet influenae great because some of their theory has lasted,

■ MiiatMMN I

X'. much of their art and architecture - however distorted»
(y^u J:^ What they all had to deal with^_rising tide of mass

movements and^irra^ionalitx*^ -Accepted by right as we saw, not
by left esp«.. left wing intellectuals.

rS^^y

tried to stemm it: I. faith in working classes (expl.)

p^^^w^^^ 2. faith in reason ( Frankfurt School, Lukacz, Korsch,

« j '^ — ^ "'" ■■^■■■■1 . ' -

^^^ Aj - a^^ Bausaus - functionalism equals reason. 3. Mythenforschung:
i</eu ^^^ exorcise myth through the rational mind ( cassierer), S. Zweig,
^ World of Yesterday: ^we declare war to the ^iwaee» se^ling out
of reason to the rule of the masses. Back to the classics.
/^ 4. desperate: Heinrich Mann, Jewish ^^ewspapers etc. calling
France to the rescue ^ DDP^= French radical democratic party.
No avail. (^ 7^<n - 5 ^U^ ^^^"'^ f/^^j

Attitüde towatds masses: contrast Communists - Piecator, -^recht,
Blue Blouses^ Didactic and populär culture ( Adorno vs. Jazz)
At its best: fusion of new ( film) and Propaganda ( cabaret).
Oddly only_Brecht lasted, but as failure (expl.) But of those
who failed in Weimar, those of the left and nor right, almost
everything has lasted with their theory. ^^ar xist ^egelian
revival, streng in the 60t ies and 70ties, perhaps because Leninism
by then obviously fossilised though Stalinism. Still same probelms.
Perhaps because here Lukacs, Korsch etc. had spoken to more
then mere national problems, but those as universal as ^%rEism.

Immediatly right triunphed« But even so some // • /v,,^^,^«*
features of Weimar absorbed: technique of film, Buahaus (expl.) v

I «^llilfTt«

i

3.

and, of course, bourgois ^nti=^ourgeois reTolution. But
otherwlae, unlike Italy. rhetoric of youth, revolution did not
""^L^-^-l^^P^i^g "»^ch of the AvantJ^arde. On the contrary: even
the kind of ri_^tjre have dealt^with, Moller^van den Brück,
dynamic of sorts rejected. Nazis went back ^yond Weirnar to the
bourgois age of the fin de siecle fortheir model (expl )
i^evertheless^j^imar really triumphed in the end: its culture was
looked ^ck upon as the •• golden age", its avaht garde is in
constant demand, its ^%rxist revival inspired youth so much
later, and its literary experimentation, its films never
vanished. ^eriiaps because its kind of freedom was retumed after
the war, and its_kind of problemsjiave^ontinued in the west.

Multiple confrontations with modemity - still the
Problem, Avant garde, the search for controll ( B<«auhas),
domination ( Prankfurt school and nature), reason as a way
of keeping controll, -^'elling of drama and speed; typical
figuer Stefan Zweig:

" Stemstuden der ^'^enschehit'' - all drama, speed, adjectives.

all is fate. "^ö^tism Kisch: rasend

Cfi' fl

Repoter. This one side. Other the desperate reaching out
for reason, Failure, of course, rather irrationa, mass
movements, nationalism extreme became the shelter, the

•>%^M^M^ft«'*^^

mass experience as method for controll, for domination won
out. But not permanently. After 1945 Stefan Zweig would
again have feit at home ( but suicide). Liberalism was
restored, and with it the kind of uncertainty which made
the Weimar discussion relevant again in Europe and the USA,

V

<

«MMh

\

1^/2.1

lOeiMAf^ LECTURL- "JSRUSMEM

M.li.

•"r^^KHB^^^'l

'^^^'^^^ läfM» I ^>

MBHBOBBHM

BBB&H

fi^

^/0^'-

Final lecturesj summarising of themes - but also remember
left out much, idea not coverage but Problems. If you did all your
reading also coverage and Problems directed it, gave it shape.
•Exams should help, final abßve all because pf braodness of questions
and yet conciceness as well.

\

^-^b

f

PlA^ l ^

I;

t *

Final leotiiT-fl T / ^ ( H t^f)

^±^l^^^^^^,^_^S!}^^^o,^^^V^^mh^6., we have dealt with a rather

^f- bewilderlng array of cultural movements, but, that, on the other hand

-J^_,-J^^^^^^.^^^^_.^. °«^*^i^ sameness ahout all the movements wi^^ wMch _«e
^ L.!^^l±^^^-J^^^ ^^^^^^g °^ saineness arose out 'of the fact that thev _
all deflned themselves against the exietlng establishTe^ni. Prom the

end of the centviry on ( our

jh.6 ' p6S€>iniisni ( ou

^/ \ ^^^ the/movements were criticisias« of the existing order and how it

) ^

V

rX-worked. All that this means is that the longing'f or change has stood

C^^U^A^-K^'-

Tou may say,"qulte rightly, that we have dealt little~wlth" the establihsmeni
M^ itself : though I Said so.ethi^about the'bourgois s?S?f^^^|ä^,hi
'0^^^^ ^^f-^l^^'°^^ ^^^°" ^^^ dlrected. Nevertheless we"lii^e seen this

order mostly through the eyes of thos who wer« öpposedC ief Gide)
^^^^^an eye to the^fut^^e. Por those op^/d" dld'Äe'r Tole "
f or the 20. Century -"'the movements which arose out of that opposition7

^ike fasjoism, did become the establishment themselves - later.
By and large all the movements^ amd men with whom we are concemed, asked
the same sort of j^uestion: how we can we change things? We caf, I think,-
maJse a typology of the changes dfsired and the problems involved.

^^ y^^^Bver slnce the fin de sieele ( and nmch before) that change was seen

^'n 15^^? the restoration of t^e indJ^I^i^IjriiranlLnd^^

XC±^\) Ti*e-JWlon is, of course, the eventual despalr and the eventual acceptan-

oe by some of the decline of i^divi^^^g^^t^^e ^ü^^t^JV^
those who submltted to state and party discipline gladly.(^ m^^^,^)

^*Aw»

HS

were

lember t]

the<

ofmassjiDsments like Le Bons

baser^pon restorüfe i^ividuallty ^ axul induuil tlie i^Aad

1r

'SHu& i>eiP4lfi^

}yM

aA

■fc^xistential shrug/^But here a?a%feei'-a-*3?eHd ovon a acaixht Ü^
condemnation of decadence we« the search for a Nietzschean elan
so attractive. How much came out of boredom at the fin de siecle?
We can compare Sarte's childhood of a leader with Geline 's
Journey to the End of the night. Lucien is so typical in Satte' s
Story: at time echoes of Melchoir ( After all, I did'nt ask

A kind iß despiar. Celine p. 208.

to be born^ iJ-£i^®s

But the end? For Lucien the Gamelot de Roi ( because of the
cameradpry, for "^eline the Nazis and the massacre of the Jews
( Hitler the only one who speacks the truth). A fascist party.

>«The outside world, companionship, camäredj^ Community
wins every time, ^ecause they did give a dämm: you cannot live
suspended apparently Just as you cannot live Nietzschean-like.

There was m.uch talk of heros and hejykworshiia^ but in reality
after 1870, certainly the heros^ inti^ated vAth the group: as
in ^e Bon and as in Wagner - the leader a symböl not as beyond
the crowd. ^ew man after the war: Jungers hepos as a new race.
Von Salomon's SS. ( after 2. world war), Spe'riglers barbarians,

Controversy about new fascist man. BuJ^eal changed itself?
male society ideal strengthened by the w^T/ ^ascism. , But side by
side literary coteries ( Bloomebury g^o^^243jJge'fi'en/.-^^cially in
in England playd a part. But ma le stE<^^^>--^7f^A ^^.J,l iL
for associated with controll. Keeping controll. restraint. harmony.
rather then barbarian. Also sexual practices. ex^^^^t^^i condemned -
but exgetions e

\up not a Norm but as tolerated. Then closed down again. fet imp
Of homerotic element in Youth ( alwaysmen not women) and war.

3«

r' r t*^^

\Im^

)31.0XCVll^u.l( <

n/ Society would not stay out of the individ>4ls life - aa*H;hB

proLlüiu orislmnge always npr eo^srt . But^id i* iiave to come about

,^ ^s Brecht a4wica±ßd in ^W the ^'^easure? What then was left of

^^J^ indiv^duality?s 'Fnm the def inition of individyÄMe» «s a

group Integration ^ome Marxists attempted^o see a^väy o\rt^

tK'

/

^4;his-in the lahedz -%<^ük« The stress upoSv

rt:r^'

/ \

cönsciousness was supposed to safeguard the individualistic

componenet^while the decision, the free decision, of the

human consciousne SS to join the revolutionary battle fused

„i^i^^Ah

but what was to come after that?

man with the group* The freedom was one of decision reallyi

You could, in tum, aolve this with Sartre JT^ the need f )r suh-

mission, in fact, the need f or pain and unpleasantness . Or you _^_
could lÜLe lauch the of tho now loft abäl&on overt_ revolutiormry

1

action f or the priority of cult-ural change

•«•^a.»-*'''-' ^*<*t---':_Jl <

It is true, of coiorse, that we confront here a problem which
has not beeh solved. But the definitions of individualism

/ /

»■■ ■ . ■> ■*

<■ I II iwiMMS-

which you have studied and this great problem, certainly se

/

A^^^

tfee^tonÄ for all future discussioÄi!-'^^^^^^

s^ It is also clear that this probleiA/would be ©ectier if an opti-

mistic attitude towards the mass of men cculd have been main-

(P-^ fi,4^ .4 p/^^.4^ Mr',4r A*^^

rising needed little Submission^ and the good life issued in

revolutionary change» But it must be clear that such a view of
man was abandoned ^^^"not Just b«< Le Bon or fascism but even by

•M-.-. ^ji jfcF^*--'«

4*

many I^Iarxis t s themselTes . The strict disciplineXof ""eninism,

before and after the revolution* The elite ideas of the ih:^llec'trua3ir
the_v^ry implioatlon that thoee aware of the problem must le;

The belief_in the rationality of man was thoroiighly eroded#

^ !'^rT^ /

It existed most among the social democrats and the deterministio

■ ^- i — in' I I \ -- "-" nny MBKBItiaMaMiL

J

inheritance of Engels» The very positivist natijre of bourgois ^ J^^^
Society" made it difficiilt to maintain the I8# Century ideal, aiid

/

M^ mm\^i^ «Am

wars and the rapid rise of mass movements made it still more
difficul-t» Por the new political thought was based upon the

/ \

mass movement and what it meant: ins1;ead of the old individualist

theory of man and govemment confronting each other-f- Locke) you
now have the wide spread view that man and govemment are one:

u linked throiigh a shared al most h\unan natura: race, nation or/^/Mf-
f]^ revolutionary aJjnV "" ^C^^^^c^^ ^ 1hi^>7 ^- r^iA^: f^u.,^^ l,.^^ ^l^cjcü

i^ Politics, man himself, became emotionalised: the long roman-

tice tradition, the " rediscovery of the imconscious" j)enetrated

all movements and ideologies* The cement of a rational and certain

*^- '» ■ — — 7 — mif^tmamtt flaHHi^K ' nmi^mmm, SBai ~ —

science vanished with the " new physics" as the security of
traditional persona!

"3.ii !'»-*•*

of^~gove2

vemmental bonds vanished in war and
tte*-vanisht^'^6heT)elief In absolut es'#

//

We have Seen it, above all, in the case of the left intellectuals.

:^C^

y/

thüro-ughg<

View of human nature was bound to lead to two oonsequences:

^ Either a detachment ÄPom reality in search of Utopia, or into

I W the contradiotory position of elitisxn combined with demagogicäl

peraua^ipn ^^nffjbbg^^nlse of despisea f orce».

»m

-ylt were the Christian existentialists, you remember, who basing

rl J

Search for authority in change, part of problem of controll,

of course. But wide here. ^en found it in revolutionary discipline

as much as in fascist mass meetings. For average mani Christianity«

c

T\^t^-)

^

^ CerH**

Q l^.. S^-tlL^^

'h^<)

^stablished_religion helped a lot h,re: p« emphasis on original sin.
on the neccessity of_OT;_deri.and indeea Submission to authi^ority in
l^rotestantism and ^atholicism, BarmenC expl.) but also agains ^^v^^n
(Ansbach), '^atholicism and fascism. f

*11 these factors lielped the decllne of individualism and
liberalism into our time. 'T^^^^^oblemo involved depend, I
think| -bo a large degree upc^ the developmeftt of history airt
the possTBilities which hVstorj inight off er. B t this in terms
of »--aemrch üüi' »u essejlce, T"1g5tüi>; 4^^^ S?/^^ ^^^

mucnln '^ H^'^^"""^'

'•^> have certainly s-^id toiPlittle about the
established Churches to which most people belonged. ^But 'trend .
clear: ^arth ^. Tillich^ in a minority, Collaboration ( füll Churches
etc.) v/ith authrotarianism. Sp^ctre cf ^'^arxism and liberalism.
emphasis on faith ( ri t ' ationalism, notvnecces^ary. much iBason
on Ohr,' '^heology^ but no emphasised) , patriotism ( war). Despite
of l\itheran heritage ( expl). all ^hristianity here.^ ^'""^ -^^^^^^

.y^

r^'

Last time« said_something in summary about longing for utopia, upon h.
mediations betweenjbradition and modernity worked - with disguising
of technology that we have talked about so much, the machine in the
garden. Talked about the^constant effort to reaaser^l^viduality
in World Of industrailisation, rational structures, the impeffseanaliBafcl
impersonalisation of modernity, Classification -all that the underside
of the Eni. which was asserting tiself above its postive side»

._■- '«MP^aaMkaMPV^ ,_

belief in £eason, toleration.
Summarisedi quest ^»^ totality.

M^

f •''« can, 1 thmk, say that the idea of the Community def«ated by

19I8 the eraphasis on individuality - at least that i_g th« future.
Community not as Society but in a new concept ac oonoapt, at any
rate, as Community of affinity. Tonnies; ^esellscaBt und "emeinschaft
formaulated these concepts at beginning of this Century - but
stated mcrely something that existed and had existed but was
showing added momentura: nationalisra had always presented itself "
as a Community, not forced or imposed but affinity. But socialism
did it as well,^especially in ^asalle ( analogy with Ohurch) but
also m i^antian socialistsX Toreover Youth movement groups.

y

'ar: deepened through a longing of cameraderie afterwards:
State out_of a Bund of men"< but also elsewere nationalist P'^'^'4 1
youth societies especially ( 4ench -'ascists, ' f or example). ^t^'^-^ <.

^ream of this communLty in 33 ( why some French admired
it so much, von -^alomon ( expll ) praised after the war' also. In
fact Community vs. society be/ame enforced, fascist, always
^nationalist as a rule: ''from ,taovement ( expl.) to controM.
< (iV^*"^' ^"■^"*-^^ irrationalist ^ase ( " blue flow-r, to.revival of
J^*^^ Orders of Ghiva^y). Vs. mLäevnitj, thus always a reactionary
^'^'^^ statemen; really. Yet connected witji J^ging for tot^lity alstf:^^

This inherent: total personality ( Wedekind, Gide) but then
tot^lity as culure ( Sgengttr on the Right, Lukacz and Frankfurt
School on the left"). ^.uest there whenever liberal mechanism "of
govt, ( •'arl.) bre?\cks down - it surfaces

cj. ixuisi-aj. mecnanism or ^ ■
, last with i'arcuseism; \ ^y

questg^ for .^öt and

k

you at
meant^that *

?hey -»re
estipn. I told
ked which
, centraipty etc.

3a.

Longing for totality produced egel an revival in Marxism

after 1918 - the quest for seif Knowledge whichm must interact

with the effort to change existing re*"lity which stunt^it.

i'X

eans to understand existing reality. Lukacz, Korsch here.

"t

n

■)

ere we must distinguisg I think:

IntelleotujRls: Standards an absolute: reason* (Frankfurt School);
categorical imperative (f^antians); the spirit bf %sel transformel
into revolutionary seif consciousness through the dialectic. **eans
that dialectic almost becomes a thing in itself • Intellectuals wa^i-^ed
to be the " conscience" of the people^ and in/this an absolute is
implied. C ^^w*-/^^ ^ if

enerally: quest expres^^ differently : escape into myth and symboi,
a healthy and be^.i*tiful world: nationalisni'; the very sameness of
populär cjuiiffcure and literature - sentime/tit and feft.ing and

airy tal^eY^Securi

hope^hrough beautiful soul or fairy

ty here.

^ juestioning ok^ but Kafka or Nietzs/che no carry through as

an acceptable reality. ^'^ in modernii/y quest for security, nature
yi^^[ y *nd innocence /bn thiese bases^ Iroblem is really one of timet
[^ V ^*^ ^o ^^ harnessedc ^^apidity with indiastrialisation ( Goethe),
^1 emphasis on history ( arx and "ationalism) a way of harnessing
A jj^l time, the utopia of hope a way of escaping time. The constant « \
^W longiOJig for^twrtnre -CIso': [•• genuine" Üartiy because exeMvifies ^^.j^

opposite to the nervousness of time ( which Nordau and oth^^^«-— ?

connected' rightly with ^^ailroads, mass transDort as symbol here)

Emphasis upo rootedness and not the dailyVl '"j^ue: -Steiner

*^^r^£r/H /rjfi-a^tM K#^^:**y /

' '■^'" - in art^

t

emphasis on the daily means merely a documentary. 'Iready Goethe
feared thfit all a rt would become a documentaiy.

^.^^^ ^> 0^hh '^hat is why problem of art ?c life - Obsession with many like'
-S ^. Thomas ^Wnn. ( image of T.B.) lliese considerations basic here.

S^ould art take on the function of history ot should it pursue its

JA^- ,

/^ own function which is related to aesthetics and style as. permanent .
^ty'i\- form and not fleeting ( as with the expressionists. But perhaps J/^/
because of their chaos, so many becam^e ^azis?) Episodic vs. the

■^

wanted to murder their father/ ■ . ., .,^ -.7
Ml of this raises the progletn^of change. how- s^ _

Not, as we saw, for_socJ^list xntellectuals „..

~y .4.r,n«t«, _ a vind of rejoicing in brutality.
nationalists and for ^,xpress3-onxsts - a ..ma o __ü____

Q.ite con..on a^ong^intellectuals. But populat c.lture until after .

WW. II sinBularl^^^T;;;:^- overt^Wtality: bad ones are at tx.«s
.illed. to beX::i.ut mercifully as in a fairy tal.. But on the
wboirsenti.,4a^^ents this, and ideal of goodness n.d virtue

/ ^ i-^ >,--n. ( Sr,enFler by contrast, ^easars or

triumpbant - no brutalxty bere ( ^;^-f - J, ^ , ^ . ^^^^ .

»^alomon

iid oo ; . "^

iotrh«p-««ii*«** — ^aolt to p. P.
roblem of art and life similar to problem of division of politics
and life for liberals. ^

e

• /

6.

Again problem of " free floating intellectual" - but always or

^ " — ^ ' .

susally solved to a retreats into aesthet/ es and beauty ( Mann),

into stri^tness of form and political authority ( fascists,

Pound etc.) or not as artists but as teachers ( Brecht) -

here poet as leader ( ^eorge, D'Annunzio) •, Anyhow, the problem

of authority always there - what authroity bridges art and life?

Permanent unsolved question.

But m any case -Decademce might be advocated in backwash of war
and depression ( Celine, Benn) but ev<(etually reconciliation,
usually with most virlie, of course, fascsim.

Longing for coherence, totality, here as well - it must
make snese somehow - leads to quest for authority and through it to
Utopia, Too often authorit^rianism Stands^ at the gate to Utopia^ to

*

life as a festival. ( Ddetat orship of working class and of Hitler )
Basically liberal ism so deep that all want to be tolerant, compassionate
equakitarian - not always been so. But now thanks to tradition of •
a liberalism which had gone deep as Utopia if not as reality.
Remarkable.

History also here search fo an essence (IF TIM$(

V/

^

y:-

i^i'

Th

l

tlme. It could b>^ bent towards an Idealism: the secret or

inner workings of that }|a<ocess or to sm environmental contention
history is determii^

jugb. economic needB or politioal events.

J£~

■.ätk-

Cohere3loe~wa3 a neccessity in ideology^/^^ad thus history

nrust have an essence, a mo*or which is basici^wether Marxes change

in the needs of production or Burckhardts " spirit of an age"V

From the point of view of historians this seemeäN^ make sense:

jfca^»«»

confronted by~ä^l5ewildering~aiTay of racts - Ee haÖ pröceed li£e

the scientists from hypothesis« Por the non historian the hypothesis

vas all important : it provided part of the ideologioal cement of^

which he was in Öeed, part of the security in a world of ^^» vanishing

cenrtainties". Moreoyer it oould also provide the hope for the

^^^®* ^story became sucked into hecoming not only the explana--

tion of the past hut the gulde to Utopia - it became indeed a

modern reincamation of predestination^ It assured men like

3 or -cne lascistis t;nat viotory was inevitable (Bt# Otephi

Xn^X ciaofai that movemeii-fay yitk whom the fuLui'tf laji

There is no doubt that through such a development history became

a part of the emo'blonaliflm wLluh I U

0'

">'^' >"^" .^'•.

i- ., I • . ^ / search for absolutes - for heif it was indeed an absolute which

^"^1 uK^J>'A ^etermijied and predetei^nined* It is no accident that the prophetio

4.M >Mc

M^MMMM

pf^ ^^^'^ J leaders in both sides of the ideoligical barries were avid students

^^^ ^f/\U^ of history • for hefo lay one oluo to making-disciples ^ Thä

^ lM^.^' oop^^i^^tlon of history and'ideölogy has made ttee' hisToriarfr from

^r Hegel and Ti^eit s chke to modern timesJthe^prophet followed by his (I

-disciples. öfi^i/^'^c^lcY f 4-^ ^ iA'^^^^hjt

;

?

6. ^i?Q Iv^XttU 'i^^^Jt^iMJiiSäuL^-ß^p'^

iistory itsclf thus became a D/^rt gf th^ ideologies.fBut in
reality^ there miist be a try at some objectivity, j*ust because

^— — —-■

of the fate of history as a part cf time. ^e^tter then the function
of history in ^ultural and political intigration which tri es
-iV ^^ P^ovide emotional rest and Utopian longings is attempt to
.i^;et_,cXaaer.„io, history rer?lity^^' -hat means some disxtance
'< sometimes confused with söepticism, biit this is also a good
ihr-ivf' ^®^^) *n^ "to defeat chaos, not cement but inste?id a fr^meworO

T must at the end remind you of what t said at the beginning:
v/e have be^n concerned with sm&T] a framework. "^or once yon have
one scheme of order yon c=?*.n ch-'-nge it, reconstruct it etc. but
qgains^t a model and not in a voidcj '^hirb~4.-g---w^Tatr-ls Import an t^
:n ere — --^r-thev y-ii ncw-s^4»^the d.^ng^ns '^r not th.^it and,.jg;hat
dü^ge^ th*t is comiected to 1"' framework ift4 also to the

l.irid of hiblui'lc'-^^' •VV5(!:tnne
all that we hav^ been i^a build
contructed ^ä whos^claim t
truth its4lf**Ä4-y4nd the o
tri^dX^ get i/ear to hijrxori
pen<y6r?-te myths v/hich are st

ry. *t

that yttn s?w

a;^ve as all
^ke is that it
attempted to
n your own.

^ n 1'^^'^-^ v^'^ '^-^ -^^^

t^J^I^^^Ji/^

\

\\yA^y^

i

i/l-

9.

Have Said little about continuity. ^ertainly definition ofvNormalcy has
not changed so much from >nny Treibel, whatb has changed is the room

»11,1 I I ,, .^nrnm" ■■— ♦* "

made for the expression of individuality. Proust realised what was
happening at the turn of the Century: but there abnormal ( Jew and
HO osexual) was exxentri -tolerated as such in '^^Se^'^'V^c'?:'"

«

p»UL^"^®' ^^ certainly that toleration became more firm - here
»pgress after wll quite visible. But Penetration? Collides with
sameness of populär cul/itre, imbued with manner and morals of
an earlier period, which in this repect had stoofl still.

Discontinueties otvious: war^ revolution etc. Alwayss something new
in your readin«

But future? Scarcity might through everthigf of f - realise more even
today then in 1974'^when wrote ending to Culture of Western Europe.
WE do not know what the polit es of such an age will be or its cultural
Change. But it is u»re thatnthere will be both. Then the Culture we
have studied, so relevant to you and today might face its ultimate
test - for whaÄ^am-is-ine-/len^eF-pi?eel production, progress, upon which

Utopia, even if it is in the

realky all this is based (nhachine in

gardne and consumers goods for all) is no longer possible. But that

''p^'^^iJ^^^A^''^^^^ ^\ prophecy. »ft€^>fef-%fe>^^bj^ historiands least
qual^fiGd bOQau<?p mnsj- mphrjpdegri in the past .

I have talked about the cultural right and the cultural left,
but not yet about the '' new realism"»

Title outcome, but really belongs to left^ New school of
architecture ( Bauhaus) I9I9 founded as protest, as part of
G-erman revolutiono Gropius and Mies© deserted left, Mayer
remained a communist.

Yet. Bauhaus really a develoFnent of arts and Grafts, of style
developed by Van Der ^elde from whom Gropius took over •
Thus Protest against bourgoisie, Biedermaier, Treibel life
style • back to essentials, to function » no disguise, no
hypocricy ( vs. bourgeois Italian villas etc.) But at the
same time functionalism combined with urge towards totality
we have alrrady seen by left wing intellectuals. ( to Gropius

Programm) •

But by end of V/eimar the functional had become victorious over

the ideological. Mies va der Rohe alreagttpresented this
ternd 1923 ( will work f or Mussolini later) . Simplicity and
new in fascist nationalism. (expl.)

Mies theses,
^estion: architecture of domination? How trend back ( popularity
of art nouveau they had despised, Ornaments again etc. )

•: The measure taken (I93O) tw, poses the probl^m wa h«ve
discussed - tW propbiem o;?4urn.ni sm,^ of revolution, of

discipline and

f^^iTl-'i^

i.^4^>^

'>

on working along paths previously blocked by the indifference of the public
and the professional simple-mindedness of artists.

We do not expect the snob to buy architectural sketches! The snob is look-
ing for a Sensation, an effect. We are hoping for people who have a more
responsible conception of their relationship to art. Such helpful purchasers,
helpful to the cause and thereby to the artist at the same time, will find a
deeper, more lasting joy in the architectural sketches than in many sheets of
free drawings. For architectural sketches always stimulate ancw the imagina-
tion that works with them, builds with them, joins its will to theirs.

To a far higher degree than free graphic works, architectural sketches
address themselves to the will and thereby fulfil a mission. For we must at all
costs escape from the Situation in which art lovers are will-Iess, passive con-
sumers of art.

That the interested public and that the purchasers at our exhibitions are
quite differcnt from those who tili now have appeared as buyers in the salons
is quite certain.

There is nothing small at stake, as Walter Gropius and Bruno Taut have
stated here. This exhibition is a first endeavour. Others are to follow - also by
unknown painters - new-style exhibitions that break with the exclusive
character of exhibitions up to now.

Adolf Behne

f^^ "

AM-<^

1919 Walter Gropius:

Programme of the Staatliches Bauhaus in

Weimar

The day on which Gropius took over in Weimar from Henry van de Velde
(who had to give up his post in 19 14 at the beginning of the war) was also the
date of the founding of the Staatliches Bauhaus. The renaming of the school was
confirmed on 12 April 1919. The same month Gropius (b. 1883 in Berlin, d. 1969
in Boston. Massachusetts) published the founding manifeste and adetaiied
Programme in the shape of a four-page leaflet. The frontispiece (reproduced
on page 5 1 ) is a woodcut by Lyonel Feininger.

The ultimate aim of all visual arts is the complete building! To embellish
buildings was once the noblest functiorTof the tine arts; they were the in-
dispensable components of great architecture. Today the^rts exist in Isola-
tion, from which they can be rescued only through the conscious, co-operative
effort of all craftsmen. Architects, painters, and sculptors must recognize
anew and learn to grasp the composite character of a building both as an
cntity and in its separate parts. Only then will their work be imbued with the
architectonic spirit which it has lost as 'salon art\

The old schools of art were unable to produce this unity ; how could they,
since art cannot be taught. Thei^miisibe merged once more with the Work-
shop. The mere drawing and painting world örthTpattern designer and the
"S^ed artist must become a world that builds again. When young people
who take a joy in artistic creation once more begin their life's work by learning
a trade, then the unproductive *artist' will no longer be condemned to defi-
"oent artistry, for their skill will now be preserved for the crafts, in which they
will be able to achieve excellence.

Architects, sculptors, painters, we all must return to the crafts! For art is
not a 'profession'. There is no essential difference between the artist and the
craftsman. The artist is an exalted craftsman. In rare moments of inspiration,
transcending the consciousness of his will, the grace of heaven may cause his
work to blossom into art. But proficiency in a craft is essential to every artist.
Therein lies the prime source of creative imagination. Let us then create a new
guild of craftsmen without the class distinctions that raise an arrogant barrier
between craftsman and artist! Together let us desire, conceive, and create the
new structure of the future, which will embrace architecture and sculpture and
painting in one unity and which will one day rise toward heaven from the
hands of a million workers like the crystal symbol of a new faith.

Walter Gropius

Programme of the Staatliches Bauhaus in Weimar

The Staatliches Bauhaus resulted from the merger of the former Grand-Ducal

49

u

A A.^^ nf Art with the former Grand-Ducal Saxon School of Arts
Ä'Su'^S" » bring W,h« .11 c».i.e *«'"•» «"-''* ;f

buildings harmoniously in their enlirety - structure, fin.shmg. ornamentat.on,
and furnishing.

-^"Srl« .TSoös; in i,s..f .. c.n.o, b. ..•* '"• 't;' -J^ Z

::SÄr.orbr/ro^Tis:&"ÄH^

Shops and on experimental and practica! sites, is requ.red of all students as the
Sspensable ba'sis for all artistic production. O""" °-";°:^'^^t°P;^ ^hops
gradually built up, and apprenticesh>p agreements >v>th outs.de Workshops

'' The sXtusIhe servant of the Workshop and will one day be absorbed in
it Therefore there will be no teachers or pupils in the Bauhaus but masters.
journeymen, and apprentices.

The manner of teaching arises from the character of the Workshop:

^ Ortranic forms developed from manual skills.

"-£S?eTf all r.g.(hty; pnority-of creativty; freedom of md.vduahty, but

Stefan^dlouiSman examinations. according to the Guild Statutes, held
^efcre the Council of Masters of the Bauhaus or before outs.de masters.
Collaboration by the students in the work of the masters.
Securingofcommissions, also for students. , , . _, „„wir huildinas

Mutual planning of extensive, Utopian structural des.gns " P"^'/^ J"'™
Tnd buildings for worship - aimed at the future. C°»ab°ra»,on of all r^aster^
and students - architects, painters, sculptors - on «^ese de .gns w.tn t
object of gradually achieving a harmony of all the component elements ana
parts that make up architecture. . . „„.ry.

Constant contact with the leaders of the crafts and 'n<l"^»"«.^°'^ '''^ '=°"" 1«
Contlcrwith public Ufe, with the people. through exh.b.fons and other

activities.

'I r

\

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xt

^ V —

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/

1^ I

Sl

50

r ^Tf ■;.i :.«V^

.*<■*>::> .":■

»

1
I

ii

: I
I '

. (

I :

I-

I;

I
I

1923 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe:
Working theses

Mies van der Rohe's theses, written in May 1923. appeared together with his
design for an office building of reinforced concrete (1922) in the first nunr>ber of
G, of which Mies was one of the founders. Apart from Mies (b. 1886 in Aix-Ia-
Chapelie, d. 1969 in Chicago), Graeff, and Richter, other contributors were
Gabo, Pevsner, Haussmann-allofwhomwereliving in Berlin at the time- and
Doesburg in Paris. This was a surprising concentration and meeting of forces:
De Stijl and Russian Constructivism nnet at a place at which, just half a year
earlier, in winter 1922-3 on the occasion of the architectural exhibition in the
Berlin Secession, critics had unanimously stated: this is the 'New Architecture'.

We reject <

'all aesthetic speculatlon»
all doctrine,
and all formal ism.

Architecture is the will of the age conceived in spatial terms.
Living. Changing. New.

Not yesterda/, not tomorrow, only today can be glven form.
Onl/ this architecture creates.

Create form out of the nature of the task with the means of our time.
This is our work.

I

B U I

I N

L

The Office building is a house of work of Organization of clarit/

of economy.

Bright, Wide workrooms, easy to oversee, undivided except as the

organism of the undertaking is divided. The maximum effect with

the minimum expenditure of means.

The materials are concrete iron glass.

74

Reinforced concrete buildings are by nature skeletal buildlngs. No
noodles nor armoured turrets. A construction of girders that carry
the welght, and walls that carry no weight. That is to say, buildlngs
consisting of skin and bones.

w-^r. n.»», .»>r.

.■■miiiiTi «g^BMl<llll^4?w*<^»^;A«ai»B■-,>^tfi

•^«^-^..^'H:;

FtV

»Hv.:,;,

■'^^^•1^5^-

■ ,. - f = i

>--'3-:T^^.>.-; .V

:^?4ir-^

^-=

s^::^

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P

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g^^:srj^J^

^a

sf|

'j/^i^TBA f^^F^'^^

of thc New Architecture and realize the factors
whlch have determinecl its chäracteristics : a
manifold sim])licity arrived at by deliberate re-
striction to certain basic forms used repetitively ^
and the structural subdivision of buildings ac-
cording to their nature, and that of the str.eets
they face.

This was at once the hmit of our Structural
Instruction and the culminating point of the
entire Bauhaus teaching. Any pupil who could
prove he had thoroughly absorbed the whole
of it and evinced adcquate technical proficiency
received his Master-Builder's Diploma.

What we preached in practice was the com-
mon citizenship of all forms of creative work,
and their logical interdependence on one an-
other in the modern world. Wejvanted to help
theformal artist to recover the fine old sense of y/
design ande^xecution being one, and make him ^
feel thatjthe drawing-board is merely a prelude
to the active joy of fashioning. Building unites

Platc 14, The Dessau Labour Exchange, 1929.
{Top) Applicants' Entrance. {Bottom) Interior
View.

85

k/a^^J^'C 'U'^ti^ c^^^^

•^-^l^

^yy,??^

^idläikJj^

■ WVO«^« IM.W-- .l-kMi

'^egelina revival: after Lukacz, Korsch to Frankfurt Scfeool.
Frankfurt School ( pU<(^ ^^^^^

Literary and artistic effects? Jounrals, essays, novels and
Plays ( Toller, Frank). But also no creative artist could be
Ignorant of problem the left wing intellectuals raised.

Sum up: Brecht
Bit then: Bauhaus. Founded partly be Co-munists. Relationshlp
between this left and new realism. ( Hans Meyer). Revolutionary
architecture. Totality vital (expl.) Humanising? Eseentials.

/

X

t¥

-e/

^ %gelian revibval: Korsch, Prankfurt School, Lukacz.
You see it through Korsch:
hegel in centre: leads towards emphasis upon consciousness:

« «

(^85,85,89 )

Also towards totality ( unity of theory and practice)t 155

Opposition to positivism and denial of totality: 65, 155

Clear also in Lukacz: L^

dialectical method the waj? to totality. p.55 V* 8, 22

Thus Change and revolution restored: P. 15 ( Td^f^'^ I

'•^erms: " Critical theory" or " praxis". ^egelian unity of
reality ( class struggle) and spirit ( consciousness) in a
synthesis ( totality which depends oh cognitionJ>^'^'^**^^' CO^^^]
[ Econokic basis strong in Korsch ye;c as foundation of reality.

But with I950toies becomes ever a^ore culture criticism really.

Frankfurt School t

r.

fil^^ -^^^

-v»^ ^/ *t^^-vu<'^ **^

Jd£^

H^^tyrr'/'C'^^

-7^

p{/7 f -rf^^ f^ C^' ^''^ -^^V^^^^:

8a*

IS

We are back with the categorical imperative, These yovmg Jews,
without being conscioiis of it, were repeating the great ideal
which had underlayn emancipation. Eisner: this ethic Stands above
the floK of history, which must measure itself by it. Because of
these ideas he was dismis^ed from Socialist " Vorwaerts". Rational
co£piition comes first ( Eisner): stress on that consciousness
which the young Marx had stressed, but filled not with a dialectic
and class struggle but with the categorical iraperative. Eisner
' admitted class struggle but it was secondary: the ethic was first*
Bettering of econoraic conditions it not enough,
Fron^iaxtstria OUo Bauer d^a^l V]!c}.x Adlur; wu muot a^
"RlghL" rathen th^n üiereiy proletarian*

Tactics alvrays raean force and power. Only the spiritual struggle is
part of hurnanity all eise is bestial. Eisner *s goal: our religion ( and
he uses the word) is a belief in the future which will mean the possi=
bility of the unfolding of all mans possibilities. Eternal life is what
everyone does in the serive of hurnanity. i «» p Itn^A^
Kis first reaction to Bavarian rev. of I9I0: we are no longer powerless,
we have won con1;roll over ovr own destiny. His means: a soviet of workers

I

and peasants which would not rule: for if it had power it would mean
merely stupidity. Instead it would educate workers and peasants in
leaming how to take over their detiny: and would first exist side by side
vfith Parlaiment. "'1/2 power to the soviet s".

He was m\;j?dered before he could bring this into practice. But it
explains a thrust you have in Austria also with Max Adler and Otto

rerraany with Toller etc* ^^♦A- hr^f <%^n^ } ..^Jc^/tfi^^ )

/

^^

2.

in response to crisis of antisemitism responses logical

yet deperationg again: Liberal were liberalism ,ay in agony,
a sooaalism which were heretic ( Jaeger in Berlin: *^ews nad
socialists the same type ?) a nationalism whixh was Buber»

The testing came after I9I8, Sa,e as before?
Passing wave? Defeat, mass death, revolution ass brutalised
conscience I supposed but also turned centre of anti "^ewish
movement to central Europe were the Eisners etK • were.

•■^MBftifc

.4.

\

Lu-K/I-lz

IIb .^

did movve^ever further away from marxism -alltogether by

9^0ties vmen they aattlTe to JP^ USAv^elped by psychology
L^kacz book - some general remarks first: attack upon

scietism and determinisra. Transition from realm of neccessity

to t hat of freedom not a neccessary and inevitable step. Blind

'automatTAsm can lead to catastrqphy. Instead this transition must
be a true revolution - the true rev. impetus' must be recaptured
from" "^utzki ebc. inevitability. Means consciousness* " rev.

consciousness" on thg» basi

is: Cognition of dialectical

^

nature of social movemenlf, '-^'hrough dialectical conscioiisness to

transcend present bourgeois society'

Always directed against historicayfatalism^ whicH eliminates man

and his social activity.

•'-'et US then lock at first essa/: '''hat^is orthodox f^arxism? really

attempt to link again ^'^arxisnr' and philosophy ( Korsch)| to

}
recapture the dialectic. But this means emphasis upon theory:

p. 3 Hecnext attacks voluntarism: that is theory which is

^ , — -/' ^ ^

detached from the reality of class strug^le, and positivism
v/hich transforras this strug^le into something automatic. It
makes a feteshism bf facta - but facts are not to be feteshised,
rather to be seen as something to be overcome in the dialect'cal
consciousness of them - overcom for the sake of revolution. ^
p, 8 - jneans putting them into the totality of interrelationsships
Condemns ^antianism ( also a kind of idealism, a s we saw).^heh

essence of his arguraent (fp.'I3^ CH/hy^ - ^^^^jjt^f
^Vxt pages theme: seif knowledge of reality: i.e. reality is
a totality, we must have a consciousness cf it and think about
reality critically ( di^^lectically). Union of opposites always

/

J

/

IIa 5

3 vi 59

man subject a d object of history at the same time: subject

to historical laws of ^'arxism, but himself through bis right

consciousness able to see the present as negative, transient

(• capitalism) and thus to v/ork for the future, Th^fttg jj> 22.
P

resent is transient: means emphasis on history - first part
•of chapter on " Class consciousness" makes that clear -
stages of history determiie validity of laws S-. govt. but
these always in a dialectical movement.^ Towards consciousness.
Thus clasß strng-le tied to this ( vs. ^autzki) p^ Joiäss

all iraportant, realisation of state of class struggle p. p64
"*^ p.föe) You will^jQotice quast f-r toality, means and ends

y- p>t bb; lou will^jiotice quast f-r toality, means and ends ' ^^i(,
' .^-r P« 70/71» advocacy of workers Councils: t^. 80 ^ f^'^n^iS ^^ * ^

Lukacz himself repudiated this book, But clearly it
had gone far from i^'^arxist base, as did all hese theories. Yet
L clearly a culture criticism ( totality, idealism of the
human essence). Criticism based upon cqnstriction of bourgeois
£^J?-^?* after classical age: Home, ^reence and 18. Century ( when
Bourgeois revolution had been progressive). Thus typical in this:
hostility to all modern art and literature. Quite typical of
socialism. ehring repudiated the modern in art, for example,
and 18889 congress followed suit. oocialism had no relationship
to this raodernity, a problem Bernstein brushed off: this will
come in the classless society. meanwhile " positive" bourgeois
literature. ( Goethe and esp. Schiller).

But one cotery of intellectuals breack out of the this kind
of cultural ghetto through their preoccupation with mass culture.

„^^.^^Z^'^,^

IIa 6

€

/r

^»V" "'^"

Frankfurt Bchool founded 1925 but orthodox really, not until

1950 when Horkheimer took over innovative, ■'-'ater Joined by

Theodor Adorno and young ^^erbert ''arcuse, " Cri^ical '^'heory":

another way of categorising the ^""egelian revival. Praxis also*

Stress on history as determining the interaction of consciousness

and Society meant for him that economic base important but not

always, that totality of* society raust be grasped. But that

totality was defined in cultural terms: opression through mass
- ^ ^/ff^fl^iP

culturei through the mystifying of rythm ( such a s ^^azz).

Why? Critical '-^'heory stressed interaction of consciousness and

: :2\

«^«^"^^

^This mediation was detroyd
uding culture. -^''eteshism

of goods becarae under capitalism the reification of all goods
including r^usic. T^-^'/^' f^o^^^l^^^oT^-V^. A-/W^^WA^*. -- 5/^^'-

L

"U'"^

ci conciliation now of opposites is imDossible: that Adorno -/^e/^'^«>,

art must always contain protest, thus Opposition to sweet anfe ^

^nt.imental populär culture, But in development of their ideal

^^'f^^^ ^^dMfC C^hicjS fijyr^a^/j^^ --^

of mediation saom>^d to vea'ifien lÄ'Oüestr -ccepted >'reud; talked

of oedipus complex as ^"•ediation for some^ of importance of
familly structure* ^ventually in US exile: ^uthritarian ersonality ,
otudy: little ^''arxism really. Freudian explanation of authoritarian/
Personality through questionaires. "^ragraatic studies always been ^
practiced, but here almost something " inherent" which Institute
usually deni^ed on behalf of Tiistoi^and reason. 'h^ ^^*^ 'p^^J
tili their culture criticism connected mas? culture to social

tt"- ^

domination: unmediated by consciousness but reified instead.

True hapiness can only come when man is thus no longer one - N^ ^
dimensional. /O x> ^ . <Dn)f6*^^ Pl/^^ ^^ ,

fit:

(^M Co-'^i^ß^

I^a. ?•

R^volutionary elan here in exile tuned down, bit not concerned
with thiS| will have tcf make judgement how revolntionary is
^Vrcuse's ^^'ne Dimensional Han? Jay ( point out book) propably
plays down too much disilectical element, the confrontation and
mediation through a consciousness of opression and domination
through totality, Like Liikacz culture criticsm becomes really
rev. cricticism and prolatariate for !-• essential is here
hardly import'^.nt at all - again intellectual leadership.

All these t tansformations of ^"^arxism important,
howfer deep they may or may not have penetratedo Idb.ertarian
heritage. Frankfurt ochool tlir^ongh lib^ralism p^aer^^d directly

mto fascisji, still, like all theiSe tranä f omratiorrir-e have
freedonias zself oonscious;iess of manö human! ty. * ^ertainly

Z'

li^ral heritage.

B\rt-tfA^-^fr:BeH^- WORKIItG'

ET'SEI-VES?

't?^^<4i:^ ^^^ /^i^/^

UiL.^

.t-^i-^-^

give Marxism an ethic, a philosöph^. V The consenus: it is too

.<

bad that I^Iarx and Engels feil under the influence of Hegeln Too bad
that they lived at a time when the greatness of Kant was Äbscuredt

w.

'Qa^3erna±ei3fir-^"revlgionigm can introduoe us to-^fea:g- problem

I^Iarx and ICant"» Became important among socialists ever3rwere

and in the times from the ©Oties to I9I4 led to a great debate«

Basically

individiialism ( and individiial creativity in personal and political

To be sure, a matter for intellectuals, but not quite:
f or example Chief proponenet the f oimder of Austrian socialism

Max Adler. And on its basis a revolution was made: that iii Bavariä

Ju.Xi.

I9I8/I9* «^r^j

- - - -^ - h^ u ^Ußc ^L^»>^^-^

What, then, is more concretely involved? Le-Tus^ake one out of

C ^K •;

( ^^¥<j

the many controversies about this point: Otto Bauer vs. I^autski*

( expl. who they were). Bauer: Hot enough that an act be proletarian, it
_ has to be " right'» also - and by right he meant in tune with Kantian

xf " , -

\/HiVH)^^\ categorical imperative - universal law of morality* If Morality is

t'iMN^^^" ^'f^y %fit **'~"

/7AKi' y "^^^^ *^. 5.^^^^' ^^^^ "^^^^ could their be a moral imperative? ^astens

onto I^Iarxe's own, and unresolved, idea that morality relative in a

given Situation, that the actuality pushes towards revolutiön7"buE

that basically human nature is füll of aTvirtüe^which will triumphL in
the classless sooietyo But ethlcs nust be constant. Thus socialist —

action equals ethical actione ^utski^s answer: ethic like all ideas
anly a partial reality - based unon eznerience^-But fixni^-r-i Ar.r»o -5«

•■nw*

that of Society, and therfore ethics must be tied to social analysis —
and not " pulled dwon from the air". ©ven Kant had roots in his class.

12.

_-*- mJ^

^i:^-

c ^^>^'

pers

ining between world view and personality

ef d^i?^^.«'^jÄP^--jaj

a^^jög-fa-te ( nnri not, thpref orQ -:i^-ofte-4tee¥^&4oaal)> Condemms

t^h^^^ ^

L-ukacz also wants a unity of individualism and world viw but on

the basis of the dialootic^ The point is the boin'gois sopiety makes

W

such imity impossible - fragments life and therefore art; One one

side nat\n:»alism and on the other " destruction of reason"»

14^^02. xj

I think here vre have, then one great problematic of the intellectiials:
the nat-ure of materiallsmy März vs , K:aii¥~- idealism involved ' ( ' with "

)

lulcaoz early Hegel). But before we come to intellectuals and the

masses there aa?eHnfo more factoro er illustrations of importance:
the philosophy of Ei*nst Bloch ^aaad Lhun Llie -^ffe^^emfitcd Qrthodear-rgply»

rr.

Bloch -ii^rofessor at Leipzig imtil 1956 when fled to the
\i[est. Combines stress on ¥=fee^ia-4-S^eek-eH-Meye- a thoroiigh idealism

( Muentzer, theologiand of revolution, I92I) with the need for

-Utopie

"^QJ^^fc ("T>no doca noL aomiJiHlu Uiu uUier)- indeed stages of production
are dependent upon higher image'ä^ - ie. with lluentzer economic revol^
upon chiliasm* AH this makes for a " Philosophy of hope" (-htS

|}r>. Therefore no freezing of the dialectic. p^th is one —
of interaction of Utopian vision and decisions inpired by them.—

^^A^A is "t^e " £omDiunism^ofjgilimite(3 posssibilities".

Blo^^^eally not basi^aOly interest to'dia^is of the present
Order as such, a p^etty /kl_^blaiiekting ideali_sm,_ You. _c_a.i contrast

:^^^l^^^:^^-g^^^^- ^^-^^g^ criticsm of present orderj^ Mahagonny :
Oapitalism as a brothel were everything j s for sale, and the only

I6B,

^

^ y^

^Ja^-c^vw-^^

/C^

jT

Cc^^uft^

The intellectiials ^ho have been oiir concem and whom we can desoribe
" -^eft wing" wer^/coiamitted^ Not of thejfeuc Weber persuasion of
a " value free"/social science ( Ciature Book), or Bendaß emphasis

upon a disengahged rationalism. ^WrÜK ^ ^...^^^v..^

tuals^ here/ Ideology and Utopia |I929)* His approaglu^deas spring
from class orinetation, to be sure, but that this holds not trua

f or intellectuals pp^ 138/139. Thus here not irrational! ty but

" dynamio mediation" . Aim same as Weber «s; eliminate blind and

compulsive factors. But unlike Weber here an involvement ( unlike

^HOi — -.=: ^,,,^^

^^edan also). An idealism of " conscience" in the end - Intell as

the rational ^conscience of mankind.

-«— »i^»^«»

C^ets around really the confrontation of the masses, in the name of
a leadership which understands man and confronts man himself rather

•jl Hl»»* ■ ji^

then men in the mass. This seems clear in Ideology and UtopiaT

fl«M«i

To be sure, the I(j^tian socialists^^the neo Ilegelian socialists

- ■■■■■- f
never really nade contact with rnasses because they refused the

nediation of a disciplined political paxty or movement. Part of

f

i —

a history of intellectuals rather then of Hations or peöples. GJteeir

p^ewalir>-aQiiial_s±riic±u»

ii'iipoi" laii L "liure :

f--: /(

( SL#

We can add Jaurea - we can Jaiires whose " rigins of German Socialism"

was an attempt to graft G-erman idealism onto Marx, and •^aiores here, in this
early work, made it clear that he preferred Kant to Hegel# Tension between

the intellectuals nad the proletarite made up the history of all socialist

parties» It was boimd up with neo Kantian oritique« If in Germany the
onslaught of this critique was the time from 1870 -I9I4, in France it

Mit tHxn if : I

IrNT/t tf

caine~^:»f^the*'^twenties •

^li/ff p^U^^^

It did give to socialists the danger of a kind of vagaeness and anti rather
then pro complexion ( anti fascism, anti Capitalism - on which they could
find imity).

But by and large the orthodox leadership squeezed the intell: the
neccessities of mass politics or parliamentary compromises drove many of
them into the waste land: left wing intellectuals #[3 one of the difficulties

involved piain in your reading: empahsis on creativity of Siirrealists who

wanted to be Communists at the same time, or the imdogmatio socialism of

Harold Laski.j

9X.

The ever more removedness from ^'^xism - the kind od of vagueness_-.

well illustrated by I^eonhard Prank^ " Man is Grood" written during
the war (I9I6-I9I7) and dedicated to " Coming generation"*

" Man is good" - we nnist pronounce this sentiment with such force that

eaoh man senses the often obsoured f eeling " man is good" within him#

And he saysx my house is your house - and then a wave of love and

brotherhood will triumph^ Rubiner: Man acte according to ideas«

\ This became a pacifism: Toller - a woinan to one who wants to

liberate her fron prison by fdrce ( Mass Mensch); " You murder

for the salve of huinanity as others, blinded, rrrurder for their

1-

State. Some even believe that through their fatherland they

were "brin{^-in£s salvation to the earth. I see no dif ference here.

Eim who murders on behalf of the state you call hangman; for hin

who nurders on behalf of hujanity you weave garlands"»

-

Concretely neant that in Gerriany of the I92Öties such int eile ctuals :
a. critics ,^ especiälly of hTLitärisia

b. not confortable in any political grouping or party.
"A sense of unrelity here«~" — —

m^

y^^vt4

I ta.

V:^V

This is a prolDlem which sone soii^^htNi^ solve on a llegelian basis«
Revival of .legel in Mairsisn after I9I8. Stresses vs« the
preocGupation with Organisation and the ii-nriediate political
issues an open ended dialectic - the iinity of history and
philoöophy,^ Cxransci is in thr'.t traition» His Opposition eto
'irhat he calls " rii^chanisn"« Ilis concern that intellectuals he
a part of the movement and directed to transfoming quantity
( the liiasses) into auality - raising Standards and the consciousness
of the rmsses. Pbl 1 pyf'^fvnhy is thfi ^onng^ i^iti nn of thR wnrlcir^ and

[pon laioir.edge not b^punLiuieil^^ ( vb> ^roudherrhr 95

«MM»<MKMiV«>*<'

this ±

Materialism is not, then, sinply the " rmterial" - it

is the interaction of rian's consciousness with reality defined

^ , , ,,^ II II " ^

as social relationships based lipon Marxist history and econo-cics.

Beliefs have a force - to deny it iroiild bo the cnide " econonism"
iK} opoaolca ribout - but the taslc of leaders is to give the Icnowled^e

s

o that these beliefs are based on vrhat he call the facts#

r

AlTfa^^s based also on dialectic - assvinption that contradictions
are at the basis of the historical proigess » Thiis opoen ended»
^aiTie ideas were put fon^ard by 'Krxl Kor seh in Germany ( Brecht 's

teacher). CürarAoci not oricinal» ?or körscl? it i-ras of prine in=
l^*^^^*t^yC portance to fight the battle also in mens ninds: the development
ri^^V ^^ consciousness of theory is the cr\rc to Opposition to boiirgois
. >'^ consciousness* To " understand" and the " chan^e" r.o to^ether.

^i

f^^Political and economic actipn alone is not^nouGh# For Korsch

^^ Jj!^^^ j this leads event\ially to a democratic revolution ( v/orkers
/)"* /'A^ — » — ■ — _

Last time:

breacken open doqmatism and positivism of K. to put movement
and ethical stantdcds into class struccle and classless society.
Unlike K.vere society is all tat matters, her e process mattered
because man involyed, his consciousness müst interact with
the class struqgle . Easy because assumed categorical imperative in
all man, will to do right, only ciscumstances prevents it. But
class struggle will bring it out - means that ethical Standard,
no difference between ends andjneans, no t.ctics, no opression,
no dicipline. Hegel revival : emphasis upon Internet ion of mans
consciousness and class struggle in the process of jhist) ry;
Kant: categorical impeataive which is in every man.
Prolerarirate not virtues just because prol ( as with K.) problem
of revolutionary stra^^egy.

//

^

COoHC(C<y j "I'Iarx arid Encels were dialectitians before they becarae materialists."

( Korsoh). The developement of the nind ( G-eistiger Lebenspror.ess)
f^ms a continiiity with developnent of society. Lenin subordianted
all theoretical questions to doßanitisn and the tactics of the party.
( here a^^^ain at one with Kantian intellectuals), / ^P jS^/V ) ^p

Such was Hgä?3€- -^rechts teacher in Ilarxisn - one who had friendship
until hos death» Brecht foimd his teacher in this heretic and not on
Gomiitmist orthodoxy. In his plays the dialectic is oa^mys in the
centre. -^.e. Ilother Oo\ira^;e: party wanted the old vroman to be an
evdil trader \iho loves only money, the personification of the capitalist
" type". iBut this was -uninterestins for :3recht. Rather " Hother
Courage" is not bleaineless but on the whole a capable wonan who copes
with her life. But she does not reco.^Tiise the interrelationships of
the social System, thus she does understand the evil of vrar and can
make noney^of it» She does not lack morality but consciousness of
her Situation witliin the evil of society. She lacks consciousness and
this involves her in contradictions* in " The exeption and the rule "
the nerchant has to misund erstand the f^esture of the Kuli who offers
him water in the destert, " Within the System which men have made
humanity is the exeption" • The showing of societies contridictions
depends upon not naicing men types as sucli " evil merchant" - if that
is all the contradictions of a dialectic are fatally wealcened.
Brecht meant man the measure to be problematical» Kor seh read this
IIb. and as late dua 194-9 protested against the simplistic intepr. of
the play» "to liis yes he also joined a "no"» C^itical thought is
also revolutionary action» ifJ^j^LpYj

\

2. Bloch.

H

Muntzer ( 1921) mysticism - apocjrlypse restored to Marxism. '

Stages of prpduction accompanied by stages of religious thought =

principle of hope ( return of Chrust). Must always be present. never

lost in scientism. Philosophy must take of f V4re Marx endst that is

provide the Utopian compone'm^t s to point to the " red dawn", to

explore the " not yet". Pagj^is nnanhip^ hroro4ftq. Give ^'^arxism ä

" Vision". Not a Utopia outside history, but Immanent in each

epoch ( egel). 'en acting historical, in time not outside it.

/

Pill in one more totality, if you lie, one more activition of

consciousness within the dialecttkc/'

Atteimpts to leave Iron Cage of dogma. Luscazc sees it between

i'A

reification ( Verdinglichmng) and alienation which Springs from it. arx

commodity fetechism

, but also with time ( De Chi^ico) a wor^jC-

/.

were everything becomes a " thing" object. Rationalisation of labo r -

/

A'A

fragmentisation of life. Connecting again" Marxism and Philosophy.

"' " ' — r — r

Hegelian revival . Problem of "m^diation" which Kautzki took for granted -

materialism

Lichtheim, Lukacz/^Gly

/ ; X

will do it. But L. /quite dif f erent\(Breinis 138j> Sum up

The nothingness of the capitalist
present as expression of its insignificance and of the
promise of coming redemption. Every apocalyptical movement of the past
foreshadowed something of the future. Religious ideal really. V

Toller

Who is guilty? 432/43

Whi is woman " guiltlessly guilty^? 46

Collect ion of enemies: machine, mechanic, state etc. What?

Friends? Only man himself. i^fU^A^Ü^f

duty

[ Right thinking people 46/47 Bien pensant ( Bemanos)
Refusal of woman to be free if warder is Struck down 48
Famous lines about masses ( Masses are not holy etc.) 49
Always contrast humanity and Community* Difference between
Community and masses«

Does it matter for whom one fights? 50 deepest denial.

Cause va. people 51

Priest - a parody on original sin 53

Forword; realism isjriotj'ealim at all--_no difference between reality
and dream ( Bloch tradition here)

Parallel to Kaiser " Gas^" : Explosion at factory, killing. Should it
be rebuit? Workers for it, hero against it. Visionary of new society,
comraunal without Gas factories. End: looses, workers rebuilt Gas
factory, but girl as motyer of " new man".

Problem of power, uses of power»

4^Tn^yAM'

i

/(T ^ /;' - «-

^^-> -7

(li^i

Ci4.'^

;^ >*^^V /ij^

^/V^'^VW^

Jl/i^^ 4

[gflAt^^

What do you think this play is all about? Why are we reading it?

Plays in war.
Toller:

'V P* ^* Rolle_of the masses? What are they? Importance of war? pp.22ff,

^•) P* 2 Soldiers Councils. Instruments of rev. explain. Soviet example.
/ alternative polity?

Husband " code of gentief olk" p. 3 seif discipline. formulae

p* 4. refomist liberal? home for illegitimate children Aa>sap.I5 -

yj vs. charity again
clue: woman - need to be human p. 5 ' ^

Comrades do not need^code of honour p. 5

relation between women and husband. 3he loves him nevertheless. Her

actions are imperative ( i.e. Kant, categorical imperative).

The State p. 7 what is alternative?
nature of the state p. 7 —

r--

Stock market dream; man hates man^ built upon that,
State managed brothel for victory ( prudery here?)
Why is human nature flaw in their System? 14

P. 16 Luddite temp^tion is rejected, just as charity is rejected.
18: destroyd o\ir youth in school.

Function of strike and weackness p, 19 Peace is not enough, end of war
not enough, sttike not enough p. 21

P. 2Iff . Problem or violence and revolution, nameless one vs. woman
( toller = read Mitchell guote). \Jaut^^^ iStpif^^^'^

Theme; masses helplesss, masses master. 22 i-^^^W&y^^M o^
Mankind means forgiving 29

Force wins out at first: battle the enemy. " ruthlewss war?S 31
shooting bourgeois prbsoners 35 - reminiscent of Munich. HERE
EISNER AND TOLLER VERSUS SOVIET STAGE OF REVOLUTION ( EXPL.) Basic
theme. Revenge is nor revolution etc. Community instead 35-37.
DEFENSE OF INtelligentsia? ( Like Toller) 37
f/» Woman is sucked into it like Rosa Luxembiirg ( 38/39 - can one withhold
pn e s sself from revolution even if it destroys itself?

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KRÖNERS TASCHENAUSGABE BAND 434

FRANK TROMMLER

<^^IBL)^

SOZIALISTISCHE

LITERATUR

IN DEUTSCHLAND

Un historischer Überblick

ALFF

ALFRED KRÖNER VERLAG STUTTGART

:irs^^pa^

■™:

t^:

»V-u

470

DIE GESCHEITERTE REVOLUTION

^, von Carl von Ossietzky geleiteten IWeltbühnc und der vor

Willi Münzenberg geschaffenen Ärbeiter-Illustricrtc-ZeituK;^
(AlZ).

Eine besonders wirkungsvolle Variante entwickelte die A'7.
mit der Zuordnung von aktuellem Foto und dazu vcrfaOtor
politisdien Gedidit, wie überhaupt die Verbindung von Iit-
•. rarischcm Text und visuellem Arrangement in den zwanzig.-
Jahren in höchst imaginativer Weise erweitert wurde. Die aiu
systematische Zuordnung von Bild und lyrischem Text im Dien •
revolutionärer I'ropaganda hatte in KuL^land Majak(nskij m.-
den ROSTA-Fenstern ausgearbeitet, den Großplakaten mit poli;;
sehen, militärischen und wirtschaftlichen Tagestliemen, die IViv
bis 1922 von der Russischen Telegraphen-Agentur iRüSTA) ur.;
einer Abteilung des Volkskommissariats für Aufklärung (Glu>
politpiosvet) herausgegeben wurden. Die - gemalten und kupia
ten, nicht gedruckten - Bildfolgen verzahnen sich auf di^-v.:
Plakaten untrennbar mit Majakovskijs aktuell agitierenden Vc:
sen; die künstlerische Form entsteht synkritisch, aus zwei Kür:
sten.*"'" Auch lleartlields Fotomontagen leben aus der Verzah
nung von Bild und (Schlagwort-)Text. Louis Aragon rückte llcart
field und Majakovskij einander nahe.^^?

In dem ÄlZ-Band von Bild-Gcdidit-Montagen, Rote S/gn::..
(1931), verwies man auf die Gefahren der >bloßen< Fotografie: >!i
entlarve nicht nur, sondern veidec-ke aucb. Es gehe darum, nicht nu:
Bilder zu bringen, sondern Ursachen und Wirkungen zu cnt
hüllen, »wie es bei den großen Reportagen der Fall ist". Gcwisfi
Bilder verlangten mehr als eine Unterschrift: »Sie scheinen er-
dann etwas Ganzes zu werden, wenn sie durch ein Geditht s
hervorgehoben werden, wie sie es verdienen.« In politischer
- / Termini: »Die A-I-Z zieht es vor, in jedem Bild, jedem Wort J.
i Welt so zu zeigen, wie sie wirklidi ist, wie sie sein könnte, w..

sie sein Tüirrf!«^'*® ^

Auch hierin ist die nur allzu oft übersehene NotwendigKCit
der Erläuterung und Plazierung der visuell-ästhetischen Elemente
ausgesprodien, die sid\ seit Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts in der.
Vordergrund sdioben. Angesidits der von Heartfield entwid^eltcr
Fotomontage verlor der literarische Text keineswegs seine Funk-
tion. Darauf wies Piscator bei der Verteidigung seiner theatra-
lischen Verbindung von Film, Bild, Bühne und Text immer wieder
hin. In überzeugender Weise bedienten sidi Tudiolsky {Deiitsdi-
Und, Deutschland über alles!, 1929) und Bredit {Kriegsßbel. 1955

DIE ZWANZIGER JAHRE

471

• r 7uordnunR von Fotografie und Gedidit. Bredit pries 1931 die

'-olr Kontrast - .u setzen mit ähnlichen Un.emehmunscn
;:f gc8ncrL*cr Sci.e. Au* das Durchs*a«b.-,rmachen .st der
Vnnipulation zugänglich.

Einige der bekanntesten Lieder und Gedichte von Brecht
.-langfen vor 1933 ihre Popularität durch Theater und F.lm^
Während die satirischen Songs der Dreigroschenoper die
0 iaen Barrieren übersprangen, wurden Chöre und Liede
ufden Stücken Die Maßnahme (1930) und D,e M..»cr
1931/32) Bestandteile der kommunistischen P/°Pa8.^"<l^.
Besonders schnelle Verbreitung fand das ^^'^>^
-Vorwärts und nicht vergessen . . .«), das Brecht tur den
.ozialkritischen Film K.ihle Wampe (Musik: H/'""^/;''"'
Regie: Slatan Dudow) schrieb, der 1931 S^d^^ht und 932
nach hartem Kampf mit der Zensur gezeigt wurde Brech
cteiligte sich selbst auch bei der Verbreitung poht scher
Ldr neben Ernst Busch, Hanns Eisler, Helene Weigel und
deT n. Mit Weinert arbeitete er 1931 für die >Rote Revue<
r Berliner »Jungen Volksbühne. Wir .md ,a soozufne-
.kn. Bei dieser Gelegenheit wurde das Ued vom SA-Pro^
leten - eine frühe Fassung des Liedes vom SA-Mann

XtdTe'vo^^^elk des Gedichts gegenüber Artikel und
Referat in der Massenagitation dieser Zeit besaß Weinert
eine sehr dczidicrte Meinung. Er resümierte 1934:

.Was die Verständlidimachung unserer Meinung betrifft, .0
«l^en m^das Gedidit, besonders das satirisdi-analysierende,
^nen B^w »«" Vorrang vor dem Referat zu besitzen Das Ged^
Seht CS, die Stimmung des Tages in e ne kürzere Forme
Has «n das Thema in übcrsiditlidier Gedrängtheit und de
;iir Qutmessenz unmißdeutbar darzustelle. Dieser vorbei

,cl besonders gegenüber soldien Hörern ms Gew.*.. d. ome
geringe politisAc Sdiulung hatten. 1* habe die Hörer immer

/

y

518

DIE GESCHEITERTE REVOLUTION

\

Kf
■J'^

U

Brecht verwies auf die hohe Bedeutung des Wahrheitsan-
spruchs, betonte jedoch, daß dessen Funktion an die Selbst-
realisierung des Künstlers gebunden sei. Selbstrealisierung
im künstlerischen Vollzug oder generellen Mitvollzug blieb
Brechts zentrale Thematik, am unmittelbarsten artikuliert
in den Lehrstücken seit Ende der zwanziger Jahre. Das war
I zugleich die Zeit, da sich Brecht wieder von Piscator ent-
i femte, von dem er Entscheidendes lernte, und sich auf
seinen eigenen Weg einer »wirklichen Revolutionierung des
Theaters« machte. Die Ausgrenzung dieses »wirklichen
Revolutionierens« geschah auch hier mit Hilfe des Vorwurfs
der Beliebigkeit und des Naturalismus:

»Die Requirierung des Theaters für Zwedc des Klassen-
kampfes bietet eine Gefahr für die wirklidie Revolutionierung
des Theaters. Es ist kein Zufall, daß diese Rcquiricrung nidi:
von der Produktion, sondern von der Aufinadiung (Regie) her
erfolgte. Diese künsderische Mittel usurpierenden Klassenkampfer
mußten von Anfang an zu neuen Mitteln (Jazz und Film) greifen
und konnten zu keiner Revolutionierung des Theaters selbst vor-
dringen. Die politisdi verdienstvolle Übertragung revolutionären
Geistes durch Bühneneffekte, die ledighch eine aktive Atmosphäre
schaffen, kann das Theater nicht revolutionieren und ist etwas
Provisorisches, das nicht weitergeführt, sondern nur durch eine
wirklich revolutionierte Theaterkunst abgelöst werden kann

Dieses Theater ist ein im Grund an ti revolutionäres, weil passives,
reproduzierendes. «2*8

Brecht ließ den Namen Piscators aus, als er davon sprach,
dieses Theater müsse auf die politisdic Revolution warten,
um die Vorbilder zu bekommen. Piscators Theater gab ihm
vor allem als Experimentierbühne Anregungen — in seiner
Dramaturgie hatte er schon zuvor der Tragödienform fern-
gestanden. Dem entsprach sein besonderes Interesse für
das japanische Theater; seine ersten Schritte mit dem Lehr-
theater erfolgten in enger Anlehnung daran.

Kurt Weill (1900-1950), der die Schuloper Der Jasager
zum Muster einer Einübung in die Opcrndarstcilung er-
klärte, wirkte daran mit, die Selbstreflexion der Kunst ge-
genüber der gesellschaftlichen Wirklichkeit in abstrakten

DIE ZWANZK

Modellen voranzutreiben, bei denen sich die Lehre zunächst
als dieser Prozeß der Selbstreflexion darstellte. Die musi-iy
kaiische und chorische Erneuerungsbewegung Ende dei^|
zwanziger Jahre übte auf Brecht, der mit Paul Hmdemith,V
Weill und I-'anns Eisler zusammenarbeitete, große Anzie-
hungskraft aus. Zu dieser Zeit wurden d\t preigrosehen-
oper (1928) und Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny
(1929/30) mit ihrer satirisch-musikalischen Entlarvung der
kapitalistischen Gesellschaft zu großen Erfolgen; zugleich
bedeuteten sie wichtige Stufen bei der Konzeptualisierung

des epischen Theaters.-^' . ,, .. ., „..

Weill übertrug die Formen des Lernspicls auf die Musik, Brecht
cntwi.i<clte seine Thesen zum « Funkt ionswcdiscl des Theaters«.
Weill stellte fest: »Gerade im Studium besteht der praktische
Wert der Schuloper, und die Aufführung eines sold^en Werkes
■M weit weniger wichtig als die SAulung, die fiir die Ausfuhren-
den damit verbunden ist.«"« Bredit wandte sich gegen das her-
kömmlidie Konsumententheater: »Nidit jeder Hercingelaufcne
kann, auf Grund eines Gcldopfcrs, h^r...:vcrstchen^^
von >konsumieren<. Dies ist keinejyarc_me^^
a\rGniKr~^einer-ängeiTT^^ Veranlagung ohne

weTTHTgs^ganglidi ist. PHTSt^lidnc ist zum Allgemeingut er-
klärt es ist »nationalisiert«, Voraussetzung des Studiums; das
Fortnalc, als die Art der Benutzung, wird in Form von Arbeit,
eben von Studium, aussdilaggebend.«"^ Beim Experiment der
Sdiuloper entsdiiedcn sidi, wie Weill beriditet, Brcdit und er
dafür, zu dem japanischen Stüdc Tanikö zumindest den Begritt
«Einverständnis« hinzuzunehmen, damit der Knabe zeigen kann,
niaH er gelernt hat, für eine Gemcinsdnaft oder tür eine Idee,
der er sich angcsdilosscn hat, alle Konsequenzen auf sich zu-
nehmen«'-J-^- Damit war ein .Inhalt« gegeben, und /war das
lernen des Einverständnisses, für Inhalte einzutreten. Im Hin-
blick auf Brechts folgende Lehrstüd<e, die als Einübungen m
Haltungen und Denkformen zu verstehen waren, zeigte das einen
Moment lang ihren Marxismus im Embryonalzustand.

Auch in der Maßnahme wjrd Einverständnis angezielt. Es ist
zuiiLßiaEILdas Einverständnis eines jungen RcvolutignaiS-J"-'t
sdn^Trou^^'d^^^csiAts der Gefährdung der revolutionären
>^^r von vier Agitatoren notwendig wird; die Gefährdung hat
der junge Genosse durdi sein falsdnes Verhalten heran fbesdnvo-
ren, er ist verwundet und zur Belastung geworden. Zum anderen

'W'-r^Or

520

DIE ZWANZIGER JAHRE

521

.*c

-.c vier
-».nauplatz der
..a Kommt jeweils nidit
fjf einer revolutionären Not-
ais Lehre des Stückes zu gelten hat.

I

r

ist es das Einvc
Agitatoren nach
Handlung, verantv
gefühls-, sondern

wendigkeit cntsprec ^^

Es ist eine schwierige Lehre, sie entwid<elt sich im Mitvollzug
der Beteiligten: »Der Zweck des Lehrstüd<es ist also, politisch

2" IcHren.« Brecht fügte hinzu: »Z'uTDisklffiönlöTr dürchdrcse
Aufführung gestellt werden, ob eine solche Veranstaltung politi-
sdien Lehrwert hat.«253 Dieser Zusatz ist widitig. Er zeigt, wie
ernsthaft Bredit diese Theater-Praxis mit der politisdien Arbeit
um 1930 zu verbinden sudite. Aber er zeigt auch, wie Brecht diese
Theaterpraxis zuglcidi auf ihren Wert für die politisdic Arbeit
hin testen wollte. Es war Experiment; die Diskussion nach der
Aufführung bildete einen integrierenden Bestandteil.

Es verwundert allerdings nidit, daß die Wirkung der Maß-
nahme bei dem politisch aufgewühlten Publikum von J^O, das
in der Septemberwahl neben dem Anwadisen der KPD den enor-
men Aufstieg der NSDAP beobaditet hatte, nidit auf der Expcri-
tierhaltung beruhte, sondern vomehmlidi darauf, daß es eine
Station der Kommunisten war die auf dem gp^ipr des
Is_etwas_^igencs_boten, das sdion im Fajle Piscators
sowohLAibciter wie intellektuelle Avantgarde hatte Anteil neh-
men lassen. Diese Dcmonstration254 war es auch, djicj<urella, der
die ausführlichste Kritik des Stüd<es auf kommunistischer Seite
verfaßte, »als^^Gajucs^jguthicß. Im Inhaltiid^en jedoch rechnete
er Bredit und Eisler vor, wicjelu Rieses _StüdL,voat realen poli-
-['!r!!L^^"^P^ ^^^ Gegenwart Abgehoben^ sei. Sie hätten ein
jrunsthdrbegrenztes »Manövriergelände« aus Stüd<dien der Wirk-
hdikeit hergestellt, weldies sie den darzustellenden Ideen an-
paßten. Der Kommunismus sei für die Autoren eine Idee, er
bestehe m der »Lehre der Klassiker*. Sie übersähen den ständigen
^Wechselprozeß von Erkenntnis und Änderung. Bredit sehe nidit
- und darin sei er der typische bürgerliche Intellektuelle, der sidi
der Partei ansdiließe -, »dass der Kommunismus ebenso sehr
eine historisch bedingte konkrete Kampfbewegung einer Klasse
ist und dass man auch die Wissenschaft des Kommunismus nidit
verstehen kann, ohne sich in diese konkrete Kampfbc vegung
einzugliedern oder sie zum mindesten vollkommen zu kennen
und bei der Bctradiiung und Lösung jedes Problems der Revolu-
tion praktisch mit einzubeziehcn«.^«

/ : men A

^ 7 mentie]

1 Manifc

«

Kurellas Antwort auf Breciits Frage nach dem Wert dieses
^tüd<s für die politisdic Arbeit lautete demnach: der verallge-
meinernden, abstrahierenden Deutung revolutionärer Probleme mit
ililfc des künstlerischen Modells - um Ejzeniteins Worte anklin-
;;cn zu lassen - waren über die Demonstration hinaus enge v
Grenzen gesetzt. Kurella sdiob die Tatsache beiseite, daß Bredit
^!c abstrahierende Deutung nicht (nur) vorführen, sondern von
Jen Mitwirkenden erarbeiten lassen wollte. Darin wurde er
Brechts Beschäftigung mit dem Lemspiel nicht gerecht, die im
isryßcrcn Zusammenhang mit der von Piscator und Wittfogel
nauguricrten Theaterpraxis stand und sich in manchem mit der
Xufklärungsarbcit von Agitproptruppen berührte. Dennoch muß
Nurclla, der zu dieser Zeit als wichtiger Vermittler zwischen KPD
jnd Intellektuellen fungierte, als ein emstzunehmender Zeuge
•ür die Neigung der Zeitgenossen gelten, das spezifisch Experi-
■^.entclle beiseitezuschieben. Das geschah von links bis rechts
iwo man Brecht besonders scharf angriff). Im gleichen Zusammen- \ \
hang steht Kurellas Hinweis auf die Probleme der Adaption und
des Lernens, die den bürgerlidien Intellektuellen bei der An-
näherung an den Sozialismus beschäftigten.

Brecht wertete die »Versuchsanordnung« des Lehrstücks
^(lensichtlich sehr hoch. Er wollte die Zuschauer hereinneh-
men, d. h. die alte Hoffnung auf »Theatralisierung« des
Zuschauers erfüllen und ihn zum Beteiligten machen, aller-
dings nicht mehr durch gefühlshaftes Aufgehen in der neuen
Gemeinschaft, sondern durch kritische Mitarbeit am kriti-
>dien Spiel. Mit dieser Ausrichtung Brechts zu dieser Zeit
;eht überein, daß er den von der Partei gebotenen Korrek-
ruren politischer Art recht bereitwillig entgegenkam. Wenn
auch jm ^Zn^^nmmjpnhgpg derJVja/?nfl/img-Aufführung_3ie
fpczifische Funktion dcx, Arbeitcrsängerbcwcfiung für das
Proletariat hervor^ehübjcn_wurde, so ist doch die Verwandt-
schaft mit dem Experimentdenken in der modernen Literatur
rucht zu übersehen, denizufolge das literarische Werk seine
Genese selbst mitreflektiert und nicht Identität vermittelt,
•ohne zugleich che Darstellung der Idealität für das We-
sentlichere zu erklären «."^^ Die politisch-ideologische Dimen-
sion von Brechts »Versuchsanordnung« läßt sich immer
'vieder mit Kategorien begründen, welche die politisch-

522

DIE GESCHEITERTE REVOLUTION

"ideologische Relevanz ins Experiment plazieren — ihre >Pr3-
xis< bleibt eben die des künstlerischen bzw. intellektuelle:
Experiments. Brecht selbst wollte, wie zitiert, die Mcf-
nähme als Experiment betrachtet wissen, was nicht vor
vornherein impliziert, daß er die »proletarische Dialektik«
als »das allgemeine Lehrziel« fixierte.^"

Die politische Demonstrationswirkung der, JAajlnahjn e-
Aufführung in Berlin 1930/31 mit Ernst Busch, Heleni
WeigeLAlexajnder^ Granach u. a. ist also nicht mit dem
Erfolg von Brechts Lehrexperiment gleichzusetzen; ohnehin
näherten sich die Aufführungen nilt_der_chorischJie^^
QßfHHBfi-äciJungen^Genoss^^ Ernst

Busch bemerkte später, es sei »kein Theaterstück, sonder.
ein Oratoriurn^ ein Podjmnsstück«. (»Ich spielte die Rolk
des Jungen Genossen, mit dem alle Mitleid hatteu.«)-^^ Der
kommunistische Kritiker Durus (Alfred Kemenyi, 1895 bis
1945) gestand den hohen Lehrwert zu und begrüßte die
»kollektive Produktionsberatung* (VViitfogcl) danach, ging
jedoch vom Vorwurf des bloß Konstruierten, aus dem sicf.
falsche Schlüsse und Lehren ergäben, nicht ab.^^* Dem ent-
sprach Kurellas Vorwurf, Brecht gelange zu einer Position
des Rechtsopportunismus. Wenn Brecht 1930 auch eher eine
allzu übereilte Revolutionspsychose kritisiert haben dürfte
so lassen die Reaktionen innerhalb der Partei die Grenzer
erkennen, die einer Theatralisierung von Handlungsanlei-
tungen in der politischen Praxis gcsct/t waren.

In dem folgenden >Lehrstück< Die Mutter (1931), da?
Brecht mit Slatan Dudow (1903—1963), Hanns Eislcr unc
Günther Weisenborn (1902—1969) nach Gori<ijs Romar
verfaßte, geschieht die Aufdeckung der »tieferen Zusam-
menhänge« mit Hilfe eines Bühnenmodells, das sich von der
Abstraktion der Maßnahme stark entfernt, ebenso von dem
im »großen Stil« entfalteten Modellstück über den Kapitalis-
mus, Die heilige Johanna der Schlachthöfe (1930), mit der
Brecht zugleich Schillers romantische Tragödie »zurüd
nahm«. Der Lernprozeß wird vor den Augen des Zuschauer?
vorbildlich und mit vielen realistischen Elementen voll-
zogen. Die Mutter Pelagea Wlassowa gewinnt Einblick ü"

DIE ZWANZIGER JAHRE

523

iic gesellschaftliche Wirkhchkeit und wird zum bewußt
handelnden Revolutionär. Für den Vorwurf der Realitäts-
feme blieb mit dem Rückgriff auf das Proletarierleben bei
Corkij wenig Raum, allerdings bildete auch hier den Schau-
platz nicht die gegenwärtige Situation in Deutschland, son-
dern eine demgegenüber rückständige Gesellschaft, in der
jdion Lesenlernen einen Ausbruch aus der bisherigen gesell-
K-haftlichcn Fesselung symbolisiert. Gorkijs Mythisierung
Jcr zum Kampf erwachenden Mutter verlagerte sich. Nun
rückte der Reiz des Lernens, die Schönheit des erwachenden
politischen Bewußtseins ins Zentrum, so daß das gesell-
itliaftliche Erkennen als ein revolutionäres Verhalten sicht-
bar wurde und zum Nachvollzug aufforderte. Die Durch-
Jnngung der Wirklichkeit war sensueller Vorgang, erwuchs
nicht mehr dem negativen Beispiel. Damit kehrte Brecht zu
einer erstaunlichen Anerkennung des Konkreten und Realen
zurück, insofern es den politischen Kampf aus der Pcrspek-
rivc des Proicmriats betraf. Hierzu gehört seine befriedigte
Feststellung, daß »die Arbeiter auf die feinsten Wendungen
der Dialoge sofort reagierten und die kompliziertesten Vor-
aussetzungen ohne weiteres mitmachten«, während »das
rurgerliche Publikum nur mühsam den Gang der Handlung
und überhaupt nicht das Wesentliche« begriff.^"** Dieses
inoinssetzen mit dem als Publikum entdeckten Proletariat
bildete gleichsam eine Kompensation für die an anderer
Stelle gezeigte Abstraktionstendenz. »Den für die prole-
tarische Sache kämpfenden Arbeitern Deutschlands und
insbesondere den kämpfenden Frauen« heißt die Widmung
des Stückes, das 1932 am Todestag von Rosa Luxemburg
uraufgeführt wurde und, wie Breciit ebenfalls mit Befriedi-
•^,ung vermerkte, etwa 15 000 Berliner Arbeiterfrauen er-
reichte. Die Widmung macht deutlich, daß sein Interesse
A'eit über die »Versuchsanordnung« hinausging. Es galt nun
in besonderem Maße dem Proletariat.

Die Mutter nimmt innerhalb seiner Theaterarbeit eine
extreme Position ein, zu der Brecht später Abstand hielt,
ohne sie für brennende politische Stellungnahmen auszu-
schließen. Nach 1936 erarbeitete er das Konzept der Ver-

>*;A-.;ArU*

und Selbstaufopferung« und schreibt: »Der Nihilist Brecht
war ja eben ^radc vgn Sehnsucht nach einer sinnlosen Autori-
tät erfüllt; was er brauchte, war Disziplin und Glaube - credo
qtiia iihsurcinm.«^ Daß Brecht unter Disziplin gerade nicht
>»stalinistischen Kadavergehorsam«," sondern die Grundlage
der Freiheit verstand, hindert auch Herbert Lüthy nicht,

Brechts Thema in der Maßnahme wie folgt zu definieren:

Brecht gehe es »mit besessener Ausschließlichkeit einzig [um] \
die Disziplin als Selbstzweck, die strenge, bürokratische, jeder
menschlichen oder moralischen Rücksicht bare Machtiechnik
dieses Ordens« (M 418); gerade weil Brecht, nach Lüthys
Meinung, die Auswechselbarkeit von »Rotfrontkämpferbund
und SA« (M 419) ausgezeichnet belegt, sei es ihm auch gelun-
gen, »das bedeutendste, wenn nicht einzige bolschewistische
Drama zu schreiben« (M 420). J^uihJFischer sieht die Maß-
nahme als Zusammenfassung aller ^terroristischen Züge zu
einem Spiegelbild der totalitären Partei und ihrer Elite, der
NKWD«, als »Parabel, die die Vernichtung der Parteiopposi-
tion darstellt«, und als »Vorwegnähme der Moskauer Prozes-
se«;' ähnlich behauptet £ssÜn: ^^Dic^Maßnahmc^ 19^0 ent-
standen, nimmt in allen Einzelheiten und mit erstaunlicher
Genauigkeit die großen_poljtis<;hen Prozpssp der «tralinisri-
schen Ära vorweg. Acht Jahre bevor Bucharin vor seinen
Richtern sich im Interesse der Partei mit seiner eigenen Hin-
richtung einverstanden erklärte, hatte Brecht diesem heroi-
schen Akt der Selbstaufopferung eines Kommunisten tragi-
schen dichterischen Ausdruck gegeben.« '° Willy Haas verstieg
sich sogar zu der eindeutig falschen Aussage: »D/> Maßnahme
war das erste Stück von Brecht, welches die vollständigste
offizielle Zustimmung der Partei der Stalinisten fand.«" Wahr
ist vielmehr, daß die Aufführung der Maßnahme in der Partei
'tine_sehr krhreche^ufnahme fand; kommunistische Kritiker
meldeten ernste Bedenken an (vgl. M 354, 359, 365, 371 f.)
und^waren höchstens zu einer stark eingeschränkten Zustim-
mung bereit.'* Eine Woche nach der Premiere fand eine
Diskussion des Stücks statt, über die ein Teilnehmer berichtet:
p »Die Diskussion konzentrierte sich hauptsächlich auf die Tö-
/ tung dieses Genossen, und vor allem wollten die Kommuni-
[ sten nicht zugeben, daß dies kommunistische Praxis ist. Der
] kommunistische Weg sei der Ausschluß aus der Partei, nicht

40

X

trCA^i

aber die Tötung eines Genossen. Dies glaubte der Vorsitzende
- ich glaube, es war Wittfogel - entkräften zu müssen, indem
er behauptete, der physische Tod sei für den Genossen selbst
(oder besser: für jeden politischen Menschen) nicht so tragisch
wie der Ausschluß.« Man bestätigte Brecht: »Überall, wo
revolutionäre Theorie gelehrt wird, sei es klar und klassisch
ausgedrückt, z. B. die Stelle von den Augen des Einzelnen und
den Augen der Partei. Aber wo revolutionäre Praxis gelehrt
wird, versage Brecht, well er die Praxis der Partei nicht
kenne.« '3 Gegen dieses Argument, das in der Parteikritik bis
heute wiederkehrt,"» hat Esslln (zumindest teilweise richtig) 'J
eingewendet: »Die Behauptung, es existiere in der Parteiarbeit
ein Primat der Erfahrung über die Theorie, zerstört die
Grundlagen des Marxismus selbst, der ja die Praxis aus der
wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnis sozialer Tatbestände ab-
leitet.«'^

Nun ist ohne Zweifel richtig, daß die kommunistischen
Parteien unter Stalin weitgehend eine pragmatische, oft sogar
opportunistische Politik betrieben, eine »Praxis«, die marxisti-
sche Theorie oft nur noch als Vorwand und Alibi benutzte.
Besonders verwirrend wird eine solche pragmatische Anwen-
dung marxistischer »Theorie«, wenn Brecht, der die zwar
tatsächliche, aber falsche »Praxis« der Partei (in China und
Deutschland) verteidigt, am Beispiel Lenin vorgerechnet wird,
daß diese Praxis falsch Ist, was wiederum dieselbe Partei In der
politischen Realität Ihrem damaligen Kritiker Trotzki gegen-
über keineswegs zugab. In seinem Aufsatz Ein Versuch mit
nicht ganz tauglichen Mitteln rechnet Alfred Kurella zum
Beispiel Brecht vor: »Wir können verschiedene Beispiele dafür
anfuhren, wie die Bolschewik! und vor allem Lenin bei ent-
sprechenden Gelegenheiten eeradcdenSt^^ jungen
Gen^ssenvertreten und durchieführt ha5iKT7IH;"i?^ spon-
tane Aufstandsbewegung der Massen mcht mit welser Miene
auf Grund der »Lehren der Klassiken abzutun, sondern sie
aufzunehmen, sich an Ihre Spitze zu stellen, sogar dann, wenn
man annehmen kann, daß sie zur Niederlage führt.« '^ Nur daß
Brecht sich eben genau auf die Lehren des Klassikers Lenin
(man vergleiche dessen Aufsatz^Z)er linke Radikalismus, die
Kinderkrankheit im Kommunismus) Jberuft: ÖEInen Kampf
aufzunehmen, wenn die Situation offenbar für den Feind und

41

.» * **,. V .

\/^^^^ 10

^.^^^ ^ fi^fJ"^

er diotatorship of ^ke-Rftöe-Meas^e a class
•ation, '* imlimited democracy"* Her idea of
struggle". This avoids falling oaok into

Lenins professional rev, elite). P^ 108.
historical dialeotic as leading tö"revoltitiön,

elf is based on a fai^h in man - not tmlike the"
icevt here in a clas^which everyone^^ indeed —

huraanity, and h-umanity is good»-

^eninism triumphed over this one one side - and social demooracy on

the other. liut the trend goes on, in and out of the Communis t

party and the socialist parties. To be revived after 1945, again __
among intellect-uals ( Erich Froiäm& I%dison}T

V/hat general remarks can be made about this? Idealism deep seated
anong intellectuals - ,especially vrith its concommittant of freedom,
the denial of class and historical inevetability. Siiina-QfLJihjßse
peui>lü luad muie likis Jelm l^-iluail Mill tJfieh '"^x ähd, 6gp561al3;y

^

C*^

The proDlematic is well expressed in i3reclat«s " fie Measure Taken^
3ust the oppositeVt^ Toller 's " Hasse iiensc5h";XYS^ Comrade has
precicely their view of the Communist 'paj?ry ' ( 258/259) But in
this View he refuses to compromise ( a deprives workers of arms)
indeed: P. 26? View ofvbhe Young Comrade leads to P, 270 and

<-K

his View of classics V*_2ie j"' Do what alone is htiman" (p. 278)

»e ^■^L^^^'Z'^ ^^* Coramunist party Stands for " reality" - an impersonal one

p. 28I.g>/.

'^.^^J

Play severely criticised byMoscow ( jlurella) : reason and emotion

^-

11.

(jlu^.^^, Di^-^^'

*^

(S>^/^

i^^^

TS'

z

caimot be seperated at all^ Moscow denied the problem. But the

Problem haimted Brecht himself here as in all bis other works:
auaiuiicu »ympa%hl}:jüa wlLIi ^ötuig^ Uorii-aabf aiid iiol wlLlr-tfae---ehtxrua

immmmmmmuimmmitmtmt^

inst^ad of a vi11ain)> Raises the ciilt-ural problem inherent in

this definition of '» reality" vs. the absolute one of the
intellect-uals» (-'/^^^

" leftis were the neprt is'' ( leonahrt Frank (1952) not enough^,
Frajiz liehring (1846 -3^19) tried t^^-solve proolem difierentlyl
Kant to him also iimoortänt: aeathetic idependence of art. Experiencing

this meohanical materialists* Yet

o?~beauty. Iiarx and Engelj

he vrho writes poetry ^gia^ Ikäso " eat and drink"* Thus now the
gredd of posessir^g^lasses m^es true appreciation of beauty im-
possible» L;pterat-ure now must loe analysed on the basis of its

immedi^rte economic and politicaÄ origins« The triiimph of the

pjKUetariate will be the triiimph ö^ Kant» —

George L-ukaczVlso attempted a Solution to this Problem of indiv.

aestheticism aAd creativity -ydiid attempted all his lif e to base "
himself on ^'^ege\ianism, hiptory, as most of the left wing intell.-

did not. The contelusiongr you will read in Gulture book. I-b-can
be OQid tho "ogolAaiijrsm heru uulwul^jJiLs Ihc Iiai-xlot dialoctic -

<tXj^ c,

i/L^' m/C^y/t/*- .d'

but thi

rQjootod-in fru^

j4-M^t-yhftt left wing int eile ctuals tod

/tji^

CT

TTan-h » f>n T,-ii]ry)n'

• Here it is not

'\

-^J^'^

'<i

^. 0"

tT'yi^ "^^^ skill of/4heartis>fc, creativitiy, but instead philosophical
basis which is decicivei The subject matter mustnot_be primary^
'^J victoriuous over the " ideal" - he does easilly slide off into

\

Literaturej

Culture of Western Europei

Knowledge not art - sloqan

Writers: Minna Kau zki, sentimental (" red Marlitt^ schmatical

but naturalistic really - proletarian milieu, But naturalism not

en ugh - rejected as no op timis. Yet thi strongest in workers

poems and biographies - but there again without much\heory,

a cry really.

^

-^IWM '*

••^^

-^ast timez Freud and Nietzsche, re - discovery of the unconsciousn.

Definition of the fin de siecle.

Today; unconscious . how defined with Freud?

Problem of inst inet and reason? Keeping controll? reasonvs. inst inet?

Freud between bourgoisie and revolt against it? What in Civilisntion

and its discontents? 36, 38 ( ^erman idealism), 40 esp. 42 ( order and

cleanliness)

Importance of sukblimation 42/43

Role of sexuality. 51 ^

New Lectures 103
Agression, P. 61 Change after war. repläces pleasure principle,

so does p. 70 death instinct,
P. 65 - security: essence.

■■;

Mosse Seminar

.Oller, Ha==e M...0. ( onl, ^ copies. « »ust Xero, at -' --
Brecht. THe »easur, ta.e„ ( onl, I eopy. « »ust Xero, at 1. .*
Sa,. Praid. .e.= and otbar »a^an. ( all 3 oopie. on raearve)

^&, .1^ 0..«« < . nra?r:a:rair "°*''"

!.,»,„*. Yonn« 3er»>any ( all 4 copias on raaarva) , ^

Leventhal. .>a. of Ser«an, ( all 6 oopl.a on raaarva) //' _,

■^ , .(.»o ^n "«brew. all on reserve)
1> Leorfiard Frank, Man is good ( 3 "i^^^.^^^^ ^^^.kl.'h^U-^^^U^^j^

S. zweig. World of Werday, ^ ^^ ^ ^^^^^ °^ ^^^7!"^
C^eierer, Bs.ay on Man ( 5 in He.rev on reserve 4 in ^^i 1^

V/ w«. of the Jevs ( Josephus), Hebrew 9, Bnglish 4 on

Ypeuchtwanger, War of the dews Reserve)

/ . ton „.„ -nrrlrm - --- v.^i ^ ^htenraent,. Cambridge University
^' perhaps cheaper to Xerox then to order 3 or 4 copies7)

N

#>

\

f

Leonore 0* Boyle, Klassische Bildimg und Soziale Struktur in
Deutschland" HZ 207, 1968, p. 584*6o8

H^H. Gerth, Bürgerliche Intelligenz um 1800, Gottingen 1976

R* Hinton, Liberalism, J^^ationalism ar-.d the German Intellectuals

( 1822 • 1827) An analysis of academic scientific Conferences of the

period, Cambridge, I95I

H, Hubrig, Die Patriotischen Gesellschaften des 18. Jahrhunderts,

Weinheim/ Bergstrasse 1957 ( Gottinger Studien zur Pädagogik

Heft 36).

Gi Kaiser, Klopstock, 1975

£• bemberg, Nationalismus

«

Meinecke, Weltbürgertum und Nationalstaat

F. Muncker, Kiopsrtock, 1888

Koppel Pinson, Pieti^ etc.

R. E. Prutz, der Gottijger Dichterbund, reprijt Bern 1970

•uofq.0 ajjad x'^saa^H^-^n oq. pBO j: ' aqc). uo daq.s

V

ueui u98Kq.aq seoj/ÖjajjTS 8p;^«a puare ^«fe«fA^4

fcAqc\SBM uoTi^BU eqq. jo %'^wci

r

p-Bui xre«l rf« Q.oaCaj "qox^A

Cao: "qoTi:[M f««

Brecht.

Is there a Toller here? Young Gornrade 258/259

Gontradiction of individual and/party

PT-^&5-wky-ete-%yey-«H^-e»-mftBifB^

Feeling and understanding? 267

Tactics - means and ends? 270

"eaning of reality? 276 nea^ing of " human" (278) and contradiction

here or not? Reality: 281
^ ImEortance of mtting onmasks 261, Here now the search for the " new
J" ^ man". ^rigins: expressionism, nationalism. War ( :3\mger-and Sioemgler
new " race^ ( hard as steel, lythe and muscular, eyes which had seen
horror". aIso taken by Commimists* Harx nothing about new man, nor
Engls. Yet implicit: he who under Stands, vanguagrd. But here no
V •/ ,, exterior, only service ( but also on the right). But no 1^ hero" -
^/\ / Vyet for Right also " race"..

Also: defintion of reality vs. " absolute" one by intellectuals.
Engeies Marxism as science? Y^IOiy^^iZS. l '' ' ^

lu

Why not ar)peal to yo\ang Jews we have been concerned with? ( class)

/

Problem of individual ism? ^^y this so important - also in your

' /4^ ^ men and women of projects? Problem of human nature defintion ( Hans
' i)U^k>' Muller, the Mouse). r-erennial revolutionary question?

Start; theme again - beyond religion and nationalism,
this Problem of Jews and intellectuals in Weimar ( and beyond).
'rfhy here such a coinciding? Left ( finish today), then liberalism
and psychanalysis, then liberalism without it ( Wassermann and
Zweig).

■»»^■«■»g

¥.

After Magic Flure ± aifainlng up:
What have we learnt #a.e about th^^E^

Wei*ie«-*e-.e«a«*.e.e». Pi.^t politics ( hereuse Vierhaus,
''^" °^ ^^iendshlp, attltude towards lesser people of Magic

Flute. ) Kiitis-, Positive w";re«^n;;rT^i:^ui; f^.^^r„;^

/M U^-ji^^^

7-^^^ - ;K</i;^X- ^ 1^/<^^^^

'^^

Eirat: material for friendahiT. r n .; ... ,

xrienashlp ( Gleim etc.) Schiller ( ask

_Stenzel students).^

i?MQns._as_jjitrod . rell^lous el*»m«m+ 4 +

xgxous elenent Into cult of friendshlp

a conununlty _rellglous but nit pletist. Mlxture ( but -=.
Scottish rite)^

f

I

»

Hou* categoriäatlon last ti„e. 3tg;^th .0 oall.i Hi^Kt •■
But^ot_,„lt. .l«Kt charactjji.atl„n.. tho=e ».„ ba=e. the^selves
on^ej^a;>_natlo„alla. and on t,e war elljerlenc, as „ver agaln^t

keit*

.^/arnmf^

S.«ral trands here, f.o; „..derata to art.a.a, f.„. a klnd „f
.7=«^« . .ace^^any... .0 tha .a. Utarature. to ,he a.it.-
^^£i.of the radlcal right. ""- —

' ""! 1""* " "'^'^ """ ^ '--= =-'j^iISi ^-i„, t.a wa. .MC.
-t t.. stage, aa It wera, for that Ge^ls» ,hich was to ba typloal
fo. tha W.i». Hl^t . thou«K_Tho«aa -.^n „.o a.preasad it ao .all
'M'f',."^= *° «"-"^o- Itjvantuall, for auppo^TITtha Social
De^^o^jta^d the Hapuflic^ sta.tad .Uh ar-tTTla of hla brothar
(P. 292f f Literature and Society) . " ~-

But «anns^al^oe, aa it .ere, aoon Jolnad by aooounta .bloh .a.e

not so balanced at all, but reflectprl +>,« -p»

■ ' 'tLiH-^ected the fears of times of defeat

andrevolution, which had lost faith ir, ^ZTl .

. ~ u J-osx raith in the bourgoisie and instead

of advocating revolution cluns- +« "0+-,-« t •

- 1 °-^"^S *° atioanlism, called it to the

rescue, laced it with ideas of brutIlit7T77 . . ~

• ° "■" oruxaxity and agression taken from

*^^13EJ Spengler and Junger. '^ "^ — '

Spengler allo " Culture vs Civ-n ^ 00 ^ • ^'^**!±^ r ,4/^

B_ uxture vs. Zivilisation: Culture 294/295 ( yj^

Then Junger: <t4i^^ €^ QjtS^ ■ If/^ Sx/e»'^

Colle;;i;e e^phasised (expl,9 lH^dery. Battle. Myth of .ar expete.cei
But in both also trend to verinnerlichung, we noted before:
J'austlan man, battle as inner experience. ( l^)
Inwardness became extreme: a kind of mysticism in what we might
call new conservatism: Hoffmannthal, above all Stefan ^eorge.

• 'CAfif 'ithS'4'Mn*?.RMdAtl6't*dliM: Also myth of
Third Reich, Moller ven den Brück.

New style: Romantic realism. -^... --_ ,.

pA**«w^ : pacl^ A"*^

I

la.

Characteristic of this stream of German literature and thought.
Ji^ationalist component. But also characteristic preoccupation with
technology. Technogology not science (expl.) embedded in the
verinnerlichung as with Junger, and all war literature •
materialschlacht was innerlich verarbeitet. ^Vant: group -
i.e. nation. Bosemullers small world, Schauwecker, war
literature comes 1928. Combination goes onto Nazis.

Il

Wa^

lu

Last time: talked about the I. of our trends of Weimar based

upon the bpurgois Ideals of before the war, the trend to

inwardness and higher things ( Treibel) refined by the war.

In the war this point of view voiced by Thomas Mann against his

brothers attempt to revive the enlightenment traditions in Germany.

Thomas ^ann's steady bourgois development so different from

breack desired by Dada,

But the inwardness also an attempt to eascape the iron cage of

modemisation and rationalisation, Rejuvenation tjrrough the war

was here defined as inward cleansing ( RupeifBrooke) an new stress

on individiial and the group, cameradeiry. The war sttengthened Thomas

rather then Heinrich Mann's point of view, even within Republicans*

War novels here important; began to talk about Ernst Junger last

time ( Thunder of Steeel I9I9) which saw the war almost through

the eyes of Spenglers Barbarians, Rejuvenation, genuiness confused

with " elemental forces^", which i6 breack tyrough in battle

( quote 284 Culture),

Then to war novels.

Then: inwardsness heightened: poet as seer and leader * D'Annunzio

and George* (^ fl^i^^ U^(iu4AJ^

[ .^^i^ ; ^--//^^^^5r^ SP^^J^^

iv"*:.«^

Va.J^"

Plan:

next week introduction • read historv of the Republlc . eyck or

Rosenberg please* Then along with Zeig^ (expl.) Gya, Wrimar Ciilture,

Two weeks from now the person we will read together here^» Ernst

toller* His play, Mass Man^ his autobiography. i

I do not want to personal ise too much, but best ypu way to get

at our problematic* Indeed, as you will see in a momet, your

seperate individual ^Febe project will be to match problem to a

man.

Now to them» why so important? Beyond period, has lasted to large

degree. Basic to any definition of modern culture in literatiire or
art or technology to some extent as well, We think of Weimar as Avant
garie culture when Germany for one decade exlipsed France or all
other nations in that, in seeting signs and trends»
To be sure question why then and in that place must occupy us •
indeed be the first question. That ngeds a historical answer.
Your first reading must help; familiär ige yourself , with what
ac^uallyhappene4. I will talk about what fed into thia from
the pasi:* produc/ing the present. OHt: UVcu, t^H^l/t LCUSKf

But now to our problem German and Jew which is set in the f ramework
of Wrimar . not^of the masses but^qf eilitist culture which
thought ti was that of the workers. ( who came to Brecht plays?)

Thus Problem of Jews and Gerraans in Weimar G\ilure does not
concem most Germans or many Jews, but al elite which became
effective if not in its onw lifetime but then later in braodening
its base; i: e, Bauhas, Marixt revival, moder abstract art. social
realism etc. Rythm here but usual; an eliteis vant garde ( peopel

c^nnot follow), avant garde btoadens its base ubtil students on

— "~ ^^ "■ *" ■ * — , •^. ■ ^

^e are all Geman Jew?; Nbt just

'ttyth'

wy sources so laagely literature and art? Increasingly a
Visual age, but in our period also literature as kediation and
reflection of reality. This is how crucila movements like
nationalism or the revolt of youth presented itself - as
literary and artictic expressions. That is how it penetrated
perceptions and that is how perceptions reproduced it.
Jr-erceptions -mediations - embedded at one extension in the
human psyche and on tjue other in historical reality. BH*-aiso
Thus cultural history concerned with totality - itself so vital
for Teibels and youth revolt in an age ever more fragmenting
and division of labour etc. To transcend by approrpiating
a bit of eternity- nation, Mountains and skies. "en and women
internalise reality and then give it forth again. Symbol and
Myth are Visual ( tribal and Wazi etc.) and literary. No
formal political thought any more " attitudes towards life".

ßut now to the bourgeois life -style which defined
reality even for its enemies and which survived everything
after all 5 Meier°, rescued by nationalism but even by
socialism.

i'ontane etc»

^^t

I

Obviously j^oganising principles of one sort: chronological pattern
revolt vs, bourgeois society, socialism, war experience, fascism
as you See it on your assignement sheet. Includes propblem of l^igh
and low culture,
But another way in which it all hangs together, thew

whtaever period and wgatever levell of culture: through what I might

call mediations which are our really our concern.

^7> ^^

Start with Indian vS-ummer of the bourgeois world - Jenny Treibel

and then revolt against this out of which so much modern culture came

as the avant garde became acceptedi Sxpressionism, Naturalism, ^11 in

I or II of your reading exept Treibel#

b

(

to distinguish between importnat »nd unimportant?

Le criteria: how affective?
How much of a role in moving histoi^y ahead, as it wäre?
But ideas and notions may seem dead, only torevive ( as
we have seen laltely with the I920tie8 & ^^arcuse) and this
we can now see looking backward and tjvis must be taken into

account. But here 'loosers can beas Import ant aswiöners. l^^^^y

^^^^_^ 1. » •■ ^ •■' "*

jHb_T hnp#> g#>rtain_^^3reargi7-a[!rd larg«^ organio-ittg
ti^nr-ipl<^fl will emerge as w<> fjiar.nRs thm oub.ieet mat t er . What
we will talk about. and what you will read did have considerable
impact and much diffusion. Still, as we shall see, to a
large extent populär culture went its seperate path from
that of the elite, theYintellectuals. So that tjie proDiem of
intellecuuals v/:ll havej7o_poncern us ^11 along, fjor-that
is a matter, not only -of personal concern to you but indeed
a large historical problem - especially in our period when

they so muchwanted to go down to the people, the working

4d<4y

y -

-^

classes«j (^h^^

Now befpre we start several more remarks which are
usually quikly forgotten, though if remebered they would
obviate'a lot of misunderstanding:

i^m

I.because of the complexity what I can do is to give you a

fraraework, This will not be the only framework possible,

of course^ but once you have a compass you can make your

■ — •• — >

own orientation. But if you have no framework all modern

culture will be aformless wobble, to quote Ezra Pound«

2. -^he Word of " objective" has tone to have baiCodour. But
it is quite proper when it means as near to historical reality
as po^Äiljle. History deals with time^ and

Crises of German „ational Consciousness not inevitable in
outcoMe. Started good or ambivalent, ended baad or ambivalent
until the First Wold War. Rejeot direct conneotion between
earlier cirses such as those of Empire and NS. Alvays built
upon the dangerous assumption that better and n,ore affective
an. govemment and more open structure would have given öerman

hiatory a different course. IimoTca wq =.» -,. .

^sB, ignores KS as populist movement, bui

upon the old ide now also "arxist that people would have
ohosen differently. Upon the mistalcen idea the experience of
First World War, the could have been overcome, but left in
Weimar could not overcome it itself.

Dellin p. 60 " Schwärmerei für Friedend on the side of natioonalism,
not its enemies.

\

2. science of the universe. From Shakespereas stars to Newtons
a vast difference, after all (expl.) faith and law.
Still such intell. uncertainty, groping a sreaching for new
meaning fitting new tempo of life and so much discredited rel.
to be replaced» Not by science but by paganism, better still
by that building on Greece and Rome vs. Vhr. which had always
been present since the Renaisseuice»

Last tine: Still talked about what we began with i^^aBn brothers
controversy, Spengler, to a heightened mysticism. The trend
toward inwardness in Wrimar, the inwardness of " secret Germany"
the new barbarians, the Thord Reich. The German revolution.
All wanted renewaj.but personal renewal as part of the true
Community ( secret Germany, Third Reich, Prussia of Spengler).
Third Reich: also a concrete side really in common to many of
these movements:

Last timet Stefan (George, the poet as seer and prophet. Emphasis upon
inwardness, upon renewal from within man: the beauty, the Grreekness
of a ^ximim. Before that inwardness of Thomas Mann 's Tinpolitical
man who was only too political. Similar ideas of personal renewal
which would renew the national Community in the Youth Movement
combined with such ideals of beauty. Spengler also his Faust ian

an a kind of individualism as part of the Community: •**eeiieeka^t
Gemeinschaft insteacff of (xe Seilschaft: Community of af finity. /^-W^/
L, eader and led -^ the urge f or the leader ( ^ntorowicz- Emperor=
less times shouted innto the prosaic Republic)__. Politically such
elitism was right or centre, for the most part scorn^d the

i'i

— -jüc

political process» Typical centre piece of Ebermeyers famous novel

■»■fr" v 'rTTtimitri -^. ^ ^ n-wjr--

Kampf um Odilienberg (1929); explain. Two Speeches before the fire
looser waming against eltitsm, age of the masses ( 232

winner ( Wynecken) simple reads some line from the preface to

aximin: 236, Notice the language, goes with the thought -

he^irfitened, uberschwanglich. ''eans personal before the masses,

pliii-^^ ^^ leaders^p^of the few over the herd.

* Here also the mj^iihology of the " Third Reich" • mysticism so current
y^ ^"^S in Weimar. (1923) originally eiaa called Third Wy » between capitalism

0^ t«

paiH^^

tftd~-;;^€«:::xism> Expl. means anti^ liberal and anti* ^^^arixists^
doctrins of a corporate state, end to finance Capitalism. Really

*7»>^.i^ kind of Jacobinism. " socialism aftd s»entiment rather then socialism

AM

/l.^^"^^^4> of reason" ( Brück )., Built upon mystical tradition gj^ing back at
AM^M^^-^fZ least to ?aracelsus • Vthe Third Kingdom of alchemy when metal

»^ V turns into gold, In a i^nse background to the " German revolition"

as vs. French and Russian. Revolution of the inner man vhich rpoduces
real democracy, not Pari, but spiritual participation which became
a political liturgy. Death, time and history will be overcome.
Part of the urge to stop speed of time ( Communications rev.
war) together with urge for open Spaces (expl.) deserts ( May and
Lawrence) ^iiie4--w4r%k projected first upon inward Spaces of man -

"i^)

^

i

2.

Summarise: Third Wav v=, -p* -

JJ!!Z- ^^- ^i'^^S.e.casitalisin, Pari. Democracy,
Liberalism and Marxism q„,on -, ' '

Volks Tn :. - '•°"'"*^ """^^^^^ °-^-^i° -täte

Vollcs^^conamnity. ^eadership and participatip_aJihrou«h .

religious liturgy and festivals ( here that u... • ^

— =i~-£tE£® ^^at urge again).

« Ne«_Conservati8m5ft because old was hierarchieal . .

way, stressed inherited positlnn, ^7 n! ^ ^ traditlonal

«am,) ana_agai2st forlegn national and oulture. S= H,f, .

^, 7 ^^»- - ^ac. *o^^ d. ,,..„ ,„,,., ^„3, ^^ ,^
sa. tKat t.ose .ove„enta ,u3t dlscuss.d sta.ted .ef„„ t.e .,,(,,

»yth of the war expsrienoe and the delfaat I , .

the nation to reoapture it, in ,ar „ovels. )
But .o..e.a ™uu.e also aeva^ aidea to It, that of the

r:: "■^"°^°' =---- - -■^^E-i-neot^.aJ^-a :.

-^c. U« .„, inteneotnau. ., „„„ ,„ ,,_ „^^^ J^

We have done last quarter the left- the socialist alternatives
to Marxist orthodoxy on whora the fane of the Weimar Remblic is based.
There we concentrated on Kantian socialist s, especially Toller hut
also Franch and then on Lukacz and Bloch who also put in the
foreground the human ( congnition) rather then scientitic factor
of Marxism, while not denying class strug 'le and even advocating a
radical revolution ( which Marxism seened to have Piradualised - i.e.
Kautzki and Bernstein. Problem of man and revolution, man and
change. Then you own ^orojects. V/hy the attraction of this for
Jews? Project must have given you a glimpse, why the large coordination
of Jews and the varieties, these varieties of I^iarxism?
Perhaps here is the moment now to loause and look at this before gr)ing
on to one more left ( Brecht) and then Freud and Wassermann (expl.)

Transcendence? Franck? ^ATiy appeal? Community of men more
important then socialist theory? Technique of reirolution?
Totality? ^'emember what is meant? ( also Buber here). ^^t-, j-^^.?^

Brecht anthisesis of Toller and Franck ( but Tromm.ler)

reason vs. feeling all the way?

V.

^f

■^eonard Frank, ""er ''ensch ist gut. I story " The Father".
his enlybson falls in the war. ^e realises that what is
murderous is in man, but not inherently. education is wrong:
had boxight a toy gun for his little son who was to be killed by
a real one. Moral:

ne only needs to love, then no shot will fall. Then there
IS peace. The whole continent cries ( because of the war), thus
it must have capacity to love. JEt would be hopeless ^f^T whole
continent laughed because all Europe is bleeding. B© ready
to love. ( make love, not war). Thus he leads a demonstration for
peace. " inflamed by the belief".

The most holy goods are not pieces of soil to be defended but
the sons and husbands who are being killed.
A revolution of love really, of faith in love, of realisation of

«

guilt for not havijg loved. ^entre: individualism,

Individualism: Tmller, ^\sse ^'^ensch. / l^fjfj
^f I demanded the life of a Single individual it would be
wrong. Only seif sacrifice is permitted. Listen: no man may
kill another because of a cause. Unholy is the cause which

demands this, which commands the Spilling of human blood, it is
moloch: the State is moloch, God was moloch, the mass is moloch.
( Moloch is the abomination in the O.T. )

Ludwig Rubiner, The without Power (I9I8) our will weights heavier
then their might. -^et them occupy us.
Radical denial of power. But here the difficulty:

^tpS^V z^

ß^/"

National response remains. Look at it as if end had not
happened« Otherwise distrorted« Samw time that liberal & socialist
we have nationalist responses - not justv one. All based to be sure >
on " catching up" but reflecting pecihcilar Situation:
Euber: until 1935 or so most important ceetninly araong intell«
For here reflects " true nation" flase nat:j.on ( Fays reelee vs.
pays politique). Also Community ideas learned l'rom Lanadauer (expl.)
\ German Youth Movement« ( Chapt VII, German & Jews)#

Speeches 191I to Bar Kochfea vital, for it broughtva *^ewish nat.
parallele to ^erman nat, opposed to liberalism, materialism.

»»■■«HO.- -• '

t .

Revival to mystics ( Hassidic, Bai Sehern tales) profound effect
before war, Mysticism and mathaphor: soul, blood (I5)f inwardness
(17) Strivibg for unity (40) Struggle (88) Nietzsche echo here,

But always official ' Rabbis" vs, unofficial ( Volk) - onle
legalistic the other progressives thoug\-^ struggle, Moreover:
religion - atheis, beside the point as all is myth ( dialogue
with God), no amthority really, Hgretic becomes the dynamic / > *^^
I( Buber: ^assidim, Scholem the Kaballah). Jt^Si^L-i^^^^^^^
A new nation wanted here, that is the point,. same driving forces ^
as renewal in Europe itself o ^ ff

Pacicist: not least of Bubers deserts to freeze Zionism

when other nationalismsm built on same roots becoming agressive

^ II.

after the war, Non^ of that here - not even with Jabotinsky«

More practical ( issue of ^ewish "^egion) 33^ but in end als almost

archaic romantic cultursal consciouness ( Hadar, P, 337/338)

Absence of agressive nationalisja too small in any case? But
here nationalism which stodd still adter I9I8, Jewish nationalism
as much original by fehen as the *^ewish socialism: always elements of

Community, brootherhood, mystic unity and peace. Zionism thus got

I

Reevolution; November I9I8 to April I9I9

First stage: november I9I8 until Pebruary I9I9 ( Eisner)

Pebruary to April I919 Soviet Republic.

Feb. 21 end or rev. but for Eisner assaeijation.

Soviet examples; Councils ( Soviets) Mitchell I45ff

"/-

%4^ h^^

I ^U\

Things you wanted to discuss within our framework of that
socialism which was so attractive to so many Jews. Why?
we must come to that today eventually.

But first to you questions within this framework of Wei-ar •
the things yiu wanted to talk about.

( also come bback to totality - ktackauer etc. )

Schule

Thus discussion about Marxist revival in Weimar will be flanked by
Toller on one side and ?ranck on the other, before we pass on to
Brecht • again a contrast, But it is this revival which has lasted
longer then the Nazis which destroyd it»

noxcfjjl'

T QJ.Ö^'

r^^-f — •- f <"< -^ a ^ oT^'< cjo f^" . /=5

, ' rr-^r )

.li

3

y

^

)•

Rfoi j-.SJ

,y,^J"3''

; u/^M^''^ - ^^-^^^^

<j

<^'k ^^^i^

W'jii/t w

^ Xr. ^>^.

^

^ifcjL h^^A

Start with background!:

1. revolution

2. Marxism

3. otW Impetus: a. bourgois anti- bourg^is revolt. Eisner and
P^^/.^V >\ ^*'l^«^Sxpression/ste (expDigjg^g^ture
f^^^-;^a^^^^^ocal,p3e ( -.^^^terial^^^ BloC, Maises 69,

Questions form pla^K^ one withhold/nesself from rev.?

loba of Community

Role or^asses /
soldiersN^ouncils
Charity refom>sm'7why so opposed
violence a^ revolution,

See you in Th. offichour 94;herwise. But if strike I may

still post Office hours.

^

[ g..^ 4;,

A

cy

3 I h/4yi^

:>o^^ ^

s

U/-ß2h!U^ !

1

W^-Z-^^^z^,

Si — /^-^

?

^j^'^A /

/

Jy^'-y^ "E"}^ X^

^) nUM'^^ P7^2^l6 A^^^4^

/l

V-vU^^Am^xA. ^^

JjlIm-^ t^^^ Oi^^ - liJy^^^t^

y/^j ^-^-Z;^ /^ - / >»v/ /^?t^ . .^^J

Weimar Gulture noted because of variety^- extension of what was
permissibljg; how far the abnormal could_be tolerated. But this
climaxes earlier revolt against bourgeois society zwhich had been
a cultural revolt by bourgeois youth against tlijeir eiders and
which had led to the generation of 191% Wemar culture was not
J hostile to the modern movement, but Wilhelmian culture was hostile.

Search for novelty so much a part of Wemar even though alqwys

accompanied by roots^ started in this revolt £000-1 91 Y

But did the Outsider ever become the insider? Gay.s book whose

thesis this is shows' never really, Bourgois f orces yuoo strong and

their definition of normalcy. Would tolerate only ßo many Outsiders,

i
as long as amusing or exxentric, But bourgois society tried to keep

controll over rush of time, Communications, over/their youth.

Here obviously they failed in some manner with Expressionist sons,

dandys, nudists; Freudians, Marxist s> But how much? try to

see that at the end of the course not the beginning,

Your reading Covers the fathers ( Treible) and then the various

noveltys ; rediscoversies. £ Assi^nment sheet). Runs the gamut

surely. j

Controll; domination; rationality versus irrationality; uprootedness

against rootedness, Moderation against exeßses ( favourite

accusation of l^reibels and later) ; /

Now what about Bourgeois society? Treibel;

Gav PP, 1-7 Shows that what was to b^s/vi/eimar culture was born

in the hibstile woomb of ..ilhelminians Germany. But he says nothing

about this revolution which created the modern, the Avant Garde,
j, - ^ ». « ^-«■■* ' ■ • "—■■■'

the bourgois - anti= bourgois revolution: which ernphasised thr
longing for a nej&^life style against the b/oring present, the
freedom of sexuality but alsy^ntellectual experiences. But this
revolt came really into its own with new insecurity at birth of the
Kepublicvv which uay describes in redt of chapter, But we must
remember that the undisciplined cry of the Exp. the rediscovery of

the unconscious, the Harxist revival which stressed culture

2.

criticism, the hunger for whoeleness, for totality, the new

^jai Tmii »li li^ ^

architecture ( most lasting heritage), all this matter of an
intellectual elite, Keality: populär literature, cinderellas,

^ I II ■<! lYtntti IPliliHili.

Indians of ^^arl May, etc. went one just as bourgoisie really

remained strong ( ^'aier, Recasting Bourgois Europe),

to p: 1

^ Si^^ ^ ^^ ■ (p^Ü^L ^- h^t^MMi^^

U

iyo2

Ws^Buddenbroolcs (4^40) shows decline of borgois, -a.burs
ra.xlly. oidest Of 18. Century -cons.opolitan, csrnicagainst

"""'r^wf pVf ° '^°°'°^« Pi°"« --d 'noney -grubbing at the same
tx.e./Thon>as Buddenbrooke errects walls against the chaning
!t!!!i-^^^^^^^H£Jlgtis^the familly ^3b/37). Kscape7 Hia
wa e .nto music 5 a contant theme in Mann») -this Stands for
the wo.ld or Hu.anis. / still does in ../ .austus) - .o.anticis.
Here and decline exemplified through Musical, sensitive and
alienated. ^o. Hanno also the hard and hypocritical B. world
exe.pliried not by fathe. who tries his best, but by school
( ^71) ^ere also the.e of restraint, moderation which pervades
ccerce and life style of Buddenbrooks as of Treibeis - greek
tradition official but privatly syn^bolised by a ,uiet elegance
wh.ch you can get from description of houses and furniture.

Here Tone Buddenbrooke whose life really a filure,
P. 537. Child, no retraint, an enthusiasm - but in the end lonely
only clings to familly memories. Tony and Hanno - both in a
sense want out. both doo.ed, both without Föderation and restaint
^ whxch stand for .aturity. But outlet for bourgoisie - festivals
^^^ exeptional penetrated into lofe. But for TenWos generation
^;v/w-^ war greatest festival and opportunity. Not for Hanno, for hee
" decadence" - weackness, aestheticism which revolt of youth
had in one aspect ( wilde), beauty etc. but others like the
£^. with utge for deeds despised.

Art vs, bourgois life - this rpan-D- r^■r,^vs^

e rnis really problem raised Tony and Hanno

" artistic temperament" ( 501) End through art ( ^15) vs. practi-
cality. Bourgois stand point, but always proble. for Mann and others.

Itk^

Bourgoise society: 18y0 -1920
1. Class and life style - spread

2

3

4-

Differences, Treibel, Berlin vs. üambu4?ö of Paris.

^^hj literarya source? Conteraporary, Fontane - descriptioö
and spirit. In fact a source itself.

Hyths and Symbols literary and aritistic - tend to be
rather tiaen formal political thought which might
inspiret them.

f?;V-' >■.';. '-/.»r-«»«« ■ ^.-

A. ■

^■M^

Jgnny Treibelj

'^2f^^^^l_#^^^ (jS/s}^/

Stress the Images, pictures of life, the style of lofe

also furniture, dinner party, the outing (_" l^^ ^ lif' *y4r'^ ^f^^

he social heirarchies.

Roles: men, vomen. marriage

Conc^ptvof virtue, respectability - made fun of really?

Fontane always referes to Treibeis - bourgeois deep in his
blood ( 154). what does he mea^^?^^ ttyie of life. Plot",Corinna and n,ar =

^»^..•' Importance of proper marriage t Leopold and Corinna, are not -

7i^%*<f •' i^.JtTJTWTj

Vtjiii>^ of_this - growth of watering places, Karlsbad, for examp|>e, in 18.

l?>^ Vt ^^"^"^y- drinking the waters ( very old) and marriage market (new)

'"V!^ ^K ^"** sometimes diplomatic Congresses. ß,ur^n^a:**^^

<^!^^frt^Ä'^"' ^°^^^^ hierarchies ati^ political hierarchies: 27 '/ ^^)

<,^^^Qy\. ^" ordered Universe always. Q^izziq symbolises itfT'ÖÖ

Treibel on. marriage. 121/122 ^enny Treibel on marriage
of^eourse - her own: 123/124. Ideaof sentipents ( rojuaatif )nvery

r>

strong here-. But limits actice when marriage of son is con^^TlÄ
Sentimentality syopes: Wllibald Scgmidt becomesjiot the opportunity
missed but the enemy. [U^^ 'Hyti^d*'^ ^^- *«» ^^ ?-*^W /r^"777^/

Last words^^Jeany why she gives in? Di«s not want to be abother
enny Trejbel? CF92). Calm and placid.

Fontane himself ironised what he lovedi the settled,
the_bourgeoisie - but from a distance. The Professor really like

^'■^ /_him: cuottesy, irony. looking through it all and yet fascinated.

T thouaht

<>

C^_^^^ wishes irgnored ( Catholic). But on the whole the dinner party the

Hpv typical? Berlin not Muni h or Paris or London. In Paris,
of course, Corinna would have been kept much more strictly, her

/;

J . I

GEORG LUKÄCS

History and Class
Consciousness

Studies in Marxist Dialectics

Translated by Rodney Livingstone

l^T^I

THE MIT PRESS
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

^^mm

mm

mm

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^ .. ^.

8

HISTORY AND CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS

in their real existence and consequently in the ideas with whicii
the agents and bearers of these relations seek to understand thcm,
is vcry different from, and indeed quite the reverse of and an.
tagonistic to their inner, essential but conccaled core and the
concepts corresponding to it."

If the facts are to be understood, this distinction between their
real existence and their inner core must be grasped cicarly and
precisely. This distinction is the first premise of a truly scientific
study which in Marx's words, "would be superfluous if the outward
appearance of things coincided with their essence'*.!» Thus wc
must detach the phenomena from the form in which they arc
immediately given and discover the intervening links which
connect them to their core, their essence. In so doing, we shall
arrive at an understanding of their apparent form and see it as
the form in which the inner core necessarily appears. It is neces-
sary because of the historical character of the facts, bccause thcy
have grown in the soil of capitalist society. This twofold character,
the simultaneous recognition and transcendence of immediatc
appearances is precisely the dialectical nexus.

In this respect, superficial readers imprisoned in the modes of
thought created by capitalism, experienced the gravest difficultics
in comprehending the structure of thought in Capital, For on
the one hand, Marx's account pushes the capitalist nature of all
economic forms to their furthest limits, he creates an intcllectual
milieu where they can exist in their purest form by positing a
Society 'corresponding to the theory', i.e. capitalist through and
through, consisting of none but capitalists and proletarians.
But conversely, no sooner does this stratcgy produce results, no
sooner does this world of phenomena seem to be on the point of
crystallising out into theory than it dissolves into a mere illusion,
a distorted Situation appears as in a distorting mirror which is,
however, "only the conscious expression of an imaginary move-
ment**.

nly in this context which sces the isolated facts of social lifc
as aspects of the historical process and intcgratcs them in a
totality, can knowledge of the facts hope to become knowledge
of reality, This knowledge Starts from the simple (and to the
capitalist World), pure, immediate, natural determinants describcd
above. It progresses from them to the knowledge of the concrete
totality, i.e. to the conceptual reproduction of reality. This
concrete totality is by nomcans anunmediated datum for thought.

\

WHAT IS ORTHODOX MARXISM.'' ^

-Xbe concrete is concrete." Marx says." "because it is a synthesis
71^ oarticular determinants, i.e. a un.ty of diverse Clements.
•'jSsm succumbs here to the delusion of confusmg the
J^Z\ reproduction of reality with the actual structure of
^.T üelf. For "in thought, reality appears as the process of
Äsis not as starting-point, but as outcome, although it is the
JSSing-point and hence the starting-point for percept.on

•Ünv^nely, the vulgär materialists, even in the niodern guise

^olthe immediate, simple determinants ofsoc.a hfc They
^e that they are bcing quite extraordmarily exact when th^y
Stake over these determinants without e.ther analysmg them
Ä or welding them into a concrete totality. They take the
£S L abstract'isolation, explaining them only m terms of
!wact laws unrelated to the concrete totality. As Marx ob-
I^«- "Crudeness and conceptual nuUity consist in the tendency
» forge arbitrary unmediated connections between things that
belong together in an organic union." "

m crudeness and conceptual nuUity of such thought hes
primarily in the fact that it obscurcs the historical, transitory
Lture of capitalist society. Its determinants take on the appear-
,SE?^timcless, eternal categories valid for all social formations.
TTÜs cSuld be seen at its crassest in the vulgär bourgeois econo-
mists, but the vulgär Marxists soon followed in their footsteps.
The dialectical method was overthrown and with it the methodo-
logical supremacy of the totality over the individual aspects
the parts were prevented from finding thcir definition within the
whole and, instead, the whole was dismissed as unscientific or
eise it dcgenerated into the mere 'idea' or 'sum' of the parts.
WiÜi the totality out of the way, the fetishistic relations of the
isolated parts appcared as a timeless law valid for every human

«ociety. . , _;.,,,

Marx's dictum: "The relations of production of every society
form a whole"» is the methodological point of departure and the
key to the historical understanding of social relations. AU the
isolated partial categories can be thought of and treated-^n
isolation-as something that is always present in every society.
(If it cannot be found in a given society this is put down to Chance
as the exception that proves the rule.) But the changes to which
these individual aspects are subject give no clear and unambiguous

I '

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12

HISTORY AND CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS

the capitalist social ordcr. But whether capitalism is rendered im
mortal on economic or on idcological grounds, whether with nah>
nonchalance, or with critical refinement is of little importance

Thus with the rejection or blurring of the dialectical method

history becomes unknowable. This does not imply that a more or

less exact account of particular people or epochs cannot be ^ivcn

without the aid of dialectics. But it does put paid to attempts to

understand history as a unified process. (This can be seen in the

sociologically abstract, historical constructs of the type of Spencer

and Comte whose inner contradictions have been convincindv

exposed by modern bourgeois historians, most incisively bv

Rickert. But it also shows itself in the demand for a 'philosophy

of history which then turns out to have a quite inscrutable rela-

tionship to historical reality.) The Opposition between the descrip-

tion of an aspect of history and the description of history as a

umfied process is not just a problem of scope, as in the distinction

between particular and universal history. It is rather a conflict

of method, of approach. Whatever the epoch or special topic

of study, the question of a unified approach to the process of history

is mescapable. It is here that the crucial importance of the dialecti-

cal View of totality reveals itself. For it is perfectly possible for

someonc to describe the essentials of an historical event and yet

be in the dark about the real nature of that event and of its

function in the historical totality, i.e. without understanding it

as part of a umfied historical process.

A typical example of this can be seen in Sismondi's treatment
of the question of crisis." He understood the immanent tenden-
cies in the processes of production and distribution. But ultimately
he failed because, for all his incisive criticism of capitalism he
rcmamed imprisoned in capitalist notions of the objective and so
ncc«sarily thought of production and distribution as two inde-
pendent processes, "not realising that the relations of distribution
are only the relations of production sub alia specia'\ Hc thus
succumbs to the same fate that overtook Proudhon's false dialec-
tics; hc converts the various limbs of society into so many indc-
pcndcnt socicties"."

Wc repcat: the category of totality does not reduce its various
Clements to an undifferentiatcd uniformity, to identity The
apparcnt independencc and autonomy which they possess in the
capitalist System of production is an illusion only in so far as they
arc involvcd in a dynamic dialectical relationship with

WHAT IS ORTHODOX MARXISM? "

c ,nH can be thought of as the dynamic dialectical
•^fn eaualTy dynamic and dialectical whole. "The result
- ••^^"Tays mL, "is not that production, dlstnbution
- -"" :ld "nsumpti^n are identical, but that they are a,
r «n^ totalitv different aspects of a unit. ... 1 nus a
^, 1° f prodSon determines definite forms of consump-
iStion and xchange as well as definiu ulaüons between
'S^^Xents. . . . A mutual interaction takes P'-e between
*Sus Clements. This is the case w.th every orgamc body
? ,„ the category of interaction requires mspection. If by
^' n we mean k^st the reciprocal causal impact of two
'r*' runchangeab e objects on each other. we shall not have
**Tri^ch nearer to an understanding of society. This .s the
:^ v^h the Wgar materialists with their one-way causal se-
"^ T^nr the Machists with their functional relations). After aU
Sig an iltcttn when a stationary büli^rd ball is Struck
tTmovfng one: the first one moves, the second one is deflected
£m ^original path. The interaction we have m m.nd mu^be
. ,Ln the interaction of otherwise unchanging objects. It must
TLher in tts reTat!on to the whole: for this relation determmes
Äecive form of every object of Cognition. Every substant.a
äange th" t is of concern to knowledge manifests .tself as a change
Stion to the whole and through this as a change m the form
rfSvity itself.- Marx has formulated th.s idea m countle^
Ices I shall cite only one of the best-known passages:" A
£o is a negro. He only becomes a slave m certain -cmnstances^
Afotton-spinning Jenny is a machine for ^P!""'"^ '=°"°"; O"'^; ^
certain circumstances does it become capUal. Torn from those
^cumstances it is no more capital than gold is money or sugar

Ärthe^"o'^Sve forms of all social phenomena change
-^ Wantly in the course of their ceaseless dialectical mteractxons
^ Seach otMThe intelligibility of ol^ects ^-dops m propor-
TTon as we grä^their function in the totality to which they belong.
TOsTs why on'y the dialectical conception of totalUy can enable
i; o undeLand reaUiy as a social process. For only this concep^^n
dissolves the fetishistic forms necessarily produced by the cap.t^is
mode of production and enables us to see them as «"«^re >"i"'°^^
which are not less illusory for being seen to be necessary These
Tnmediated concepts, these 'laws' sprout just - -- tab^y from
the soll of capitalism and veil the real relations between objects.

HISTORY AND CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS

comprehcnd reality is the product of history in a double sense.

First, historical materialism became a formal, objective possibi-
lity only because economic Factors created the Proletariat, becausc
thc Proletariat did emerge (i.e. at a particular stage of historical
development), and because the subject and object of the know-
ledge of social reality were transformed. Second, this formal
possibility became a real one only in the course of the evolution
of the Proletariat. If the meaning of history is to be found in the
process of history itself and not, as formerly, in a transcendental,
mythological or ethical meaning foisted on to recalcitrant
material, this presupposes a Proletariat with a relatively advanced
awareness of its own position, i.e. a relatively advanced Prolet-
ariat, and, therefore, a long preceding period of evolution. The path
taken by this evolution leads from utopia to the knowledge of
reality; from transcendental goals fixed by the first great leaders
of the workers* movement to the clear perception by the Commune
of 1871 that the working-class has "no ideals to realise", but
wishes only '*to liberate the Clements of the new^ society". It is
the path leading from the "class opposed to capitalism" to the
class "for itself".

Seen in this light the revisionist Separation of movement and
ultimate goal represents a regression to the most primitive stage of
the working-class movement; For the ultimate goal is not a 'state
of the future' awaiting the Proletariat somewhere independent
of the movement and the path leading up to it. It is not a condi-
tion which can be happily forgottcn in the stress of daily life and
rccalled only in Sunday scrmons as a stirring contrast to workaday
cares. Nor is it a *duty', an 'idea* designed to regulate the 'real'
process. The ultimate goal is rather that relation to the totality (to
the whole of society seen as a process), through which every aspect
pf thc strugglc acquires its revolutionary significance.! This rela-
tion informs every aspect in its simple and sobcr ordinariness,
but only consciousness makes it real and so confers reality on the
day-to-day strugglc by manifesting its relation to the whole.
Thus it elevates mere existcncc to reality. Do not let us forget
cithcr that every attempt to rcscuc thc 'ultimate goal* or thc
'csscncc' of thc Proletariat from every impurc contact with —
capitalist — existcncc Icads ultimately to thc same rcmoteness
from reality, from 'practical, critical activity' and to thc samc
rclapsc into thc utopian dualism of subject and object, of thcory
and practicc to which Revisionism has succumbed.^*

WHAT IS ORTHODOX MARXISM?

23

-n,. oractical danger of every such dualism shows itself in thc

^f nv dkcctiv^ for action. As soon as you abandon thc ground

?^7tha?h "^^^^^^ conquercd and reconquered by dialect.cal

■^^^atf^iisTcncc of hc cmpirical in its stark, naked brutahty,
^catc a Sf b^^^^^^ the subject of an action and the mihcux
!J?hr W in which the action unfolds so that they stand opposed
i^ oäcr as harsh, irrcconcilablc prmciples. It then bccomcs
^^iblc to imposc the subjective will, wish or decision upon
Ät. or to dis'cover in them any directive for act.on. A s.tua-
ntn which the 'facts' speak out unmistakably for or agamst
rdc^ufctrse of action'has never existed and ne.ther can or
tm cxist. Thc more conscientiously thc facts are explored-
r^hcir isolation, i.e. in their unmediated relations-the less com-
Xgly will they point in any one direction. It is self-evidcnt that
Tmcrcly subjective decision will be shattcred by the pressure of
^Tompr^^^ facts acting automatically 'according to laws

.. iKs dialectical materialism is seen to offer thc only approach
^ iTeaUty which can give action a direction. Thc self-knowledgc
l^^ subjective and objective, of the proletanat at a given pomt
bTts evolution is at the same time knowledge of the stage of
development achieved by the whole societ^c facts no longer
appcar^trange when they are comprehcnd m their cohcrcnt
reality, in the relation of all partial aspects to their mhcrent,
but hkherto unelucidated roots in thc whole: wc then perceivc
thc tcndcncies which strivc towards the centre of reality, to what
WC are wont to call the ultimate goal. This ultimate goal is not an
abstract ideal opposed to the process, but an aspect of truth and
reality It is thc concrete meaning of each stage reached and an
integral part of thc concrete moment. Because of this to compre-
hcnd it IS to recognise the direction taken (unconsciously) by cvents
and tcndcncies towards the totality. It is to know thc direction
that detcrmincs concretely the correct course of action at any
givcn moment-in terms of thc interest of the total process, viz.
thc emancipation of the Proletariat.

However; thc evolution of society constantly hcightens thc
tcnsion betwecn thc partial aspects and thc whc^e. J"^^ b^^^^^^
thc inherent meaning ef reality shines forth with an ever mo,c
rcsplendcnt light, the meaning of thc process is rmbedded e er
more deeply in day-to-day cvents, and totality pcrmeatcs thc
Tpat o-tcmVoral character of phcnomcna. The path to conscious-

M..

HISTOR

thc knights during the — -^^^ uirectly — oa

thc particular dement c. ..^v^iciy irom which the privileges cman.
atcd (as in the case of the guilds).

Even when an estatc has disintegrated, even when its membcn
have beert absorbed economically into a number of different classes, it
still retains this (objectively unreal) ideological coherencc.
For the relation to the whole created by the consciousness of
ones Status is not directcd to the real, living economic unity but
to a past State of society as constituted by the privileges accordei
to the estates. Status-consciousness — a real historical factor—
masks class consciousness ; in fact it prevents it from emerging ai
all. A like phenomenon can be observed under capitalism in thc
casc of all 'privileged' groups whose class Situation lacks any
immediatc economic base. The ability of such a class to adapt
itself to the real economic development can be measured by thc
cxtent to which it succeeds in 'capitalising' itself, i.e. transforming
its Privileges into economic and capitalist forms of control (as
was thc case with the great landowners).

Thus class consciousness has quite a different relation to history
in pre-capitalist and capitalist periods. In the former case thc
classes could only be deduced from the immediately given histori-
cal reality by the methods of historical materialism. In capitalism they
themselves constitute this immediately given historical reality. It is
therefore no accident that (as Engels too has pointed out) this
knowledge of history only became possible with the advent of
capitalism. Not only— as Engels believed— because of the greater
simplicity of capitalism in contrast to the 'complex and concealed
relations' of earlicr ages. But primarily because only with capital-
ism does economic class interest emerge in all its starkncss as thc
motor of history. In pre-capitalist periods man could never be-
come conscious (not even by virtue of an 'imputcd* conscious-
ness) of the "truc driving forces which stand behind the motives
of human actions in history". They rcmained hidden behind
motives and were in truth the blind forces of history. Ideological
Factors do not merely 'mask' economic interests, they arc not
merely thc banners and slogans: they arc thc parts, the compo-
ncnts of which thc real struggle is made. Of course, if historical
materialism is deploycd to discover thc soäological meaning of thesc
strugglcs, economic interests will doubtlcss be revcaled as thc
dccisivc /or/örj in any explanation.

But there is still an unbridgcable gulf bctwccn this and capital-

!?

CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS

59

whcrc economic factors arc not concealed *bchind* conscious-
but arc m;esent in consciousness itself (albeit unconsciously
* j.gsscd)fWith capitalism, with the abolition of the feudal
IJ^J^ j^d with the creation of a society wiih a purely economic
^ticulation, class consciousness arrived at the point whcrc it <^
^j become* conscious, From then on social conflict was reflected
gl an ideological struggle for consciousness and for the veiling
or thc cxposure of the class character of societyjBut the fact that
iJiis conflict became possible points forwärd to the dialectical
cootradictions and the internal dissolution of pure class society.
In Hcgel's words, "When philosophy paints its gloomy picture a
form of life has grown old. It cannot be rejuvenated by the gloomy
picture, but only understood. Only when dusk Starts to fall does
thc owl of Minerva spread its wings and fly."

Bourgeoisie and proletariat arc the only pure classes in bour-
geois society. They arc the only classes whose existence and develop-
ment arc entirely dependent on the course taken by the modern
cvolution of production and only from the vantage point of these
classes can a plan for the total Organisation of society even be
imgined. The outlook of the other classes (petty bourgeois or
pcasants) is ambiguous or sterile because their existence is not
based exclusively on their role in the capitalist system of produc-
tion but is indissolubly linked with the vestiges of feudal society.
Their aim, therefore, is not to advancc capitalism or to transcend
it, but to reverse its action or at least to prevent it from dcveloping
fully. Their class interest concentrates on Symptoms of development
and not on development itself, and on Clements of society rather
than on the construction of society as a whole.

Thc question of consciousness may makc its appearance m
terms of the objectives chosen or in terms of action, as for instancc
in thc case of the petty bourgeoisie. This class lives at least in part
in thc capitalist big city and every aspect of its existence is
directly exposed to thc influence of capitalism. Hence it cannot
possibly rcmain wholly unaffectcd by thc fact of class conflict
bctwccn bourgeoisie and proletariat. But as a "transitional class
in which the interests of two other classes become simultaneously
bluntcd . . ." it will imaginc itself "to be above all class antag-
onisms".«* Accordingly it will scarch for ways whcreby it will
not indeed climinatc thc two extremes of capital and wage

«

^

66 *A.o

for this is that the

of a minority. Its he,'

but in the interest c

other classes and to ensure triitt c..^.

CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS

67

' the Hi^
A niinor;r>
eceive ihr
*ss remaia

amorphous is inescapable for a Bourgeois regime. (Conside
here the theory of the State that Stands *above' class antagonismi,
or the notion of an ^impartial' System of justice.)

But the vcil drawn over the nature of bourgeois socieiv .j
indispensable to the bourgeoisie itself For the insoluble interna:
contradictions of the System become revealed with increasin?
starkness and so confront its supporters with a choice. Either
they must consciously ignore insights which become increasingiy
urgent or eise they must suppress their own moral instincts in
Order to be able to support with a good conscience an economic
System that ser\'es only their own interests.

ithout overestimating the efficacy of such ideological facton
it must be agreed that the fighting power of a class grows with iis
abihty to carry out its own mission with a good conscience and
to adapt all phenomena to its own interests with unbroken con-
^^fidenceinjtsclf. If we consider Sismondi*s criticism of classical
economics, German criticisms of natural law and the youthful
critiques of Carlyle it becomes evident that from a very early
stage the ideological history of the bourgeoisie was nothing but a
desperate resistance to every insight into the true nature of the society
it had created and thus to a real understanding ofits class Situation. When
the Communist Manifesto makes the point that the bourgeoisie
produces its own gravediggcrs this is valid ideologically as well
as economically. The whole of boure;cois thought in the nincteenth
Century made the most strenuous cfTorts to mask the real founda-
tions of bourgeois society; everything was tried: from the grcatest
falsifications of fact to the *sublimc' theories about the 'csscnce'
of history and the State. But in vain: with the cnd of the Century
the issue was resolved by the advances of science and their
corresponding effects on the consciousness of the capitalist
elite.

This can be seen very clearly in the bourgeoisie's greater
readiness to accept the idea of conscious Organisation. A greater
mcasure of concentration was achieved first in the stock companies
and in the cartels and trusts. This process revealed the social
character of capital more and more clearly without afTecting the
gcncral anarchy in production. What it did was to confer near-

oly Status on a number of giant individual capitalists.
jcüvcly, then, the social character of capital was brought
olay with great energy but in such a manner as to keep its
a)nccaled from the capitalist class. Indeed this illusory
i^tion of economic anarchy successfully diverted their
jüon from the true Situation. With the crises of the War and
HC post-war period this tendency has advanced still further:
l^id» of a 'planned' economy has gained ground at least among
1^ more progressive Clements of the bourgeoisie. Admittedly
1^ applies only within quite narrow strata of the bourgeoisie
^ cvcn there it is thought of more as a theoretical experiment
thin as a practical way out of the impasse brought about by the

When capitalism was still expanding it rejected every sort of
lodal Organisation on the grounds that it was "an inroad upon
such sacred things as the rights of property, freedom and unrestric-
ted play for the initiative of the individual capitalist."^« If we
compare that with current attempts to harmonise a *planned'
economy with the class interests of the bourgeoisie, we are forced
to admit that what we are witnessing is the capitulation of the class
msciousness of the bourgeoisie before that of the Proletariat, Of course,
the scction of the bourgeoisie that accepts the notion of a 'planned*
economy does not mean by it the same as does the proletanat:
it rcgards it as a last attempt to save capitalism by driving its
internal contradictions to brcaking-point. Nevertheless this
mcans jettisoning the last theoretical line of dcfence. (As a stränge
counterpart to this we may note that at just this point in time
ccrtain sectors of the Proletariat capitulate before the bourgeoisie
and adopt this, the most problcmatic form of bourgeois Organ-
isation.)

With this the whole existencc of the bourgeoisie and its culturc
is plunged into the most terrible crisis. On the one hand, we find
the utter sterility of an ideology divorced from life, of a more
or Icss conscious attempt at forgery. On the other hand, a cyni-
cism no less tcrribly jejune lives on in the world-historical irrel-
cvances and nuUities of its own existence and concerns itself
only with the defence of that existence and with its own naked
sclf-interest. This ideological crisis is an unfailing sign of decay.
The bourgeoisie has already bcen thrown on the defensive;
however aggressive its weapons may be, it is fighting for self-
prcservation. Its power to dominate has vanished beyond recalL

HISTORY AND CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS

1

r

Materialist dialectic is a revolutionary dialectic. This definition
is so important and altogether so crucial for an understanding
of its nature that if the problem is to be approached in the right
way this must be fully grasped before we venture upon a discus-
sion of the dialectical method itself. The issue turns on the
question of theory and practice. And this not merely in the sense
given it by Marx when he says in his first critique of Hegel that
"theory becomes a material force when it grips the masses".i
Even more to the point is the need to discover those feätures and
definitions both of the theory and the ways of gripping the masses
which convert the theory, the dialectical method, into a vehicle of
revolution. We must extract the practical essence of the theory
from^the method and its relation to its object. If this is not done
that *gripping the masses' could well turn out to be a will o' the
wisp. It might turn out that the masses were in the grip of quite
different forces, that they were in pursuit of quite different ends.
In that event, there would be no necessary connection between
the theory and their activity, it would be a form that enables the
masses to become conscious of their socially necessary or fortuitous
actions, without ensuring a genuine and necessary bond between
consciousness and action.

In the same essay^ Marx clearly defined the conditions in which

a relation between theory and practice becomes possible. "It is

not enough that thought should seek to realise itself; reality must

also strive towards thought." Or, as he expresses it in an earlier

work:3 "It will then be realised that the world has long since

possessed something in the form of a drcam which it need only

takc possession of consciously, in order to possess it in reality."

Only when consciousness Stands in such a relation to reality can

theory and practice be united. But for this to happen the emer-

gence of consciousness must become the decisive step which the

historical process must takc towards its proper end (an end

constituted by the wills of men, but neither dependcnt on human

whim, nor the product of human invention). The historical

Function of theory is to make this step a practical possibility.

Only when a historical Situation has arisen in which a class

must understand society if it is to assert itself; only when the fact

that a class understands itself means that it understands society

as a whole and when, in consequence, the class becomes both

the subject and the object of knowledge; in short, only when these

0 3

WHAT IS ORTHODOX MARXISMr

. .11 satisfied Will the unity of theory and practice,
Sf^aSdon r£ revolutionary function of the theory,

^^jcac possiblt. ^^ ^^^ of the prolc

^ * Tt^ ^^Zntr^^^^^ proClaims the dissolu-
•f^^^l^e^SS orde'r," Marx declares, "it does no
jjoo of the «isting existence, for it is the

j,^ than disclose ^^^tinlf nrder " * The links between the

^'^ ^t^ev SÄr "^^^^^^^ or open to misunderstanding.
nor are they P^^^^^^'J^^ . essentiaUy the inteUectual expres-
On the contrary, the theory is essentiauy ^^

. r *\^^ rpvolutionary process itsell. m ii evcry ata^
«on of the revolutionary p generalised, communi-

,rrP^t and make conscious each necessary sicp, iw

i?^?a^*^^^^äl^^äS^oked much confusion has
cruaal, and because u nas u ^ ,. , .- Eneels* ariruments

However wc icgoi^ > rippm them to be incompletc

.Utus or whether we cnticise them deem ^^ w h

J^ts (and the objects they represeat) are dassohxd. ^^f^^^

ncnce it aescrves. ict wiw analvsis)

revolutionary, despite attempts (dlusory '" *« J^^^ ^^^^J^

HISTORY AND CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS

Short, the pradical, historical function of class consciousness.

Only after such preparatory formulations can we begin lo

cxploit the category of objective possibility systematically. The

first question we must ask is how far is it infact possible to discern

the whole economy of a society from inside it? It is essential to

transcend the Hmitations of particular individuals caught up in

their own narrow prejudices. But it is no less vital not to over-

Step the frontier fixed for them by the economic structure of societv

and estabhshing their position in it.^^ Regarded abstractiy and

formally, then, class consciousness implies a class-conditioned

unconsciousness of ones own socio-historical and economic condi-

tion.i^Thiscondition is given as a defmitestructuralrelation,a defi.

nite formal nexus which appears to govcrn the whole of life. The

Talseness', the illusion implicit in this Situation is in no sense

arbitrary; it is simply the intellectual reflex of the objective eco-

nomic structure. Thus, for example, ''the value or price of labour-

power takes on the appearance of the price or value of labour

itself . . ." and "the illusion is created that the totaUty is paid

labour In contrast to that, under slavery even that portion of

labour which is paid for appears unpaid for." i« Now it requires

the most painstaking historical analysis to use the category

of objective possibility so as to isolate the conditions in which

this illusion can be exposed and a real connection with the totality

established. For if from the vantage point of a particular class the

totality of existing society is not visible ; if a class thinks the thoughts

imputable to it and which bear upon its interests right through

to their logical conclusion and yet fails to strike at the heart ofthat

totality, then such a class is doomed to play only a subordinate

role. It can never influence the course of history in either a con-

servative or progressive dircction. Such classes are normally

condemed to passivity, to an unstable oscillation between the

ruling and the revolutionary classes, and if perchance they do

crupt then such explosions are purely elemental and aimless.

They may win a few battlcs but they are doomed to ultimate

_dcfeat.

|Tor a class to be ripe for hegemony means that its interests and

1 consciousness enable it to organisc the whole of society in accordance

with those interests. The crucial question in every class struggle is

this : which class possesses this capacity and this consciousness at the

- dccisive moment ? This does not prcclude the use of force. It does not

f mcan that the class-interests dcstined to prcvail and thus to uphold

•ib

%

CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS 53

^ ^.rrrests of society as a whole can be guaranteed anjiitomatic -^

*• ""^CiSlHr^^SiüFSF^r^nsiramS^^

r«,uirht about by the most ruthless use of force (as e.g. the
^vf accumulation of capital). But it often turns out that
iSns of class consciousness prove to be decisive in just those
Sons where force is unavoidable and where classes are
S in a life-and-death-struggle. Thus the noted Hunganan
tbSst Erwin Szabö is mistaken in criticising Engels for mamtam-
^at the Great Peasant War (of 1525) was essentially a
^cüonary movement. Szabö argues that the peasants revol
^suppressed only by the ruthless use of force and that its defeat
^ not grounded in socio-economic factors and in the class
^dousn'^ss of the peasants. He overlooks the fact that the
?«pest reason for the weakncss of the peasantry and the superior
^ength of the princes is to be sought in class consciousness.
Even the most cursory Student of the military aspects of the
Peasants' War can easily convince himself of this.

It must not be thought, however, that all classes ripe for
heeemony have a class consciousness with the same inner structure.
Eveiything hinges on the extent to which they can become con-
«ioil of the actions they need to perform in order to obta.n and
organise power. The question then becomes: how far does the
CiL concerned perform the actions history has imposed on it
•consciously' or 'unconsciously' ? And is that consciousness true
or 'false'. These distinctions are by no means academic. yuite
apart from problems of culture where such fissures and dissonances
are crucial, in all practical matters too the fateof a class depends
on its ability to elucidatc and solve the problems with which
history confronts it. And hcre it becomes transparently obvious
that class consciousness is concerned neither with the thoughts
of individuals, however advanced, nor with the State of scientihc
knowledgc. For example, it is quite clear that ancient society was
broken economically by the limitations of a System built on
slavery. But it is equally clcar that neither the ruling classes nor
the classes that rebelled against them in the name of revolution or
reform could perceive this. In consequence the practical emer-
gence of thesc problems meant that the society was necessarily
and irremediably doomed. ■ u

The Situation is even clcarer in the case of the modern bour-
geoisie, which, armed with its knowledge of the workmgs of eco-
nomics, clashcd with feudal and absolutist society. For the bour-

jT.^'*-^*---

\

.u- ^ thc^t A — ^ "c^er tuUy understand.

"the real barrUr of capitalist production is capttal ttselj . And i
this insight were to become conscious it would mdeed entail tn.

the limks of the class consciousness of the bourgeois.e The oldo
'natürar and 'conservative' forms of dommaUon had left un-
mo ested34 ^he forms of production of whole sect.ons of he people
Tey rukd and therefore exerted by and large a traduional and
unrevolutionary influence. Capitalism, by contrast, .s a revolu-
donary form par excellence. The fact that itmust necessanly remcn
^nZoraZ oflhe objeclive economic limUations ofits own System expressed
iteT^Z internal dialeciical contradiction in its class consciousness.
"fhU means tU.i formally the class consciousness of the bo-
«oisie is eeared to economic consciousness. And mdeed the highes
See of unconsciousness, the crassest form of 'false conscousness
Svs manifests itself when the conscious mastery of economic
DhenomTna appears to be at its greatest. From the pomt of v.ew
S the re'tion'of consciousness to society this -ntrad.c lon is
-fpressed as the irreconcilable antagonism between .deology and co-
Z^taase. Its dialectics are grounded in the '-con-lable a^^^^^^^
onism between the (capitalist) mdiv.dual, ut. *e ^tereotyped
Lividual of capitalism. and the 'natural' and mevitable process
öf development, i.e. the process not subject to consc.ousnes^. In
Iseqür th;ory and ^ractice are b-ght into irreconc aW
Opposition to each other. But the resultmg duahsm .s anythmg
--^nraable- in fact it constantly strives to harmon.se prmoples
That have been ."enched apart and thenceforth oscillate between
anew 'false- synthesis and its subsequent cataclysm.c disruption
' Tll [ntern/l dialectical contradiction in the c'- co~^^^^^^
of the bourgeoisie is further aggravated by the f^ct that the
obj ctive limits of capitalism do not rema.n P^ ^ "S'^^^ha^
is to say that capitalism does not merely set natural laws m
mot°on ihat provoke crises which it cannot comprehend. On the
Tntrary those limits acquire a historical cmbod:ment wuh .ts
own coTsciousness and its own actions: the proletanat

Most -normal« shifts of perspective produced by he capUahst
point of View in the Image of the economic ^^"""^^^Jj"^;?'/.
imd to "obscure and mystify the true ongin of surplus value .
irthe •normal-, purelyVeoretical view this myst.ficat.on only

65

CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS

jSTemploycr in the P-J" J^^^ ^^"^e than highlight the
*^ of interest. -^--^^l^, „„« driving forces that he
JgTof obse.^'ers to Perce've m ^^ ^^^.^^ ^^^.^

^tV^'S'o^i^^^^-^' r- of capitalist society: the

« ftnigglc- ^ emergence of all the hidden

to .he class struggle we^tness t^ g^ ^^^^^^ ^^

t„aa that usually he conceaieu „..„„ists eaze as though

£".. which the capitahsts and the^r apolog-^^^^^^

*^ed. These forces ^PP^- '^ -* ^^ Xn capitalism was

^bly be 'f °:^'i- ^° rp'oletariat could only give vent to its
^e ascendant ^"Vveherent spontaneous exploslons even the
^ests in the form °f ^^"^"^^^ ? bourgeoisie acknowledged the
S^logical exponents of the nsmg bou g ^^^^^ ^„^

d« struggle as a basic fact »f/^'^r^: ^ ^ion as the theory

S^historians such as M.gnet B"' '" PJ^^P ,„„3eious of this
^practice of the Proletariat made^oc^ety j^^^^ .^e

^Lious, revolutionary P""/'?'^; '~to a conscious defen-
teurgeoisie was thrown backmcreasmgly on to ^^.^^^^^^^ „f

^.V dialectical contradiction mthejalse ^^^^^._

^e bourgeoisie became -^-^\^''^^Z^:,:Tcon.cio.sn^s. What
ousness was converted mto a me^^a .„^ „^^ became subjective
had been at first an objective contra ^^^^^ ^y^^^y^

abo: the theoretical problem tumed mto a mo p ^.^^^_

decisively influenced every practical class attitu

üon and on every issue. boureeoisie finds itself deter-

Thus the Situation mwi^htHe^^^^^^^^^^ .^ .^ ^^^^^^, ,„
mines the function of its ^^^l^° of the bourgeoisie

achieve control of ^o"ety. The hegemo y ^^^ ^^^^^^^

really does embrace the whole ofsocety^ Y^ .^ ^^^

to organise the whole ° --^^j^^J^^^iTit was forced both to

it has had some success). To achieve ^^^ ^^.^^^

develop a coherent theory of econ°mics P .^^„^^^^^„^„g.).

(which in itself presupposes and amount t _^ ^^ ^_^^

Ld also to maWe ^onsciota and^ustam , s ta .^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^

to control and organise ^ooety- The rag ^^^ ^^_.^_

geoisie can be seen in the fact that tj n°U.n y ^^.^^^^ .^^^^^

Li for it to clarify its own c^ 'nt«ests o J p^^^^^^ ^^^^^

:£ iristti^edrÄ-/'^ -"<> ^- ^^^-^ --

i

Lukäcs

ydlä-^^

i

H^^'

y

Compared to these explosive topics, Lukacs' reservations
about Engels' understanding of Kant were relatively harm-
less, albeit damaging since they came from a trained philo-
sopher who was also a Marxist. Engels had in 1888 indeed
adopted a quite untenable position. In his eagerness to re-
fute what he termed Hume's and Kant's 'philosophical
crocjhets' conceming the Cognition of reality, he had
appealed to 'experiment and industry' as proof that exhaus-
tive knovvledge of the actual world was possible.' As
Lukacs very reasonably observed, this wholly missed the
point of Kant's phenomenalism, which did not in any way
cast doubt upon the possibility of a truly limitless advance
in scientific knowledge. Kant had asserted something quite
different, namely that even the most complete understand-
ing of all the natural phenomena present to the mind could
not overcome the built-in dilemma inherent in man's think-
ing : the fact that he perceives the world with the help of a
mental apparatus which imposes its own forms (the cate-
gories) upon the raw material of experience. The misunder-
standing had arisen from Engels' failure to follow Hegel
along a path that led back to the metaphysical rationalism
of the Greeks (and of Spinoza), a rationalism which credited
Reason with the power to comprehend the veritable natura
of reality. If this was excluded, then the choice lay between
Kant's phenomenalism and the positivism of the natural
and social sciences, a positivism which refused to accept
the distinction between phenomena and noumena. 'things
for US' and 'things in themselves'. Alternatively one might
revert to the 'naive realism' of the scholastics for whom the ^
entire problem did not exist. In later years some Catholic
philosophers were indeed to treat Thomism and Leninism as
Potential allies against Hegelianism, positivism and Kan-
tianism alike.* Scholastic realism and dialectical material-
ism after all both affirmed the existence of an objective
World independcnt of the mind. Whatever one may think
of this doctrine, it has a respectable pedigree going back all
the way to Aristotle. If the Soviet philosophers had been

60

Lukacs

solely concemed with problems of Cognition, Lukacs'
heresies need not have given them sleepless nights.

But of course there was more to it. 'Materialism' has a
double meaning. It may be taken to signify the reality of
the external world, but for Engels it also meant something
eise : the primacy of 'matter' as an absolute substance in-^
volved in the Constitution of the universe. Materialism in
Xh'is sense is not a theory of knowledge, but a metaphysical
doctrine about the world. It affirms that matter (or nature)
is prior to spirit, or that spirit is an emanation of matter.
Such affirmations can be neither proved nor disproved.
Their acceptance resolves itself into an act of religious (or
anti-religious) faith. When Engels declared that he and
Marx had adopted 'materialism' as against Hegel's 'idealism',
what he meant was not that he and Marx held a theor>- of
knowledge different from Hegel's, but that they regarded
'matter' as in some sense more fundamental than 'spirit'.
Whether Marx ever actually said anything of the sort is a
question that need not concern us here, but Engels certninly
did hold such a view, whereas Lukacs in 1923 did not.

what Lukacs put forward in the central sections of His-
tory and Class Consciousness was a genuinely dialectical
theory which undercut the stale dispute between material-
ists and spiritualists. His Standpoint could be summarized
by saying that materialism and spiritualism are the thesis
and antithesis of a debate which has its origin in a failure to
overcome the cleavage between subject and object. The
Solution lies not in opting for one or the other. but in tran-
scending the area of dispute, and this can be done by fol-
lowing Marx in treating practice as the concrete union of
thought and reality.yy

In advancing tfrese notions, Lukacs pioneered into virgin
territory so far as his Marxist contemporaries were con-
cerned, while at the same time he revived a mode of
thought embedded in classical German philosophy. It is
necessary to be clear as to what exactly this implied. His
critics pounced upon what they termed his Hegelianism,

6i •

/

tCiCH

6a«

;j fa^^'^^ ^' ^^'^ ]

5. Ut^

^et Problem of ethics vs. economic determinism ( fautzki) also
important: kantian controversy beginning in I880toes and
extending into recent tiraes.

fj %mMf^

^/^

^1 ^,^-^ ^"'-^

/^

u

'l^

4^^^

,f

)

tu^^

l'. I^M^^^ftJ^^

/

l

8.

Summ upr^Eisner famous essay " I-IajT^ and Kant" (1904)» ^^t's
ethic is a form of human action, "but the living content which

fills this action Stands in the flow of history. Historical

**;«Ä-«»

^ .^ ' dialectic is there» But ethic stanäi above all concrete f orms

■'»•■«"'-SSfSiEii'3

^ ^ 9 ^^ Society, provides the ethical ideal» But this ideal is only

^ J^/ J\ ^^^illed in socialism. Thus there is categorical Imperative ^y. /;;>-

. *■■"" f.. jj:i'i."*T*J

'T 0^ if^^*^ within man towards socialism: the " should be".

"^ J^ S f" Gonseguence: no tactics ( Capitalism developingXo its final

fJU*^

,§xtent) hut instead revolutionary radicalismj ( Rev. I9I8 -

Bisners helief and thus inactioJi). Ho opression after rev» of

course, or before. A definite "belief in freedom -"for" it must

tri-umph in action or through free discussion* ^.^^^ /^ ^^^^-l

f.

^ "^Tj^H^^Z^ Out of this emerged what we might call the " socialism of/the
/S^t^'^'t^—- int eile ctuals" which must not be confused with revisionismir —
v^^/ For here a trend towards absolutes, not ^adualism^ a XTeni
— which will remain innto the post I9I8 world» Indeed af quite

total rejection of the present unethical world - s-^ong idealism/ —

The will is, in the last resort, more important then historical
development; The scientific character of socialism gets lost

on the way»

'^

..u^

/- /^-t^w /wY /- the figaer of Gustav Landauer ( expl») Ant0 historical: "Socia-

This has a certain connection with froudhonism; Espe^ially in

lism is^ j)qssible and impossible at all timea; it is possible when
the right people are there to will and Eo it; it is impossible
when»'either don*t will it or only supposedly will it, but are

not capable of doing 1V\ Socialism must grow out of the regional
Community, association of small groups: famlllies into associations.

9.

association into communities. Orgemift longings ( we have seen

:s

in so many other ideologies) here» At the end staiids moral
regeneration* Even the nostalgia for the land ( Buber p* 55)
This kind of " socialism of the int eile ctuals" comes in

many variations: idealistic, centering upon ethical will rather
then fröm-öttt^^erexist ing society thin in not nnpri-ing, rT^./

In Ernst Tolleres work this found its literary expression:

^n4U.^u/P> " I^sse Mensch" above all. A peonto personality vs, masses
i^»or^ ^ /f//- ^^^ error in leading masses to revolution. j>Iass ä^d man are

(' B^^ A vweiy : — — • 1^ —

contradictory. All that is needed for socialism is for man to

remember h;is hiimanity. Love must be the essence of rev. ncrfi"

masses or dogmatismT I9IS~r'eT. neededTä Trotski but gbt^ a~
Toller)'» Glos e^tö Express iohism»

i'-If I took bjit one hiiman life, I would betray the masses" ( blasse
'^ensch)^ ^^^^

I have called this the socialism of the intellectiials, for thrpu^
such an approach majiy an intellecti^ was^ 3^^ to socialism in the
I920ties. Crides^I have allegiance to truth, if socialism should

desert this truth, I woizld desert socialism" 3 Again: exploitation
in general led to this - his experience during visit to Congo.

t4<C

Secutalised Christianity in Silone^s Bread and V/ine; the pure

revolutionary moral fervour in I-lalr aaux • s Mans FateVcontrasted to
the tactician sent from Hoscow# f 1^^ m^ L 1^^"

made the

pict'ure 1 must aaa one otner person. Vhö, in a- sense

ideaiism and'^Harx: Rosa Luxemburg»

Democi*a6y sind
and democrac

^ution ai
p» 61) and c3?iticism of Lenin ^p. 62) P» 71

ivolution

All this conbined with individualisn which rejects the roass as

mass ajid leads towards a prticipatory deraocracy:

Toller: ( Mass Mensch): The nasses are not sacred

violence created the inaüGes

injustices of property crested the Masses
The mass Springs from nisery

is cniel revenge

is a blind slave»

Bat how to find contact? I will retiim to this. They never could

foT the workers were organised in masses called political movement s.

The denocracy olear: hut some did succeed to transfer it upon

the masses - to ±n the mas es in movement an alnost individualised

application of denocracy: üosa Ltucemb-urg

f B.

/

c

^

V

«.^*-
s

Leonhard Prajok: The » path to socialisrn is Hrunanisrn"./ in Menoirs not
wrongly entitled " left is were the heart is" (^1952) riut whe^^^J^ed
at)Out mechanism of revol> change: not for one man to figiier out ./— ^-^'^'^
Peuchtwanger : _ Thomas Wendt ( I9I9): her^^becomes the leader of a
revolution meant to bring about new society of freedom - but fails
to carry though^, He cannot comprimise his respect for every individual
perso^.the ve y goal of revolution. A Friend ; *»' you will always have to
use force against men if you want to eradicate their ideas. You must be
unjust, Thomas Wendt, for the sake of justice"? But Wendt cannot accept
such advice. Dilemma, f ^h^?' y^ ""^^ J

V/hen in 1932 a young man asks Doblin: shoiad I join a socialist party
to fight iNiasism^ Hot necces->ary for fight above afrties for all of
humanity«

Underlying: optimism, belief in the categorical imperatiire as an

•*- I — — — — - '

enthic imperative inlierent in each man and only perverted by suprression,

■■■"immm

From Kant to -^egel. -"egelian revival side by side with /
kantian revival to breack open Marxisra again.

(

l|

II. a 3

(«

Emphasis upon interrelationships. But ^recht did not follow

^egelian revival in its stress upon consciousness ( wrote:

Lukacz transfers everything in the world into mans consciousness. "")

"^ef^elian revival wanted to bring movement into arxism
through stresss upon the dillectic, they also wanted to revive

c

^egels stress \ipon upon consciousness 4f seif and society in
orderet o challenge the pas^^ive scientism of Kautzki and the

r^Again: individuality as value, for consciousness of
the dialecticin a matter of the^'mid whi^h leads to action.
But consciousness must not degenerate to subjectivity and
inwardness_^ ^ategorical imperative meant for these ^^arxist

e^elinns a concern with politics - and politics did work
dialectically: substructure and superstructure interact all

X

the time.: omgoing process^/MclTwill uead to the classless
scoeity, But stress neccessarilly less on one class then
on the totality of life mediated through dialectic which
connecteri consciousness and teality ( connection which they •

«■^ —

called praxi s.)

I am not now con erned withthe idealism here but this what

is called ü- n-pitin'^1 -^h^^ry^' emphasis on individal consciousness,
, ■■■* .

reason. dialectic ( above all) vs. scientism of I^^arxisra. The

» »

\lbasic work: Lukacz collection of eaasyas called " Class Conscieous

^'vness and society" (1923). In this tradition, and L. soon was

'_- ' ^^

to repudiate these, this heresy/ But that did not matter, ^xept

for this: L. repudiated his work because he believed that only

through the Gommunist party could he have contact with the

Ti:

s: thus Submission neccessary to avoid Isolation.

'Correü^4— thxxse whcriTHxr^

.nkfurt School, I93ng#^

-U

»öniniUiiiiii*

Korsch and Communism 37

Tl
U

Ig

0
tf
^

nr
ir
a
ri
\i
f

V

major theoreticians and publidsts of the Second International.' This
^ raises the question: if there is a definite conncction bctween the
abolition of the State and the abolition of the philosophy, is there
also a connection bctween the neglcct of thcse two problcms by the
Marxists of the Second Internationa!? The problem can bc posed
more exactly. Lenin's bitter criticism of the debasement of Marxism
by opportunism connccts the neglcxt of the problem of the State by
the Marxists of the Second International to a moregencral con-
text. Is this context also operative in the case of Marxism and
philosophy? In other words, is the neglect of the problem of phi-
losophy by the Marxists of the Second International also related to
the f act that 'problems of revoliiüon in ^eneral hardly conceiiied

The italicized quotation is from Lenin's State and Revolution-, this is, of
course, Lenin's constantly reiterated critique of the Second International
which Korsch takes up here and radicalizes.

Korsch next works out his famous periodization of Marxism into ( i )
the Creative works of Marx and Engels; (2) the dcgeneration of Marx-
ism \ti the Second International; and ( 3 ) the restoration of genuine Marx-
ism by Luxemburg and Lenin :

What theoreticians like Rosa Luxemburg in Germany and Lenin in
Russia have done, and are doing, in the ficld of Marxist thcory \% to
liberate it from the inhibiting traditions of the Social Democracy of
the second period. They thereby answer the practica! needs of the
new revolutionary stage of proletarian class struggle, for these tra-
ditions weighed "like a nightmare" on the brain of the working
masses whose objectively revolutionary socioeconomac position no
longer corresponded to these revolutionary doctrines. l'he apparent
revival of original Marxist theory in the Third International is
simply a result of the f act that in a new revolutionary period not
only the workers' movement itself , but the theoretical conceptions
of communists which express it, must assume an explicitly revolu-
tionary form. This is why large sections of the Marxist System,
v/hicli seemed virlually forgotten in the final decades of the nine-
teenth Century, have now come to life again. It also explains why
the leader of the Russian Revolution could write a book a few
months bcfore Octcber in which he stated that his aim was "in the
iirst place to restore the correct Marxist theory of the State.'" Events
them.selves placed the question of the dictatorship of the proletariat
on the agenda as a practica! problem. When Lenin placed the same

question theoretically on the agenda at a decisive moment, this was
an early indication (hat the internal connection of theory and prac-
tice within revolutionary Marxism had been consciously re-estab-
lished.-^^

r Marxism and Philosophy was intended to provide a restoration of the
philosophical dimension of Marxism and the importance of ideological
struggle for revolutionary practice, much as Lenin has restored the politi-
cal dimension of Marxism and the importance of revolutionary political
struggle. Marxist theories had fallen victim, Korsch believed, to a "tran-
scendental underestimatrn of ideology," and had failed to perceive the
need for a critique of ideology and change of consciousness. For Korsch,
"no really dialectical materialist conception of history (certainly not that »
of Marx and Engels) could cease to regard philosophical ideology, or \
ideology in general, as a matetial component of general sociohistorical
reality — that i%, a real part which had to be grasped in materialist theory
and overthrown by materialist practice."^* Ideology for Korsch is not only
conceived as a theory that expresses the ideas of the ruling class but is to
Be grasped as a constituent of consclouTrüess. Consciousness arises from
the social life-process and in turn is a real component^öTthat^process.
Hence a theory of revolution must take seriously the critique of ideology
and change of consciousness. Korsch wanted to develop a theory of total
revolution that "would restore the correct and füll sense of Marx's the-
ory. . . . a theory of social revolution that comprises all areas of society
as a totality."^^ This project required a restoration 9f t-1^^ philogr^pViiral
dimensioa^f Marxism and stress on the importance of ideological strug-
gle as a component of revolution, as well as renewed reflection on Hegel
and dialecti CS.

I have stressed the generally underestimated role that Lenin played in
Korsch's problematic and the extent to which he believed his project is
continuous with the positions of Leninism. We have noted that Korsch
believed that the restoratlöiTörgenuine Marxism bcgan with Lenin and
have shown the parallel which Korsch perceived between Lenin's and his
own project. The brilliant section of Marxism and "Philosophy where
Korsch developed his dialectical theory of social revolution, and his con-
cept of ideology critique and struggle, can also be read as a project totally
consistent with Leninism, in the sense that Lenin also stressed the impor-
tance of ideological struggle in his theory of hegemony and in countless
spcedics and essays where he characteri2ed Marxism as a weapon in the
struggle against Bourgeois ideology. In a way, Korsch conceived the rcla-
tionship between Marx and Lenin in a parallel manner to the relation

1 ^

38 Korsch and Communism

Korsch and Communism 39

•'1

^ 1

•4

I

I

between Marx and Hegel — Lenin, like Marx, expressing a further stage
of revolutionary struggle in his work. But here Korsch was operating
with an idealized concept of Lenin which had littJe in commor with either
the historical Lenin or the Lenin who was being deificd and re-tooled by
the apologists for Soviet Marxism in Moscow/'« Most of Lenin's works
were not yet available in Europe and Korsch was no doubt unfamiliar
with Lenin's Materialism and Empirio-cntidsm, which contained a crude
and dogmatic philosophical materialism, copy theory of knowledge and
perception, and corrcspondence theory of truth which had little in com-
mon with Korsch's dialectical conception of Marxism." Moreover,
Korsch was unaware that at the vcry moment he was penning Marxism
and Philosophy, Soviet idcologists were concocting an idcological brew
which they would label Marxism-Leninism and would relentlessly oppose
to the Lukacs-Korsch brand of Marxism.^^ But these events constitute the
next chapter of our story and at this point Korsch's Lenin is the successful
politician of the Bolshevik revolution and the revolutionary theorist whose
theories were an integral component of the revolutionary process in Rus-
sia, which achieved the coveted unity of theory and practice that was the
mark of genuine revolutionary theory for Korsch.

Korsch's Interpretation of the relation between Marx and Hegel, his
appraisal of the importance of philosophy and ideological stzugglc for
socialist revolution, his periodization of Marxism which applies the his-
torical materialist method to the history of Marxism, and his commit-
ment to Leninism can all best be grasped in the context of his revolu-
tionary historicism. Korsch stresses the historical rootedness of all ideas,
consciousness, ideology, and revolutionary theory in a specific socioeco-
nomic environmcnt (this principle was latcr generalized by Korsch into
the principle of historical specificity, which is akin to Gramsci's "absolute
historicism" ) . The task of theory is in this view to conceptualize the in-
terconnectedness of aUjdcas, institutions, and socioeconomic realities
wltliTn tue social totaTIty^d to describe the mcdiatibns"which conncct,
for examplc, a philosöpTiy to its socio-historical conditions. Here it should
bc notcd that Korsch is not as sophisticated or brilliant a dialcctician as
Lukacs, the members of the Frankfurt school, or cven Gramsci.''® In fact,
Korsch is much more intcrested in the political conscquences of theo-
retical activity than in the strictly philosophical componcnts of his the-
ory. Korsch is indeed much more of a political theorist with a strong
activist bcnt than a philosopher. He is above all intcrested in developing
a revolutionary theory and in defining tlie relationship of revolutionary
theory to political practice and the historical reality in which both are
rooted. For Korsch the task of revolutionary theory is to grasp conceptu-

ally the historical Situation and to construct a political theory from this
Situation which will then provide an Instrument of revolutionary change.
A genuinely revolutionary theor)'' is rooted in a revolutionary movement
whose struggles, needs^ and ^oals producc the theory^ which in turn
denionstnitgs its truth or efficacy in practice. A revolutionary theory is
therefore to be judged according to its ability to mediate practice, to scrve
as an instramcnt of radical change, to serve the interests of the liberation
of the working class. At the time Korsch believed that Marxism was the
authentic expression of prolctarian struggle from the time of the 1848
revolutions up to the prescnt day, and that Leninism was the currently
actual form of Marxism that expressed contemporary revolutionary strug-
gles. Interestingly, this historicist position which sees theory as the con-
sciousness of historical reality — this demand for an identity between the-
'ory and reality, and theory and practice — would provide the basis for his
later critiquc of Leninism and Marxism itself .

Korsch was attempting to grasp and develop the revolutionary core of
the Marxist tcaching and to defend Marxism against revisionist distor-
tions. One series of articles, including "The Marxist Dialectic" and "On
Materialist Dialectic," translated in this anthology, contain crystal-clear
distillations of the Marxist theory and show Korsch's ability to grasp the
essence of the subject matter at issue — a characteristic that was to distin-
guish Korsch's theoretical practice. Another series of articles attempts to
demolish Icading bourgeois falsifications of Marxism and to critique com-
peting communist interpretations.'"' These articles reveal a sharp critical
acumen, as well as a sarcasticpolemical bent.

In addition to his work in Marxist theory, Korsch was also busy lectur-
ing on law in the Universit}' of Jena and was attempting to develop a
Marxist legal theory, grounded in a theory of workers' rights and the
legal structurc of factory committecs.*^ The main fruit of these labors
was Arbeitsrecht für Betriebsräte published in i922.'*2 Korsch saw the
workers' struggle for labor laws and legal rights and protection as an
integral part of the process of radical social change that had been ne-
glected by previous Marxist theoreticians. He wishcd to institutionalize
y the workers' Councils as organs of participatory dem.ocracy which could
bc used as instruments of v/orkers' power in the transition to socialism.
The activistic component of his thought comes out in his concept of "legal
action" {juristische Aktion) — an example of the sort of "intellectual
action" [geistige Aktion) which in Marxism and Philosophy he de-
fended as an integral part of revolutionary practice."*^ Korsch was de-
veloping a dialectical theory of revolution in which ideological struggle
required socialist theories of ideology, law, and philosophy, as well as

Ijast time:

Socialist culture. -t^roblem. Education crucial,

didacticism» But what about modern art and literature?

-^eadership as opposed as workers spoirfc. Not possible

to descern there " socialist art". -^^^^oi^iem of naturalism

(explO Hauptmann, The Wa^vers ( 1892) set in I840ties,

Balusheck in art. Environmentalism.

189^: rejected. Environmental ism. With it all modern

art. i^asts imtil Piscator ( see Xerox) and further.

Result: back to %rx. Only bourgeois art. that of its
prime: classics. Schiller especially, Goethe less.
But also combined with populär literature in feusilletons.
Minna Kutzski, Barbara or the Salvation army.
Real popularity: workers plays. Participation ( like
workers sport9»

12.

What about workers themselves? Intellectuals we have seen and
really iöfluential on other intellectuals, not penetrate very
far downwards, Attempts to draw in the working classes by
socialist party before I9I20ca. then by SPD and Oommunists,
T87O j'orkers cultural ^egue in ^ermany ( more iraportant then
battle of Sadowa). But really only tentatives, "^lays propably
more important then rpose. *teempt by I890ties of founding a
" lopular stage'^ - but collapsed really, middle class plays for
middle class andiences. Tnstead plays preformed by workers
themselves:

^HiB

/3

^tiPm tli« baekground f or tho yorkgra plays * oiie of the little evidence we

have for workers culture« Not just skilled workers - but ordinary u nskilled
worker» Obviously thpu^ the intellectuals wanted to write for him ( ie* ^recht
or Toller) they failed and their audiences were iniddle class. T^oir tragedy»

Not ^^cht was preformed at meetings ( as he wanted to be) but other kinds of

plays« ^oreover the intellectual problems \*iich troubled these intellectuals -

and to which we shall come with ^arx and Kant - hardly troubled the ordinary
working man. ^(^ ^^-^ v<^'i ff^"^^'^. ^ '^ .^^(^^j..

and ul&skilled ( house painter, for example)
Plays written by skilled workers - but populär at party meetings •

Themes are traditional: brothers who are eneraies, the son who opposes

the father» Hero is the social democrat» i»e. two brothers fight on

opposing sides of the barricades and the father curses the traitor#

not nn1y

bu'l rouiidatXoh of Arbeiterbildungsvere in

I870~t — mure-li5portant then battle of sadowa)

A lot of talk in these plays: dialogue which is supposed to
teachj theory of surplus value or the neccessity of common ownership
of land - in framework of traditional comedy often - at times around
populär national heros ( von Hütten as tribune of the people) One title
of a play written by a house pinter:L" The unsäuccesful agitator or
the pyeblem %t land and peasant problem« A ComiAy in two acts"* iPeasants
look at Social Democrat as a monster, but after a love story and a meeting
he comes to be accepted« In enA hero is tempted to compromise by the
daughter of a notable - but he wrenches himself free and goes to his
comrades at work* Vhereupon the whole audience sings a well known

socialist »ong« ( ' 5 '^ \

What is one to mate of this? TheTworkers struggle is transposed upen

w

hr

artr^time-:

n

If/ßt^i/^ /^!€^^^Ä^

i^evs I npmnrrtT nf Boeiali.ri-h r^i"ti ps -and movemery^s-posed question
of-4»WH?e iy Hiipx? Pepulisffl in l'3?ance and Lasalle ^^i-i?ermany.
I^asalle ( founded ^eneral ^erman workers movement in 1863).
%s ideas: 1848. State important. Miiitancy. Religious
overtones ( -^asalle: it must have been like this to found
a new religion". placard: upon this rovk will I build my Church.
■^ersonal leadership important. But also here liturgy ( song,
flag, entry of leader etc. Theater: workers theatre at
pbeginning I^assalean. ( Schweitzer), ^'he beginnings of socialist
drama. " ;^ehrstucke" ^ero always of ^asalli^ and worker.
Schiller " Robbers" a model: brothers who are enemies, the
intrigeur, the your girls who Stands between the brothers
and decides for the better one ( on the proper side of the
barricades).

Schweizer' s " Sin Schlingel" propagation of idea of surplus
valueC 1867) Those in power make themselves ridiculous in
attempting to persuade the worker Roth not to protest. But
Roth expounds the theiry of surplus value and shows his
superior intelligence. Some analcgies: Ulrich von Hatten.

Thus asalle already gave workers movement shape and form
around a certain cultural endeavour. This will be continued.

Didactic a certain reflection of Lasalle* s legalism,
the law which took the place of class struggle ( 1848 again).

If-

We develope after the forst World War increasingly away from the attempt
at a spontarieous workers culture - which some of the plays \mdoubtedly

were# Organisation, mass politics of orthodox socialism took

another direction:

O^'

upon traditional ^rtistic modes of populär cultiire: the comidy, the
drama of jealousy etc. Sentimental and edifying, OfteA in verse, At the

4^

^

I IL^ saßio time didactic: no real effort at character portrayaJL as such»

Prom thiö art Brecht emerges, this is his real baö^kground* But
important here also the choruses» Indeed as this genre de-Vjelopes the
^\)/ <5-l^orus and the mass tableux "began increasingly to he used/ Pirst mass
Sr^^ piay ( hetter then t^hleaujc Vivantes) ijr~I920; "900 vorkers relicted the
Y^^ , ~ spariacus" slave revolts of Rome. Remarkable sucees by the 50,000 spectators
^lA^ in I«ipzig# Then such themes as the German peasant war re enacted by

1800 workers* i^* 1925: Ernst Toller ♦* war and peace**: begins with

revolution and ends with brotherhood of all people» At the same time the
chofirus: a kind of doxology* —

All this no longer a " workers art" but instead the kind of art which

acc«mpanies mass movements* On Right same thing: even earlier the "open

aic theatre" from 1900 «■* were masses acted out a different doxology: the
Story of the Hohenzollem, the Holy Frail, Germanic Grods* But same sort _
QiZ techniques, same " Sprech-Chore"." Fastens on to old Germanic tribal

gatherings ((TMjig)^ %^ i>^^ ''<[-<UmJ^ Jf 4^^y^ ^Y /^ '^^f^.^^y

Left or Right this art form a part of mass movement, written and directed

by intellectuals now« Complicated, impressive in mass Staging but simple

and didactic in theme« Nazis were to make it the centre of their liturgy.

What remains socialist? The didactic content, not the fonn«

•f

Attempt at a •• proletarian theatte" now no longer by workers'. Erototype

y\ founded 1920 by Erwin Piscator in Berlin. Manifest© : Simplicity in
.. 1 - _ — ' — -*

expression and construction, clear and unambivalent Impression upon the
worker -audience. Every artistic goal must be subject to the revolu= -

■MMia^a

M«

/

r

/■

tionary goal: con/cious propagating of the olass struggla^ 1
Ntturalism? _Thl/ critloiBed as bad photography because not fiUed with
class purpose. But lame criticism, f or this theatre came close to a

naturalism itself* Opposed t» all •• unclear symbolism". Ideal: n#
pi^ofessional actors. Brecht again ( who was the only real talent

'Kw- '

the Piscator theatre discovered, in a way") ♦ 'Trouble ; not workers but
bo\irgeois inteüectuals were apt to fill the audience, A new kind of
realismi^^ —

The attempt to form a spontaneöuslforl:ers cultiire öf the eärlier

-Sismarkii/a-^PD haÄ glTenway after 1920 to a created ciiltxire, parir-
of the ctiltural Komplex of mass movement s. The "proletarian theatre"
made from above be came the kind of realism always inherent in ^^rxiet
culture» More populär for working masses the reviSf: a bourgeois art _

form, now made servicable by the Soviet(-J»_31ue blouses") - a mixture _
_of agit prop. lectures, acrobatics, dancing, memere readers etc. A sort
of Sullivan show with didactic content. But here workers could act etc.

could be come a mixiture of agit prpp» and talent shoW;> ( "" Rote Rummell" ) .
This orthodor» co\ad not satisfy many socialist int eile ctuals.

Indeed the development of the or-tihQ^ox I^yiMprfc
sellie:

-^^ paTty (_^lg^'

^orJLnteOa^i^^ j^ these now. Here attempt

at st&ards rather/then atw^ting ^Hüdactic culture within the

frame of an

.... Y^^*%/<>^

doxy more vfß^Af

Z (L^

ays

n Marx himself ^

Indeed g.p betw««n intell«ctu*ls and nn .

p-re-t .. populär culture her« as

.were ( as Adorno reallse^i). In r^.i.^

i-oP„i„g o„, .i3„ , "««^^n-l..« »r,cht „ko „.„, „^^^^^^
8 on, „i3r,.4 oo^^t^tij, i„. .iä,u, ^, .

critical disctanc«).

V

~ l||i»*'**f^?<Äi#''#i^W('|Kw*'Ä^

ilmkMitä^mmaaaUäkm

m\Mf\Mmi

*>ir warm m milde.
i.'mfcft^itng vollzieht): Maje-
Äutdru(k des Bedauerns), ich
»i.%% Gefttbl unserer Ohnmacht
.'V Die Groerälc haben die Be-
wrt, die eigenen Soldaten füh-
l Kr Sifyesjubel emporsteigen-
|*t n vorfrüht» Majestät, zu ver-
utcrdrücLung haben sie unge-
rn f Zukunft und Madit liegt
mnn Platz scheint dort zu sein.
|niia»sungeinreidien zu müssen.
n«!zcn lieh heran.

Proletariat Niederzwingen, zer--

InorMmst, die Geschütze stehen
\tir(i 8uf{*fgeben und blockiert,
in der liand, Waffen in unge-
idi beglückwünsche mich, Ma-
iiU'hrn ein für allemal vom an
!►• wir «ind die Stützen des inter-

>nn Xäme.

Wr rieh len glaubwürdig, so stehe
tuirung.

.' ^ir werden handeln und die

U der Wellrevolution. Wir sind

KLAÜ^mus zum Wanken bringt

|pfer dr5 Proletariats. Und der

rx.

ji/»*» tieft in der Feme verlieren.)
übertönt anschwellend die ge-
lt Kampf.

'mpf.

t^mpf, Kampf,
mil SowjetniOtund!
|*d. Alles für Rußland. Sowjet-

7«

Stimmen (ein brausender Chor, wiederholt den Ruf. Massen kommen

auf die Bühne).
(Diplomat macht einen Diener, bekommt von dem deutschen Arbeiter
einen Tritt. Verschwindet mit dem Weltkapital links ab.)
Professor der Soziologie (von rechts): Mein neuestes Werk.
(Der deutsche Arbeiter schleudert das Buch weg. Professor der Soziolo-
gie eilig ab nach links. Menge stürzt von allen Richtungen auf die Bühne,
zerschlägt und zertritt die Schlagbäume mit den Rufen: Brüder, Genos-
sen, vereinigt euch. Der deutsche Arbeiter rezitiert den ersten Vers der
Internationale, ein Fanfarenbläser tritt hervor in russischer Uniform,
bläst die Internationale, der Chor auf der Bühne fällt ein, ebenso das
Publikum.)

Der Gegner, 1920/21, Nr. 4, S. 94 ff.

I ^

Erwin Piscator ,

Über Grundlagen und Aufgaben des proletarischen Theaters

r. . . . . -N

Die Leitung des proletarischen Theaters muß anstreben: Einfachheit im
Ausdruck und Aufbau, klare eindeutige Wirkung auf das Elmpfinden des
Arbeiterpublikums, Unterordnung jeder künstlerischen Absicht dem re-
volutionären Ziel : bewußte Betonung und Propagierung des Klassen- ^
kampfgedankens^^

Das proletarische Theater will der revolutionären Bewegung dienstbar
sein und ist daher den revolutionären Arbeitern verpflichtet. Ein aus
ihrer Mitte gewählter Ausschuß soll die Verwirklichung der kulturellen
und propagandistischen Aufgaben verbürgen.

Es wird nicht immer nötig sein, die Tendenz des Autors an erste Stelle zu
setzenj^Im Gegenteil: sobald erst Publikum und Theater im L.aufe der
Zusammenarbeit den gemeinsamen Willen zur revolutionären Kultur
gefaßt haben, wird fast jedes bürgerliche Stück, sei es, daß darin der Ver-
fall der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft zum Ausdruck kommt, sei es, daß das
kapitalistische Prinzip besonders deutlich und erkennbar wird, dazu die-
nen können, den Klassenkampfgedanken zu stärken, die revolutionäre
Eünsicht in die historischen Notwendigkeiten zu vertiefenjSolche Stücke
würden zweckmäßig durch ein Referat eingeleitet, damit Mißverständ-
nisse und falsche Wirkung unmöglich gemacht werden. Unter Umstän-
den kann man an den Stücken auch Veränderungen vornehmen (der
77 Personenkult des Künstlers, der damit verletzt wird, ist ja konservativ)

I

il

ii

i '

*

1

Tjr^- -^

^nimm.

■M

S^^?-

ittiAäKU^Aiitmitmtf.

4

i

^wp"

V

durch Streichungen, Verstärkungen gewisser Stellen, eventuell durch
Hinzufügung eines Vor- und Nachspiels, das dem Ganzen zur Eindeutig-
keit verhilft. Auf diese Weise kann ein großer Teil der Weltliteratur der
revolutionären proletarischen Sache dienstbar gemacht werden, ebenso ,
wie die gesamte Weltgeschichte zur politischen Propagierung des Klas-
senkampfgedankens benutzt wurde. '
Tüer Stil, welchen sowohl die Schauspieler wie Autor und Regisseur be-
herrschen sollen, muß völlig konkreter Natur sein (etwa ähnlich dem Stile
eines Leninschen oder~Tschitscherinschen Manifestes, der in seinem ein-
, fachen, ruhigen Fluß, in seiner unverkennbaren Eindeutigkeit schon rein
* gefühlsmäßig eine große Wirkung auslösQ/Was immer^esagt wird, muB
ungesucht, unexperimentell, nicht „expressionistisch", unyerkranapft ge-
'iügf werdenllEiiümnälxQrOin revolutionären
ZweSwidJVVillen. Damit sind all die neu-romantischen, expressionisti-
scEenund dergleichen Stilarten und Probleme, welche aus dem indivi-
' duell-anarchistisdien Bedürfnis der bürgeriichen Künstler hervorgingen,
von vornherein ausgeschaltet^

Natüriich soll nicht versäumt werden, die neuen technischen und stilisti-
schen Möglichkeiten der letzten Kunstepochen zur Anwendung zu brin-
gen, soweit damit den genannten Zielen, nicht aber irgendeinem „kunst-
revolulionären" stilistischen Selbstzweck gedient wird. In allen Stilfragen
muß stets die maßgebende Frage sein: Wird der riesige Kreis der prole-
tarischen Zuhörerschaft Nutzen daraus ziehen oder gelangweilt bzw. von
bürgerlichen Ideen verwirrt und infiziert?

Prüfen wir unter diesen Gesichtspunkten die letzten KunstepoAcn! Ge-
messen an der Dringlidikeit des Elriebens der Gegenwart ersdieinen die
Produkte des J^qturaUsnmiJwie schlechte photographische Bilder, von
bürgeriichen Amateuren wahllos aufgenommen, wie wenn man mit einem
Scheinwerfer aus dem nächtlichen Dunkel irgendeinen Baum oder Kirch-
turm herausholt und dann weiterhuscht und nichts hinteriäßt als noch
tiefere Dunkelheit. Da gibt es Milieuschilderungen. Aber keineriei Ver-
suche der soaalen Erkenntnis und Wertung, nirgends eine Abrechnung,
eine Barrikade zwischen Proletariern und Bürgei-njMan vermeidet eine
nüchterne Auseinandersetzung mit den PauschalbegrifTen Leben und
Schicksal; wenn überhaupt zum Angriff übergegangen wird, so nur auf
den Gebieten des Jenseitigen, des Ideellen, Gefühlsmäßigen, der PsyAo-
logie und Philosophie; dabei kann sich jeder und keiner getroffen füh-
len. Natüriich fühlt sich keiner. Der kritisdie Geist findet somit eine Platt-
form vor, auf der er harmlos und ungefähriich ist Dieser „Kampf der
Kulturgeister" spielt sich im blauen Dunst um - nichts und abermals
nichu ab. Dieses KunstJeben ist demoralisierender und entnervender als
irgendein Hasardspiel. (Es ist kein Zufall, daß gerade die kraftlosesten,
unUtigslen und sozial wertlosesten Schichten das Gros des kunstlieben- 71

r

^,^ «« aA0 u» l>»mr"» <*<^ Kufe

»i^li %-«Tt>ünfrHKhl •♦!.

|V%» IWurtrilunf 6f .Natufmlxi

^ Farbm. Lin'im, G<|Pp«uu«

ffrf» kmnxrichnm dw in die Ui

d^ M<h an die RoAwhöOe d«

anrnhanff mil der fortgcsthnlit

OK die BÄnkicn waren MmUt

^»Ardm, wicsiewoUlcn. „Rr\

u^trti »ip. lüfteten ein wemg «

a^rlnd auf dm didtenSaA. J!

DmU UAl!" Und damit ßmi«

|)»dn, obwohl erkennend, woi

«r«. Die bünfcriidic Kullar %

irantp Kunsllcben wird zur U>i

dir Form ftllcin kann aber m.

•ir dnrujr wn«* ^^ *'*^''^ *^*'
hrutr,avULXcaluioadc-»ön.

He\^lutionäre Kuna kann «•

tionftren ArbeitcT»<hafL Sit^ v

bildet wurde von drr Rrnmi»

drm ridklaren Willm der M

icr bedingt, daß «o «ch im

Cfrien wie politisch und *i

f liicen Befreiung muß mi: »i«

niitisdi tein.

Dem prolelariMhen Theater <

die eine bezieht tidi AuwuL

Traditionen bricht und r»»«

den übrigen lechniuh und s

MT Getamtheit und de« K"

ebenbürtige« VerhiUntt. n.

ven Arbeitswillen uh^ÜL l.

»djautpiclef- enlbehrrn W-i

die Üar^leller gewinol. U»^

pft>lelari%ch«« Theater erfv

Vertiefung de« komm««*.»:

n aia^lmehrSaaHJetoctlk'^

.<»j

W9^.

I'^itwjf Slrllcn, eventuell durdi

. liai drm Ganzen zur Eindeutig-

fTotkr Teil der Weltliteratur der

•n«ibar gemacht werden, ebenso

{.iü*chen Propagierung des Klas-

irr wie Autor und Regisseur be-

atur $e'm (etwa ähnlich dem Stile

•n Manifestes, der in seinem ein-

:inbaren Eindeutigkeit sdion rein

a). Was immer gesagt wird, muß

Ir^sronistisdi", unverkrampft ge-

j .%,jQnverhüllten revolutionären

|jru-romantischen, expressionisti-

ibleme, welche aus dem indivi-

-Tflichen Künstler hervorgingen,

e neuen technischen und stilisti-
r/odien zur Anwendung zu brin-
. nicht aber irgendeinem „kunst-

?edient wird. In allen Stilfragen
vVird der riesige Kreis der prole-

rhen oder gelangweilt bzw. von

t?

|a die letzten Kunstepochen! Ge-

tjs der Gegenwart erscheinen die ,

»ir pholographische Bilder, von

ommen, wie wenn man mit einem

W irgendeinen Baum oder Kirch-

t und nichts hinterläßt als noch

i.'Iderungen. Aber keinerlei Ver-

tunjr, nirgends eine Abrechnung,

td Bürgern. Man vermeidet eine

I» PauschalbegrilTen Leben und

I übergegangen wird, so nur^auf

n. Gefühlsmäßigen, der Psydio-

jcder und keiner getroffen füh-

«J>c Geist findet somit einePlatt-

fähriich ist Dieser „Kampf der

-nn lim — nidits und abermals

zierender und entnervender als

li. daß gerade die kraftlosesten,

^len das Gros des kunstlieben- 78

.1

*

4 -

m ifc -IlTI V.

t

^4A....,i..^.>.^^..^^fc^^v^- ..^.^

lÜ

timm^mmmmmm

den und -verständigen Publikums ausmachen.) Diese Tatsachen sind in-
dessen höchst beachtenswert, weil damals noch jene dekadenten Kreise
dem gesünderen Teil des Volkes, dem Proletariat, maßgeblich erschie-
nen, so daß in Dingen der Kunst fast das gesamte Proletariat naturali-
stisch verbürgerlicht ist.

/ Diese Beurteilung des Naturalismus gilt in verstärktem Maße vom Ex-
pressionismus.

Symbolische Verschwommenheit, absichtlich wahlloses Nebeneinander
von Farben, Linien, Gegenständen, Verzerrungen, Worten und Begrif-
fen kennzeichnen das in die Ecke gedrängte Seelenleben von Menschen,
die sich an die Rockschöße des Kapitals klammerten und so den Zusam-
menhang mit der fortgeschrittensten Klasse, dem Proletariat, verloren.
Oh, die Bankiers waren Meister ihrer Epoche: sie ließen diese Leute sidi
gebärden, wie sie wollten. „Revolutionär in den Farben? !" „Wenn schon",
sagten sie, lüfteten ein wenig den Chapeau claque und klopften sich lä-
dielnd auf den dicken Sack. „Revolutionär in Worten!" Wer lacht da?
Dada lacht!* Und damit findet die Harlekinade ihre Vollendung. Doch
Dada, obwohl erkennend, wohin entwurzelte Kunst führt, ist kein Aus^
weg. Die bürgerliche Kultur vermag keine Inhalte mehr zu geben. Das
ganze Kunstleben wird zur formalen Angelegenheit. Die „Form" ist alles;.
die Fonn^llein kann aber niemals revolutionär sein. Der Inhalt macht
sie dazu ~ und der Inhalt der im Bürgertum verankerten Kunst kann
heutejijyLC.eiiijt.i.Qria*Lsein.

Revolutionäre Kunst kann nur hervorgehen aus dem Geist der revolu-
tionären Arbeiterschaft. Sie wird das Werk sein eines Charakters, der ge-
bildet wurde von der gemeinsamen Arbeit, dem selbstlosen Kampf und
dem zielklaren Willen der Massen. Der Selbsterhaltungstrieb der Arbei-
ter bedingt, daß sie sich im selben Maße künstlerisch und kulturell be-
freien wie politisch und ökonomisch. Und auch die Tendenz dieser gei-
stigen Befreiung muß mit der materiellen übereinstimmend kommuni-
nistisch sein.

Dem proletarischen Theater erwachsen somit zwei prinzipielle Aufgaben:
die eine bezieht sich darauf, daß es als Betrieb mit den kapitalistischen
Traditionen bricht und zwischen Leitung, Darstellern, Dekorateuren, all
den übrigen technisch und geschäftlich Angestellten sowie zwisdien die-
ser Gesamtheit und den Konsumenten (d. h. den Theaterbesuchern) ein
ebenbürtiges Verhältnis, ein gemeinsames Interesse und einen kollekti-
ven Arbeitswillen schafft. Es wird allmählich den bürgerlichen „Berufs-
schauspieler" entbehren können, indem es aus der Mitte der Zuschauer
die Darsteller gewinnt Diese hören auf, Dilettanten zu sein, denn das
proletarische Theater erfüllt ja als erste Aufgabe die Propagierung und
Vertiefung des kommunistischen Gedankens, und das kann natürlidi

79 nicht mehr Sache eines Berufes sein, sondern das Streben einer Gemein-

r f- ~m -^

^Tyv^iPJ"*-^

"Hl. jimvutmiß(»w*vm

^»v'.f;W3C;*:rf^|^^'4> ' "*> Jn/rtta/^.^

I ' wy

i

*H*üsi%«t.

■**»'•**■.*«».

■■^,w

rmm liTfruniiMwi

•L

der Regisseur, gleichzeitig auch Organisator der Gruppe, seine Haupt-
aufmerksamkeit auf die neuen theatralischen Formen, auf die Maschini-
sierung der Bewegung, auf die Klarheit der Geste legen soll, daß der
Schauspieler-Arbeiter auf verschiedensten Gd^ieten (Deklamation, Ge-
sang, Physkultur, Tanz usw.) ein Meister sein soll und daß eine jede
Aufführung mit womöglich vielartigen Nummern zu versorgen ist, wie
kleine Szenen, Massendeklamationen, Einzelvorträgc, Märsche usw^
dann haben wir, so scheint es, alles Wesentlidie berührt
Die Blaue Bluse ist in der Sowjetunion nicht nur ein wichtiger Kunst-,
sondern auch ein gewaltiger politischer Faktor. Sie ist mit ihrer satiri-
schen Szene unser „Gewissen" geworden, das die einzelnen Auswüchse,
Fehler und Übel des Sowjetapparates erbarmungslos geißelt, das die
Wünsche, das Leben der werktätigen Massen demonstriert und die den
heldenhaften Kampf der westlichen und östlichen Genossen wie über-
haupt die wichtigsten Momente des hiesigen wie des westlich-östlichen
Lebens vor die Augen der großen Massen führt.

Die Rote Fahne, 21. 11, 1926,

Die »Blaue Bluse*

/ /^ ^C^^

Ein Sowjet-Theater im kleinen

Pathos I Humor / Satire / Lyrik J Schwank / Sketdi / Revue

Schnadahüpfl u. a. . . ' .

Programm mit Erklärung

n

1. Vorspiel: ,
Parade-Marsch, Aufzug der Teilnehmer der „Blauen Bluse". Das Audi-
torium wird mit der Organisation der „Blauen Bluse" bekannt ge-
macht

2. Parade der Sowjet-Presse:

Aufzug der zentralen Zeitungen der UdSSR in Kostümen römisAer
Gladiatoren. Auf den Plakaten sind Aufschriften und Inschriften der
Zeitungen. Die ganze Nummer zerfällt in zwei Teile. Der erste Teil ist
cufgebaut aus schönen bunten Figuren auf bunten Sdiildem. Jede Zei-
tung wird dem Publikum vorgeführt. Die Worte und der Gesang wer-
den durch Turnbewegungen illustriert, durch den Bau einer Druckma-
schine, einer Setzergasse, die Arbeit der Setzer, durch das Broschüren
usw. Die Schlußtruppe bildet einen Wagen der römischen Gladiatoren.

3. Ein Vorfall in China (Sketch):

Bei dem Kaufmann Natsc^achai lebt die Waise Sun- Yang. Ein Kuli, ein

Ainosischer Kutsdier, liebt Sun-Yang. ii

uch Sun-Yang zur Frau kaufen. Der ll

dem Mandarin geben, aber letzterer b(

die&e Abmachung auszuführen, da er ii

Der Kttli und Sun-Yang beschließen zu ;

dwi trifft sie beim Streit mit dem Kuli ui

sukonimcnden Mandarin.

lUn, Kuli droht der Tod, aber die Arbeil

zu gehorchen.

4. Tu raen (Attraktion) :

tJne Nummer, welche die Ideen der Leil

«ekord im Sport, Tanzen und Boxen pr

.Nforaentesind Barren, Bewegungen der

Prrsse, Scliwungrad usw^

^' E2I1H5^ ^^^ (Sketdi)

Die Nummer führt den amerikanisdien i
Khäftsumgebung vor, mit den uneriäßlich

(Uanic, dem Empfang^der Korrespondent
Nachndil von dem teilweise eingeführten
und Werken der UdSSR. Nadiher wird]
Attraktion der~sldi bewegende Mecfaanii
•tange. Pumpen, Kolben usw. vorgeführt
6. Zehn Jahre Oktol)er:
Pathos des zehnjährigen Oktober. Die Et,
Dor ökonomisdie und kulturelle Bau der l
'• Die Rote Armee:

Fj we*^ die militärisdien Übungen der li,
Mnsdimeogewehre, der Artillerie und der
der Rokmien. Losung: „Krieg woUen wir
»md wir bereit"

^ IAH (lolemationale Arbeiterhilfe) : i

'«•Tätigkeit der Internationalen Arbeitcrfi
•nd Plakate. '

^ Jarz-Band:

Von-^ Qualität der Erzeugnisse: ein Lfih.
««d \orführungen. Thema: Der Kampf um d
•» der UdSSR. - ■

I ^. tur eme neue Lebensweise:
^owj^.D^ Verbrüderung von Sladt «nd i
«»*^«? Aussiditen, neue Einflüsse. Lustige Nu

f^niunzcn. 1

tn I ' ^"^^^^om (Sitzung der Volkskommi^^J
""*" ^»^"ndiiche Parodie der VoIkskonHni5>.i

W^yWfc'^"

-mt

'^i'^mmmmmmmmBm^

. ;_;■ «:,%«,•■;

.•<H,»si..

;,>jijgyj^y|^lJ2^]

1«

!
i

i

9

zugen der GenossensAaft überzeugt usw. All das reißt in> AAeiterklub
der Fabnk, im Komsomol des Dorfes elementarer mit sich fort
Das westeuropäisdie Gastspiel der „Blauen Blusen" kann nur Alh^
meme. ze.gen im Programm. Es kann bei aUer Großarügkeit, die Z

S-ttZuar- ''" ''-'' "" ^''^'^^- ^-•«'-
Das aber, was wir sahen, reichte trotzdem hin, nicht nur ein viertägigem
wtotre^'" «"«trmonatiges Gastspiel vor der Berliner Arbeitei^Aaft I^

Die Rote Fahne, 9. 10. 19Sr.

C

Wilhelm Pieck
■Blaue Blusen*

Id. sah sie be. ihrem ersten Auftreten in Berlin. Leider spät in derNadhU
abgespannt von der Tagesarbeit Trotzdem reißt das Tempo, die Disiil
pim und der Elfer, mit dem die Truppe ihre Arbeit vemAtet. alle Mö-
digkeit weg. Und obgleich die große Masse der Zuschauer die Spradbe
der „Blauen Bluse" nicht versteht machen doch die Gesten, Bewegungen
und der Tonfall ihr Wollen verständlich. Es ist unsere Sadie, *^
propagieren. Das bringt aud, sofort zwisdien „Blaue Bluse" und de»
Arbeitern den engsten Kontakt der trotz des zwisAen ihnen sitzende«
burgerhdien Premierenpublikums und des als Dolmetsdier fungieren-
den burgerhdien Conferencier, immer inniger wird und zuletzt in dem
gememsamen Gesang der „Inlemationale" seinen höchsten AusdruA

Dieser Konukt war selbstverständlidi nod, viel sUrker an der am Sonn.
Ugnadimiltag von der IAH getroffenen Veranstaltung, weü sie nur vo»
Arbeitern besucht war.

Die Darbietungen dieser Truppe sind beste Propaganda, sie gehen un-
mutelbar aus dem Üben der Arbeiter hervor und dienen der Propagie-
rung unserer Ideen und der Erziehung der Massen zum Kampf. Hoffent-
hch haben die U.iter der Berliner darstellenden Propagandatrupps oder.
was noA besser wäre, alle ih,^ Mitglieder die Gelegenheit wahrgenom-
men sich die Arbeit der „Blauen Bluse" anzusehen, nicht um medianisA
zu übernehmen, sondern daraus zu lernen. Kollektives Zusammenwii^
ken zur Durchführung der propagandisüschen Idee, Unterordnung jedf*
einzelnen unter die gestellte Aufgabe, Einfachheit in der Darstellung und t

.;^:

*r^»»» <»«<f^ fcV»^ iW^iIrtituni

W *«««# ilifick

9»ttk Oitipitl 6*r •Blauen

v^,*n Unpe vor dem fcstg« „
?.». i»t*SnaI. Unter der dirhl
*4. Ä \rrrlnzrhe Bui^geriiche. [
> *r»r..tj!iiing gelrieben hiii«,
'•^ i't rincr Darbietung der
'»».^i^,!rn vorgefahren kamen.
t-K'Ji tlcT Bourgeoisie an dii
K*'tMr mit lächelnder Geougti
tVrt*n, wo man nur Naditvo?
•«^tn größtenteils bürgeriirfi
- fc iiiVr, wo die gewaltige A
^ »:in:rm5ß ganz anders in ihl
*^' Mnnps technisdics Mißgrl
>-*''«i*-nühnewardenrevoluti|
'^'^TdtT „Blauen Blusen^ oH
'•**' »l-r fehlende Vorfiang dt.-
' -- h. Im Gegenteil: Gerade dl

ei

^ -•'imem. die nun folgten, n.
^-••Ji den Kontakt zwudien der
^'«n vci^aß die Gipsatlrappe
^^•''le so an, als wäre man im
•'y^'Irtcn untereinander und in
"^ "nd Gesängen, ihren Tänze
^*" "nd den gemeinsamen Kam
* "-»osse Fleischmann von der 1
; - (Bedeutung der IAH und ü_
=• ^*«n", mit dem die IAH die :

»"•^r^-.^

S^ifÄW^i^-

--'■'■- -]-frrr' ^^ • ''mritli'llliii.^:^

^

mmimiiimäm^MMmmiämi^^

|»r^anisalor der Gruppe, seine Haupt-
Liralis<iien Formen, auf die Maschini-
Llnrheit der Geste legen soll, daß der
Liensten Gebieten (Deklamation, Ge-
h Meister sein soll und daß eine jede
rigen Nummern zu versorgen ist, wie
Jonen, Einzelvorträge, Märsche usw.,
|cs Wesentliche berührt
Itunion nicht nur ein wichtiger Kunst-,
tisdicr Faktor. Sie ist mit ihrer satiri-
k oiden, das die einzelnen Auswüchse,
nrales erbarmungslos geißelt, das die
igen Massen demonstriert und die den
Ken und östlichen Genossen wie über-
des hiesigen wie des westlich-östlichen
In Massen führt

Die Rote Fahne, 21. 11. 1926.

)diwank I Sketch / Revue

behmer der „Blauen Bluse". Das Audi-
ition der „Blauen Bluse" bekannt ge-
rn der UdSSR in Kostümen römischer
1 sind Aufschriften und Insdmften der
• zerfallt in zwei Teile. Der erste Teil ist
Figuren auf bunten Schildern. Jede Zei-
ceführt. Die Worte und der Gesang wer-
lustriert, durch den Bau einer Druckma-
\rbeit der SeUer, durch das Broschüren
nen Wagen der römischen Gladiatoren.

ai lebt die Waise Sun-Yang. Ein KuU, em 226

Ainesisdier Kutscher, liebt Sun-Yang. Der Mandarin Na Pljunj-tete will
sidi Sun-Yang zur Frau kaufen. Der Kaufmann will Sun-Yang nicht
dem Mandarin geben, aber letzterer bestimmt ihn durch seine Macht,
diese Abmachung auszuführen, da er ihm sonst mit dem Tode droht.
Der Kuli und Sun-Yang beschließen zu fliehen. Der Kaufmann Natschn-
diai trifft sie beim Streit mit dem Kuli und schlägt aus Versehen den hin-
zukommenden Mandarin.

Dem Kuli droht der Tod, aber die Arbeiter weigern sich, dem Mandarin
zu gehorchen.

4. Turnen (Attraktion) :

Eine Nummer, welche die Ideen der Leibesübungen propagiert und den
Rekord im Sport, Tanzen und Boxen parodiert. Die demonstrierenden
Momente sind Barren, Bewegungen der Maschinen, Spirale, Uhr, Walze,
Presse, Schwungrad usw.

5. Fordund wir (Sketch) :

Die Nummer führt den amerikanischen Milliardär. Ford-in seiner Ge-
schäftsumgebung vor, mit den unerläßlichen Attributen: Sekretären, Re-
klame, dem Empfang. der Korrespondenten. Ford erhält per Radio die
Nachricht von dem teilweise eingeführten Fordismus in den Fabriken
und Werken der UdSSR. Nachher wird in einer tum-akrobatisdien
Attraktion der'sTch bewegende Mechanismus der Maschinen: Trieb-
stange, Pumpen, Kolben usw. vorgeführt

6. Zehn Jahre Oktober:

Pathos des zehnjährigen Oktober. Die Errungenschaften der UdSSR.
Der ökonomische und kulturelle Bau der UdSSR.

7. Die Rote Armee:

Es werden die militärisdien Übungen der Infanterie, der Kavallerie, der
MasSinengewehre, der Artillerie und der Flotte vorgeführt. Gesänge
der Rekruten. Losung: „Krieg wollen wir nicht, aber zur Verteidigung
sind wir bereit"

8. IAH (Internationale Arbeiterhilfe) :

Die Tätigkeit der Internationalen Arbeiterhilfe seit 5 Jahren, Losungen
und Plakate.

9. Jazz-Band:

Von""3w Qualität der Erzeugnisse: ein Lärmorcheste?, Couplets, Gesang ^ ^
und Vorführungen. Thema : Der Kampf um die Qualität der Erzeugnisse - ^
in der UdSSR.

10. Für eine neue Lebensweise:

rSo\<Tel-Dorf. Verbrüderung von Stadt und Land. Neue Lebensweise,
neue Aussichten, neue Einflüsse. Lustige Nummer mit Volks- und Rei-
^ gentänzen. "

11. Sownarkom (Sitzung der Volkskommissare):

227 Eine freundliche Parodie der Volkskommissare der UdSSR.

•snnRMwnHPK^^ivw^iPW

m^mfmmmmmnum^'ff'mmm

%

<'

'' ^— '"J"'' '■ji'iil'iii'" -fcV;

■;»v;:jrv..v;;V«^.': ,^,;- < -^^f^J ■

des russischen Dorfes

e Dorf nicht im her-

[Vlushiks und Babas

"1 Bastschuhen vor-

l'uen Rußland giJt es

^Industrie des Tula-
tchen Übungen und

^ »Blauen Bluse".

'•^^ wer sie sind,
P'i>rauste um Mit-
'^ ^er ersten Vor- 226

r

tß- .

«dlung Arbeiter Inlellektuelle. dann die Premierenliger, die Promi-
nenten der guten bürgerlichen Gesellschaft

Kein TeU aus dieser Zuschauergruppierung und -Vermischung aber, da
unten .m Parkett, auf den Rängen, in den Logen, brachte es fertig, für
»ich mit semer Zustimmung zurückzuhalten.
• Die Arbeiter erregte die Klassenverbundenheit, es war i/.re Truppe, ihr
Wesen da vom auf der Bühne. Die sympathisierenden Intellektuellen
waren e^teunt über das „Neue", das „Frische", das „Ursprüngliche".
Das Rußland der Arbeiter und Bauern forderte ihre stürmische Zustim-
mung heraus künsUerisch und in der Sache. Sowjetrußland rüdcte in
Sekunden nah für sie. ganz nahe. Alle Nebel und Verleumdungswände
wurden eingerissen. Da stand das Temperament und die Kraft, die
P6erz«ug„„g und der Wille des ersten Arbeiter-und-Bauem-Suates der

Und die Premierentiger, die Geistreichen, die von der„Kultur des Abend-
landes Obersättigten, sie kamen eben aus dem Renaissance-Theater
von dem Spiel der italienischen Düse", der Gramatica, oder von der
Justizkomodie des Engländers Galsworthy im Künstler-Theater nicht
gerade aufgewühlt von den Problemen ihrer büi^erlichen Gesellschaft.
Be. den „Blauen Blusen" holten sie sich Respekt vor der „Naivität" (Wie
sie den Klassenwillen des arbeitenden Volkes „künstlerisA" umsdirei-
ben.) Hier gab es nichts Totes, nichts überfeinertes oder Auswegloses.
Stumm oder laut anerkennend folgten die Repräsentanten der Gesell-
schaft von gestern dem hellen Beginn, dem Aufbranden, dem Fackeln
und Lodern einer neuen Gesellschaft. Zwölf Menschen mit ihrer ein-
fadien Darstellung vom auf der Bühne zwangen in ihren Bann.
Wir «Hebten Kritik und Humor. Sati,^ und Ernst in knappen Zeich-
nungen, in Bildem, wie sie im Kampf um den wirtschaftlichen Aufbau
■ um den neuen Menschen Sowjetrußlands täglich geboren werden. Viel-
H. R ! u'*a° t' '° ''"" ""'"«"»»^'iB^n Milieu nicht so intensiv wie
der Betneb, die Rote Fabrik, von der die „Blusen" „erfunden" waren
Uas Programm, bei aller Durchschlagskraft, bei aller Gewalt in der kol-
lektiven Hingebung der Darstellung, bei allem Neuen, hatte doch nicht
die U^prunglichkeit von „Ort und SteUe". Programm und Darstellung
der „Blauen Blusen" wird aus den Bedürfnissen der unmUlelbaren Um-
gebung geboren.

S Tl f "^ "*"'" ^°"'^" ^''''' °^" '^'■<*^''' «i^" «^^8 Kranken in der
2 , • ^1 -T". " "" *"' politischen Folgen des Trotzkismus kriü-
siert und kankiert oder den letzten und neuesten Beschluß des „Rats
der Volkskommissare" von der Wirtschaftsfront in der Kritik populär
mach,, wie man auf die originellste Art von derWeltden rückständigsten

ö» S.;!™, TT l"^"^ "'' '"'"' *"" Trunksucht bekämpft oder die
=» schimpfende Moskauer oder Charkower Kleinbürgerin von den Vot^

*1' I

'S

i\

An ",, "^dealism of the human essence" which is bane of scientific
^''arxism is the starting point of dialectic, revolutionär^ theory.
Thus Process a totality, not merely economics« Lukacz; Theory
2£_khe^Novel( I9I6,) wholeness of ^reek and mediaval culture
( everywere at hime in the world -Novalis) and the fragmentation
of late bourgeois culture. fragmentation means " reification" ,

i^e.

TT f-n

rhingification" - human life becomes like a thing and

/

l^Ati^

t < .

\

12

for the Oommunists especially that meant arriTing- at a

" <i«_^^oi"^^". Brecher •s_critique uppn Toller's " Hopla wir Leben":
( 1927) were the_protaeonist, a worker, hangs himself in deaperation
from the fight against opportunism, treason to workers etc. The
dramas^^tre Piece; " revolutionary impatience of a worker, imprisoned
since I9I9 with Kapitalist rationalisation. i< l^^uj^^Jt^'" ^'^"^
Coimnamist critique: Toll^reached a deadjoint - c^^T^Tbreack
through to Proletarian f i^t but relaps^s 7nto_de^air. You-^a^^i^

but pulnüa up-TOie-^#^e clifficul±ies^£,J:he-^tellec-

it—oTL-lßaEa

l4Jiiil«-e39r-the

moveraeut hum uia^y been

the great difficiaty in modern socialisnio

Lion PeuchiTvranger : Wendt (1920): sujns upV revolutionary " I wanted to
fight against ideas but I always came up against men"* I believed that
revolution would mean true humanity for inan, "but now I 3fe«3ft4 find that
they vjant to drag rae doTm to their animal levell'O IE refuses to sign ~
Order for execution, punishes those rev. who have tortured Torisoners
and crowd tiorns^against him» Brecht 's " Han the measure" tmuoj. ^around^

I2&

^^o get sooialism you must have an ideal worked out: constantly

before your mind - indeed primary^ Not only gives hope out also

prevents chaos, bogging doirn into tactios*

: Alfred Doeblin ( I93I): V/e must operLl.y divorce
sooialism from class strugglej, to restore socialism as Utopia:

freedom^spontaneous association of people» rejection of all
force, Indignation against in justice, Hnmanitarianism, toleranc<
nd pacif isi]vr^ lF~Zi7~Tj 7

-^^r-^--^ ^^ C^^^i^^ ;^^v^

Ilovrever, Bloc^-^es not go so far as tlais socialist, of the heart»

K>Ll/CH\ I'iarzism is hope ojid reason - eason: true I^Iarxisn is the realisation
of huinanity, and class struggle ( in which he believes) is only a

means for the furtherance of the vision of humanity- -^'^eason

cannot flÄurish without hope« There is then a dialectic irhich
in iiegelian fashoin is inspired by a vision: a Marxist Utopia:"

a Vision which is the notivating factöri ~

Ilis FnilosopTiy of Hope ( ^rinsip der üoffnimg) irritten in exile

in the UGA 1338 -1947 is really a cultural history centred around

mans dreaia: the longing to travel ( after 1865, first travel agency)
the happy end etc» 3ut all dreams fragnented by capitalism as against

the true dreaji of a ^^arxist .^uiianism» V/ishes are the preconditions

of our abilities« The 2 volunies are well worth reading and ( at

least in the UBA rediscovering)«

ir^^i^}

13

_crime lack of noney). I'lalia^omiy also criticises vices of the

jw;orking classes as he does later in Kother Goirrgge, There is
Brecht no more then in i^loch the glorification of the workers
( trouble in DDR) and then "^recht^s pacifism also dif iciat to

reconcile ifith class struggle ( Korean war at work at an anti war

opera: lucullus - created row in DDR).

- SckC. .. „ ._ ___ _

Inspite of the " epic theatre'* there is here to an essential

h-umanism whiQh-dQfQfi±g^_thfi " p.ln<^c; ^n-hi-^m-h-in-p" (
Mothror Qoi;.race)* 3xe

of

«^■»-^,.^ ,.A

but S tanislavöki
)uilt

•^-i o?^al ^^i^e —

"^m^'-'if^^l ap in DM';*

- pleceswETch

orbegim party rneetings. /Then " workers cxatiiral associatiön".
how to avoid nättTralism/ mere milieu plays - descriptive."

Idea to build pla3rs around positive ^theories oT ixarxism. \/ritten
[ ^^ / ^^^ /■ y^/

DJ intellectLia.ls öuf also oy talented workers thenselv
• / 7^ /^

ife. play about

1

swrplus valuQ of laboio:' (.^really oriLY

cmversation

between intelligent worker and his emjployer). Por/R^/formation Svmday
-a worker ^ites a pl^' bout^ Hütten as a/:ainst /superstitions, the

t^

^

ci:.aupion of the peasants* Brecht took up this tradition

ro^digcoverea axid edxted üy DjjxO für~1i±ir-^nQw theati^e'U Avoid r

^ < rTH tny^liou oiid üUüJuuLlvlum. .;uL lii i^eality ue d06s not oring this

i.

"■^■■^■"^■••^^tO^

iXK^^

^^

PSr these intellectuals, trying to form a Harxist Eult-ure, the

<^6

vrH* ^««^ attenpt tobreack through rigiditi^ of the dialectic were of prime
^ Import ance» Always piill towards HT^iiiianism.

r^r '^

^^^tf/f- >^ But there was also a more rigid group ainong intellectiials# This

14^ , . //.c^"^^^^ ""^

seeks to get at the problehV^y einphasising the fact that

all creativity rmst oome froi the working olasses, the nin contami-
nated part of the existing order - and the one to which the future

belongs. Emphasis upon the " simple", the " genuine". But above

all, the attempt to äetrid of idealism: art is a social product

and so it beauty. How coine? Ghristopher Oaudwll ( Studios in a
'Djlng Culture; Further Studios in dying Culture - all in I950ties)

gives an argunient quite opriosite to the kind of Marxist Ciature \Te

have considered up to this time. IIea?e- Triesto give culture a

sec-ure anchor in materialism»

Ilan himself is a social product ( product of social forcesT^andso
his whole r^ocess of Cognition must be a product of "social forces
-alsov Beauty is not abt3*ct, but the Imöwledge ofones seif as part
of other selves in a real irorld: reflects the richness of mans

social interrelat ionships . Tnithis the knoirledge of the HaviiTLonment

as the Container for the development of social relat ionships*

becaTise truth and beauty are within the social interrelationships

of man, they are determined by the labour process - ie action. If

truth and beauty becone things in themselves, they seize to exist.

They are aspects of the " rieh and com^lex flow of reality". Uo.
" Utopia " here.

;ecaiise the bourgois no longer can act, have rejected meaningful

social relationships , they can have no aesthetic - are indeed a

^* dying culture". Caudwell invweighs also against the stress upon
will" ( ICantians) - rather the sähred goal must be the realisation

~ ■ — ■ — ■ w ■ .t

of " neccessity" of one 's own nature and external reality: the two

cannot be divorced.

/'T^ 5'<^'«A ^•■^y

._I5.

,Tq^i7hat does that lead? To

>rfirybt*R " Man tha Irloaeure"

has ovortonea o£ -thia tlioory oavod hpü

iAyiMd by ürechts

example: Anna S^ghers: The Decision (1959)

Three persons die, why? They are not guilty according to reason.

The trouble is that they follow their own reason and do not triist

blindly to the party which gives the right direction to the class
strugf<le* Thus they get themselves into the wrong direction. And

— - — — — ■" -- - - - .....

beoause of that they are striken - all due to individiialism, to

" abstract" ideas not related toi^realities ( v;hich the/ party

■ %■■ II I ■■ I ■ ■■!> ^ .

sees correctly): a woaan falls in love vrith a man who is not

a party rnember^ and vrho corrupts her, Another tries to live his
oim " private" life and a third doubts the legality of the party ȴ
" secret '» policy. iill have a guilt~^;;^~not that merely of Tgnoring "

taotics ( > Brc cht ) but the party. '

amntrnnt thln inth Malraevijg ^' I'Ians Palu" aUack on 'j/olj°-olin.- f or —
tJegiiefslfevolution is no " moral poetrv''. — — -

S'^om 1934 to 1945 the Gonimimist party itself tried to loosen such

and approach in time vrith the era of the Populär Front: Social

Realism. Many approaches to reality, against schematisation^

*»><►■ ««ffc^i

_against undue stress on the party - for the restoration of indi-_
vidualism. Lukacz in the lead here* 1935 Brüssels*' KPD Congress!_

_- totality of Society is what counts, and individualism a part of it

^»- — ^, _

as are ethical considerations. V/as always opposed by some, and

_ proved no more then a phase. LuJcasc revised his later i/orks in
__ ttme with_ orthodosy to which Communism returned: idea of art as

a " social product'\

16,

f

f

VT

Pr oblei^ of the int ellectuals y^jid the masses, for orthodox

- /7

^-^^-r ®^^'^"^'^^l^y solved through the party: here was the mechanism, Vthe
\r ^^v-'X " proletariate" itself. Iig^ Man thfi J-ieaRiir^e, jiut most intell*

uneasy in this kind of linicage, DeSire for more direct contact -
leadership a lajy.sner, Ideal of masses filled with reason and

vT

revolutiona2:»y consciousness ( Barbusse): but masses lacked this

7

;ies

(h^A^^%^^ conscicuously, had derserted liJisner etc. lioweverm pol. parti

fU^T*-"^ also rejected as approach. (^ H^J \ "~~

^4^'^ — " ^

i^^J^''^' I"fc s eems clear that these intellectuals coiad not find their way to

w

the masses, that this was olocked for them. Thought of breäck "
through increasingly inV^cultural termsYRayönond T/illiams, Culture

alod Society iV cul tur e mus t be reappr OTPriat ed from the iiiour,^<eois

'.i-ti^y:^

who use it as waepon and become Community culture once more, The

intellectuals rolle is the formation of such a common culture. But —

r"^ — --m inii|](

he is vague: idea is really to attach general culti^ral values to

the wwrking class fli^ giving only joy to a few ( Ruskin:" to win

. r c n,n ^* ^^-^^-^ «A*«^w<^ yiU*^ ^

art oack again to our daily labour" ) . L'f^'Ty ^^ut<^ .^^ i i<- *^^'^^Cj^J _

Regeneration through cuJ.ture and mass coijmiunications rather then the

wt.n^^Mäjmmm^^^m^

clasü struggle. A "way of life" instead. Become critiques of modern _

. Connected with idea that intellectuals stand " outside"

cäasses as such - cut across them ( Warmheim): Free Floating^ But the
trouüle was that they did want to anchor down this free floating. Had
npaggr with Benda ( expl^)» Thin they coiad do only in-4e3?ras of
'^cultiiro" loQdorahip thcre as politios was prQgmai3igr"^c ompr omis e

£^^^4?

^

r

^^rj^-^

J^y»-<yti/Cy

(!)H,U'^ - ^^'i^ f^M4^j

ml "BP"

I6G.

eally tiie problern of creativity vs* .'Olitical Organisation
( even for the neo ilegelians). The artist and vrriters acciised
Thomas 'riann of ];eing stuck in the antiquated prolDlem of the
realtionship of the pjrtist to the boiirceois ( Brecht), but in
reality they \Tere also__stuck in a siiailar problen.
Take the dispute in i^Vance in the early thirties and lata
20ties between the Ooiri: lunists ( Aragon) and the Surrealist
Bretten. Bretten vranted to be a cominunist. Bvit: irapatience,
insulted vrhen asked about econonics. But more deeply as Robert
Short has sho^m: for Bretten a v/riters neaning lay in the words
he inrote and in intention behind them. Theör subversive value
was latent within then, For Aragon rieaning lay solely in the —

intepretation nade by the reader or the riajority of society.

I have now said enough about thls/attenpted trasnforma:
tions of riarxism. It does not do more then to introduce you to
the subject whose problems and heritage you see all around you,
But the social strvicture of the int eile ctuals, especially in
Germany ( were it was of r^rime importance) must finally occupy
us:

19.

something Saxte^ .had denied in his extistentialist face, The

maji in the Wall goes to his death without any compromises.

Sartes soltition to the dilemmas faced by lef t wing intellectmls ii

**■ ■ ■ 1 ■

Submission tohistorical neccessity in the Marxist sense - but
this is entirely on the levell inythi the H©«d-^«3» basic fact

rtf T ■ ff m Ttf* t IMM

that for üarte reality is ideology: product of consciousness -

— I [■■■II .^.r-™.„.__

IBMlMa»

and the " totality" of dialectic synthesis will solve the l^stract
raatj^erof " being" in relation to the " ob iect"f"'' '""'"''' ~~^

The end is here also a ütopia, aljnost in the sense of Bloch -
and the road to it f illed x/ith " absolutes"; the UöSR is right

because it is the USSR, The intellectuals penchant for " absoj^^^
in evidenoe here also. ( ie to Caaus: theigg^aji-i^ijg^i^^bout camps

^^^"" "•^^'^^^~^^^*^^""^**^:^g'^'^ ^^ "'^^qi^I'^^' ^'^^'^^ ^""-^ -t^^o mon diocuaaed.

j,ty made a transition fron Ipft tn i^i^b-h* ~~

And-j^r sobio tlil

<^

Doriot: what appealed was the immediate crowd contact: social

justice not confined by materialism taut " living" instead. The

irrational side becomes facist movement. Indeed those Trho traverse —
this line are not concerned with grafting Kantian ethics onto Ilarx.—
but with Bima^ixig their idea of human natura. And in the idealisation

to drop its rationalism* No doubt

?L

Vr^'

of hiünaxL^ature they

psyciiology faTZfilited such transitio^. The man who oecame to those

people most important, neve3rmade this transition himself . But

Henri De I-Iaii3j:i_Psychology of socialism" ( '^^.J,,condemni3 politicians,

old^regimes^ I^^t it seemg to him as it did to Bernstein that Capit

Ij^sm not taking I-iarxesjturn ( ie^ Eew Left confronted that problem

also)» Also vs« derterminism and a rationalism which ignored

true human nature:

I

Antisemitism: Summary and chronology

t^ 18. Century crucial, in at the creation. stersotype and
emnacipation
(j^ beginjing df 19»_century emnacipatioö in centrl. Z^ west
but reverse in Russian Empire: Ghetto now re enforces
stereotype 18. Century had left in tact.
West and Central Europe ( has been our concern) I^; Century
at same time foundations for racism, applied to blacks
synthesised by Gobinaeu ( who admired Jews).

/jf-y Until 188Qties antis; latent, sometimes breacks through

as in riots 1819, 1844. But 1848 brings füll eraanmip.

Thatmore decicive now. Theory laid? Connected to racism

and nationalism which forge ahead in this period, esp.

V^

^erman;^ ( Volk) b«%-aise-iB-3^^¥»ftHeehere Gobinaeu bent to
racism ( >•" agner circle).

focal country, crisis_of 1873, at the same time 9 founders5

^/^ *" /5> But latent_became more actual after 1880 ( Fri defeat

g^f.-- ^ '"""^'^-^-^ ^iMays^dialectic - propserity and antis; illustrated

7<? ^:S^-— -^ m "^rench scandals^

/b. now antise. gets grads roots base which becomes actualised in

)^

movement s - Algeria, Lueger, Boeckel, anti-Dreyfusards and

» »^ * «.

Action Francaise. Ba.pular base alawys existed: Churches

catechism, now Catholic Church in i^'rance in alliance

openly v/ith antis. vs. "asons, va? atheists. Pushes

all Churches into it sooner or later.
Apart from pol. movement s which vanished by 1^00 - the

•"rotocols as the most lasting document of the priod.

(^J^ fringe phenomena in this period; racism and s^dritualis -

Hitler.

(^ after 1918 activiated. Puture not in E. Europe but in advani
cedjiations jvere^ emancipation had taken^placey ( modern

OLaU-*^^^^'^ State, but also ]^a?oreaction to rationalism, weimar Culture,
^^.,j^^ y ^ defeat - Germany not x^^rance now etc. Hitler disliked precicely
[Xun^ '^ L ^^'*'^ that which was most civilised. '

///> ^/t^^*^^^^^^^^* Chrisiatinity^ as process of secularisation, as liturgy
bJJrtA^ abd realty. ' ^

\

\Hlzb WHAT xs mu> f\eour natton/il

SOCMUKM - COHh^lu LECTUÜtS H-'i>.

Lecture 1

What is new about National Socialism?

/ äp Not name: already in late 19. Century France attempts t«
link nationalj^sm to social and political reform. AlsO|
Austria. Anti-semitic movement vs. finance capital, right to

;'^ work/ versus finance capital ( slavery of interest
iV?x' charges" . All found in NS. programm as well. Social
V^J/X hierarchy? based on function not Status. Not new.

P7 r

«< /b/ Neither was nationalism as a civic religion: sameness of
individual and national redemption. Center national symbols
^and national liturgy, all this not fully developed^ but

.\

present at end of the Century. Civit' religion: literally:
( "altar of the fatherland", Wagner *s Operas ( Parcival) • ^^;:^^;^ /y^
lut aJAer "C^e Öreat/^ War[ -in LMie Mrfew\_j9K)Vsgnu&n^
fascism dr B>olshevism)ybecame a totality, politics as a "

1

/^;»'ir^7^.

Vi

♦ Kif

^^y of life". That was new in its emphasis, in its

M/^^ , tqtality. Result: war and difficult transition ot peace
^hM ^'^ T

KP

yf^/ifj^' (expl.) Need for individual and national redemption.

key in one word often repeated" experience" . Also had pre

(?>

>

-history and Youth Movement who wanted to experience the
nation. But here, Coming from war: experience not passive
but through p^rticipation^ as soldiers like Hitler
experienced the war in the trenches. " Erlebnis". Movement
as opposed to a party was experienced througTr'''^rticipation(
storm trouper, fasci, or through liturgy). But this in the

name of national regeneration^ the nation which had been

>^ . . '^ . —

stabbed in the back and betrayd. M^/*' r{^ FJAJf^^ ^^^^

\

(h

c^ But a totalexperience, liberal gap between politics and
life abolished/ This is meant by phrase " world view" or as
Hitler summarised it:' masses respond only to world view
based upon inbstinct and will . Movement organised every
aspect of life^ nothij^g left to Chance ( all the different
Organisation.). Fromb birth to cradly.

dJ. emphasis on action; based on the idea of that the war
constinued ( widely shared, Kerr ) jV^tulE^f or another reason
well: fascist movements were youth movement. 0 A PM?E5)/«^'^

certain enemies ( i.e. Italy today). Activism, Storm Troups,
fasci, nedded for the sort of civil war after the war and
then to defeat enemy, produce civil war conditions which
would bring power ( Communists same id^a). Game true again
with the depression. C^
(cj But ^idgä. of movement vs . party also built upon a very
direct war experience^ the only positive one: cameradery of

"'■'' ~"»iar^— IT"

the trenches. Leaders veterans, Hitler in the trenches. Not
astonisging after war cameradery became ^ a principle of
politics ( really only new together with bolsheviks)^ one
that fuelled the movement.
1917 utopia based on cameradery:
L" There are no casts, no social dif f erentitations, there
only people who did their job and those who did not. The war
has brought us one lasting legacy: we German will be
permeasted by a deepening felling of brotherhood" . Here
national socialism./
Meant: male cameradery. Now tradition of Mannerbunde

' ^^^

1.

Emphasls on actionjneant , civil var condltlons_means a permanent war
whlch was the__revolution of the right a reallty. ( More about
this rev, next time). ^ y

now totality.

not

only

State is a mannerstaat. Gender

■«•MMMW"*

6^

(expl. Associations) . But

assocyiation but/Vimmler:

t — I

dlvlslfio_J2asic.

Sumjip: National Soclallsm news a movement, totallty of
experience^based on Nationalism as a civic rellsionr on the
nucleus^^of a male cameradery. THUS ACTIVISM AND EXPERIENCE
INSTEAD OF SOCIAL THEORY OR TRADITIONAL POLITICAL THOÜGHT.
POLITICS AS AN ATTITÜDE TOWARDS LIFE.

®^ ^Ülii-H^l—^^POi^t ( vs. Pari, babble). But as civic
Religion, on same principle/, enemy a neccessity. War
continues but against whom? Here tradltion: anti-semitism
deepned and more more concrete by racism, against all who do
not do^heir Job and thus undermine nation. ( list). Always
dependent upon a certain dynamic to keep going, keep young
^" ^^Ül_£°^*^ ^ Mussol. sad experience). Not quite so urgent
with clearly defined enemies to defeat.

(tßVrohX^m'. to t r ans form a movement into a regime. Faced by
an fascism. Here July 1934, followed by war against the
Church etc. But with racism easier to controll and demands
in foreign policy which were nationl victories.
More serious in a way: anti-bougeois rhetoric. At the same

time supporting bourgeoj^ society (expl.)Real tension:

S^A;:_and_JCmas. (^^ C^fVS^Ps PifSfili'fb inj_<i /fJHJ^

Here were then_ 2 new departured after war: bolshevism,
fascism -neither J^ith us any_more really? How much did
some of you like what I told you?

■iA^aarnnMiw

^

/l-

^Ik^

j) ^n^ l^fU^ f^^^i^i^ ^^t^-^^

>rA^

f//1p/^

>';*7

^/^-4i

'V7^f7,

t^4^Cu'

yy/r-j^- ^^^^^^ ^'*^

-{

;

yj^-^ y^t^-^-^^y

4M

■^^ ) -7'

7

rn

Pi4yi V^^,

^Wüi;?

V^'i^.

^y/// ^^^

^^

/

y

]/l

Nazi membership Dec. 31

18 -30 ' 37,69i

31 -40: 28% and about half of party
of f icials in ths age group

412- 50^:i9.6. %

-^51 -60 i 11.2 % and ca. 8% f unctionaries
61 and over: 3.7% members and 1%

f unctionaries

Kater. The Nazi Party 1983

;> / ji^itf^^ ^ ^r*^> f ' f ^H j^ ^^ cfjiTfßi/^

pi

15.

/J^^/?^

We need much^serlous investigat/Ton of racism, scholarly,

— 7^ —
without using it as polemic. F4r example, I have said

nothing about the connection of racism and religion which is

so obvious today, as it was not in the past. Hpw/ when and

in what manner does religious fundamentalism make an alliace
with racism, or a lethal mixture, of nationalism,
fundamentalism and racism. We need to begin exmining
connections between racism and its l4-ies ( without which it

----'-■- — .^^ — r. in^n^jyj^i

has not been able to become operative) andV aBlong"'tTie victims
as well/ not just one but all of them. Racism is a totality
also as far as the victims are concerned«
And if today I have stimulated some of you to think again

about racism and nationalism ( also

historians)/ and perhaps why t-hey — havooo fundamental fcrc

neglected by

ces

of modern times have not engaged historians as phenomena in
thi^r own right/v.^_then then this talk will have done its

duty. (^l^tM^r

Luhn.!

Aesthetics
What then was new about NS? Last time : it was a movement
and we discussed some of the consequences : youth, action/
cameradery/ Bu t all this leid to a new kind of politics

which adress today^ so new that historians and

»-i» — __ — —«^ ^

pol. scinetists have not grasped it even today though it is
direct forerunner to our politics by television.

— ■■ ...<■

Ns^ivic religion: rites, liturgy. Based on 2 propositions

: ^that

which prooved to be correct

the age after cl918 the

age of the masses atod the with modernity entered a Visual

age, were the masses do not read but see. Age of political
Symbols. (19. Century).

It meant a profusion of Symbols, , mass meetings, rites (

T ■ '-

responsa, marches/ symbolic action - speech of leader is
one. Meant: participation ( expl . more then Pari. Hitler:
leaves his shop, joins masses, end alienation. But this is
not all: talked last time about totality of regime, crucial
in " new politics".

Politics has to be experienced, it is an attitude towards

— ■ ■ ... ■ " •■ ■

life. Here participation vital. . ^n.A^j/i

For any liturgy setting is vital, so here. iit meant

something: Henderson, Nazi mass meetings as beautiful as a

ballet. More setting counted : Speers dome of light, sun
sets, dbrsks, eternsal flames.

Fascism built upon the aesthetics of politics, on ideas of
beauty whickh were generally accepted. Importance of such *
beauty: middle classes " good , holy and truth". beauty in
Home. Now also in public. Familiär. Nazi as a racist regime

made füll use of it in its human symbols as well, as we

shall See. Built on the familiär, gave it a political

dimension in liturgy, symbol and settings.

Human form and symbolic action fused ( Speer and Gauleiters

stomachs) .

Set^ting, liturgy, participation, a political theater

directed by the leader who was the focus. Focus vital,

— , . . i,^^.\~ •.•■■vi—-*»'

clarity vital ( Hitler: Masses understand no handshakes).

Symbols cannot ambiguous ( ambiguous flag?) Hitler as symbol

(always uniform, not married, house in Mountains etc. steely

blue eyes- imp.)

Strength of Nazism and racism: not just inanimate but human
form one ^^ ^^® Chief symbols, familiär, focused.

Example:

Nude male body one Chief Nazi symbols. A symbol based, like

the new politics as a whole on long Standing consensus of

beauty. Why male: remember what I said last time about male

cameradery, etc. strengthened by the war experience . State
0S a Mannerbund. ^<^ A^l/irAAf^r^ r^w^/^,/ /s^r^yjr^ri^

■«■■■■•■Mai

NATIONAL SOCIALISM. NUDITY AND THE MALE BODY

George L. Mosse
University of Wisconsin-Madison/Hebrew University

National Socialism was an assault on the arts, it
opposed free artistic expression and imposed upon artists
its own ideology. National Socialism in Opposition to what
it called degenerate art worked with its own symbols, its
own ideal of beauty. The idealized male body was one of
National Socialism most potent symbols — at once Visual,
accessible and traditional. The kind of beauty which the
/ male body was supposed to radiate symbolized both a virile
dynamic in its posture and play of muscles, as well as the
concept of order in its harmonic proportions and
restfulness. Movement and order, these were crucial to
modern society's need for progress without disorder and for
a dynamic which avoided chaos. The male body as
exemplifying this need had a long history before the Nazis

made füll use of it.

J. J. Winckelmann "iji his History of Ancient Art (1764)
had set the Standard for masculine beauty which was not to
Vary greatly from his time through the twentieth Century.
It seems astonishing that Winkelmanii's work could have had
such a long-range effect, and yet this^ was foreshadowed by
the enthdsiasm with which it was received in Germany by men
who were of great stature and lasting influence^ Goethe,
Lessing and Herder, all were in one way or another under

it^^ummSmii

Manaaii

the influenae of this Standard of beauty: the "quiet
/ Ätj?efl€pth" of Greek youths, their well proportioned bodies
and the self-control which their posture and facial

^ — , ■ --n I I 11. _

expression exemplif ied. These were virtues which the
bourgeoisie prized and which had now found their aesthetic
expression.

The füll beauty of the male body, according to Greek
examples, could only be truly appreciated in thenude, and
yet this seemed contrary to bourgeois Ideals of
respectability, The Standard of male beauty as reflecting
f a social ideal clashed with moral Standards which hac^
/ become the accepted norm. This the more so, as with the
modern age sexual ity became an important touchstone of

morality, of health and sickness. Shamelessness —
exposing your body — indicated moral turpitude. However,
ritwMHv had made his nude Greek statuesVsui table for

middle class use by raising them to an abstract plane and
turning them into a stylistic principle. Their beauty was
a sexless beauty, iftspired by-Winkelmann-^ ^wrong) belief
that the Greeks had given such sculptures a transparent
whiteness which stripped them of all sensuality,- ^^Moreover,
there were passages in Winkelmann 's History where it seemed
as if the sexual ity of Greek youths transcended gender as
part of their perfection./ Now bodily beauty could become
symbolic beauty indicating manly strength, leadership, and

vigor, without menacing, indeed re-enforcing, middle class

roaming through the countryside. But the male body had to
be prepared^arefully before it could be offered to public
^scrutiny: the skin must be hairless, smooth, and bronzed.
^ The body had become an abstract symbol of Aryan beauty.

»■iiimi

similar for example to that of the athletes in Leni
Riefenstahl 's film of the 1936 Olympics. Sensuality is
transcended by being aligned with Greek forms — figures
that could be worshipped but neither desired nor loved.
The male body could be abstracted, and yet another
more pressing danger lurked in the shadows: National
Social ism made the abstract concrete through its selection
of the ideal aryan youth, and in real life such a body and
looks were the entrance ticked to the elite cadres of the
nazi movement (like the S.S.)- These formations were basic
to National Social ism which considered the new Germany a
Mnnerstaat — the State regarded as a camaraderie of males
who formed the ruling class. But such conscious male

bonding raised the danger of homo-eroticism or even

< — —

homosexual ity, a possibility which frightened the
leadership. These fearsVwent into tlie making of the
Exhibition of Degenerate Art in 1937 which would
demonstrate to anyone who could see the conseguences of the
rejection of social and sexual norms. Here thanks to
modern art, the ugly, distorted bodies of men were on
display in contrast to those who peopled the official
exhibitions of Germania rt^^^ Heinrich Himmler 's obsessional

regard for respectability encouraged him to magnify the
danger of homosexuality and homoeroticism within the SS
male elite corps. At the same tiitie he affirmed that the
Third Reich was a Mnnerstaat , a State based upon the
comradeship of itien: "For centuries, yea, millennia, the
Germans have been ruled as a Mnnerstaat . "

Though the male body used as a symbol was usually nude
while, as a rule^Vthe ideal Germanic youth was clothed, the
tension between the naked body and bourgeois respectability
which the Nazis claimed to represent^ remained intact.
However, a second inconsistency informed the political use
of an ideal masculinity: that between the harmony and
"quiet strength" which the male body was supposed to
project and the aggressiveness, even violence entailed in
many of its representations. For example, some of the
sculptures of Arno Brecker and others which show a stylized
male figure in savage motion, sword in hand, are a reminder
of the close association between masculinity and war in the
Nazi Imagination. Here the First World War had never ended
and the true male fought on. ^^ fi ^^^^ P^^^

tm^mm

The male body fulfilled a representative function and
set a Standard of manliness which, however contradictory,
was essential to National Socialist self-understanding. The
ideal maleiof Winkelmann 's statues informed^this stereotype
whether in art or in life. The Nazi cult of manliness has
passed from the scene, but the ideal of manliness on which

it was based still inspires the stereotype of the clean-cut
Englishman or the all-American boy. Here, while
beleaguered, it still seems alive, perhaps even now perhaps
satisfying some basic needs of modern society.

BMii*MMa«kMMflMi^^faMiMriaiilHi

,y

respectability through its Image of harmony and
moderation. The ideal male lay readily at hand to counter
what the Nazis saw as the moral swamp of the Weimar
Republic, /the male body was used as a Symptom and metaphor

W ^-^ fc-- IUI ■ »fc.

A — -- ^-^ ~ ' '* ''^-^ - — ' — ^ — 11'" ■■■>., -^":.,

in the transition of German culture to National Socialism. /

wiammm

mmmt

were the first sight which greeted the visitor on entering

^Jv Jt ^ "^ (^ Small wonder, that the naked male figures by Arno Brecker

49

Uitler's New Reichs Chancef/ery^:^' ^^^'^^^ ^^'M/^ f^^ ^^

•t4<-

US

The Nazis made frequent lise of ideal ized nude male

/
figures on representational buildings and in i 1 lustrat ions,

even though they took pains to present themselves as the

party of respectability. Pornography and nudism were

banned shortly after t^iey came to power, and the National

Socialist Party was praised by all those (like the

Evangelical Purity Leagues) who had deplored the overt

sexuality of Weimar Art and Berlin City-life. C*^^t^ all of

V^iftkelmann ' s exorcising of sensualityj the Nazis feit a

need to press ahead still further to remove the danger

-■■■ -^

posed by the nude «nie body to respectability. Where

nudity seemed inevitable in private life, it was
circumscribed according to the example which Winkelmann had

Cy)^

i-

already set./^ For example, the nazis encouraged physical
t, training and here the problem of nudity arose once more.
Hans Suren, for example, in his much used German
GymnasticSf Physical Beauty and Training (1938), advocated

nearly complete nudity in the pursuit of sport or while

Such symbolism was part of the new politics/ the
contribution not only of male stereotype but also of racism.
I have left out one piece of the new politics: need for

enenemy for its dynamic/ a counter-type. Quikly: exact

11,1 -.tt^- ' '■' »'■»■»■■■'-

opposite and all those marginalised by society now
transformed into the racial enemy sanÖ locked into place.

««*MiMAata**«^MWiJMh

An integral, no accidental part of the new politics. If war
had not ended in 1918 against whom should Storm Troups and
then the racist State fight?

Real external enemy only Bolshevist Russia^ and that was a
creature of world Jewry. Internal enemy always primaCY:
pople knew him, did not like him and thus^stereotype not
only focused but again familiär.

Foccused and familiär that to me essence of success of

Stereotypes. . _, -^^

Liturgy less so?>^'T914 and 1939. Perhaps to revive in

T.V. age were news is.theater,

äNis" 4

^f^'

19/2^ Ujf

1 AT l S.

•^V\LL UA^'i> A'^oO^^ nAd.X ^ t^>^,

MMMi

\

WHAT IS STILL VALID ABOUT MARX?

To begin with, we are talking about Marxism not
Bolshevism. At the beginning I must rescue Marx from
Lenin. Not so easy — which Marx are we talking about? Of
the Communist Manifesto or after 1847^ the more humanist

Marx or Marx under the influenae of Engels, the dogmatist
and scientist? Let me say summarily: the Marx for whom
labour, man himself , produces the external world which
confronts him. Where the individual human conscience still
plays an important role (Hegal), or the Marx who believed
with Engels that nature was external to a determinism which
was supposedly scientific and thus unalterable?

Lenin made profound revisions in all Marxism. We must
not forget that the leading Marxist theoreticians of the
day opposed him: Luxemburg, Plekhanov, Kautzki and even
Trotzky — almost every early Marxist of note. Why? What
were Lenin 's revisions?

1. Refusal to wait until ti4me was ripe, coup d'etat,
seizure of power. Not so important, perhaps.

2. "Conscious element" i.e. Proletariate identified
with professional revolutionaries . A new ruling class.

/3., Went back to the Communist Manifesto for
dictatorship of the proletariate. Here is the Jajcobin
strain in Marxist thought. Yet proletarian dictatorship
not before but not after successful revolution, while with
Lenin inst i tut ionalized. Marx vague about the after, never

envisaged a permanent revolution: hunting in the morning
and fishing in the afternoon.

All this important: for Marx could give rise to

several inspirations like most great 19th Century
thijikers: Bolshevik opposed to a Hegelianism which
stressed true and false individual consciousness^ and which
would lead to the culture criticism of the Frankfurt School
and even to the call in the 1920s to put Kant back into
Marx (where he had never been) and to subordinate
revolutionary action to the categorical imperative. (Eisner
and non-violence) But what remained was always the
analysis of class struggle and capitalism. Whether a more
open ended Marxism or humanized Marxism, still this is
^ basic.

Thus what remains of Marx cannot just be discussed or
mainly be discussed on the basis of Bolshevism (his own
attitude towards slavs, his disinterest in underdeveloped
countries) .

Class Struggle: today: industrial proletariate

^«»«Mi^Ma

shrinking in size^ skilled workers hardly a proletariate.

Attempted revisions: Marcuse: substituted for
proletariate stB vanguard intellectuals, emphasis on true
consciousness, grasping totality of what happened. But not
successful, almost forgotten.

And yet a new proletariate has arisen: the underclass

~> "

in the USA, Br itain and France. Not working but

unemployable. As menacing today as Proletariats earlier.
Does Marxist analysis help? Only partly. It is a class
matter. Even one where with the passage of time class
difference becomes^ greater. Thus during Reagan 1% of the
Population got rieh while the underclass got poorer.
Similarly commodity fetichism which comes with monopoly
capitalism certainly set in: consumerism, the disregard of
the common good, Society based on greed. At first glance
it seems true that the accumulation of wealth goes hand in
hand with the accumulation of misery. So far Marx mainly
correct. Yet this is not the classical proletariate, here

race is as important as class. But is this Situation the
fruit of a built-in contradiction of capitalism as Marx

believed, or the failure of capitalism to operate in

^ — ■■-' — """'

accordance with its own basic principles as Keynes believed
and many modern economists?

Given the difference between his time and ours it is
not surprising that the specifics of the class society he

described, or of the economics he analyzed, are no longer

^ ■ ■ * — *■

of great relevance. And yet neverless he still determines
in important ways how we look at some features of

idita

capitalism. Class analysis is still in some cases relevant

if not in Marx 's own setting and hopes^ and so is the
fetechism of goods as a feature of developed capitalism.
But this commodity fetichism was a pale reflection in the

i^

later Marx of what he had earlier described as alienation

Thls concept which has had an impact until today, goes
back to Hegel :\ alienation is the failure of man's
self-realization. / Marx translated it into allenated Labour

(expl.)-yMan transforms his own nature through labour, and

m» I iiiiw

history is the repository of this transformation until the
true Community has been reached. Labour is a social
category. Here too the basis no longer exist: work ethic,

Victor ian work ethic. But what was to be valid and

jL

fruitful was regarding life not only as a totality (He<^l)

but as social whole. That all you do has social

consequences , a^political actions b«t do not exist, but

•v«-

there are no social acts without political consequences as
well. The Liberal divorce between politics and life is
rejected. Thus the totality of man's environment has to be
taken into account. Society produces man as man and is
produced by him — here too the two are identical.

It is in this setting that Marx addressed one of his
most fruitful concepts, that of alienation: * "Communism is
the positive abolition of private property, of human self-
alienation, and thus the real appropriation of human nature
through and for man." Alienation for Marx meant alienated
labour as in the factories of Manchester, and labour, in
turn defined the whole social structure. This would not
have any influence today — labour is no longer regarded as
so central, ethic of work exists no longer in this sense.
But what remains will be influential: 1, man is central

here, he interacts with the environment and it interacts
with him. Not as in Engels where environment Stands
outside man and determines him through its own laws, but
other way around: Maa hss to graspthe world in his own
mindin order to change it. 2. This has to be done
critically for in order to overcome alienation the present
as it exists has to be abolished. This is the Hegelian vs.
the Jacobin Marx. Origin of "critical theory" of Adorno
and Horkheimer. But also at the root of new left protest
in the 1960s against being transformed into mere numbers,
marketable commodities .

But this modernization of the theory of alienation
also entailed putting Freud into Marx: if the human ;mind
is cruciairwith its critical spirit, then that mind must be
explored even as the capitalist System $ls being analyzed.
This was done by the Frankfurt School, and to certain
extent by the new left.

Thus in dealing with what is alive in Marx we always
come back to 1. what Marx? The one in whom determinism
wins out over humanism, or the one with whom alienation is
overcome in interaction with the external world and which
thus posits man with a critical mind. 3- o^ ^^^ Marx who
is yet Hegel and not completely Engels and to whom modern
psychology can be added to loosen the framework.

Here we face a difficult problem: How deep have
Marxist concepts like capitalism (in a pejorative sense)

and alienation and class struggle penetrated our daily
language, our attitudes that they could even be used to the
diametrically opposite effect to what Marx intended? Thus
in 1934 one literary scholar (Pongs) used an Interpretation
of history which turned on the phenomena of alienation
under capitalism to justify the Third Reich as the
classless society, the true volkish Community which would
end both. An attack against modernity in Marxist guisel
There can be no doubt about the penetration of Marxist
forms into our society, no 19th Century thinker has had
such an impact.

I have dealt of what remains of Marx 's analysis of
reality. Obviously quite a bit if we think of it in
comparison to some other 19th Century prophets and their
analysis of modern society. Especially the early
socialists (Fourier, Proudhon). Marx's strength and
weakness: he left the classless society undefined with
ejilightenment optimism about man, and left it to Lenin to
fill it in, as it were, but it also meant to others who
could make their own additions, as we saw, but always
within the Marxist tension of determinism and human
consciousness .

But what about Marxism as a social theory, as a
historical theory, does that still have validity, is it
still used by historians? I have dealt with the present,
but what about Marxism as a tool to analyze the past?

Here I must repeat: ideas of class still are useful

/

within limits and capitalism as a System for a certain
stage of the Industrial Revolution. That which Marx and
Engels themselves observed. The Darwinistic, scientific
framework no longer seems useful. Some of the
malfunctioning of capitalism he saw properly or at least
useful ly, as I have mentioned. But he ignored sex and
gender in what was after all a theory based upon what was
supposed to be an analysis of total history.

Marx 's idea of an economic base as over against the
superstructure has not withstood the test of
historiography. Race, as I mentioned before^ and gender
are omitted, but then no one in his time addressed them as
important historical factors except national ists and a few
pioneers. Sexual ity is ignored in Marxism^ here bourgeois
respectability is fully accepted, as are victorian

respectability and the gospel of work. But Engels did
address the woman question which was much discussed at the
time. He regarded the subjugation of women as economic,
and once private property removed, women would gain
equality. The consequences worked out later: Eleanor Marx
and Aveling, the Woman Question (1886).

Marx 's view of history was one-dimensional. -Seme

attempted

ology back into

itHre-

-but^

above all, important new historical methods and new views

1-^

8

[

of culture have seriously quastdrORed Marx 's claim to
provide a total explanation of the past (as he saw it) .

V, I am not sure how much post-moderni^in or
de-constructionism have changed our viefc of the past, or
are just fads, but the new social history, the Annales
School f, was closer to Marx, except that material base of
life is not confined to capitalist System. Its material
base took in, indeed emphasized, historical geography
(Febvre). Braudel: capitalism not from Single source,
economics, culture, politics, civilization ^'played a part.
They wanted to write a total history. But unlike Marx who
made the same Claim, here it included "mentalite," food,
drink, manners, but not sex or gender. Still, they owed
much to Marx: the maijlterialistic emphasis, and even the
"long duree," that historical developments can only be
properly analyzed over a long period of time. Always
Marxism and Marx are an Inspiration, have influenced basic
structures of western thought (as I mentioned before) , but
are too deterministic and too narrow to have been of use as
an all-encompassing theory to most serious historians or
modern schools of history.

The Omission of the cultural factors, better, the
mis-reading of modern culture, is equally important, ^tien
HiecWrD hiotoriograph^t^-44B/undermining the Claims of Marx 's
theory. Culture is not just a means of control , but also
seat of resistance. It is not merely an Instrument to be

r

L

manipulated by tirer-Marxirst elites (whether Stalin or
Adorno) , but an express^on of genuine populär feeling.
Thus populär culture can feed notions of collectivity but
also individuality, in the choices available. (fascism)
(i,e.A<iorno and Jazz). That there is no recognition of the
importance of myth and symbol of the irrational as a
legitimate cultural expression was to haunt socialists as
they were unable in the end to successfully to harness
crowds and to integrate the masses after the war as the
right could (i.e. Begin and Israel).

Marx left out the people themselves who made

themselves feit at the very time in the first modern mass
movements. (Boulanger, Lueger, Lasalle) Just as he had no
feeling for culture as a force of its own, so he brushed
off nationalism. Anything irrational was a product of
manipulation by the ruling classes^ when in reality it
sprang from tradition of populär feeling}^ so to speak stood
upon it ^own two feet. No understanding for that:
f basically for all his revolutionary democracy Marx an 19th
Century elite theory in the thrust of its historiography
and in practice.

I hope I have given you an idea what I think survived,
it is bits and pieces, an attitude of mind, part of our
vocabulary. Interestingly, Marx as a total ity did not
survive, but his antipode Nietzsche did. Today Inspiration

for post-modernists as he was for Heidegger. Nietzsche^

^ül^"^-

10

episodic, opposed to all Systems, ("order öüts the passions
to sleep") passionate. Seems to reflect/the modern world

much better based uponVai scontlmllnrTes/r ather than a smooth

— *-~-««i / '-

u /

and unbroken line from past to future. Yet we must not
lose sight of the fact that Marx was no Bolshevik after
1847 and that the collapse of bolshevism^%«:il/ not affect
the need of historians to consider his analysis of class
and capitalism as part of their total history.

THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR

twentieth Century generally, which is for Sin-
yavsky "the Century of utopias found or being
found, utopias that most often take the form of
ideological or ideocratic states." We see this
pattern from the Third Reich to the Khmer
Rouge, and perhaps the real significance of
Soviet Russia is that it "pioneered this utopia
and set the example."

In short, Soviet Civilization constitutes one
of the more interesting anti-utopian docu-
ments of our age, which, in reaction to the
triumph of so many would-be millenarians the
World over, has produced more than its share.
Sinyavsky is not the least bit afraid to praise
those qualities and virtues that utopians usu-
ally hold in contempt, such as individual
initiative (Soviet history offering an object
lesson in collectivist economics), personal re-
sponsibility, and even the "petit-bourgeois
way of life," which those who have been
forced to live without it come to appreciate.
Here especially we see the difference be-
tween so many Russian intellectuals and their
radical American counterparts. "People can-
not burn with revolutionary fervor forever in
the name of bright ideals," Sinyavsky con-
tends. "Their life depends on the present, not
some radiant future; they must live in their
own house, not on a universal scale." Better
today's prosaic eggs than the future omlette of
our dreams. Utopians always sacrifice the
present and the people in it for the sake of a
grand design for history's end; but it is in the
present that everyone always lives.

Sinyavsky therefore begins his book with an
account of the mystique of revolution, which
has of course been shared by many intellec-
tuals in the twentieth Century. By "the Rus-
sian revolution," Sinyavsky means not just the
events that he calls (accurately enough) the
"coup d'^tat of October 1917" but some two
decades of fascination with upheaval and mil-
lenarian transformation. He follows the Rus-
sian philosopher Nicholas Berdyaev in seeing
the Russian revolutionary ethos as essentially
the eschatological fantasies of an atheist reli-
gion, according to which the apocalypse was
to be brought about not by divine intervention
but by human effort. Soviet Marxism offered
"an Apocalypse grounded in dialectical mate-
rialism ... so that the idea of providence is
transformed into a historical law ordained by
Marx." Remarkably enough, Sinyavsky ob-
serves, such ideas "still fascinate and seduce,

not Soviet people, of course, but people in
other countries."

It is in this quasi-religious context that SiiiTl
yavsky places such Bolshevik actions as ritual
desecrations — not just removing icons from
churches but using them to make floors for the
village bath or lining them up against the wall l
to be shot. The early attacks on pre-revolu- J
tionary literature and the later institutional-
ization of socialist realism reflect the same
salvationist mentality. So does the cult of
violence, which took on the mystical aura of
expiatory sacrifice — not sacrifice of oneself, to
be sure, but of others, "class enemies." A
particularly chilling section of Sinyavsky's
book describes the adulation heaped on the
founder of the secret police, the murderer and
torturer Feliks Dzerzhinsky. Feliks became a
populär name for babies, and writers who
should have known better, Isaac Babel as well
as Maxim Gorky, feit honored to associate
with this man because his killings were in the
name of a great ideal and were performed
without personal benefit. Dzerzhinsky is de-
scribed as gentle with children and hoping he
could some day serve them in all kindness as
People's Commissar of Education. According
to Sinyavsky, it was this idealism and lack of
self-interest that gave Dzerzhinsky unusual
influence over Lenin. ,

Lenin himself is described, somewhat im-
probably, as a person who also acted purely
out of idealistic motives. In a wise Strategie
move, Sinyavsky accepts the official image of
Lenin as free of human foibles and (like
Dzerzhinsky) entirely unselfish. Sinyavsky is
therefore able to refute all those apologies for
Communism that deem its failures mere aber-
rations based on the accidental flaws of its
leaders — a point that is in any case stränge, as
Sinyavsky points out, when enunciated by
proponents of an ideology that allows only
class interests, not individuals, to shape his-
tory.

Sinyavsky's Lenin is the pure selfless intel-
lectual, who even had an amazingly and sym-
bolically large cranium, a "hyperbolic" head.
He incarnated the spirit of rationalist utopian-
ism in its perfect form, which is why his
incomprehensible violence indicts not him
but his ideological project. "The incompre-
hensibility of Lenin is precisely this all-con-
suming intellectuality— the fact that from his
calculations, from his neat pen, flowed seas of

134

THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR

blood, whereas by nature this was not an evil
person. On the contrary, Vladimir Ilyich was a
rather kind person whose cruelty was stipu-
lated by science and incoritrov(£rtible histori-
cal lajws." His enemies used to say that he
ioved power, but "his love of power (if it was
that) was devoid of any intoxication with
power."

For Lenin, power was simply theJooLipr
putting Jthe abstract ideology into effecLin a
worI3~where specific people were bound by
clasTinterest to jeiist. So devoted was Lenin
to Marxist abstractions that he_once_tQld_J)is
comrades to take care of^their health because
tlieif lives_were_statfi_property. Recognizing
thaTtReXlommunist State could never survive
without violence, he justified terror on stricdy
logical grounds. Sinyavsky cites Lenin's defi-
nition of dictatorship and Soviet state power:
"The scientific concept of a dictatorship sig-
nifies nothing other than a power which, un-
res|ricted by any laws, uninhibited by any
absolute rules, resorts freely to the use of
violence." "There is no denying the honesty
of this formula," Sinyavsky concedes.

Certain Western Marxists, Sinyavsky re-
minds us, have idealized Lenin by saying that
he, unlike the aberrant Stalin, saw violence as
a merely temporary measure during the first
phase of the revolution. In reply, Sinyavsky
Points out that in peaceful 1922 Lenin in-
sisted that the Soviet law code contain an
explicit justification for terror. Lenin wrote to
People's Commissar of Justice Dmitri Kursky:
"Jurisprudence must not eliminate terror; to
promise this would be to deceive oneself or to
deceive others. It must vindicate and legalize
it." Not that Lenin was cruel; he simply fore-
saw, as his apologists do not, that Communism
cannot survive in any other way.

This pure ideologue therefore established
what Sinyavsky calls "a State of scholars."
Thosetrained in the infallible_scien£g of
idarxismwöuld make all decisions. No longer
was Russia to be mied by tsars, generals, or
lawyers, but "by wise men and . . . what you
might call scientific experts in political strug-
gle." Here one detects an allusion to Plato's
idea of the philosopher-king and, indirectly,
to the whole tradition of utopian thought,
which Sinyavsky rejects. True to utopian
form, Soviet people in the new^cTassless" soci-
ety were divided into the governed and the
governing, the latter trained in state-of-the-art

methods of applying Marxism to society. "In
other words, the State is governed by schol-
ars," the most scholarly of which was Lenin
himself. One lesson of Sinyavsky's book that
may disturb many of his readers is the danger
of intellectuals' characteristic faith in their
own superior ability to wield power for the
public good.

Once Leninist beliefs took hold, bureauc-
racy inevitably followed. With decisions left
to ideological experts and mistakes (whether
intentional or not) regarded as "objectively"
the result of bourgeois class interests, initia-
tive necessarily died and^bureaucracy^conse-
quently increased in an accelerating spiral. So
did the need for more and more violence to
get things done.

Thus, we recognize the error ofthose West-
ern apologists — Sinyavsky's repeated target—
who Claim that the System that governed the
U.S.S.R. is not true socialism but some per-
version they call State capitalism. In a trivial
sense, this "is a semantic argument . . . since
no one has ever seen another socialism or
'real' socialism füll blown." More important,
we may object that what exists was the logical
outgrowth of the initial ideas, which is why it
has been repeated in State after socialist State.
How many examples need there be before the
"aberration" is recognized as the rule?

For Sinyavsky, something like Stalinism
was bound to result from Marxist-Leninist
ideology combined with absolute power and a
belief in the legitimacy of violence against
class enemies. To be sure, there were some
significant difierences between Lenin and
• Stalin. As Sinyavsky phrases it, Stalin realized
Lenin's metaphors. Whereas the founder of
, the Soviet State believed only that class ene-
\mies were "objectively" guilty of treason— he
[did not imagine that they were all actually
I spying for foreign powers, just that their ac-
tions served the interests of Russia's ene-
mies—Stalin charged people with actually
committing the treasonous acts. But this dif- j
ference does not really matter so much as one
might think, since for Lenin "objective" aid to
the enemy, even by people who sincerely
intend no härm, merited death or exile in anyj

case. . ^

The apologists notwithstanding, "Stalin, m,
my opinion, did not distort Lenin, he simply_,
assumed his position as head of the govern-
ment Stalin was not a usurper but Lenin Sl

136

i1^ f

^r #^M - ^^ ^ "''

National. Monuments were an importsant means of national
seif -representation. These took diverse form, monuments to individual
national heroes or more symbolic: constructions of stone and mortar
using national or ancient themes to proclaim the power and might
of the country. The Nineteenth Century was the age of monuments /
reminders of national history atf a time when nations were in
formation and nationalism had begun its victorious march to the
present. Some Monuments centered upon the ruler attempted to show
his Service to the nation or to express his style of government.
There were othe monuments / however, who were purely syitft)oliC/
without reference to an individual, attempting to represent the nation
as a whole. Thus the memorial built in Leipzig in 1913 to commemorate
the l)attle of Leipzig were a hundred years earlier the Germans were
Said to have triumphed over the French and whose hero was said to
be the whole German people. ( Nipp. 164) The sym})olic took the place
of the individual in such monuments, as at Leipzig the massivness of
the monument projected powew power and might while inside, among many

*

other figuers, gigangtic statues represented specific German virtues:
courage, will to sacrifice, a strong faith and the " power of the
Volk". The staruaes of the ieaelets men who led the German wars
of lil)eration against the French were sul)odinated to the whole
design.

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E)

Why did Pacißsm fail between Two WorltWars?

Question worth posing. Great War bloodiest war up to now and one which

affected one way or another abnost all Famillies of the combattants. First
experienvce of massd death. Just to make this clear as important for the
fate of pacifism, Twice as mane^ men men were killed in this First World
War then in all major wars between 1790 qnd 191M. (13 million). After
that '' never war again'' should have been a potent rallying cry.

Indeed there was a promising beginning: 1919 paciHs^ fpietings in Berlin

some 100,000 to 200000 peaople. Why? str<tnmg support by Trade Unions
and SPD.Important ai^^straight forward pacifis literrture existed and had
made an impact, above all, Romain Rolland ''lAbol^ the battle'' ( 1919)
Read Fischer p. 21. ,

All this bcfor^^anainbivalence set in under pressure of events. Germany:
SPD and Trade Union support eroded under neccessity to support Republic.

A mucm greater priority. Meant: putting up its own army for defense of the

^ • — I

Republic, para-military Organisation.; Posed problem of paciHi^^ in stark

f(

terms: Party creeed, yet Reichsbanner debate wether in parades war
decorations could be wom, how to call leader ( Chariman of the regiment?)
after 1928 " Fuhrer". Trade Unions closely connected to pdtty.

Moreover, specific German dilemma: pacifism, reconcitiation
looked like accpeting Versailles. Basier for winners then loosers. France ^
i fJ^y^ ^^ more war" monuments, German none. But even in France very few.

However, attitude of veterans associations very different accc^rding
to Antione Prosts monumental work; in France no hate- tt>wardy €rerma«^,
solidarity with poilu, but those who make war never fight it. Fatherland
and peace equated. Yet here pacifism seems rather war -weariness ( was to
last, 19^9 -after aU, war fought on French not Germasn soU.) and anti-

militarism, front vs. base continued. Armistice days should be transformed

into a festival of peace. At ceremony avoided mentioined the victory

^ ~ '*• ^ ' — ' — ' "*

without mentioning the nightmare as well.

Reaction to war bot no real positice pacifist committment. For this to the
nation which though aslso victorious had a real pacifist tradition in the
Evan^elical movement. ( German Protesdtantism had no such tradition).
England saw the growth of pacifism as an ideology, a quasi- religious
committment: Labour Party support ( Landsbury). Here is a good place tto
test the strength of pacifism because it had the pre -conditions for such a
movement but then-faced dilemmas common to all paciHsm. J
PeacsLPligdge_ündon^ 136,000 members by 1936. Canon H. Shephard
effective leadership were, for example, in Germany Peace movement
splintered into factions. Yet 1934^when called for post cards that any kind

By 1936 major problem; we all joined Peace Pledge Union but Spanish
Civil War had broken out. Slogan)'' against war and fascism.''^C. E. M.
Joad: " it can never be right to abandon the advocacy of a long run method
of salvation, merely because the circumstances are unfavourable to its
shortrun application''. But that is what happened: illustration^resolution

44

we

will not fight for king and country" vs, Churchills visit the next week.

But largerb problenjJnjU nations: how to intigrate war
excperience into your life? Service or loss? Here myth of the War

^iP^"^"^^- <^l«an»ng «P war, overcoming: central experience'' cameradery (
war cemetaries), War Monuments. Trivialisation.
• Shock was greeat; right after the war, as Samuel Hines put it for England,
vfJtP^ j no great war novels written, no powerfuj retrospectiee poems,^no plays of
A^ 1 lasting importance., Germany too war literature only Starts ten years after

ending. This excludes ofHcial histories and generals memoirs.Why? No

good answer. Shock? Nothing conld come close to the awful reslity? ^ 1^7 ^y

Robert Graves and T.E. Lawrence had an understanding that war should

not be mentioned between them. (Ecksteins: certain confusion about

meaning of war.)

But then paciflst wave? Germany: success of All Quiet on the West^jn

Front (1929) - almost world wide. Germany; advertising campaign never

pj^

V.—

before witnessed in German Publishing. Because of Realism? Because

\

school-boys adventure story? ( Play tricks etc.) Good tale? Weltbuhne "
pacifist war propagandaj^. Bleack? Must have had some positive aspects to
become do populär. Really adventure story set in the war? But also Paul
Baumer was the common soldier, everyman. Remarque meant it to be a
comment and explanation for bis post war generation unsettled by the war.
But critics ignored that. Film different, End real evocationf Paul hit by a
sniper just as he reaches from the trnech to touch what the war has
rendered untouchable, a butterflv. Film bajuied in Germany in 1930 as
threat to Germany's Image in the world ( under Weimar!).
But everywere ambivalence: war as proving one's manhood ( Sassoon),
War as pride in duty ( Renn) - even in the populär anti-war literature (
[ expecially that written by Service men) an ambivalence. and together with
the real fascist threat, teil us something about the weackness of pacifism
even after the Great War. Thus Barbusse " Le Fett" more realistic then

Baumer, in a sense more pacifist, but Barbusse a Communists was not

» . ■ -

against the wars fought by the Soviet Union. Here another pfoblem.

And yet, on another levelll, even without pacifist movement
byl939 real fear of war. Pessimism in France, Hitlers contortiqtis in order
to beging bis war, unique in modern history. ( expl.) War itself seemed to

ö)

r

have become unpopulär despite Nazi successes at the polls and in the

streets. Here Memory of the Great War powerful. And yet, of course, when

\^^ " •- ^'

war came the ranks of conscientuonds objectors very slim: peer^pressure,
threat of punishment^play a role, and yet during^ the 2. World War raste of
desertions were very small. War deplpred and yet accepted as a legitimate
fact of life?

r

Basically pacifism clashed not only with belief -Systems like nationalism or

Communism which were deeply held, but even with those who wanted to

♦ — .. ...,--. •. -=

be pacifists, who condemned war, but had to assimilate the war
experience. But it clashed also with seif -Images of manliness ( courage,
daring, adventure) and, of course, with traditional belief- Systems which
with some exeptions, ( like Evangelism) did not include pacifism among

their creeds.

V

/.H^

'^^

t^

^\H^i^'-^^

la.

In Germany directly after the war even pacifist§ joined '^Citizens defense''

Organisation which sprang up in the near _civil war and chaos ( soldiers

Councils vs. reaction, Republic in the middle). Same time troup to guard

party meeting, all parties did it but also SPD (Thus founder of German

peace Organisation, Ludwig Quidde, himself joined, and Helmut von

Gerlach). Important: self-jefense not the same as agression. Thes orginins

of Recihsbanner, chief lasting SPD defense Organisation.

Nevertheless raised issue of militarism. uneasiness with troup which had

Sprung up not by choice ( pasifist sentimentdeep in SPD after war) but out

of a perceived neccessity and grew into a national Organisation.

n/i^ UöMEM'S TMreiSMAriON/fU LEACbUt Foi^ T^AfCC hH]) FߣEl>OM T/^UC /^6^

'A

A

Wisconsin State bronch

PAX

WOMEN'S INTERNATIONAL LEAGUE (i^^^
FOR PEACE AND FREEOOM aßBfk^^

—h^ m a d I s o n

||\^ m M w a u k e e
/» _ _ ^ , -^ '^T^i^ waukesha

6I9 Rlvcrside Drive
Madison 4, ''''isconsin

November 16, I962

Dear Prof, Mosse,

Enclosed pleas
your ßpeech to
together vjith
which were niad
Mrs. Paul V;ile
En^'lißh Depart
.'^s those of US
muoh l-^pressed

e find the orit^inal co-oy of

the m'ILPF on Ilovember 10,
a cooy with some changes
e hy onc of cur rnembers,
y, whose husband is on the
ment faculty, She, as well
who heard your talk,
with its Contents,

are

V/ould 37CU lolease oompare the cooles, then
return Mrs, VJ'iley'vS version to nie with
suQT^'cstions and corrections? Please also
indicate whether or not you xvill glve us
perrnission to send it to cur national office
in Philadelphia to serve as resource ma-
terial or as an article which they n-ii^ht
use in one of our WILPF publicetions.

Mrs,V7iley exolained that her clir.nges in
your sorech were limited to corrections
of soelling and some punctiiation changes
plus the phrases wliioh she hss typed on
ftf^short list stßoled to the copy.

You may rnturn the material to me via
my husband, Francis Hole, 203 Solls Build-
ing, by campus raail, with Instructions as
to how the VJILPF may use your talk.

llD.ny thanks.

^(4 ^7^^^'

Sincerely,

Mr^

Agnes Hol«

.«X

^

'w^<_.* <^^

//- I O ^1-

It is a ratlier new thing for Americans to live their lives \mder the

M • ' Iffll II

threat of physical extinctiono Even those who still thought about
oiir f oreign policy in terms of the nineteen firties or early nineteen
fifties, if they thought ^bout it at all, can no longer close their
eyes to reality. In this sense the Cuban crisis may well proove to
be a tuming point© The danger itself has existed ever since nuclear
arme took the place of conventional weapons in the planing of both
West and East« There has been much concem, especially in the British
campaign for nuclear disarmament with the possibility of accidental
war sparked by these very weapons themselves. An accident suhh an
unfrressen nuclear explosion, a faulty waming System, even accidental
launchings of missils are possible^But in the total pict\ire of the
danger of accidental war such catastrophies are less deingerous then
those tensions which lead to brinkmanship as a matter of national

policy o

No war in the past has started through an accident of this kind but
neither has the past known &\k€dsi weapons of such destructivBBSS» Tet
the really important question is how to avoid the brinkmanship which
can lead to a plnicky accident of the kind we all fear« What are the
causes which lead to this kind of handling of international relations?
Basically the idea of balance of power has dominated international

policy not only in cur time but for many centuries« This has become
an accepted fact, and it is this principle to which the President
referrred as the "blalance of terror"» For most people this principle
seems to be guamator of peace: if the büance is observed everything
will tum out to be allright« \
For such a view past experience provides Bcan comfort» A perfect

t

t

balance between two equal powers, or a group of euqal powers increases

■ »>■— -^'

the rate of danger of accldedtal war, that is a war no one really

2.

desires» The f irst world war is the classic example: two eqiially
balanced groups of^states formed into alliances» One of these states
pushing its interests jtist a little too far» No one desiring war
but a Chain reaction sparked which took two months to come to
fruitions f or it meant the mobölisation of armed forceB on both
sideso

Now historical analogies can be most misleading. What is wrong with

r. ■• ■

this one is that both power groups are mobilised already. But it iß
exactly sudi an analogr^which in the populär mind, and not only in
the populär mind does create a vi»ien' which could lead into pushin«
too far# That part of the analogy holds» For the preservation of
tne Däaance ineans% stigmatising that power which oooms to upsetrit
as an agresßor aoTlt evokes at once the parallel to Hitler and
then to the Munich settlement. Here apprently an agressor had not
been stopped and the balance had been upset - henc* the eventual

**MHMUM«aiaM«M«M'.'%^

bloody war© The \ise of this analog^ illustretes a very dangerous
t\im of mjbnd: a concentration upon the balaisnce of power aHS a
balance for peace when in reality there is no evidence that such
a bsLLance has indeed kept peace for a long perios o* time.
Moreover it ignores a fundamental: the nature of the govemment and
Society of each power is of cardinal importance. The old line diplomatic
history ignored this and we still tend to think of the power struggle
in abstract terms. The brut^fact is: the Soviet Union is not Nazi
Germany, it differs in social structure and in the need to expand or
explode* Otherwise there would be no kope whatsoever in avoiding war»,
accidental or otherwise» Unlesß one can believe that the Soviet Union
is indeed different from Hitler then no Balance of terror will preserve
the pease in the end - for the internal neccessitieß of the regime will
be victorious over all other consideration». Even if we think in termß

3.

of a amall war slittding into nuclear war itself*

Prom this point of view the greatest danger may well be the kind of

Image one nation has of another: both in terms of internal pressrire

and in terms of polioy makingo In that case weapons ixe indeed the only

thing you can rely upon. Because we have this igig^^ of the Soviet

Union combined with a belief in power - the balance of power As

a thing in itself - we advocate the paradom: arm for peace* Like

WM****" •-■.«»-»a:-«'^— in I j Ulli will II

\

most Slogans this is not thouöit_,jöirQugh and in a civilisation always
oocupied with technology what lies behind the use of weapons , ths
balance of t error, is not thought through eithero For behind it lies
the image we have of them and which they have of us - both extreme

— - ■ -■ - — I ^if ^*i'- n I S. -■ -- -1— — M^»-^

waM&»^'-i^

and both baaed on the prime fact of agression as bullt into both
Systems of govemment» The word "imperialist" is common to both sides.

iniiiwai

It is this which prevents a rational approach to the problems which
divide us. MoreoTer the Munich analogy makes it difficult to make any
concession: Kennedy has been linked to this and so has Kruchev now
by the Chinese» Appeasament is a dirty word and it defeats diplomacy
which must be based upon mutual concessiono I hope to have made clear

rjii— W

•«Mi

■mww

that in reality appeasement is a historical fixed term applied to 1938
and an regime which had agression biiilt in as most people saw even at

the time - it can be applied only as a Slogan to cur w6n day, a Slogan

■'■■■ ■^- » -•- ^' - • , «'-' ^

to prevent an detente«

fc ... ■

All this baggage should be thrown overboard» We must work to rid the

World of false security through a so called balance of power, which im-
plies a highly dangerous and abstract idea of power, and of false histo]

analogies as well* For these have meant rigid postures, irrevooable com-

m

mitments when these are unteBble«

Let me be conorete and this about the German question: the most dangerous

4.

of all« Why is this so? This has been made piain again by a German

Magazine

this fall» As a resxat the editor and staff have been imprisoned for

treason, for revealing military secrets - so I take it that their

Story is true» The Manoeuvres were a fiasco - within 7 days the
Russians were on the Rhine. Why is this important? It means that
a non nuclear war cannot be fought by us in Germany: that we, as
things stand, will have to use such weapons. Here the balance ot
power cannot be ad just ed through the fighting of a ^'small" war
the argument of those who believe that this can be done and thus
the balance always restored»

Moreover Grermany is an aerea were the Status quo cannot f orever be
maintained: which is Adenauers argumenta The Berlin wall actually
was gesture towards the maintenance of this Status quo, towards
stabilising east Germany* I doubt if this can be done in the long
run. Here the Soviet Union own attitude is committedj' We will not
give an inch, at least so we say» The point about this rigid attitude
is that because of it we loose sight of the real, objective: a free
West Berlin economicsüLly solvent, and that means having direct
relations of some sort with West Germany» The main problem could
have been easilly solved years ago: by recognising East Germany»
The price has gone up now. But it is difficult to see what real
difference it wo\ild make of UN troups would be Substitut ed for ours»
This is not even a military question: but it is instead a problem of
Prestige und er the blanance of power idea» of appeasement which no
President can easilly afford.
The common sense Solution stares one in the face - but it is defeated

5.

by the preconception I have talked about. Disarmament with inspection
is aaother example of -the same thing. The rival Images of^ "irnj^rialism"
immediatly bring "spying" to the Soviet mindo Bat in such a balaAce of
power sitxiation, which is a Situation of mistrust, unilateral disarma-
ment is"anTmpractical Suggestion. Neither side would buy thia. But
inspection does not have to be spying if men can rid themselves of
theTlinders of which I have talked. I have talked about them because
they seem to me the fundamental thing. Indeed a detente must come

before disarmamanet : tMe severe problems must be solved first.

In Germany we could go beyond even a sensible Berlin settlemeajntt
if we stopped thinking only in terms of power and false historical
analogies and began to use some COTimon sense. The only hope f or a
united Germany lies in disengagement and disarmament, as a cpncrete
Solution to a concrete diplomatic problem. But what do we hear: thia
would create a "power vacuum". Again a Slogan which defined power as
something seif generating based on weapons of human destruction. Bat
obviosuly an argument based upon the same preconceptions I have talked
about. Keeping the West European nations armed^will, in the end, be

seif defeating from the point of view of US policy. But again we are
sT^obses'sed with the balance between two powers thatbwe cannot see
thls. Por a Western Europe, once it gets the Bomb, will itself re-
treat into a posture of armed neutrality. This must be obvious for
anvone talking to the ruling crides of these nations, and especially
thos^ of England. Why should their ^lif e depend on thejvagiaries of
US or Russian tugs of policy?

Even here the present policy will ppoove seif defeating in terms of
cur national interests. The problem are rigid attitudes, lack of
flexi^ility and there««re an inability to exploit opportunities>

m/m

6.

After all, one of the best opportunities was the Cuba - Türkisch basls
exchange for it coxild have been the beginning of really inpected disar^
mament (expl. ) But instead idea of balaince of power and appeasement
intervened again»

I do not mean this to be merely a negative kind of talk: analysis iB
important but drawing conclusions from it is eqiially important* I also
think, and this has been implied in all I have said, that one has to

wtM«M^aaa>iWlH

operate within the framework of what is possible and not with utopias -
the danger is too pressing. No great power will sacrifice it's interests
or its sphere of interests, that is clear» But one can operate for peace
Within these boundaries and do it well» The task is therefore to debunk

and with historical analogies which are false. rT rrrallgo that

I ~ I l«»Mil 1

a mental attitude obsessed withi power as the stabilising element as such

ise. /xixggx^Bc "cnaii the first

_ "^ J !

is more-jtiffioul% ft?3r-lt seems to tif^ in with Fe-trrrf'T'frrTnrnliTnti on of

force as a virtue in Itself which I see all too prevalent in much of

modern populär culture\ Otr mental oondition is preconditioned in this

respect. But we can oniy\^try» It is on this levell I think that we must

meet the danger of accidental war: by removing some of the causes which

\ /
make it possible» This is all the more urgent as many people and much

of the press have taken ±t as a lesson frok Cuba that force pays off:
but the last chapter of tl\^story is not yet written, what worked in
Cuba will shortly^not work i^erlin* And this I think illustrates a
dilemma and a frame of mind who^e Impulse to seif destruction staggers
the Imagination» \ /

„.^.. ^ ^ , / ^^°^ °^ °o"^\ ties i»- with our preoccupation
With technolosr/ power is something to manWlate in a teohnological sense.

The depersonalisation process had gone very V.. So far that the actual
social forces and hiMan forces behind it becom\an abstraction.

7.

But this cannot be done in a vacuum, Por these attitudea are botmd
up with a ctiltxii^al pattem of life. We are preoccupied with tech-
nology - not just in the matter of war and peace - power is something
to manipulate in a %eekRieai-ee»ee- technological sense» What we
face is tendency towards abetraction which omitts social and hximan
forces behind it - really a process of depersonalisation in cur
culture» This seems to me really basic, We believe in great and
impersonal, 4ven deterministic forces ruling the affiars of merip
a spirit of inevitability is abroad o And this is connected with
triumph of f orce - in a highly competitive society» But the other

MnMi.: w Jr^o«.*«b2

side also believes in the existence of a determinism©

It seems to me sometimes man himsilf is caught in between these

mill stoneso Within o\ir own society all those who work against
exaltation of force - wether in Comic books or literatiire - work
for peace. I have been called in print a "piuoiis liberal" and I
plead guilty. Por the State of mind which is driving towards war
seans to deny the right of free conscious individual activity -
the only thing which might stop it. It is those who think of men
in terms of the manipulation of power, of deterministic world views,
who in the last resort are the htiman factor in accidental - or not
so accidental - war. For in the.. last resort wars spring from the
whole complex fabric of national cultiire i*»J^and it is towards

this that those working for peace must direct their attention.

\

n/z^

JOAJI ^T <j'^ '! 'O -'Jf^ c

^^ -.

■w

V.

Use nationalism in gerj al way, but many nationalisms

"" '^ '■'■'" ■ ■ —

Use Zionism in a eeneral way but many Zionisms.

Must Start with emancipation, because Zionism saw it seif part of the emancipatory
process, away from the ßhetto, towards " noramlisation".

Khen Jews emancipated in V est this was by humanism, enlightenemnt , toleration.
Jews in the West and those who yearned for menacipation in east accepted these
valuest _f itted their circumstances. Best hope for expanded toleration.
Nationalism in their countries they joined was a universal nationalism, based
upon elnightenemnt, universal values, equal rights. Liberalism. ^'athan

Ghettos: Schiller -Goethe and first Lessing. ( Singer novels).

Herzls nationalism ( hostlie towards religion, rabbis. Liberal utpoia in

Altneuland). Cultured, ration_al person and friend. Importance of personal

relationships.

Bumiistory evolved past age of emancipation towards a narrower nationalism,
stress upon Community rather then personal relationships, emotion rather then
reason. Most Jews clung to their original Ideals ever more isolated (expl.)

But what about Jewishjiationalism ßa against this background? Ideal of
Community, seif identity ( clear shared neither common history nor common relipion
Of host country). Matte^ed as enl receeded, a matter of a middle class elite.
Nationalism based upon Community,

^MMMMMaaM

Effort by erzl generation to fuse nationalism and enl. in way of beginnings of
modern nationalism ( Fichte, Arndt always i ed).

Let US take the famous attempt to do this: Martin Buber. i>^f^^J

:i

Keltsch, "ergmann - all believed in an eventual bi -national State, many left in

•mm^^"^^^ III-

19^8. But in ea Stern Europe wer e ^here was persecutionwasvthere a greater realims, so
^tiüf^^ ^^jiiSäiJ^^^^^^v^ the same..and problem for National ism ( Achad A-am'
Solution, Gordon etc.) A people needs culture but not a State ( even 195« President

»w "

Shazar: intellectual ci cles alienation because of the over -estimation
of sovereignty in Israel". Hans Kohn^Zionism as a moral cum spiritual
movement with which we could realise out most fundamental convictions

■Tsr

lUBBBaMaa

■*' 'T-

\

Use nationalism in gerj al vay, but many nationalif

sms

Use Zionism in a general way but many Zionisms.

Must Start with emancipation, because Zionism sav it seif part of the emancipatorv

process, away from the ghetto, tovards " noramlisation".

When Jews emancipated in I- est this was by humanism. enlißhtenemnt , toleration.

I ..II ^^ «•MVNftMMMk^MMtfMV ^ ..

Jews in the Kest and those who yearned for menacipation in east accepted these
valuest Jitted their circumstances. Best hope for expanded toleration.

Nationalism in their countries they joined was a universal nationalism, based
upon elnightenemnt, universal values, equal rights. Liberalism. "athan

- »

the Wise Magne Charta of central Europen Judaism. !%fiJHv ^ ^4^^ > ^ ^^^i^p^
Ghettos: Schiller -Goethe and first Lessing. ( Singer novels).
Herzls natj^onalism ( hostlie towards religion, rabbis. Liberal utpoia in
Altjieuland). Cultured, rational person and friend. Importance of personal

relationships.

BucWistory evolved Past^age of emancipation towards a narrover nationalism,
stress upon Community rather then personal relationships, emotion rather then
reason. Most Jews clung to their original Ideals ever more isolated (expl.)

But what about Jewish nationalism ga against this background? Ideal of
Community, seif identity ( clear shared neither common history nor conmion religion
of host country). Mattered as enl receeded, a matter of a middle class elite.
Nationalism based upon Community.

Effort by ^^erzl generation to fuse nationalism and enl. in way of beginnings of
modern nationalism ( Fichte, Arndt always i ed).

^A^j^ ^i^n

r^

Let US take the famous attempt to do this: Martin Buber. ^ ^P>^'J

p. la (P,^^, Uff^ ijU , A^ /VW-^ - P^t^^-t^ 5 "-^^^I
Weltsch, "ergmann - all believed in an eventual bi -national State, many left in
19A8. But in eastern Europe were_there was persecutionwasvthere a greater realims, so
callled? Ethical__imperative the same and problem for Na_tisnalism ( Achad A-am-
Solution, Gordon etc.) A people needs culture but not a State ( even 195« President
Shazar: intellectual ci des alienation because of the over -estimation

of sovereignty in Israel". Hans Kohn^Zionism as a moral cum spiritual
movement with which we could realise out most fundamental convictions

\

2.

our pacfism, Liberalism and Humanism". -^

Ar ab Que tion in Bi -^'ational State. But those who were enr,aged in reality of

r-

coloniasation similar: Founder, Arthur R^ppin: (1920 Arab~riots cominp,),

Is it possible that Zionism will deteri^rate into crass chavinism"Jk "ust keep
strictly to ethical precepts. But Settlements had to defend themselves.
Here emphasis upon defense Jew underdog not with strenRth but right on bis

side. Eraly 20ties legimised Zionismas one of the progressive forces

in the World, Slow development of Yishuv maant Rradualism possible, and that

"♦f WM- «»«-"■*

this mißht remain peaceful. But the hero of the 1920ties a mixture of an

■ " 5'f^rv^i. - ■ ■ .'-- — -

ethical socialism and dcfen/e;
— I^Jl^ •

Josephjrumpledori/soci^listj;ho plowed bj day and stoood Ruard by night. Myth of
^^^ fallen heroes then, and indeed now, does not contain Single refcrence to
"'iJLif^^''"' ^ ""^^ ^'ational Monuments etc,). Anita .^hapira( " Myth of defensive
heroism"... Ilowever heroism it became under the pressure of reality: the attacks,
the defense,

Euloß^ suffused with admiration of th^ radiance of youth, the gift of courage,
the sanctity of perseverance and total deication".>>Not by itself agressive etc. but
the Building stones f or an^ image of a " new Jew" at variance with thTiünd of
'"'^^L^^.':':"^^ human ist tradition which had resulted from Jewish emancipation.
Here normalisation process directed versus the JewiJh stereotype (exDl )->

Max Nordau's '• muscle Jews", appeal to ancinet fi^ghtin traditions, Maccebbeees -
Gymnastic Organisation as centrao national spirit ( same as all modern nationalism)
Imge of_the courageous, proud^nd combattive Jew. Methmorphosis a Zionist dream
come^^true. Herzl the liberal humanist could not^ hold back his tears when he saw
a cavalcade of youg Jewish horsemen in 1898.

Dalance^difficult between new image of Jew and ideal of Jew as intellectual,
pacifist^and humanist of the Buber kind. (State as a step toeards humanisty).
National ^omanticism exercised itsi influence but also Nietzsche on some Zionists

T"e issue in retrospecti normalisation, imap,e of the Jew assimilated
to that of the other European heroes versus the priority of the ethicsl, liberal,
the emphasisu- upon Zionism as as the means »f-the-iev for the seif -development
of the individual Jew ( Prague) , not sovereignty or national considerations.

3.

ethos of the fißhter in Yishuv.

<; ^_!^"^^^ (Shapira) in one of his stories ( Mi-kan u, Mi- Kan) son avenges

J He: —

< ^l^yi"e ^y A^Jbs^by a counsin. «-y isnot adept at learning. displays
/ l°!i^,5^ ^"'^ bellißerence. Brenner towards hls creation: wonder, affection and
a sense of strageness. An unnatural progeny of his fathers77 fd ^' Ä^ ^';

„. .. " ■ ^ ff ^

^"^ " ""'Ü^ ^^''""' '^^ '1^^ •'^"'" f^lfilled a utopia of the stereotypes
and slandered u til today ( Drug -Store novels about the Mossad).

'^"' '\^^^.°."^^ opposed to the older Image of the Jew and of Zionism
as a culture. You can say that the triumph of the toujh Jews was
a logica^o^sequence of staheood under the circumstances. of the longing
for normalisation. Vor most of those who cam- ( I^^Tnow again come) to
Palestine it was a matter of physical security ( irony of history), not

""'*'*"*''" ' irii „j, i.,iii iiii.iiii « irriii ■ — ' — - <•.■■■■■ •■■

ereatly i"2f!f,sted^ in question of what sorto of nationalism. or how to

Combine the tradition of which I spoke.

Yet more then re^olitik involved but fundamental quastions:

How is Zionist nationalism different from others ( Balcan State), for Zionist

do have another nationalisv tradition

ml iMiH

(I

If It Is not, If norm,li,,«lon 1, to ro .11 the vay l. tl.,re a bte.ck vitl, dl.pora

■MaMMMMMMMI«

C< AS/TM -v^ ^

tradit^ mor£_£i*s t«r_emancipation and «esimi- its traditions^i? Or is there
i»e6lwe»BbBB*t^ft,M.^BiBPi»,-ef.te«ph-.^ew9>r- a convergence? ( Tough Jews).
Or is the humanist^ nationalism not dead^ven in iTTael ( lack of chauvinism)
if badly eroded.

Impossiblevto abolish nat__iolism. task is t humanise it. Here Zionism pioneered.
Ended in f^allure? Not possible to humanise national isml. Fundamental question.

3a,
Quite loßical defense of Israel government today:,'vhat had ahppened is a consequence
°^ '^^ ü^.ll'"''''^ decis^n of the Jewish people to be actor anrnot subiect of
history. Historical actors committ misdeeds, and should be judßed like all other
naUons. There is a double Standard of judRement here, perhaps. Bu7 this raises
the q"estion^_of_n_orma_lisation, it puts this upper most - but fron, o r p nt of
viev it rojects the other national tradition I have talked about. ^ß^^V^

la.

Foundations of modern nationalism: History, Language. But today want to
speack about third facx.r, if you like: the intigration of newly awakened

Fr. Rev. etc) into the State, nation. J.ack or destruction
of personal bibnds between ruler and ruled in v^litlonfv^^ev

•-^' -.»

appeal of national ideal to security in industrial age. More then
dynasty n^ed. ( fight in Germany of Bmperor for death 5^ King and
fatherland:;^ - wanted to leave out King.
Indeed a new^idea with Fr. Rev. thA of the " people".

•mm

$^^^41^^^^^ ^^^'^^"^^^f iit-t^

^l^l-^"^ L^^^

Nationalism ^^V *^^^^^^^'^ >^ ^^^^l^^ ^a H^ty^

Republic. abstract vs. concretej,llegiance and evenT^cial
contract.

Abs^ot to .ake concrete ( cite Huizinga), like religion. Christ.
^"ather^^Rousseau. % People worshipping themselves'jK
Concrete: Constitution for pJland. Pest_ival8 of rev^

^(J;)every participan^_also actor ( Cabanis. I8I0). However. reality

contact between^^se leading^and_public. ( responsa, balcony).
i'Thus :

/> ^, shaping crowd through mass participation, a kind of direct

democracy in revoltuionary festivals.
C ^2-, abstract concrete; Symbols.

/

Thus attempt to integrate masses into revolutionary Republic.
^cedent for modern nationalism.
State got is syil^ls in age of Fr. Hev.

a.
b.

b.

nag ( origin battle. personal to ruler. no generalised as symbol
1-ational anthems ( expol. nation militant. New; Marseillaise.
old; God save the King. Cpt-1f£-*ii ff AHHV .

^^^tioj^_Kon^ents. By mid Century no longer rulers. generale
but also poets, writers. Importance of c.ature to Nationalism.

songs, poetry. Spaces for action: dancing etc.

ö"xiS8, poetry. Spaces for action: dancing etc tf/J0fJ»^{^^^^1^

(^, -Na*i still deeper; humans^symbols . ^^ationaj sterr^y^rf

- coicide^d^with several imp. social andarti.t.. developments
a. respectability exol ) mihhi^ -, ^'^' «^ ^""^ •< ^'-»^. «^A/»*,Yr
--— - ^ ^expl.) Middle classdominance-, ( Queen Louise

#icture) Ideals, restraint etc.

p&f±

.. .eMiscovery_of^^ .,, -rÄ^^^^- ^^"^ "--

content to be passive in Industrial age. Wincklemann etc. J

c. romantic movement: colour. soj£. " inwardness". ' C^u^0;an^-

2.

^ationalism annexed these movements« Formed a stereotype out

of them. Ideal type German, Englishman etc.

Constructed'^T^^^erse of symboTs and myths ( History), of democracy

( equlity qf Status not function).

Not all of nationalism örtroired this raodel, the fii*^i^®.^£^*f-^9/8

belonged to it. Before*:^iberal nationalism ( social contract r, j^f

f^r"of""masses. Fear of conformity. ( Herzl: masses will chase ^' f^''"

US out of nations, and were we have taken refuge they will kill

US.) Old fashionedMiationalism-^Wilhelm vs. Wagner.

But however, all those features making abstract concrete there

1^ , -/X.*' »'•"'> V ^\

r^i.^l!^^

in some fashion. Eventually NS all fascism imified them.
based upon them. '2 problems then here solved:
intigration of the nasses

,^-.-»....v-..-^~-.. »••*•••• »•*■*"*-"'

■.»......-*"

r^.

making 'abstract concrete. Civic religion. Orwell: " devotion

1 „ -,*•«»« »u «^^•*''*«^*vnk''^ «M*^« «-^»nM«^,,^^,^^^«»^

^,,..^«M »•

to sornething that is changing but is feit to be^ystically

the same/5;

Why lasted: needs it met.

"^■■—rHn»! iiowiimJ'»

i

2.

Xt

ationalism annexed these movement s. Pormed a stereotype out

of them. Ideal type German, Englishman etc.

Constructed"71^erse of symbo'l^ and myths ( History), of democracy

( equlity of itatus not function).

Not all of nationalism fi^^d this model, the ^JJ^^^^^.^J^^^

belon^ed to it. Before:^iberal nationalism ( social contfactT, uf^

fear of masses. Fear of conformity. ( Herzl: masses will chase

US out of nations, and were we have taken refuge they will kill

US.) Old fashionedMiationalism -^Wilhelm vs. Wagner.

But however, all those features making abstract concrete there

in some fashion. Eventually NS all fascism imified them.

based upon them. 2 problems then here solved:

intigration of the masses

making 'abstract concrete* Civic religion. Orwell: ■ " devotion

Si.-«j««*.»,M,'»w«.» •»»«»•»>«•• v»*.««i»« ■»►"»*«» »,««>■>••» ^^

to something that is changing but is feit to be^>ystically

the same/5.

Why lasted: needs it met.

Miss Fleck«

Cultupal Hlstoiry ^ake Up.

2^ 'Ib

?^S

1. Answer ONE: (50min«)

a« " A Church Reformed not one made new", dlscuss the approprlatness
of thls Statement as applied to lAitheraulsm or Oalvlnlsm«

b« " A responsible Citizen Is he who does not dlstiirb the order
of thlngs" ( ^elnachton) dlscuss the polltlcal thought of
TNO of the men you have studled«

2« Answer TWO ( 50 min»)

a« Dlscuss the economic pollcy of King Henry IV«

b« Dlscuss the Influence of the Habsburg -Vallos wars upon
the development of Lutheranlsm In ^ermany«

c« Dlscuss the rellglous pollcles of Catherine de ^edlcl«

3« Answer OTO of the followlng: glvlng approxlmate date as well
as sketchlng content:

a« Peace of Augsburg '^'^'^ '^'^^^

b« Confesslons of Augsbiirg

c« Council of Trent« t-v^o ^'JS^

4^" b?

^^i'^^f

i»<ii.' mtan

i^v.^

10^''

\ CULTUr^L HISTORYi FIKAL EXAIHNATION

Januaiy 27,1947

AnsTffer at loast. 3 guestiona^

and mtörnatlonall.Bi viere prei^ent ander ChaJie« V' -^At^l Culture

III. "A resporiBlble cSllzen lo he who does not dlsturb the ordar r.f i-h4„ . «

MacniavalH'a ideaa of man»s rolatlonsMp to the State?

IV. DlacuBB the iafliienoe of the HaDaüurr-Valol«' »«r« Mapo i «h^q \

cultural.relitiou. and polltioal evl^ts iS ^Jope. ^ ""^^ ^ ^"

V. "A Ghui-ch Heformed not one raade new". On wimt baal* ^rri »i i-h
Juatificatlon could the Refornera take thS! tanS?

VI. Would It oe true to say that wlth tha Reformation the Ideas and Ideala

u^?rth:^rors*isrc:n?i?;r '-^^ ^^ ^-« -- ^-'^" af lia^r-

wJ:^iat

CULTURAL HISTORY2 FÜJAL VDCAJ.TinATION

January 27, 1947

Anawer at loast 3 questlons^

!• •Tha advoraariaa of Charloa V T/era tho cha2rQ>lon8 of Individuall am ••
hla adheronts were thoußhtloaa coamopolltana» Both national Cultiire
and Intomatlonallsm were preßont imder Charlea V» But that Kmperor
waa not able to brlnf^ the two concepta Into harmony»'* (Trlbach.
Karl y.) Dlscuaa thla theala«

!!• Dlacuaa the evolutlon & Inportance of uQrstlclam from the tlmea of
DeOroote to tr oae of St. Ignatlus Loyola«

III. ''A xvjaponsible Cltlsen la ho who doea not dlaturb the order of thinga.
(üelanchton). How doea thla stateüjont relato to Luther, Calvin and
Machlavelll * s Icleaa of man'a relatlonahlp to üie State?

IV* Dlaciiaa the Influenae of the Hababurg-Valola wara (1489-1559) on
cxiltural, rellflous and polltlcal evonta In J^hirope.

▼• "A Cliurch Reformed not cne neide now**. Qn w!iat baala and wlth i^at
Juatlflcatlon ccruld the Hefopsiers take thls atand?

VI. vvould It be true to aay thct wlth tl.e Rofömiatlon the Ideaa and Ideale
of the Italien Honalaaance vanlrfied fron \^o face of Zurope, at leaat
untll tho end of the 16 th Century?

"**-

CULTURAL niRTC^lYt FINAL EXJünriATIOII

27, 1047

änrnnKT at loagt S Quoqtiana#

!• **Tho advorsarieo cjf nharles V wex^ tho chte^^lOTe of IndlvlduallaB**
hls edharenta wore thoo^tloös coaBK>polltan8. Both national Culture
and IntomatlonallflB «ore prosont tmder Charloa V» But that ftepamr
mia not able to l>rlng the two concrata Into hnmony.^ (?rlbach*
Karl V>) DlaeuM thla tteala« .

II» niscusa the evolutlcn k lisportance of nyctlclaa fraa the tlnaa of
DeGroote to tt.owm of nt. Xgwitlua Loyola»

III« "A roaponalble Citizen lo Iw irtio doas not dloturb tho osniar of thingo»"
(Itolanchton ) • Bern doea thla statasiant relato to liathoPp Calvin and
Machlavolli »8 ideaa of laon^s relationahlp to the State?

IV# Disciuje the Influonce of the Ilababurg-Valol« wäre (1489^1559) cn
cultural^ roli,?rlous and political evoota in ilSurope»

V« ^A Church Hefomed not cna vmde now**» Qq «hat baala and «itti itiat
Juatlfication cculd tlie Hofcaraierß take tJiia atand?

VI# fteuld It bo truo to cay thßt with the '^.oronaotion the ideas and ideale
of the Italien .ionaisaance vani^ed fx^oci tho face of Ii2urq;>e, at loaat
untll tho ond of tho IGth ceaitiiry?

v\

\:

June 6, 1949

Cultural Hlstory
16:110

Final Examination

Answer Questions ONE and TWO, and ONE other question:

1. Prom the hlstory of the 17. and 18. centuries lllustrate the
changing meaning and importance of ONE of the follov;ing:
Classicism, State of Nature, Individuali sm.

2. "Theory derives from practice". Hov; far do the thought and
Ideals of the 18. Century bear out this statement in refer-
ence to TOO of the follov/ing:

a) the Problems facing Frederick the Great.

b) the Problems faced by the French Monarchy,

c) the Problems faced by the "Germanies".

3. Analyze the v/ay in v/hich the "quest for security" in Inter-
national Relations reflected itself in 18. Century thought.

4. Discuss the extent of Rousseau' s influence on the beginnings
of Romanticism.

5. Try to arrive at a definition of the "Enlightenment'' by using
the ideas of Voltaire, Rousseau, and of the ''Rcccoco".

6. Take ONE of the books you have read and evaluate it critically
according to the following factors:

a) author's concept of the "^nlightenment,

b) his attitude tov/ards Romanticism.
Be specific in 2^0^^? examples.

7. How do you account for the decline of the French Monarchy •
from the greatnoss of Louis XIV to its condition under
Louis XV?

V

M

■*.

«V

l'J ,e- ,.-Wil'."

Part I
(20 min.)

CULTURAL HISTORY 16.117
Final hxamination, Monday, January 26,1948

Outline oriefly within their historical context two
of the following terms or concepts; Weltschmerz, "HTolk,
German Christ, World ^^istorical people, droit d»aubaine,
the hero, pietism, revisionism.

Fart^ II.
(50 min. )

{^

Choos
Liber
conce
follo
Marx,
Sohle
basis
of 19
in ge

e two of the lollowing broad concepts s Progress,
ty, Chris tianity, and discuss the meaning of the
pts of your choice in relation to Two of the
wing men or raovementsj Nietsche, Wagner, Pichte,

Chateaubriand, Gobineau, Hegel, LiDeralism,
iermacher, Sturm und Drang, Humboldt. Qn the

of your discuss ion would It be correct to speak
th Century concepts of Liberty, progress, etc.
neral terms?

"Part III.
(30 min. )

3 d

Part IV.
(10 min.)

Ans wer one of the following;

1.

2.

"Kistory i s an exposition,a testimony. The diversity
of its subject matter prevents it from being a science.
It is only material for science, fatality does not
govern society.. there is a life, a soul, a liberty
which defies precise and fixed measurements of the
kind that applies to matter. As regards society,
materialism is absurd. (Proudhon)
Discuss Marx»s view of history on the basis of this
challenge.

V<e have been concerned w ith the dialectic. Discuss
this method as it was used before Marx and as Marx
himself made use of it.

3. Evaluate the contribut ions of 19th Century thought
towards Fascism or i^ational Socialism. Would it be
correct for- examüle, to call Nietsche, Wasner or
Pichte the first Nazis"? ' ' ^ .

4. "All movements of thought have their basis in
political, social and economic realities". Discuss
this Statement in relation to any of the movements
which we have tr.ated in the 19th Century.

Write a very brief statement as to how the contact wi th
the movements we have treated has influenced your ow n
thinking about the present world, bein., as specific as
Dossible.

>

EÜROPEAlg CÜLTÜRE

April 4, 1955

Im Each of those terms typlfles the Ideas of one man you hava
studled* Taklng TÜRKE of theso: (a.) aasoclate tho term
uith rrhlch tho man ^ose thoiaght they fit best, (h.) brlefly
define what he meant by thls term*

a«
h.
c*
d,
e«
f*

The Will to Pouer

Progress of the human mlnd

world-hlstorlcal Indivlduals

Genius Of Chrlstlanlty

Polltlcs Is the solence of llberty

German Chaapflscterlstlcs

Hero-Worshlp

2« Answer ONE of these:

a« Analyze the ccnnectlon betiereen Romantlclsm and
Natlonallsm* What romantle f orces whlch ue have
studled made towards Hatlonallsm and isrhlch could
be sald to oppose suQh a development?

b, What elements of Soclallst thoiight have a connectlon
wlth Romantlclsm?

c. Anal3r2e the connectlon bet\7een Stirrm and Drang and
the Romantlc movement«

(^

•►^p

EXAMINATIOII

Novomber, 1950

PI 07 Brown

Answer TWO

!• Dlscuan Chauiberc' attitude towards Henry VIII and
compare It with Mattlngly»s vlews»

2 9 Analyze the religlous element in the thoujfrht of Moore

and Era Sirius ♦

3» Try and defino v/hat is moant by the terni "Oxford
Reformers": why wore they called "reforwers"?

April 6, 1949
1:30 P.M.

Cultural History

Mid-Term Examlnatlon

Please put title of books you have read on Examination booklet*

I. CHOOSE OITE ONLY of the followin^: (40 min.)

a. Analyze the relatlonship betv/een the rise of science and
ideas of political absolutism in the 17. Century.

b. Discuss Louis XIV' s idea of kingship in relation to
either the scientific thought of the time, or the
Ideals of the Enlightenment .

c. Analyze the concept of an '^harmonious and v/ell ordered
universe" as it appears in T\JO of the following: Nev/ton,
Voltaire, Pascal, Kobbes.

d. '^God has v/illed to hide himself" (Pascal) discuss the
thought of the Jansenists and account for the Opposition
their ideas encountered.

e. Discuss the thesis that vvithout Gustavus Adolphus Inter-
vention German Protestantism v/ould have been e::terninated.

f. Analyze the "'/,uest for Security" as it expressed itsolf
in the relationship of European States either in the 17.
or in the 18. centuries.

g. Discuss and account for the classical influence at the
Court of Versailles.

h, Analyze the interrelationship between nercantilist

doctrines and either the political ideas or the progress
of Science in the 17. Century.

II. CHOOSE ONE, .^iving approxinate date. (5 nin.)
List the main provisions of the:

a. Treaty of V/estphalia

b. Treaty of Utrecht.

III. CHOOSE ONE, giving approxinate dates:
List the princip3ta^ periods of the:

a. Thirty Years 7ar

b. The '/ars of Louis i'^IV.

(5 min. )

April 6, 1949
1:30 PJU

Cultural liistory

Mid-Terra Examlnation

Please put title of books you have read on Examination booklet.

I. CHOOSE OITE OWLY of the follov;inr^: (40 min.)

a. Analyze the relationship betv/een the rise of science and
ideas of political absolutism in the 17. Century.

b. Discuss Louis XIV's idea of kingship in relation to
either the scientific thought of the time, or the
Ideals of the Enli^htenment .

c. Analyze the concept of an "harmonlous and v/ell ordered
universe" as it appears in T\JO of the following: Nev/ton,
Voltaire, Pascal, Kobbes.

d. ^'God has willed to hide himself" (Pascal) discuss the
thought of the Jansenists and account for the Opposition
their ideas encountered.

e. Discuss the thesis that without Gustavus Adolphus Inter-
vention German Protestantism v/ould have been er.terninated.

f. Analyze the "-Tauest for Security" as it expressed itself
in the relationship of European States either in the 17,
or in the 18. centuries.

g« Discuss and account for the classical influence at the
Court of Versailles.

h. Analyze the intorrelationship between nercantilist

doctrines and either the political ideas or the progress
of Science in the 17. Century.

II. CHOOSE ONE, p;iving approxinate date. (5 r.iin.)

List the main provisions of the;

a. Treaty of V/est^halia
b« Treaty of Utrecht.

III. CPIOOSE ONE, giving approxiuate dates:
List the principÄi-Zperiods of the:

a. Thirty Years /ar

b. The ^fars of Louis ^'IV.

(5 min. )

Ciatural Hlstory
Mld Tenn Make üp*

Monday II April, 1949.

Chose ONE only ( 3§ min.)

a. Discuss the effect of the rise of Science upon
Political %iought in the 17, ^entury*

\ b» Discuss liOTiis XIV. as the pace maker for the
Enligh tenment •

c« I>iscuss the place of faith and of the scientific method
in the tho-ught of ^^ewton#

d. Piscuas the meaning of the term "absolutism^ for either
Ollis XIV, Colbert or Hobbes#

e« Discuss the correctness of 'calling the Thirty ^ears %r
" the last religioTis war "•

f. Analyse the "öiought of the *^ansenists and accoxmt for the
Opposition which they encountered»

Chose TWO giving approximate dates: ( ^5 min.)

a. List the terms of the Peace of Westphalia.

b. List the terms of the ^eace of Utrecht.

c# List the wars of Lo\i5s XIV, giving the line up of
SatioBB on either side in each.

^'^

.CüLTüRAL HISTORY - 16:109
Final Examlnatlon, Fall Term

.1.

b.

Choose ONE of the followlng, answerlng the question on the basis
or yo\rp outslde reading as well as the knowledge you have ac-
3^rS®^„^^ y^^ other work in the course. LIST THE BOOKS YOU
HAVE READ AT THE BEGINNING OP THE QUESTION. (50 minutes)

a. Discuss the contention that the Sixteenth Centxiry marks
the consplracy of all great social and political forces
on behalf of sovereign power" (pirenne)*

"They dreamt of reconciling religion wiüi the world".
Discuss any 3 figures you have studied in view of this
Quotation •

"The quest for Order"*.. in what manner do you see it implied
in the thought and events of the Reformation or the Counter-
Reformation, or the rise of the Sciences, or "üie attitudes
of the leaders in the Ihirty Years War?

Discuss and evaluate the consequences of the roll played
by the Monarchy during the religious crises which followed
the Reformation.

d.

II. Define and show the evolution and historical importance of 3

of the following concepts in the period we have studied: (öümin.)

a. The Priesthood of all believers

b. The "elect"

c. Populär sovereignty

d. The idea of reason of State

e. The indirect power of the Papacy

III. Briefly list the exsential features of 3 of the following: (15 min.)

a. Union of Utrecht (1579)

b. Edict of St. Germain (1570)

c. Estates General (1614)

d. The Mesta

e. Council of Trent

f • Ecclesiastical Ordinances of Geneva (1541)

g« Augsb\arg Confession (1530)

fl' ■•-.•.

■STSS

CULTURAL HISTORY - 16:109
Final Examlnatlon, Fall Term

Choose ONE of the followlng, answerlng the questlon on the baals
of your outside readlng as well as the knowledge you have ac-
SViJ!®^ ^^ y^^^ other work In the coiorse, LIST THE BOOKS YOU
HAVE READ AT THE BEGÜiNING OF THE QUESTIOn/ (50 mlnutes)

a* Dlscuss the contentlon that the Slxteenth Centxiry marks
the consplpacy of all great social and polltlcal forces
on behalf of soverelgn power" (plrenne).

*•

c.

ä.

••They dreamt of reconclllng rellglon wlth the world".
Dlscuss any 3 f Igtires you have studied in vlew of this
quotatlon»

"The quest for order"*,.in what manner do you see it implied
in the thought and events of the Reformation or the Count er-
Reformation, OT the rise of the Sciences, or We attitudes
of the leaders in the Ihirty Years War? "^

Discuss and evaluate the consequences of the roll played
by the Monarchy during ttie religious crises which followed
the Reformation»

II. Define and äiow the evolution and historical importance of 3

of the following concepts in the period we have studied: (5Ümin.)

a. The Priesthood of all believers

b. The "elect"

c* Populär sovereignty

d. The idea of reason of State

e« The indirect power of the Papacy
III* Brief ly list the eMential features of 3 of the following: (15 min.)

a. Union of Utrecht (1579)

b. Edict of St. Germain (1570)

c. Estates General (1614)
d» The Mesta

e# Council of Trent

f# Scclesiastical Ordlnances of Geneva (1541)

g. Augsburg Confession (1530)

Cultiiral History
Mid-Term Examlnation

April 6, 1949
1:30 PJ.!.

Please put title of books you have read on Examination booklet.

I. CHOOSE ÖUE ONLY of the followiriG: (40 min»)

a. Analyze the relationship betv/een the rise of science and
ideas of political absolutism in the 17. Century.

b. Discuss Louis XIV's idea of kingship in relation to
either the scientific thought of the time, or the
Ideals of the Enliglitenment .

c. Analyze the concept of an ''harmonious and v/ell ordered
rmiverse" as it appears in TiJö of the following: Nev/ton,
Voltaire, Pascal, Hobbos.

d. "God has v/illed to hide himself" (Pascal) discuss the
thought of the Jansenists and account for the Opposition
their ideas encountered.

e. Discuss the thesis that v/ithout Gustavus Adolphus Inter-
vention German Protestantism would have been e::teminated .

f. Analyze the "Quest for Securit^r" as it expressed itsolf
in the relationship of European States either in the 17.
or in the 18. centuries.

g. Discuss and acco\;int for the classical influence at the
Court of Versailles.

h. Analyze the interrelationship between mercantilist

doctrines and ei the r the political ideas or the progress
of Science in the 17. Century.

«

II. CHOOSE ONE, .^iving approxinate date. (5 nin.)
List the main provisions of the; ^

a. Treaty of V/estphalia

b. Treaty of Utrecht.

III. CHOOSE ONE, giving approxii.iate dates: (5 min.)
List the principle periods of the:

a. Thirty Years 'Tar

b. Tho 'Vars of Louis ''IV.

CULTURAL HISTORY

Mld-Term Examination
November 20, 1950

I.

Choose TWO from this section. (40 mlnutes).

1. Analyze and discuss the rensons why Chriatlan
Humanists took a "mlddle road" between the
Reformation and the Counter Reformation.

2. Discuss Luther as a "German" fiRure. Do you
consider such a view of the Reformer valid":

^' S^fh! r^^ relevance of the Conciliar movement
and tne Conciliar theorists (Cusa, etc.) to
the Reformation.

4.

trlr%^^ contention that Calvin is a product
of the Prench Renaissance rather than of the
Lutheran Reformation.

II. In one or two sentences s!-etch the histor^cal

signifxcance of TIVO of the following. (lö minutes).

1. Emperor I'a;cimillian

2. Margaret of Navarre

3. Thomas I'uenzer

4. Meister Eckhardt

CULTUHAL HISTORY

Mid-Term Examination
November 20, 1950

I.

Choose TWO from this section. (40 mlnutes).

1.

4.

Analyze and discuss the reasons why Christian
Humanists took a "middle road" between the
Reformation and the Counter Reformation.

2. Discuss Luther as a "German" figure. Do you
consider such a view of the Reformer valid':

3. Discuss the relevance of the Conciliar movement
and the Conciliar theorists (Cusa, etc.) to
the Reformation.

Analyze the contention that Calvin is a product
of the French Renaissance rather than of the
Lutheran Reformation.

II. In one or two sentences sl'etch the historical

significance of T^O of the following. (10 minutes).

1. Emperor Ilaximillian

2. I/Iargaret of Navarre

3. Thomas Huenzer

4. Meister Eckhardt

OULTIJRAL HISTORY
Final sxamlnatlon

Answ#r q^estlon l and not leas than two othora«

V

f

/

^f«4?^* ^4"*®^ °^ ''^ Perlod lllua träte brlefly the
meajjln« and importance of S of the following teraeT

a. "atheiaia»; e. "toleratlon" . '»*6"«'jr «

II, Would 70U af^ee w Ith the Marxlat viewpoint that the

«il^LrlJ?°"?* **^.?'' ^■'«^ "^<^ 18th centurle? can be
olasse« and thelr economic dealre»t «i-i-uuA«

^^^* ri^^^*^ derlves from practlce". How far does 17th and

i?rtS?f rflte^:^' '"*'"* *^ "**"'• -^ govex«n«„t hear

^* «U'^J^^v,«*??!??* *r,^^ following cultural aanlfesta-
iin^r,«f the 17th and I8th centuries, a. the refinement of
■anners; b. the plannlng and landscape gardenlnß of
Royal PalaceeJ I.e. Versalllee) and thelr envlr onaent :
0. retum to Nature movement. «"««xiu,

V. Compare and contraat the thought of EITHER Voltaire and
Rousseau OR Voltaire and Lessing.

VI. Would it be correct to call Newton, GallUeo md Bacon
the true anoestors of the "enllghtenment"?

V

Vr

CULTÖRAL HlSTOHr
Final %xainlnatiQB

Answor Aieatlc» I« «nd not looa ttian two oth^^a»

!• Prcm tho hiatory or cur Dcrlod, lllustrate brlofly äie
moanlnc and laportanco of 3 of th© follonlne tomaj

Um ^lütiiral Or'»or''s h. «Stato of Katuro'*; c^'^novorol-nty'':
d. ''athelaa*'; o. *tolorfitlian^. ^ ^ '

11^ Sould you aßroo wltl. tho ^lorxiat viowrolnt ti-^t ttm
cxilturo «nd thought ot tho 17th muH WVh conturlea can
b0 oxplöinod entlroly on tho baola of tho rico of the
alddlo claasoQ and thelr eccnccile doaiz^a*?

III* ^Tiioory dorlvoa f>cn pmctlco*** How far dooe 17th and
13th Century ttioucht about tho notia^ of r vorrsoont
baar out thia atatonant?

IV^ How do Tou account for the followln«? cultural raanlfosta-
tlona of tho 17th and IBth canturloo: a« tho rofinaaOTit
of aannora; b» tlio plannin^ and lunrl8cai:>o CGi*<^^«ninfT ot
Royal lalacoa (1*6. Vex^alllos) encl tholr onv^z^onaont;
o« rotiim to ^ ature xnovaBwnt«

▼• Ccciparo and contraat tJio thoußht of nimnn Voltalro and
Houaooou QR Voltal>o anci loselng»

VI. ^yculd It bo coirroct to call Nowton» Galliloo o»l Baoon
tho truo oncoGtors of tho "anllgjitannent**?

''^^^^ß^

M

'}

16:109

Eiiropean Culture

MID-TERM EXAI^INATION
November 29, 1948

Answer ONE of the followlng questlons, chooslng that question
whlch allows you to make the most of your special readlng.
(40 min.)

!• "Christianity was a major obstacle to the development of
individuallsm in Northern Europe". Discuss with specific
reference to O^JE of the followlng: Christian Humanism,
the German Reformation, the Catholic Reformation, the
Prench Renaissance, the Engllsh Reformation, the begin-
nlng of modern Science.

!!• "The new individuallsm and secularism paved the way f or
the rising natl nal consciousness" (Hans Kohn). Discuss
the validity of this statement as applied to ONE of the
followlng: the Holy Roman Empire, the Dlvine Right of
Kings, the development of the centralized Monarchy in
France or Spain.

III. How absolutist was the absolute Monarchy In the 16. Century?
Discuss with reference to ONE of the followlng: Henry VIII,
doctrines of resistance to authority, ideas of nationalism.

IV. "Calvinism is
Discuss.

a mere continuation of the Prench Renaissance".

V. "The Thirty Years V/ar demonstrated conclusively that the Holy
Roman Empire was still a political unlt of great strength
and vitality". Discuss.

In one or two sentences identify, making an attempt to give
the Century as well where it is appropriate, the Chief work
of the followlng: (10 min.)

a. Marsiglio of Padua, b. Nicholas of Cusa, c. John Hus,
d. Johann Reuchlin, e. Reichskaramergericht, f. Zwingli,
g. Pope Martin V.

MHMIM

16:109

European Culture

MID-TERM EXMINATION
November 29, 1948

Answer ONE of the followlng questlons, chooslng that questlon
whlch alloY/s you to make the most of your special readlng«
(40 min.)

I.

II

III

IV

V.

"Chris tlanity was a major obstacle to the development of
individualism in Northern Europo". Discuss with specific
reference to OTIE of the fcllowing: Christian Hijmanism,
the German Reformation, the Catholic Reformation, the
Prench Renaissance, the Ehglish Reformation, the begin-
ning of modern Science.

"The new individualism and secularism paved the way f or
the rising nati nal consciousness" (Hans Kohn). Discuss
the validity of this statement as applied to ONE of the
following: the Holy Roman Empire, the Divine Right of
Kings, the development of the centralized Monarchy in
Prance or Spain.

How absolutist was the absolute Monarchy In the 16. Century?
Discuss with reference to ONE of the following: Heniy VIII,
doctrines of resistance to authority, ideas of nationallsm.

"Calvinism is a mere continuation of the Prench Renaissance"»
Discuss.

"The Thirty Years V/ar demonstrated conclusively that the Holy
Roman Enpire was still a political unit of great strength
and vitality". Discuss.

In one or two sentences identify, making an attempt to giye
the Century as well where it is appropriate, the Chief work
of the following: (10 min.)

a. Marsiglio of Padua,
d. Johann Reuchlin, e
g. Pope Martin V.

b. l^icholQS of Cusa,
Reichskamergericht ,

c. John Hua,
f. Zwing li.

>- ■»11

mSBÜ

mm

Cultural History

SlgnlflcAn Dat«5 from whlch t«st on I7* will b« choaen.

Publications ;

CalKTin'« Institutes of a Christian Religion
Luthar's Appoal to tha Nobillty of tha German ^atlon, Llbarty of

Christian Man, Babylonlsh Captlvlty of th« Church.
Cusa's Cathollc Concordanca
Machlavalll's Prlnca

Hookar's Laws of Ecclaslaatlcal Pollty
Vlndlcla Contra Tyrannoa
Jaan Bodln's Rapubllqua and Mathodua
Althuslu'a Traatlsa on Polltlcs*
Ersamus Pralsa of Polly
Marslgllo of Padua's Dafansor ^acla.
Confasslons of Augsburg
Edlct of ^'^antas

Ecclaslastlcal ordlnancas of Cranava

Evanta:

Graat Schlsm

Councils of Konstanz and Basal
Da Groota baglns to praach
Prlntlng Prass Invantad

Marrlaga of I'^'ardinand and Isaballa

Paaca of Granada wlth tha Moors

ChaMras VIII. Invasion of Italy

Wartln Luthar posts Thasas

Dlat of Worms

Paasant Ravolt

Tha sack of Roma

Founding of tha Jasult ordar

Dlat of Rdgansburg

Calvin at '^anava

Council of Tränt

Paaca of Augsburg

Franch Rallglous Wars

Dutch Ravolt

Maasacra of St. Bartholamaw

Paaca of Cataau - Cambrasls

Tha ArÄKda
Edlct of Tolaratlon

^«Pl

9mm

CULTURAL HISTORY - 16:109
Final Examlnation, Fall Term

I. Choose ONE of the following, answering the questlon on the basls
of your outside reading as well as the knowledge you have ac-
quired in your other work in the course. LIST THE BOOKS YOU
HAVE READ AT THE BEGINNING OF THE QUESTION . (50 minutes)

a. Discuss the content ion that the Sixteenth Century marks
"the conspiracy of all great social and political forces
on behalf of sovereign power" (pirenne ) .

b. "They dreamt of reconciling religion with the world" .
Discuss any 3 figures you have studied in view of this
Quotation •

c. "The quest for order"..,in what manner do you see it implied
in the thought and events of the Reformation or the Counter-
Reformation, or the rise of the Sciences, or "EHe attitudes
of the leaders in the Thirty Years War?

d. Discuss and evaluate the consequences of the roll played
by the Monarchy during the religious crises which followed
the Reformation,

II. Define and show the evolution and historical importance of 3

of the following concepts in the period we have studied. (50""min • )

a. Thü Priesthood of all believers

b. The "elect"

c. populär sovereign ty

d. The idea of reason of State

e. The indirect power of the Papacy

III. Brief ly list the essen tial features of 3 of the following: (15 min.)

a. Tjhion of Utrecht (1579)

b. Edict of St. Gormain (1570)

c. Estates General (1614)

d. The Mesta

6. Council of Trent

f. Ecclesiastical Ordinances of Goneva (1541)

g. Augsburg Gonfession (1530)

HU »> ".Min^min..

History i^3b

EoMT Examinatlon

DiscuBS briefly th© oonstitutional significanoe of THREB of the following:

a. "Though the kingdom was property and gave to the klng
proprletary rights, and though the klngship was offioe and imposed
on the king moral dutles, yet the king was more than proprietor and
official. He had a divine vocsatlon."

Chrimes, Engllsh Constitutloml
Ideas in the Fifteenth Century»

b. "f.no manner of person nor pereons.». that attend upon the
king and sovereign lord of this land for the time being in his person,
and do him true and faithful Service. .• for the same deed and true Service
of allegiance he or they be in no wise conviot or attaint of high
treason ..."

Statute of Treason, 11 Henry VH,
c.l (li^95).

c. *Vhere, by divers sundry old authentio histories and
chronicles, it is manifestly declared and expressed that this realm

of England is an empire. . .govemed by one supreme head and king...with-
out restraint or provacation to any foreign prinoes or potentates . . •
by the assent of the lords spiritual and temporal and the commons in
this present parliament assembled and by authority of the same, enact,
estahlish, and ordain..."

Act in Pesti^aint of Appeals,

2U Henry VIII, c.l2 (1533).

d* '•..they should do well to meddle with no mattere of State,
but such as should be propounded unto them. «.to say yea or no to bills,
God forbid that any man should be restrained, or afraid to answer according
to his best liking, with some Short declaration of his reason therein...
which is the very true liberty of the House."

Elizabeth to her House of Coninons,1593»

II

Write an essay on the following statement:

"'Tudor Absolutism» aptly characterizes the goal and the machinery,
but not the achievement of the govemment of Henry VII, Henry VIII, and
Elizabeth. For this result, the Common Law and the rise of Puritanism
were wholly reeponsible."

CULTURAL niSTORY

Final II

Remember to be as specific aa pcasible In all your anauera«

\7rlte the titloe of the books you have read on the covor of
your blue book. Apply yoixr readin^ whorever it is poaalble
and spend scaneTThat lonsor tlme cn the question, or part of
the questlon, rubere your roadinß applles. Ihdicate thia cn
the questicn«

1.

II •

It haa boon aaid that tho characterlstlc of poat-1900
culture ia the rejection of rationaliam and the predcai-
nance of irratlonalisru Chooalnß l'HkuAi of tho following^
shovr: (a) hon they mlcht or inlght not confim thla state-
ment, and (b) hoa they mlßht nodlfy this Statement.

a» Osnald Spengler

b» Sißznund Preud

Cm Ernst Juenger

d« Km st von Salonon

e« Lenin

f • niguel de l^aimxno

nationallsm haa been one aspect of the cultural hlatory
which \7e have atudied» Choose SITHER from Coluzsn A, TWO
men and from Coluznn B ONS man, OH from Colxxmn B, TV70 men
and from Coluznn A ONE man«

Discusa: (a) the main features of the approach of your

men to Natlonalism;
(b) determine nhether there are aome Important
dlfferences of approach between the men of
the 19th Century and thoae of the 20th Century»

A* (a) Stalin

(b) Alfrede Rocca
(c} Benito IJuasolini
(d) Adolf Hitler

B» (a) Heinrich

(b) Hegel

(c) Pichte

(d) Humboldt

von Treitachke

III» Anawer ONE:

(a) Diacuaa the importance of doctrinea of the elite in
cultural hiatcry since 1900« What cauaed these doctrines
and to what end wäre they directed?

«

(b) Diacuas the cultural Influencea of EITHER Communimn OR
Fasciam aince 1918, and try to determine Trtiat waa •New"
or "ünique" about such influence.

CÜLTURAL HISTORY

Prlday, June 8, 1955
Final Exam
Remenber to bo as specific as posaible in all yoiir ansuers«
Urite tho tltles of your boolrs on the cover of the blue boolr,

I.

lil.

"Outslde hlstory, man is nothing«" Choosing TIIREE of the
follouing, briefly outline thei? attitudea tcwarJs thia
Quotation and their roasons for auch an attitude» (50 inin#)

a« Spengler

b« Croce

c* TTuasollni

dm Stalin

e* Maticnal Socialiat Gormany

Anftlyz© briefly the reaaona for the crlticisn of democracy
zcade or impliofd in the thought of THREE of tho followlngt
(30 Clin») *

a*
b.
o.

Stefafa George

Ernst? Juengor

Alfreädo Rocca

Lenin

Heinrich von Treitschke

III.

Anst/er OTE of these, using yo\ir readlng as well as any
other knowledge you may have c^ained in your atudiea:
(50 min»)

Mim The hiatory of culture is a continuing thing«
Taking no loas than two post 1918 cultural
novements, ahow: (a) how these movement a are
connected with pre 1918 cultural patteims, and
(b) V7hat transformation they experlenced after
1918.

bn It has been said that the charactieriatic of
post 1918 culture ia the rejection of ration*
allsm and the predominance or irrationalism»

(a) Can you docunent this otatement^ or do
you thlnk it ia vastly oxaggerated?

(b) Do you soo any trend in pre 1918 culture
77hich might have temperod thls irrationalismt

(c) Do you aeo any trend in pre 1918 culture
upcn tÄilch the specific movements you are dls**
cussing may have drarm?

CULTURAL HISTORY

Frlday, June 8, 1955
Final Exam
Remember to bo aa specific as pcssible in all your ansuers.
Urlte tho tltles of your books on the covor of the blue boolr»

!•

^Outslde hlgtory, man Is nothing." Chooslng TIIREE of the
followlng, brlefly outline their attituäes tov/aris this
quotation and their roasons for such an attltude. (50 min«)

a«
bo
c«
d«

6«

Spengler

Croce

r.Tussollnl

Stalin

Natlcnal Soclallst Germany

II.

Anmlyze brlefly the reasons for the crltlclsia of democracy
inade otr Impllep in the thotight of THREB of the followlng:
(30 min*)

a*

b.

StefOTL George

Ernste Juengor

Alfrebo Rocca

Lenin

Heinrich von Treltschke

III*

Answer QgTE of theso, uslng your readlng as well as sny
othör knowledge you may have c^ained in your studlea:
(50 min.)

a» The histoiry of culture is a continuing thing#
Taklng no less than two post 1918 cultural
movomenta» shou; (a) how these novements are
connected with pre 1918 cultural pattems, and
(b) ^hat tronsformation they experlenced after
1918.

b* It has been sald that tho characterlstlc of
post 1918 culture is the rejectlon of ratlon-
allsm and the predominance or irratlcnaliom«

(a) Can you docunent thls statement, or do
you thlnk it is vastly exaggerated?

(b) Do you see any trend In pre 1918 culture
whlch might have tempered thls irrationalisrnt

(c) Do you see any trend In pro 1918 culture
upon t3hlch the specific movenents you are dls^
cussing may have dratm?

HISTORY m^a (EUROPEAN SOCIAL AND IMTELLECTUAL HISTORT, l500-l6U8) - MR. MOSSE

TWELVE WEEKS EXAMLnIATION, December 9^ 1955

!•

First Semester, 1955-56

Take THREE of these passages and analyze how they fit in with Calvins
thought and what consequences he drew from them: (30 min.)»

a. "The Scripture testifies often that man is a slave of sin".

b. "Those who despise this discipline and this order do injury

not only to men, but to God. .."

c. "The Lord therefqre is the King of Kings, and, once He has

opened His sacred mouth. He must be listened to by all
and above all".

d. "Life must be a perpetual fast<^

II.

ANSWER OL^

(20 min.)

b.

c«

Discuss the influenae of Bucer's thought upon the
Protestant Reformation.

What do we understand by religious radicalism in the
Reformation. VJhat do you think was its importance?

Make a comparison between Calvinism and the Catholic
Reformation, wherever you think that such a comparison
applies«

HISTORY l/f5b (European Social and Intellectual History) - Mr. Mosse

Second Semester, 1955-56

Siy \'<rEEK3 EXMINATION

March l6, 1956

I, Briefly dofine the ideas of WO of the following (10 min.):

a« Jansenism
b, Giovanni Botero
Ct Gallicanism

d» conflict between "Ancients" and "Loderns-'
6* Rococo

II. We have talked much about the mixture of rationalism and religious
ideas in 17th centn.ry thinkers. Discuss the thought of ONE of the
following in this light (15 min.):

III.

a. Richelieu

b. Louis XIV
C« Bossuet

J^iscuss the viei^r of man of Blaise Pascal and the conclusions or
insights he drew from this. Briefly contrast these with Thomas
Hobbes. (25 min.)

■«

HMi

HISTORY 145b (European Social and Intellectual History) - Mr. Messe

Second Semester, 1955-56

SIX VIEßKS EXMINATION

March 16, 1956

I. Briefly define the ideas of WO of the following (10 min.) :

a« Jansenism
b, Giovanni Bot er o
0« Gallicanism

d. conflict between "Ancients" and "L'oderns'*
e* RocoGo

II, We have talked much about the mixture of rationalism and religio-js
ideas in 17th Century thinkers. Discuss the thought of ONE of the
following in this light (15 min.):

a,

b.

Richelieu
Louis XIV
Bossueb

III, I^iscuss the view of man of Blaise Pascal and the conclusions or
insights he drew from this. Briefly contrast these with Thomas
Hobbes. (25 min.)

T

HISTORY 145b (European Social and Intellectual History) - Mr. Messe

Second Semester, 1955-56

SIX VJEEKS EXMTNATIOM

l^larch 16, 1956

I, Briefly de.fine the ideas of WO of the following (10 min.):

a. Jansenism

b, Gicvanni Botero
Ct Galllcanism

d. conflict between "Ancients" and "lloderns'*

e. Rococo

II. We have talked much about the mixture of rationalism and religiou3
ideas in 17th centi'.ry thinkers. Discuss the thought of ONE of the
folloid.ng in this light (15 min.):

III.

a. Richslieu
0. Louis XIV
c . Bossuet

^iscuss the view of man of Blaise Pascal and the conclusions or
insights he drew from this. Briefly contrast these with Thomas
Hobbes. (25 min.)

Cultiiral History

12 Veeke Make<»*\Q>

I# Chöose C3WEt

a« In yoxir readlngj «hat Is the relatlonshlp to Qod (Falth) of the
idaas of THREE of the following: ( 25 minutes)

(1) Nawton

(2) Descartes

(3) Spinoza
(U) John Locke

b« Brief ly describe what TVO of the following mean by thesei

(1) Fontenelle's Plurality of Worlds

(2) Bacon*8 nev nethod of Science

(3) Descartec' '•Method"

(k) Boyle*8 Corpuecular Fhilosophy

Ilft Chooae QNEt ( 25 minutes)

a« How do you account for the enphasis given Mathematice and Geometry in

the rise of Science and idiat effect did this einphasis have on the changing
Coswology?

b» Analyse the trends of Deistic and Atheistic thought vhich ve have

discussedf using concrete exaaqples and carefully defining the difference
betveen the two ideae»

HISTORY H5b ( Intellectual History) - Mr. Mosse

FINAL EXAMINATION

Second Sanester, 1955-56

I. Durlng the period we have studied some teras have come to our attention
several timea. Taking WO of the following, briefly show their meaning

A*.ttJ'^'^'-?^% when they were in vogue and what men you would associate
witn tnem. (20 min.)

a« classicism

b, reason of state

c, State of nature

d, Christian piety

II. (Choose ONE) (20 min.)

a. Does the land of Eldorado in Candide symbolize the ideal society of the
Enlightenment? If so, how?

b. What Doint is Voltaire trying to make in Candide through the figure of
Dr. Pangloss? Is the point related to the ideas of other philosophers?

III. How does Rousseau connect his specific social contact with the idea of
totalitarian democracy? (20 min.)

IV.

It has often been said that the Ehlightenment is a "Shallow" movement:
a. does your reading end your thoughts on this problem bear out this
judgement? b. How would you contrast it in depth of thought with Pascal
or with any other of the 17th Century movemaits we have studied. Take
care to define your terms. (50 min.)

HISTCRY 151a (EUROPEAN SOCIAL & lUTELLECTUAL HISIORY)

Mr, Mosse

Six Weeks Examination

Fridajr, November 2, 1956

I Define, in not more than a paragraph, four of the following:
(ca. 20 minutes)

A. Daenonic

b. prescriptive rights

c. World historical individuals

d. historical school of legal thought

e. Mm* de Stael's definition of romanticism
f • music drama

II Answer one (ca. 30 minutes)

a. Discuss the significance of the middle ages in the thought
of De Haistre, Carlyle, and Chateaubriand.

b. Discuss sone of the political implications of romanticism.

c. Discuss some of the religious implications of romanticism.

\

civim::v:ic' i:i 231 [3''(^:: r-r(;<T3

Tho follo'vln'*: are su'^rostirna f or tho roint$? vou nust have in v:ind
v;hen v/rltin^ your boclc reports:

lo State the author's naiiie ancl the tltlo, place anrl date of publi-
cation of the bo<k you havo read«

2» ..liat v;a.' the author'p. purpono in writin^;^ t}io hoo^:?

To v;hat extent .Ooes the author acl^ieve • is piorposo?

.jliat attittir^G doGs tho author r"'inpla7' tovrards his subject: f or
oxariple, cocs he shov; an^y'" political, rGli{;io\ic or economic bias
or any disli^r.es of historical porsons?

5. ..^aat particular phascs of tl.'.e periorl c'oos the author emphasize?
pnlitical, economic, cultural, reli/^irus?

6. Does anythinr the author cays conflict with "hat you alroady
]mo\v, fro"-!. text or lectures?

7. ?yhat is yotir estinate of the book on the baais of the above con-
sirJerations?

NOTE

The report is o.ue on the date announced and one n;rave wilD be
Lost for each 48 hciirs thereaftoro

Li':e all r/ritten xiorlr, it must be prcs^nted in typescript
or '..'ritten in inko

One v;ay of soeinn; hov; tho .lob is '^one is to look at reviov/s

in the Amorican ITistorical Review, En^lish Historical Review, etc

inxnijn;

■""■' ■ m

T

ESSAYS :

Compare the vie^'Tö on the proper relationöhip beti-reen Chui'ch and State held by
axff tvo (2) of the follo-ving groups:

a) Cal.vinists, b) Roman Catholicssj, c) Lutherans^ d) Libera5.s, e) Commmiists^
f) National-Socialists (FaziöOo

\

^^Comieroe and industry are the r^.ost inrportant factors in bring2.ng about the
establislTT^nt of modern scciety in Europe -and Ai?.ericar/' Do jcu agree i^rith
this^ judgnient? Support jour viei^j by ref erence to the history of T'Jestern
civllisation sinee the period of the Henaissantse to the presento

3o Compare snd contrast the absolute .Tonarchies of Europa in the peyiod between
1?00 and 1800, and the dictatorships of tixentieth-^^entury Etirope^^ in terros
of their origlnsj^ methods, purposes, and the argunants used in their
justificationo

lio "The history of PJastem oiviliaation sin^e che Ptcnaissance has been
determned by a strugglo for freedomo" BisciidSo

So vniat Kas the role played by the irlddle class in three of the folloifing:

a)
b)
e)
d)
e)
f)

The Reforsnation

The establisteent of British colonies in Amex^ica

The enlightannient

The French Revolution

i?th Century iHjperialisji

British Liberalijm

«^an's attitude to-^rard religion has always played a signifikant role in
Western civilication«" Contrast the attitudes of any four of the follo-^jing
toT^ard religion and erplain hoiJ their beliefs reflectedTEe age in uhich they
livedo

a) Erasmus of Rotterdam

b) Ignatius Loyola

c) Voltaii?©

d) Thomas Hiixley

e) Marx

f) Louia XIV

<

wmmfiM prtUa» qwitlM««

/

■ /

^* sSndiS^ *" lAiUi««!« rMain Mnfln^ to iwt« rf Owmi^^ ani

2* WotM it \m tri» t* dMcrlb« üä «t&tM ©f the 17. mn« lö* e«nturiM

3# Dipctaw th« iULrr«i^6.xo«itfi; böt«re«n KarxLw in RiuikU and in tte Wa«t
th* witinc» ©f Ltwin to l933*

4# Discu«» th© int«rpQr«tati©ns i»hioh ap^cifle hiatw^Ans ha^t wit for^far« ta
aoeount f or tha coitraa ot Gar»4Ui hiattry i^aa 1870 ta I939"»

5* Wormsa cal7-» hia anal^^als of tria iiinat<ianth centtiry " laa boxar^oia
•©nquarantaa" • For irtet pari of tha aantury %li i» you think thia

^* S^ItaT?^** HababuTfVjilÄia oonTliata of tha aarly aantury foiifjit aut

?• ^24J**-,**** »<^*1 •»* oconoidc tyAOU|;ht of Luthar, Calvin anA tha radiaala
af tha RaforMtioa. v/hat tnwra tJicir contributi->na to atihaaquant aoatal
aarslopHant?

^' '^ ^?*1*^ «ü?!J^ *^ l890tiM lav» a specl«! li«iwt«n«« In Metern

/

#• riffcntaa Italian ÖTmudaai anst AÄRca to V.mt axta^t It *14 or did not aaka
a contrlbütian ta tha •aoularlaation of European thou^ht»

WESTFIELD COLLEGE *

(UNIVERSITY OF LONDON) ., ^

ENTRÄNGE AND SCHOLARSHIP
EXAMINATION

February 1958
MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY

Time: 3 hours

Candidates should aitempt four questions, including at least

ONE marked by an asterisk

* 1 . '* No Empire is likely to fall to pieces if left to itself "
Can you thmk of any Empire to which this dictum does not
apply ?

* 2. " Patriotism reaches its height when it can combine
Ideal ends with material benefits." Discuss this Statement
with reference to any country and any period of European

* 3. For what reasons did nationalism become such a strong
torce in the Europe of the 19th Century ?

*4. What are the similarities, and what the differences
between the absolute govemments of the 17th Century and the
totalitarian governments of the 20th Century ?

5 Why were the Habsburg- Valois conflicts of the early
loth Century fought out in Italy ?

A 6. For what reasons did Lutheranism remain confined to
parts of Germany and Scandinavia ?

7. To what extent were factors other than religious respon-
sible for the outbreak of the Thirty Years War ?

8. With what justification can it be held that the rise of
France was only possible because of the decline of Spain ?

[P.T.O.

9. What truth is there in the description of Louis XIV as
" the greatest king of modern times " ?

10. For what reasons was Frederick the Great so much
admired by his contemporaries ?

11. Whom do you consider to have been the more en-
lightened ruler, Maria Theresa, or her son Joseph II ?

12. " The breach with the Church was the great disaster of
the French Revolution." Discuss.

13. Are we justified in calling Napoleon " a card player who
overcalled his hand, a gambler who staked everything on
another throw of the dice '* ?

14. For what reasons did the Concert of Europe break
down so soon after the end of the Napoleonic wars ?

15. What were the main obstacles to the achievement of
Italian unity, and for what reasons was Cavour able to over-
come them ?

16. What distinguished the Russian revolution of 1917 from
the European revolutions of the 19th Century ?

X

J7. For what reasons did Germany become the leading
power on the European continent in the period before 1914 ?

18. Can the peace settlement of 1919 justifiably be called " a
monument of ineptitude and short-sightedness " ?

!■ I

/V^q £aft)P£ ^KD THe Mo-i>ef?M cOorlü ^"i^-

The peace of VersailleB, with it's high hopes, bred almost Immediate
dlsilluslonment. Not only did it seems Impopsible to reconstruot
a balance of power i^hlch oould hold the vanqulshed powers In check,
or to solve satlsfactory the Eastern European problem - but there
was now a new eleinent Introduced into the West: A major power at

the fringe of Europe whlch was GoEmunlst - The Sovlet Union.

, ;4 — *-^l~ -m^^iai

You may reroember that Versailles did its best to block Russla off
from Europa, that it lost more territory then the so oalled defeated

Nations» But while the Soviet union was surrounded by buffer
States, the i-4eÄS it p^^t-i^oxiwat'd could not be so hemmed in«

We saw a few lectures back how JÄ-Grerniany dlarrnintled SD, llke
Ro.sar-X,uxemburfej, -hadr--feund-ed^^a---Coj^ pajg±y, partly und/r the

tfopact of thö(;Pussian Äxarcple^ and lS&g_OQiBo_thiiis happonod in_LJ'^^i;^;r
mo-flt Western couuti'iüs. Indeed , and I will Just mention this "^^^^^^^

liMMAlM#r«ll»MMa**«'^M

here, the years 191^/^920 see almost the "world revolution**
come true: Prussia, Baiyaria^^Hungary, Poland - all had at "lihe
saire time GoEir^unist regimes established. These regimes were

destroyd by civil strife - but the idea behind them lingered onjj

The Russian revolution is thus a matter of the greatest
importance for the West: f^i^4;h^ ?0t.1fifl Rn;i ?0ti1ftn nf ^t

VOTr.

the treaty of Versailles.

1/ f yU^ <f^^A<^

(i7

L itt

>v-c ^

^<&U}/*^;

^/

It Is Itself of deep slgnificance that you have heard so little
about Russia so far - exept for its rise and rolle at the
Gongi^ SS ofVlenna ./Today I want to deal with Russia in the

• Century - and on «^denaftay vre will deal with the*- ÄovöMtdinn

Hv^flylsiii IIlaLory»

revisin ligd'a background in the course of

\^\%uM^)

Alone of all the soverninents of Europe Russia had" a Monarchical
despotism in the I9# Century - a Government which had never com-
proinised or accounted for any public oplnion« Apart from the
United States it was the only European power were serfdom enslved
part of the population - here nearly 80j6. '-^^ * ^^"^^ ^-.Y/'»- .
But Western influence existed, as it had ever since ^eter the G-reat,
for Russia was a Europan power>- though 'her greatest accomplishment
in the Century was the final settlement of Asia ( Siberia) •l'anslavists
whilst looking to the Balcans in Europe were also convinced that r^
" in future Asiatic Russia will be simply syhohomous with Asia", ^^^""^"^^^
The war' of 190JS> checked Russian ambitions in Asia - yet most of the
Continent, by that, time was Russian. '^ ^^^ " '^"*^^" ^'^''^^'

/f^*vCVCtf

Yet inspite of this in internal govemment as well as Industriall

Russia was *heu two htmdredTSHTs b*hind the West. Absolute Monarchy A

was combined with a gradual beginning of the Industrial Revolution.

iL ah> k/
Not until the f4i»et decades of the 19« Century did Industrialisation

Start in eamest. The Transiberian ^ylway was oompleted in 1905»

By I914 Russia was fourth in textile production - and in the last

decade of the I9. Century the number of Industrial employees increased

from 500,000 to three million.

üö^-wufidöl* Ihat Lhö öffücLivü yrüt^sbs agamst tflö auluui'au^ of the

tieUi (

Zararo did

-ee»%ury - ßx^ thatr thlfe

^TXitflflt waa baaed -ttport the new industrial proletariate. But even
1n the 40i oen'^'Mry t^^r^ Wf=ir^ fgiponmiiers of Un^ I^rot6st » and at
the cotfrse or ii^jfui'ui in Uial cuiilui^ we aust aew look.

2,

Movements o_f ^^st^t^ took a diWerent tvirm determinsd both

^Jh«_ fact that thls was a/jnasl nationi and iy autocracy* -Ji-om th^
middle of '^centxary on the " Populist movemfent" ürovldea ±hm » ■rrsn+.<= «-r

reTolutlon". Who lad thls Protest? __fh*.kntellectuals - In Eussiaa^

imlike the West , a well def ined class in aA underdevelgj)ed country.

1^°1® J^^° ^ere able to enter hl^er educati^n; students and Professors.
The other aro of the intellegentsia; the tecWiicians, beaurocracy of

increasing importance but stood aside from tMis populism.

Such populism looked to rural Russia: especialOy to the ancient village

^^^i' Community f or inspiration. Here still 1»^^ ^communal_ag;iculture«

The PopTolists w

'iiÄX »JW-öy

communla forms of

Organisation^ They were revolutionaries in an auMcracy: they wanted to

fH^

r»«*

overthrow the System. Inspirer for the second l3 of the centany: Alexan=

1 ^

der Herzen. Lived most of his life in London, exUrienced the rev. of

c^t*-^ revoTution whlch would destroy the old world. He eklted Russian students

1848 in Burope - and came to he comvinced of the rieccessity of a tru«

" to go abwn Jo _tiie people^ - ie to the villages. Jhis many of them dl«.

-^rrevölution from " helow"^ It was breack wifch the civilisatiwTöf

their fathers a revol. act against against autocracf7 Anarchism~T~Bakün^

-provided additional inspirationi - •• S oclaüBt ^5X3: e-cWömic^revolut ion

— — ^ throngh the people and by means of the peüple*».- ( m

-tory democracy)w^

Participa^

?

jbt^

^

-^^ — It failed: the peasants were suspicioiie and hostile. a>^e populiste or

- .,^.. " Social rggolutionaries" now tumed to terrorism and ^yd more attention

-^üiTT^iV^*^-^^-^^^^'-^^ °^ factory workers^^T error ist who Werges in the^
->^' Ijfepties Stands near to the modern partisan: attempt tt vmleash a

political stiruggle and open the way to a revolutionj»;

1

li

But Police methods were Ipecoming more effecicient* When 188 1 Alexander
II» S&slaxia:^^ the popxaist movement suffers aj^eet decline» What rises
now as response to autacracy is^Socialisin>

^ Marx early on trasAated and his f ollowers had already split f rom the

Populist movement ♦ The 1ir.^»% first Congress of socialists in 1903«

p. Bat now the already familiär split:hut with a difference* Mensheviks

" «MrMiMaM^^M

not the usual social democrats - Russia an autocracy after all» But

■- - - - "^^^^^■■^■pp^— ■^^^■^^^^te^.^_ _ ..

also revolutionaries» Bolsheyiks accepted Lenins revisions of Maxist
doctrine which you will hear about more later ^^especially the eq-ual
emphasis on agrarianism with indust2771)roletariä^e~äna~(Iictat orship "
ideas» 3tlt it is not beside the pötnt -ihe mention'that Lenin had

in his youth been a populist and the Trotzki was to be intellectually

- a menshevik most of his life#

Populist elements wnet into both: agrarian emphasis of Lenin, belief
fiLuutlZ^'~ ^"^^^ " P^OPI®" of the /^Wisheviks"» But Populism also founded a party

of a^arian reform which dropped the t error: social revolutionaries» _

This Impetus of revolt was split ( - Palmgr) . But lÄcouraged

by the hopes_raised and dashed» Nicholas I» reign ( 1825 - 1855) had

been one of oomplete supression, but Alexander II had st:^äted his

long reign as a ref ormer ( 1855 - I88I)» Not only the emancipation of
the serfs (I86I) but also local Councils: seif govemment ( zJihro).

( all classes^jBquil say here), Supported village Community ( Mir)

^hangi

of poliqy, by the IgTpties. The secret Populist societies ( " Land and

Liberty", more radical: " will of the peopl«") - attempt on the^ lif e
of the Zsar - all led to a clamping down again. Zratvo^s did not lead
to a more populär gövernment but were thröttled inst eäd#

3ä.

mensh^Tlk - Bolsh^rik split not •quiralent of roTisionists rs»
anti ravlsionists in rest of Europa ( aa ^anin vould hara ua
baliera)« ^ad no ajBipathy for tliat« Haally mora lika Hoaa
Lxixamburg: laft radieala« -^allarad that proletarlata muat do
tha ;iob| thua intamationallata* Ta« '^anin: agrarian amphaaia
and that of profaaalonal rarolutionarlaa« ( mora latar)«

. I

\

__jesc«ided wlt^his son: Alexander III r 1881 -1894). Hopea raised
___ ""''" oo-PletelyJlashed. The Zii^-Sir-fchT^SiFBE-^Kböräted tö

supress all freedom of opinionvTO HIs sözTITicholas I ( 1894 -I9I7)
was deeply oonnnitted to ööntinuing the system_ofrepression as th.
answer to revolutionary activityv- — ^ -—____

But how mach that activitv ha/5 irs -p^^a- ^ .

__jiucivi-cy naa, xn fact, \mdeiTnined the regime^

become clearj^ 1905. i^efeat in war with Japan, food ehortage led —
-to revolution. ( read about). Typlcally enou«L " general strika" -
-repudiate by Weste«, social demooracy now uaed with succe^a^ouncil
-^f workers and soldiers deputies formed ( sovietl_^Mcholas forced
_to action. Ohose middle road. to ali^^u..ort from rer, and here
_he succeej^ded. Caia^th^._|Djma;._._a^rl^
Transformed^ussiaj^nt^ constitutional Mon^chy^'^HoT^;;!;:;;^;^^
P5!^er^^ith_appointed^uncll_^ State. ITo power 'o;em;is;ei7^^

did_not even^have to listen to criti^i^

h

T

>r

after thls concesslon the Troups began massacre of workers in
Odessa ( Potempkln) and in Petersburg, ^eaders, llke ^rotzkl,
fled abroad - less conacpicuous leaders, llke Stalin, stayd on and
bore the brunt of Illegal actlvitieB/'^^^^Vr;:^^^^^ ,^^
Dxima beirame slmply a debating society without powers* Again hopes had
been raised and dl^ But It tooker another and more

complete debaole in the world war to assure the fall of the Zsarist
absolutism. I9I7 accomnliahed what 1905 had been unalile to fulfill^
In the last resort regime based upon force - only efficient thing
throughout I9. Century had been the secrM police and the prop
had been a loyal army - Rev* of I9I7 succeeded largely ^eoause the
Army was no longer Loyal(^ <i»/ V^i|#^ii^*'^^^^ iftü^r^ 1'^ C^r^^t^^^^J

What is all important to reinember then - Russia never knew any thing
but autocracy befpre I917 - that tfi^^^evelopmenls^t^Vards Const* ^

:J^-, =

^Mcnarchy had passed it by>Also that the mass of the population
peasants, liberated from serdom, but not given land ( Problem not
unsimilar that of South after Civil #ar - but here Q0% of population
involved) - living in M.A. tum of mind used to authority. One of
reasons why Bolshevists Substitute i^nin, and then Stalin, as "liittle
father" vfor rule, as we shall see, imposed upon a primitive population -
/p kept that waV by oenturies of opression.

(fr) 6--

^--^ Now the war brough the downfall of Tsardom. The weack Nicholas II.
6^— — - — - ^^^ xf.fi\99ttt^)

^j^^^^^.v. ^omlnated by stubbom IcarinfinrTiot able to jjope with the crisis. If

/:-^/'^^o soine a foreign war seemed Just right t^ unite the country - in
reality it brought a dlsorgnalsation whioh made change Inevltable«
Commu-lcations and Industrial potential broke down: at the front as
as many as a third of soldiers unarmed, behind the front lack of
food. And so on %ch 3, 191? the revolution br<^e out, to run a
different course then the revolution of I905.

^■m

/'

-€*M-

•n.' »> " II i.jl ■■■

■■» f I

■r«-k — *^

^X.

■ii — .% i

.XJm-

\

1 1-

V

V^

-» ^

I ■ *

^ * ■ ■

.-»y

5aft_

Russiadid hav« take mach ftom the West in the 19. cent"ury -
^tlmost all major ideas were introduoed, inoluding Marxism. But

always transposedupon the special problems of Russian politios and

Society #*^ /^/^V^ i^^^^\

\

W

2.

/

would be quite meaningless if it wer© nothing but mere narratlou and so tilll
^ y^^ study ^f you simply memoriae things by a^otei^j'or everything on thla

TT

"World has an explainable cause, a cause explainable usually chiefly by^'^ilatoryY
Even if some of you raay not -want to go so far as to say '^^•what man is on3y

-- - ■ ■ ■ — ■ 4<^f

history teils** • It is analysis based upon data -which make up history and

; . »*!-•■■■■ ■ II iBlii ■■ I ■ .. — _.

should make up your study and your examinationtl

InteprefetA?2g modern timee hovrever is particularly open to several ariticisms
of T?hich you should be aiTare. Last tegm I exhorted some-ef-you never to use
the TTord "people" : f or history was so largely made by courts and caMnets

though we could already discem the outlines of populär aspirations^ln our
period the people theciselves -roill come in much inore directly > This now is
history "written no longer upon a rural scene but upon a scene i^ich is
becoming url^an and industrialised J history in the~lige ^f theinasses» The
result is that historical artifacts mtiltiplyj the populär press, novels
'^''^v / /.-4 ( as literacy rate grcws, 1^ IÖ80 first compulsory ^education law? in
r ^1^^^^ / ^®s"^®^^ countries) andj of course^ revolutions» Changr ^ — ' ■* — ■•

y

•^hat is T?hy we starb with the Indiustrial revolution. ^he organising task of
the historian becomes correpondingly greater«

But this task of organising and intepreting also becomes more then ever bound
up "with the hlstorians personal experiences: f^ we shall be dealing with times
•wMch I myself, if not you. lived through« ^<sf( it is basio to understand that
no history isi^ever "objective** for it always passes through the mind of the
hlstorians • It's central focus is analysis and 6rßanisationi facta do not,
after all, speack for themselves - nor do the dead» Tou raust recognisel^he
evidence ( data), the sort of thing Europe in Review will help you do and
then you nmst come to a conclusion about them» This nrust be as near to

historical reality as you can make it: but it will still be a personal

.%■'

Umtiiititmtm

2a

There is a difference between history considered as the
explanation of causes of hi;iinan events and history considered

as narrative only of events - as you have it in most of the

kind of "books of history the layman reads, I do not deny the

fascination of story*s of bygone days, when Kings, Enperors and

Popes moved about in regal procession, when men seemed to be
men and wornan very nuch the imf ort\mate""creatiLres of'^theTr sex.^

But history has a depper meaningthenthis. It is a manner

y

of explanation of the condition of lifd^. Analysis is thus as

important as narrative.

V^'

3.

thlng If it worth anjrfching at all - for the last bottom thlng ia analysis
based on the fte^ts - and this analysis passes through yoijr mlnd laiden as

« ■■/

it is Td.th some prejudices^ some preconceptions and your wan place in

history - that, above all»*

«
I spell th5.s out for unless you \mcm sometliing about how the historian -works

you may be raisled about the nature of what teachers of history do and you

>-^;^^^, l^'-J-»^

w^ 1 4 ^■aBWi»ga>«M JQ.

are tempted in consequence to simply follow and not to develope yourself

that independence of mind "which I mentioned earü.ier*

If "we look over the total span of modern history to rce some Problems do come
stand out from the date. It lodjb^ interwar yearsvto totalitarianiam in most
of the "West; it meant that more people then ever bef ore "were alianeted from

^M^i

their society and^sought a "way out from their dilenmias - a "way out nhich, in
the end, meant escape into some sort of authority or authoritarianism» We
shall deal with the counter current to all of this, that of LiberalismJ but
it's path "w&s thDony and by the second "vrorld Trar in Europe almost done»
Kow come that modern History in Europe instead of leading, as the Eni» of
the 18 • Century had hoped to the dignity and freedom of^man Igd^by 1939
to an acceptance of Man 's depersonalisation?/ These are some of the problems
??}iioh will go through my head as T intepret this history for you»

/

;il^,.lr>Qfr>'rft wa ^(\ r\rs -hn f.hn nnVijnr»*! ^wi*

th Wie Tridu5trial revolution

"■■II I— — ^iMX*»*»

e -ffiUBt-ybal^hUjn out nut ^om'-prlaee--i« -history, but yoia» place in the

Sone of you read science fiction: there the storics about In non human qualities

^^ is depersonalised, their named symbolise this: "Og^ of "M-.33I*', no

intimate httman relationships • But this dread of the futures -what it might

look lika alraady exiVed in the past: in the totalitarian moovements of
cur Century ifhich, in a sense, must form the cliraax of the course - for

pto

n-T'-

.->' '-P

SD.

one oonstantly aska onaselfjioir i» it possible? The Nineteonth Century
had still put such a prendum on the worth of individual man - ttLH

tury go down in history as reversing this? The "Why"

■««••MM'O'*« '

is all ixnportant and you nust keep it constantly in mind« The narrative
or nistory is an essential flramefwork, a tool, but by itself M explaina
nothing#

•r^*» r> -^ r^

^ f-^

1':

.'I'

r- c ■" .-

r

-«•rr...

• ••- -> ->

.^•.oc'': ',

T'o ^r

5>q(y

r

-f{."

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i r _ A , A

i» ■ ■ * "f *- • •'• I-

3a •

-4--

But these very factora raise another problem of which we must
be always aware: men, even you and me, are apt to think in

Slogans: Marxism, democracy etc. these all have connotations

. ^ _ _^ ^ . ^ .„■■ ,„■.„>— .»,—-«» ^ _

for US which may not have rauch to do with the reality of things,

how these movement stood at a point in time* ¥e must in cur

analysis always look beneath the Slogans and try to see these

movements as they were. After all, both the great revolutionary

movements of the 20. ci^ntury: that coming from Marxism and

■HMMItaitatt

fascism were democratic, believing that the people should rule.

1

Thus we must get beneath the Slogans in which men think.

r I I I - '

and thls is good tra(ining in itself

Lo>JCl<*c^ ^ ^^ ^"^ ^""^"^ ' '^

MNI

Ajl

Ti^ö prooess of urbanisation, industrialisation, which seems tq

divide modern from non modern Eijrope will go> on throiigh most of the 19«

Century g How difficult a Prooess it was» we oan see todtay from looking

at the xmderdeveloped nations who are now going through the same prooess

which Erirope went through in the 19. Century^ and the first part of the
twentieth«

Por Europe it was eugtally difficult: sone accepted it, other fled from

it into romanticismy the new nationalism with its anti urbanism« All

wether they accepted industrialism ( like Marx) or hated it talked about
the alienation of man, the great malaise as they saw it of their~century<

Thus from the f±rst we must see what the industrial

revolution was and how it transformed the historical reality of life.

To this next time«

■^■^^-^«»^w^

fyiyn^n t<*^>^

We have treated development of Europe from 1848 on in various

'■ — - „. _ _ ,_. . — «■,-'■■"..- ~. "

phases : unif ioation movements in Germany and Italy, the cycle of

"■ - ■ » —

rev# and reaction in France ending up in the Third Re public and.

finally, the entry of the irorking olasses into the competition for

power and influence : ohtaining a theory of action in socialism and

important political parties#

Imperlallsm

ßr the

angle

jU^

■ fjjuurilfl Mlliy 1 I 1 I " • " "* ','.-- -.^ ■ -f ^ß l^^^^r ^^^^M w^^%

JT Marxism^ the development of

«■anm?

tnmmmmmm

Now we come to the international polltlcs of thls period.

Here w© will firat talk ab out inperlalism;

^trl-MetKce's vlew of IJnperlalism as the last stage of Capltallsm

l«^;;;««t-itoc^-wt - neithar 4»-*be simple relationship between the

search f or markets and the search for Empire,

Up i^il_^K8q In^eed ünperlalism was at a low ebb. The more Europe

looked at colonies the more follish they seemed to be. England"

had no sooner defeated France in the 7 years wai{-then she had lost
"Ü:^^?.!..^*^ Iforth American Empire ;^Spaln and Portugal, the great
^^':^.__-°°^°"iÜ^^.^°"« "^^ l^'*l^«i^r colonies during the Napoleonic

period when South America achleved independence,

The only value of the colonies seemed trade - and it seemed that one

could trade without thein. Indeed LiberlLifts with their belief in free

trade a^tivly oPPosed_coloni3ation.v^Bi3marck';tj:;olonies for Germany

would be like the silken für of a polish noble who has no shlrt7|

1870 the high point of anti -ünperialism. '''^ "^ ' ' * * /"^»l^S'^^^

B»t ey I9I4 Europe had swept all of Afnca and most of Asia into

its orbit in the greatest^colonial expansion the world has ever seen.

"*- — " —*■-*•»■ i,fl«^,T?»^

Why this change? Why were after IB70 most European statesmen converted
to the idea-that without Colonies no Nation could survive?

•■■»•*>-*>lha(««H«(MNM«MM«*MM«*

Three sets of factors ftt work: economic, phsychological, political.
& Economic: up to 1870 England unchallenged in the field of

Industrial competition. After 1870 France, ^ermany^and the US came
up as challengers. Serious: for dependent upon export for Import of
food. Thus England very life line threatened here. Thus looked for
new marke ts. Stanley to the «anchester Chamber of Commerce:[f There

2a«

need not "be so spectaciilar. Imperialism of this sort possible

in Burope itself : eastem Europa the objecto Grermaoy^s "urge to

the East" onoe B. had gone in for tariffs, made alliance with agr.

conservatives - to get land for seif suff iciency in f ood»

2B.

More to it then just " pride" and " Virllity" - or the

White mans "biirden ( Evirope in Review)« Imperialism became part

of the seif confidence and belief in progress which we have seen in

T^^^^

liberalism# The duty to bring Civilisation: those who were d^n'ther

along in progress nnist bring rule to " lesser races"# Together with

this: spirit of adventijre & fearelesness - life which could no longer

be lived in Britain« Attitüde towards natives not raoial in terms

of cxiltural nationalism : but patemalistio " children"« Kipling idea
of fair play here also but in practice idea of administration not — —

quite such» Administration a " closed group"^« But with the reality

of the impersonal beaurocracy there was the adventurer: outside society

-and yet in the servioe of Empire: " not to rrason why but just to do
^uad die"» T.E. Lawrence became the great modern examploi of _auch_a

man» , This also captured pppular Imagination«.

i

l/n^' L.

^ v*^^ n^'.*.M^ '«^.

/^^l

s;

,wf ^<^^^'^ ^.-

are 40,000,000 people byonds the gate of the Congo and the
Cot^on Spinners of \nchester are waiting to clothe them« One
S-unday dress alone for each native would mean annualyy 32 million
•yards of Manchester cloth"«i

New other Tndustrial Nations also feit thls klnd of pressure #
Needs for markets a great stiimilus for the revision of Ideas
about Colonies» At the same tlme Tarif fs In Europa ( i.e.

»H^'^

^t4Si^

Gennany) meant that free trade wishful thlnking confined
largely to England. ( l/^^ i^i^j

Together with the needs for markets we have need for raw materlals«
WhBXi men hegan to put rubhers on tlres nlid wear raincoats - a
raw material was in deinand« Thus ßelgiiim made a f ortune out of
the rubber of the Congo.

How to thls economic factor was added the factor of: ., , ,fcki
(2. Phsychology: This especially connected with Nationalism.

Citizens prlde could be aroused and funneled by seelng the red,
of* the blue spread over the map of the world. ^seful for inter-
nal politics« Treltschket " virile Nations have always esta-
blished Colonial ^plre",and who would not be virile? 2^* Israeli
symbolised the new quest for Empire by havlng Queen ^ictoria

Ot7iJ

crowned "Empress of Indla" and thus hamessing populär Imagl-

f

k^PT-J» ^ ■ -- 'Ä-X "V'* ^'1?^

V^-^;

nationi/7 Uln<^ ^ ^/^-^v/mt /WHr<:/^^ •***^'^-

3. M^e important 1j«n this factor is the political one: we can
call It the matter of prestige. If England got a colony, France
must have one Just as good. This prestige associated with power.

rtfi/^ji-^ / Colonies were an extension of a countries power and thus made

*Ji.*i.f'?.-^» > mi- «»»«♦'♦V'>****.'»

r^«*-w^ j-»«*^,-

^ it a greater Nation. Here Blsmarck foroed into annexing Cerman

ir sJ^^ - Southwest ^frica. ^ did not want it. CommerciallY it had not

^O^ i«M^ rf^*

^Ä*- £»**'^jf^ ^ thing to offfer. But prestige and power was involved. Thia

'^c «*•* V^ ^ ^

3.

t^

explalns why ^taly se« keen to get the desert of Lybla etc.

How dld this annexation work in üractice?

a. Afrlea through treaties extorted from the natives by drink,
trlnketc. etc. Treaties of value as over against Claims of

fU«*^.^'»^^ °*^®^ ^Tiropean powers, natives had llttle rights but to sign.

" i^% ^^ar East and Far East were there were »e»e complete*"* ANO-CMr

iMii<ig|j M Utii iiK<ai,.,»tC»*''<*JWlit

*'^-^"^®^^^°"^.^"^-'-* ^P ^* worked dlfferently. The techftlquw
had to be more jubtle, Financial power of the Industrlal
Natlons was brought to bear upon poorer govemments. I.e.

rr ""H null ' 'l"il IUI Olli 111111111. .1 ^11 ,_ji] illLliiiiliMMlUnili *l ' •" !"• ^-^ ^ W >* W

Shah of Periia ( Iran) unable to live wlthln hls Income
tobk up loans - soon found hlmself In tolls of European
flnance. Russla and ^rltaln gave loans as against concesslons
wlthln the country ( mlneral wealth) whlch made It in fact a

.'i

^i-!*®°*°^*^*®^ ^F^^ ^^ another example of this techlnques:
here flrst France and then ^gland got controll through loans
and flnanclal controll led to controll over the cotmtry~as a
"?1°*®'^*'°^**®"* ^ *^® ^^^ ^ast the Klngdom of China was
simllarly handled. Financial controll maent speciaTTtatus
for f orelgners whlch reduced the natives to secpnd class
Citizens. At the beginnlng of the 20. centiir» European powers
^^J^l^^'^ °^^i£ ^°*° spheres of Influence and it looked as If
that contlnent woxild go the way of Afrlea^ '
In the case of China it was the United States with ifsT-open
door"^policy whlch kept the spheres of influences from hardening
Into seperate coloßl^s - but dld not stop the essentialia
protectorate" status of China Itself 1 /' o )
How ^fhthg-ffnltwd ■heiLuu^^tt Into the-piTTtnre we have

skgtchda ? .

3a.

^[üuX^

.u^l^^'''

As one Us News]Daper put jLJL_aroTJoid 1900: " We have an infinitly

wider scope in Chinese narkets then we should have had with
a sphere of influenae^ in competition wityh half a dozen other
spheres". The US therefore was opposed only to Imperialism
equated with Colonialism - but not to Iraperisalism defined

^^^.. ..*.^«..* 'fc- aVS.'wV^»j.

as expansionsim: economic and political to protect the econonic,
The same feeling after IGOties here as in Eiirope: f rentier was
closed ( as it had been in Eiirope since the Middle Ages) and
by expansion could Industrial nation siirvive»

. „■M.v'»^!*»"*»»''»»**»"'"»^.

m

-»•««»^^•'^•«■».•»»N^afjUt.i^i.^,,^^^

This second wave of Imperialism is distibguished from
ü the first'in as much as it was not an Imperialism of settlement:

with few exeptions» ^'-^in one: ^Algeria, v^ere French settlement
dates back to the I840ties and took on large proportions.
Especially when in 1848 - under liberal auspices, Algeria gained
euaqulity with France in becoming a department of The coimtry
itself ( rather then a colony). Many settlers there were not
qctually French - it became a kind of f rentier ofr Europe.

•--.^Mtot*. ..« ^ _ _ A-'-.»-«i ^

^'^

*•.

Thexfi? Vfafl nnly eine oaroa of tho world not apprft^-»-''y «^ '^^Cg||tl1J^■l<^'^'^^^'
Western ^emlsphere: here growth of the US* partially blocked European
expanslon. But thls only polltically: economlcally, for example, you
have European pentratlon Into LA ( le Argentlna: british owned
Rallways etc.) fi^ ^J^'^T^ "^'^ f^^^'

Now let US take just one ooncrete example of how thls colonl^tlon

«

aotually worked: Belgian Congo» It began wlth simple exploratlon*

From 1840 on Llvlngston explored Afrlca, "^ecame fmaous, Stanley sent
by New York ^erald to find hlm and dld. Hls book "How I found Llvlng-
ston" a Sensation and he became an explorer, followlng it up wlth
Through the Dark Continenjft. But Leopold'^of ßelgiurc now steps in:
Stanley me^jT by hls emlsaarles^ when he caine back and now went back
not only to explore but to carve out an Empire • "^eopold II* flrst
Ais hls Intentlons by calllng an International Conference at Brnissels
for the Exploration and Clvlllsatlon of Afrlca (1876). Real Intention
made obvlous by the clibulatlon of subscrlptlon llsts for rallway

■•••"»*«■

bullding In the Congo. Association founded for exploratlon came under
Leopolds controll whlle Stanley carved out the Empire. It became
synonymous wlth the worst evlls of Imperlallsm. Crown land, slave

trade, trade monopoly. Under EngllsK pressure eventually transfered
to Belgien people (I908) but nowvgood example of the vlclous circle
of Imperlallsm. Under Leopolds unenllghtened admlnlstratlon the Congo
had payd off, under the more Emlightened supervlslon of the ßelglan
Parliament It dld not. Here the great problem» . ^f^ p'^^'tf'^

For all thls In I9I*» apart from the great powers, there remalned onlyV

f±^e Independent countrles In the world wlth a populatlon In exess of
10 mllllon ( China, v/Spaln, Turkey, Braall and Abessynla).

5..

What effect dld all thle have upon the^Vösritl politlcal System?

, ly Imperiallsm had, In the large, a double effect herei(a^ It
completed the Europeanlsatlon of the world, begun with Itfl
first colonial expansion in the 16. amd 17 • oenturies. Th«^
fate of most of the world was now dellvered into the hands of
the big European powers and their quarrels^f ^v it brought into
play new powers which broadened the European picture. As you
know this is the period when the IIS, einerging froin iÄolation,
takes part in the Imperial race* It becomes a Far Lastern power
through the annexation of the Philipines and the penetration of
China • Just as importants Japan was introduced into the circle
of International diplomacy« In 1902 with the British -•^apanese
alliance, Japan becomes a part of the European alliance System.
In a sense, this period from 1870 to I9I4 is the hight of the
European age. For the European influenae went beyond mere

I ii 1 imi I »

diploraacy* Japan took its Constitution from CJerman lawyers,

the people of the upper olasses in Syria and L»ebanon still
speack -^rench«
2» Ngw sources of dispute were introduced into the European altlance

System: you will read about them in ^gaiig» European balance of
power comes ot depend, to a certain degree, upon Imperial rivalriess
ie. ^ashoda and above all Morocco fAlgecirasK
Sum Up:

"' v'

^^ I. i4-€k^€^-Ae%-s^ve broadened the aerea of international relations

and drew the world into the European power orbit. It introduced

. . __ _ _ ,. „ --^

Important new Problems :

/a* it did not give security to the great powers but created
greater insecurity» Dependence on colAnial markets, raw materials
and Prestige. What if something shovild happen to these^

6.

[ yypr' natlve populatlons would not be content wlth second olass
citiienshlp forever» Again a vlcious clrcle: as natlves became

more consolous of thelr nationalltyU European influence in part)
they would become Inoreaslngly hostllle to the colohlal powere* And
^f,^^ these powers would find it hard to aaroon the colonlea* { Only
England and the US. have done thls^t wlth good effects)>

fll. Yet Colonlalism iß too easilly co^demmed* It did bring with
it some raising of the oultural standardss. in native society: and
if you look at many of the leaders of the Yndependence movements
/ ^ in Africa or the ^^ear %st you will find thö^m speacking with Oxfoid
^^^ ^1/ or Cambridge accents, or with the ^rench of Paris» It did produce

in many areas an elite leadership of natives ^hich, in turn, provvBl
to be the gravediggers of the Golonial powersi-

In the Short run, the new uprurge of Imperiali sm produced
one of the causes of the first world war. It was, however, not

^_ ^^ . ^ p^ ^ -».iH ^1 •<•» .«■■■«■■■1*1«

the only one - nor, perhaps, even the major one. ^he trouble was

»

that there was in Europe itsWf an earea which was ripe for ^'^•'^"'^
Penetration: the dying man of Europe was about to give up the ghost.
To the Ottoman ^npirea and the origins of the first world war - n#«t

,.« - - ^-i*'- ^^n^i _

^ %/f4.^Mn'> V/M r"<^ A^autv. ,Vt ^^(\cfi,e

/

1/

r

The -^eoplea Republics

!• 3oviet Penetration Into Europa

2. Coalitlon r^oveminents in the East

3. ^robleirs of leadership

4. probleir of reconstruotion

5. "^trength and weaknesses«

/

Peoples Republloa

There was, after the 2. W.W. no world revolutlon In the Wt. But
in astern Europa matters wäre far dlfferent. Here the Communism

"^^Afel? "^irr™^ ^^°"* ^" 1919'camr about in 1945. From belng^?
"c.e*.4on-*a»4*alre" between the wäre, dlrected^tTkeep the Sovlet
out of Europe - now these States became thej^eans of Sovlet
Penetration into the heart of Europe. How dld thls come about?

1. Resistance movements durlng the war tended to become Ooicmunlst
domlnated. Por here contact wlth Red Army essentlal rather then
with the "est.

2. When democratlc sovemments returned from ^xlle, found they had
lost touch with Population.

3. Internal problems and difflcultles In these Wations . Here the
ermansjiad^ne thelr worst. Poland had lost 2,500,000 of her

Population. Yugoslavla the ^erraans had fathered a bitter civil
war between Croat and S,rbian. Everywhere total disorganisatlon.
Here Cominunlsni with its total Solution could be attrlltl^: but
more important Soviet aid alsmost a necceasitv.

4. Policy of the West. No idea on part of England & USA to ceede
Lastern Europ« to RussiaVH^^^d thls come about. Two waysj

a. spheres of mllitary Operation established. Important - for
whoever occupled a country could manipulate it to a large
extent. Thus areece occupled by British: but rest of Baloans
by RusslaXFlrirthought of as a trlal perlod ( 3 months), but
became indefinite.

b. The matter of "electlons" and "coalitions" in thfee Kations.
US ylöw ( Yalta) that thse Nations were to be free to find
theirVto true democracy. Free electlons lald down. Such
electlons dM take place in the following manner: Hun/gary-
^^^1*L-H?* *'*J^ eleotlon Gommunlsts only TJ% of the vote.

M^4^

two years later only 22^ but in Ig^g pverwhelmlng vlctory for
the Communl3ts> Why? By that time only one llst which voters
could accept or reject* Pattern similar in other Natlons, What
was the matter? Bound up with the wayvtoalitlons were manipulated,
For in most of these Countries you have, at flrst, coalition
governroents with Gommunists represented but not evem necoessa-

rilly dojLinant«

These coalition were called "G-overnment of National Unity" (Poland)

"'^Vtlonal Democratio Fromt** ( Hungary), "^^atlonal Gommittee of

Liberation", Notice the word "National" this was to be the lever

«'^ — — — ■ —

;r

for Coroinunists to get dOKinance over the coalition partners.' ^Jn^^^^'y
This was worked in two niain ways:

f

1. aetting in the coalition the ministry of the interior, i.e.
the ministry which controlled the jDollce*

2. Accusing partners of "treasqn" to the Nation^ -Backed by the
red army a coup d' etat then came next t<p preserve the """^ational
front" agalnst traitors* ( ^t^J

example ij} Gheckeslovakia: first conflict over interior minister
in coalition who was a Gommunist. Accusation by partners that he was
packing the police - result: 19*8 Gommunists backed by red army
took over. All this came about in the name of National unity.
Thus allied plans for Eastern Europe defeated. Gould not have
been foreseen at ^alta. You remember that previous coalition
with Gommunists in French "populär front " had not produced over-
throw of democracy but had'-^saved it from ^'asclsm.

:iiat-Tr*adr45b3Hatoifu*aekWÄrde^4fi*e--^^ yaltBrr Iten cannot
.^, rwcfw ^

What happened once these "peoples democracies" were established?

TWo main Problems of leadership stand out:

2 k.

'^-C^

^^ ^-^ ^ast G-eripan publication put ItJ The Re public reJectsX^^;,^,^',;?^

X

the old pollcy of polltioal partles and eoall/bions^ It
is a unlted democratlc ^ermany which we wanti ^e who is
against such unlty Is agalnst democracy. You see whiit
has happened: unlty and democracy are the same* For us the
essense of democracy Is to dlffer freely« In the name^ of
thls fQllaoiQ<A>ldea of^^unlty equals democracy the^^aklng over
of power was accomplished: ^i^^'f^ f *'«-Fe~^^i>-'J«^ ;
^<^^><^ <b»«^ ^u^ i C$ (f- p^-m^ Cf^4-^ (fvr:s:^J

avallable
ly No native Communist leaderehip/in most of the countries.

"^etween the wars moat Communis ts either In prlson and had

perished there - or had fled to, Moscow* Result: men who took

over leadership were : a» Russian trained; b# fanatical deter-

o^

minatlon: their long years in prison for the faith still a vivid
memory.VNot jkt a home grown Comniunist generation«

(aT" Were there was a home grown Communism as in EasterrLJföüP*^
there was immediate tension within th<9'party. ^etween the
•'Moscowites'* and the natives. Thus in Eastern ^ermany we have
Seen the liquidation of all non Moscow trained Communists«

This was the first "purge** that was neccessary from the first.
For the home grown Communis ts showed an independence from Russia
that was highly unsuitable. Same problem in Checke slowakia. ^
Here also purges for this reason. "^^ ^ ^hm^4^^v^ Cip^^^^^'' V^^^^^
Ry r\r)ä 1 ftr^fi pr^^^^l^^«-^^-^^»^^'"^'*^^^ -«h^ved*— New -ciosely-ti-ed-tjo
Ru&sia i:Tr-a3±~these ^atiene, ao far ao wo know 4 -j^^lsatr^"^^ ~S^^*^^^
Ooffifflunis t -generation well indp^ trJLnal^d - with-?!^ovle4;K-Xatherland"
( ^i.15. iSit"^^;^^ etc.) %-^vc^t^^^S^j^^ ChJ^J
fieneath the problem of leadership, problem of reconstruction.
Done on three bases: I. Regional planningl Economy of theee
Wations closely linked with Ahat of Soviet. Marshall aid refused
on "orders" though some ^^ations like Checkeslovakia had at first
asked for it. As Hitler had made thisVregion dependent upon Oermany,
so now i^has -bea^ise dependent upon the Soviet.
[2. Indutr^lisation. The marxist hope for all ( Jugoslavia). Done
rapidly: hightening of work norms etc.
3. CollB ctivisation of Agriculture. ^reacking up large estates and
attempting to force independent peasant into collectives.
These clö«tt twd) matters were not accomplished without severe trouble

3a,

5a.

leadership rpoblera still remained. Absolute loyalty which Stalin

demanded also rneant a turn over in east European leadership.

Purges: in Gheckoslovakia and Hungary and then, only now, 15

years later the " reliabilitation" . liostly of the dead.

But Stalin had his problem: were Gornraunisrn had gotten a national

base and following the Russian controll challenged: thus Tito

in Jugoslavia.(I948) . Native partisan leader against hated G-ermans
advatange over retin'nBes fronX)scow/ öWiously/ •^^''^^J^^ --^ i^-^ 1
But the nationalis used to get power had built in dangers as well.

— ' " " " I I M ia m^tf^mmmmmmmmmmm um-

V/e now know - when after fJtalins death controll was relaxed - that

-this was very much alive. Hungarian revolt started with poetry —
reading ( expl.) the Polish near revolt similarly Orient ed. But: —
this not neccessarilly anti Gornrnimist or for return to old condi—

tions. But rather in itslef a kind of l'Iarxist Ilenaissance ( Poland)
which tends towards a national Gonr.i\;inism and towards a " ^'-^arxist

ilumanism": ie stress the elern^nt of conpassion, of the new society.

with freedom to experiment etc.

/i^7-p \ 9-^^^/*^^ ^^wX ^fi^l^^-^^ Cu^< ^*^7^ ^ t^^^'^.yCf''^^ ,

It^wver land polioy the Tito broke wlth Russia* Result Is that
' today in Jugoslavia you have a'^ommunism backed by independent
and wealthy peasants who are well off» (Brod)
^ Indus trialisation also brough about, revolt» In %st G^rmany
l«tst JuneV^^rotest over werk norms, over concentration upon
heavy industry at the expense of consumers goods. This revolt
might have been successful - v/hat broke its back were Russian
tanks not a helpless ^ast ^erman Government • \ ^^ ^*'**"^/^4^^^^

rOne other problem remains to be cons idered? What about the
rivalry among these States? Remember how that had helped
brinp^, about W.W. I. and had even cost Hitler a lot of headaches.
How could Kungary live peacefully side by side with Rumania?
Po land with ^astern ^ermany? ^^eld in line by Comlnform.

, 11 ''I IUI ■■ ■' '■

ii^stablished in 1947 » Title of its Magaaine typical for way

this was to be worked: "For lasting democracy - for the

<T

S K^

J\

U^

P^

s

H':j.-

1^1^

peoples democracy" •

Accompanied by hectic Propaganda: that workers solidarity is

mo^re important then ^%tional minorities or frontiers. But

this is another weakness - for historical animosities not

easilly wiped out. Only one satisfied ( I^ationalj:y) I^ation:

Poland. But this meant a^dissatisfied ii^astern ^ermany ( ^der -

"■'eisse frontier) . ttectic attempt to seil this as the "peace

frontier" • The nearly million C^ermans driven out from this

former teritory will hardly agree.

What I hope to have made clear: every Solution has also entailed

Problems which have led to certain weaknesses. Now and then these

weaknesse have appeared before the whole world: Tito's defection, f*^

^erman revolt^ In the last resort policy enforced by purges and

^(^ d ft^^i*^ H ^*v**-w'

Tlie hopejiere, as it had beer in i^ascism, -was the youth - for the older
Generation still embedded in a different kind of life. All is done for youth
in^st: Youth vj.llages, boy scouts mth political enthusiasm ( cleaming nibble
in Käst -^erlin) . free study at the "f'niversities. Youth is made to feel important,
in Sharp contrast^ to the West* They are made to feel that they arc bi^lding a
new nation. Side by side systeniatic indoctrination; required courses in ^-^rxist
TiS^Ttic i^ high school.and College. (^ ^"-^^f ^t^;:^^

'^^t^a success? To sonie extent - but revolt in ^^unagy spurred by youth - in i'ast
Crereifta revolt Youth led - in de Sta] inisation, j^outh began to ask the first
arkvi'ard questions, Here ler>ement of Nationalism again ( I-Iujararian rev. started
vdth poetry reading, patriotic) and tradition of student revolt (i.e. ^B/^B) ,
^""hole high school classes "v^nished frora ^astem ^emany be cause tbey rmscussed

Irla-rxism too hotley vdth teacher.

<h^

s^A^tnv

LB^y)

But there is no doubt that social gains are Vv'anted: social security, free education,
etc» It is possible rather then a repudiation of the nevr order we have the
evolution to a nev; [National ^omniunism: to the triiunph of Luxemburg over Lenin.
Here then the v.-eaknesses and strength of Conüivnist tinrcpe, 3ontrast th-^'s
vdth TT^mt I said last time - and you have the deep split in the continenet,

liow to surming up the course«* Z ^ ^*^^*^ **^yr ^-e/-^

^. ■ \

ff

\

LH

Positivisy "n., -^

</H

Looking baofe -over why this doubt, especially after 1870, we f|nd
it me»t accuses boirrgeosie of being materialist, phillistine.
It led to what Sta-urt Hughes has called " the rediscovery ot

y consciousness" - the reaction towarss imrairdness, feeling and
emotion which we associate with the fin de siecle ( and with

which we shall be dealing in detail next term)»

t

But surely consciousness streng in Liberalism and I^arxism? Yes, but

*■ I «■ MI 144» "«"nMVM*

tendency towards an ever greater materialism on two levells:

a» progress of the enjo^tments of life - new conforts. new
technology which had been developing in the Century. The

satisfaction ( Liberal proverb in G-ermany: one should never look
underneath onesself), ^ . o ^^ ^ ^j.^/irj ^-/.^a^ y jJL j
"^2^. the strength of Darwinism and positivism which sFemed to
reenforce this trend« In I%rxism we have seen already how En/rels
did become more materisilist, determinist and so dod SPD« Reaction

within ^'^arxism: Iferxists of the heart about which I talked*

/v^

/ ^ /jOmX*

But vre have said little about positivism and Darwininism which
tended to fuse - and this we muBt now do» Between 1846 and 1592-

Comte published his " Positivist System". It was meant to end

the " anarchy of minds", to expose^the exterior and interior law3_
which govem aa» man and which are observable. To treat the " how"
but never the why - for the latter leads into methaphysics. It

presupposed an imrautable order of the universe in which man can
only controll the secondaiy but never the primary causes. But not
a hidden universe but one. si^bject to observed laws, which Comte

laid down.

c/*j

la.

Comte: " Dogmatd^m J^ the^noi5ial^tate_of^ham intelllgence, the

State to whichit strives by its natture, continuously by all means,
even when it seems to depart from it furthest". There is noi such
thing as spontaniety j)f action - all Imples an overall view of the

• ' • — ■ -- ■ -_,___,^^___^____

universe and social relationships. All must rest on demostration
and Observation, Comte certainly believed that his "truth did and
that therefore it rnust be neforced* His 3 stages of history:

■il.»JllUl*HW>-'^^fca'l*

I. personiflcation of natural forces - religion &aod, 2. methaphysical:
abstract principles, 3, science: laws won from overvation of
imifcrmities.

\

2.

positivism was System for the betterment of society based on prevision
upon which all action depends. This is possible through Classification
through obsejTvationy giving the laws - i.e. the social base# There is

no freedom of conscience: mind has to assent to what has been prooved»
Based on Comtes idea of history: stages all related to the negative

( religion, methaphysics) loosing out to the positive ( Science)»

Now positivism did, for Comte. become a Chtirch, the "religion

of positivism" for he thought men neeeded temples and institutions« C'^Jt^

The last stage of history about to begin: -universalism and also
technology - rule by experts who saw the natioral laws ( only des"crip=
tion/'iiever causes)« Olose to St. Simönism in maiiy respects»

Yet Comte environmentalist , if you like ( social pressure must
get rid of egoism) and based on the results of the scientific method*
What is Import ant for us: ideology was to be excluded. Religion th«

same opinion as Peuprbach. ( C9>-^4^'h^^*^^^^ ^ f'^^^^''^

^>«*— ^^ If-- - — ■■■ ^ r

"iA^^

I^arwinism was not welcome by Positivists. Biological rather then applied
to man, in their view. Leftout the stages of history on which they reliedJ
their emphasis on the growth ofmans mind towards science« ^eteffect in
_m£iny ways similar; a determinism based on biollogical evolution vs« the

stages of history» But here also a religious componenet: the life force,
as Conte's positivism as a religion - morality ( refers to Kant in his

" Positivist Catechism".

-^mmmm^mmmmittiti''*'^

Now this is important, for the positivist impetus hit as hand within

the velvelt glove of a " new f aith" • Cemliined Vhe ^«a^ for a new

MMN

2a»

2a

2a*

"CIrans

etre"

An

odd
ider

religion is
of Saints:

iti

men

: the
who

God

is

the

- Hinnanity*

Caler

have

desei^ed of science,

topped by

those whom he regarded as the preciursors of his sociolofey based on

facta •

3-B.

It re enforced the Liberal ideal of nat"ural la"ws# The principles of.

" political economy": nat-ural laws of politics and economics are as
natioral as those of physics and therefore amoral« They can be good or bad,

MMWaMPi

but it is up to man to conform to them^

This is the much the same as Gomte's: man can only dertermine secondary
and not primary causes« I^Ians freedom limited greatly, and conformity

^*«*iypi'i ifcfc^-i-jjr*.

essential» To wahi? Por liberals to boirrgois progress, the neccessity

of a Society of conflict and consensus. The ** nat"ural laws" which

liberalism sae behind capitalist and Pari« society were fixed and
Support ed their System against change. In tvme with obeffervation^

with pre Viaion»

3a»

\JLr^C*^~^

What all this meant can best be illustrated by Du Bois- Keymond

rauch^ thrrough in this line then Haeckel ( see my chapter on

" Science of Society). 1880 a lecture aboiit the seven riddles

" . 1. .. » ^'. •

of the World, The origin of life is not a riddle: it is raerely

the ordering of atons and molecules according to certain principles_

• ■ . ^ ^ '" — *

and under certain conditions. He criticises Haeckel, vho surroiind e d

~i "~~ ' ' " '

his positivitt m with m^^-stique for saying that these atoms have
" sovils'*. As matter is in motion, the problem of human movement

does not provide any problems either. The chief riddle is, of course,

that of consciousness. Hert he earlier held that consciousness and

freedom of the will is a matter of analytical mechanics. Now he

still believes that man3r actions are a determinable matter of

the nervous System: no freedom of the will here but •' reflex mechanisms"

Yet the final problem is " transcendent" - \i^ which he does not mean

the '* holy idiocy" of religion but something not yet worked out by

Science ( but which will be)» Monism is what this is sometimes called -
and I cite it here to show you to what hights it went: a seif confi-

dence in the age of the founders of modern fortunes and of Imperialism,

Popularjjadeed. —

Indeed Du Bois -Reymond believed that antiquity had gone imder because
it had not developed science and technology. He criticised Goethe *ß

Faust: he should have married Gretchen and settled down, instead of

inventing paper money he should have 'an electric engine* He criticised
the (i-reek Pergaraon Altar because the legs of the giants end in snakes

instead of in feet»

3.

faith which recomised the existin/^ order as good and yrof^esslire

It was Darwinism^iHxljlaor zhen positivism whose influence can be traced

in this attitude - thmigh the positivist influence became generalised
in many movements ( i.e. Trade Unions, Pabisins). Certainly increasingly
pointed towads a pragmatism of Operation, suspicion of ideology and

therefore of change» But as these influenced penetrated in central

■■g." ■ " ' ■■ —

Eiirope, especially, towards Monism: combination of science as deter=

^iMMvmvik^tHMi

mining the \miverse and a view of God#

3a»

How mans mind fitted into this always primary« Comte believed a

_ _ ««^iMWMkMM«^ I ■■.|._ii B

growth of the mind must become before the positivistic society can

be inaugurated, Led to theories of psychology, as we just saw#

Cesare Lombroso believed in I860ties that mind was extension of

physical biology» Degeneration ( Morel I86I): took in body as well
te the mind« It is typical that Lombrosos ( G-enius and insanity,

1863) presented the execution of criminals wSo were habitual äs

•Miimuai

part of the deliberate selection ( -Darwinism)« Mens feelings are
determined by his physical Constitution« Huxley (1887) the

advance of science would extend the realm of matter and law until
it was ce»%ea?« coexistent with " knowledge, feeling, aetion"«

&^

One literary critic collected statiscs about illness to find out
what Goethes Werther could have suff ered__from^
Obviously: here an ideology ( for such it is) which is material»
( Engels: mans mind comes from matter) and environmental ( if time:
•^amprecht and Taine: explains history, no great man. Same tendency

MMM

3o

Emphasis in artistic matter on clarity - cause and effect must be

clearly shown. Art must fuflill rational comprehension - and not

«^■"'-">'

tragical night of chaos» i'assions had no place»

Indeed this attitude fit1;ed in with desire for order ( natural

law, Comtess stages of development - very ideal of science)»
It led to " ordered progress"«

Tou end up with a Vision of what is normal ( as vs, degenerate in
this specific meaning I have discussed) - ITordau: those who rise

«wMMnawM'iM

early and are not weary before sunset, who have clear heads, solid

stomachs and hard muscels". Nothing here Tom lirown would have

objected to - and indeed through these influences the same

liberal morality came to central E"urope as^it had already come
to England«

' ^ ^t

^

4.

in socialist realism*

Combined with Darwinismt mans must adapt to his environment ( theory
opposed to change) and to do this he must know and imd erstand science
& nature. Conquer it - great spurt to theories of Imperialism«
Also meant mental discipline and clarity - ie. empahsis on science

and description»

/

Here an ideology whiöh fettered the Imagination, fettered the drive

for change, fetteredi the romantic imputee, inspite of the monism.

■»»■*■»■>

Por it expressionisijs had eyes disease ( Nordau). Those who were
opposed to the boiirieois world which was sought to embody these

features were simpltr " degenerate"©

The reaction againsifc this was one of sons against fathers ( Wedekind 7

next term), of sentiment and geniuneness ( aide) of Kantian morality"

conceived as an imperative of the heart»

The Protest by Nietzsche was the most far reaching, for it became a '

Protest not only against positivism and liberalism, but against all

fetters, any ideolbgy in qunite the reverse effect frora the positivists.

fl€^fi^$t A -"U^^^

Liberalism

Liberal! sn:, to which v/e con:e today , is like Rorjanticisni am Conserva-

1344W!^ an idea 'wMch today 'ras only a va-jue connotation, but which in

the 19. Century had a definite ir.eanins. Therefore v^ call this his-

torically defined Liberalisii:, '*olassical llberl^isrr." in order to

distinguish it from the indefinite L.odern use of the v/ord.

Unlilce Rornanticisn: or* rifor^gorvatien:, Liberälism ::uilt upon the
" ~ — r— — \i L^u^t^^m^

foundations of the Enli^htenrient and of the Frencfy Devolution. The

idea or^^TreedoiT v/as basic to Liberal thou^ht, an idea which the '^
philosophes had spread to the rest of Surope in the 18. Century.

This freedon: \vas bullt around the idea of_the "natural order of
things" : the idea that there were "natural laws" in the IS. Century

p i>iii iKw <■ j. . w I wmw

fashions ^which rfoverned n.an and the universe . i.e. nichard Cobden:
\^ "you Pii^ht as v/ell reTulate the seasons as the relations between
eiT:ployer and labour . J »^ "^ j r

But If Liber]^a ideas had the_ ingpiration of the 5nlip:htenD:ent froni
France, they had a second source of Inspiration, and this from ^^^

En5lan3YUndouctedly Adam SKith's ./ealth of ICations (1776) l^is the
niost inrnortant sinp;le work in the developn:ent of *<Liberalisrr.. Smith
found that to let the "natiural order of thinss" operate freely in
econoir.ics and nolitics would benefit everyone. That the free advance-

_ ^ -\irmm\ ~ ~ii iii ' ^^^ ■ ^^^^^^^r^^^^

nent d# in the social and political order of one individual v/ould
also benefit all others. Thus his idea of[ "enlishtened seif ishness" •/

Now these Liber/a concepts are son:e tires sur.ir.ed up under the head
of "laisp.ez faire" or "let us be". It seems a ruthless dootrin of

private advancer.ent without retard to public interest to us, but
this is a wrons ooncept. For we iLUst remeber several thin^s hereJ

I. that private advancer-ent and public interest was to these^men

identical, in an expan#^inT^ econory ( indutr. rev.) / /iL ^sf U^f^^-^^

»= -. >f^S^m*fv <: -T"*" A

(

j>^ ^t,'^ «, /'/ : h/ii s p.

^

.■>l—l

2.

Z^

{2i that lalasez faire did not iiiean so much in this context M.et us

alone",'>but rat her, ^"let us aot, le/t us by, cret out of our way" 7^ X
_ '"" . L. — ~ ^ -^w= ;i' L.... ^

Kl '.",'crb .iut a nQ].iQy-~w>ich was adüotQcl bi;^^~TjH^e^4Xa...-QiiI^- -be^a u s e i t

?.rit^R ar>r| rnnn-r-, fM-TT

0 pe-aed- -^if^e- £;:atoo -^
social v/elfare for

knes« ];ait \ieqauae .it

'»>>«ä<ttfE«MM«

r* e fl ,-'

?xU u L w ':: i G hAi '"^^^ re couid be no

/■5V ■'^taTB ihere was a^-concern for the labouring population, espe^ally
in Snrrland v;ere Calvinistic eler;ents v;ere ,^rafted onto the idej of

ndividual advance-

"natural orcl

inent was held to be not only BOonön:lcally but also rorally conditiondl
As it v/as held that everybody culd do it, it was also held that the
poor had not been able to do so ceoause they lacked r>:cral virtues:
^ jf -^^^^^^^ -"^li those of thrift and applioat: . to work. Therefore the

^*^--->^ ^ Y\.r\^ of reforr for whioh this kind of liberal went in was oo-.neoted
y^ y with such r:atters a's^eduoation'^f or the poor ((7 -Tj— -^"^'-'— ' r t- r:'-?^ } ^

»1:

\

-ü"f 3'i^yi-^--?--*-^'?:iiTr5 to

"teach thrii^^V -'-his roralitv

i

>' ^ the esr^ense^ "vhat^>?^^r- + ir:.e7"~cäiled J^^iotorian ii;p-f^^'t7" (i.

FairchilJ fai.ibary;. It is kind of

iroralitvx<50i':binea with the b-el

-><- -•

-ist bell

a 5Lrict

in the "natural order of thin,2:s"

o:^es fro:' the Enli^jirxeniv.ent .
r^O Thus Libori^-isr. was te.^^^^^^^ed. Sr:ith' s ^'Enli.'-htened seif ishness"^
^^ was not»' ru thle ne s s ; not do^^at^dog, ybut the expression of a roralityj

and of a certain belief in the workin^ of a universe . 'l^:r* '-ill read

^ "6 n 3 6 r /^^ ^*»^ -^Y^ /

l

X or n z u 0 n i" e r -^^ e r

Conoretely this idea of freedor., n:ea-^t econop.ic freedon: and here

espeoially free trade - which sur.s up Liberkt Solution to all
probler^s of^foreisn polic;^; and political freedon: this v;ent
further, at tiir.es, then 0.,^^-^ the French Revolution had ^one . Phus
^dyÖUÄi.^'t'JC State only a negative polioe power, reli^ion, eoonoi:.ics,

2a:#

Bat here obviously a great deal of pragmatism: effioiency was

also a liberal ideal« Here the increased pragmatism of the

Enlightenment : utilitarians - ie# Benthaiii#* " Greatest

hapiness of the great est n-uunber" anÖ empirical idea which

^J/Y^ led to Reform

r is ^ .^— — — —

a more effecinet poor law ( putting them to work)« Belief in
a Universe which was orderly and faith in soience* Laissez

y

faire not disorderly - it was not meant to be» But efficient

System which woiild provide the greatest hapiness and wealth«

■mmnntmam^mum*

IV t/^^^ 0^^ A. f/^'»'^^*^.

CT"^ ny(^'^*0^

2B,

4, tenpering of laisses faire through the application of strict
morality. The ides of overcomlng one's selfishness and sloth

# -I ■! I I. II Hl II II " '■ ^

through overcoming one*s sinfiil nature# Typical: Smiles, Seif
iielp (1859). 7X ariiti^TiR hv 1955. Read Ji^^JM^

\B^aiüpluU ur QruLbli mc3il'# This meshes withi:*^# religious

lOiiirftiiiiMii r .

revival after the French Revolution which here was not romantic
but evangelical. Wesley: save, pray and work* Kingsley: sanitary

M»

work is a religious duty* Calvins idea of vocation: that your
work is not only a secular but also a religious act because
God had put you in this Position,

Wlw?_.Two elements here come into play: I. reaction to the Fr,

Revolution - noral revulsion against it's " atheism", God had
t^ — — -

■ f^ ^y punished the world. England, after all, had fought the rev.

<\

Nf

f or many decadesi ^ this wasactually the way to get ahead
during these initial stages of the industrial revolution, bef ore
monopoly cpaitalism»

But it would not have become THB bourgois and liberal morality
if it had not been institutionalised, especallly through
education. Reform began in England in scho&ls to which middle
clasoes sent their children ( Rugby). Mucation is character
building. But not ( as in Germany) through a classical culture
instead through an evangelical, that is practioal approach:

C* Christian gentleman who knows how to obey and command ( fag and
pref ect) • Gontroll his emotions and build a moral character.
Fight on behalf of the waeck or on behalf of Empire»

■ ■ ■■■! %.^mtmm^immtm^^ -^ \

This morality not only advancement but also reform: attitude
towards the poor. Malthus: population must be controlled; the
cycle of overpopulation and starvation must be broken - through

2B. I

virtuo. ( expl,)

i,4^: h^uuyM-A^ (i>-^^-^ ('""^V

/ «L/A ( c^\ '■'^ ^-^^ C ''■^'•^' '''^

^.4^ U

-^*,^

^

V ^'^>

\clu'^ I^MM. ^^y<CU_ [Suy^^^^"^^

yp t-^yf^ Z^^W )

»T— irnfilHUrKw

3.

everythins eise rcuat be free^ For any s/tate pressure produces
only a uniforrnlty of thought whioh redy'ced the dignity of the
Indlvidual, Here the idealism which wfes to be the undoino; of
thiwS Rort of clasBioal T^'^-r^'' 1 -tt , -^nst riiiiao i^" 1 n-mil i .iUji... m

r^an ^,,'^,n rp.^ViHR Ti1>ier4l1 f^n^, ori]y niirranity oaw'n'g pn» ii.a.i po s s e s s

a M;t^1 R(^2 — nf 1,,'i barlaiigr»,

^ie4^ scepticisn: produced by the o«e LiberlJa experinierjt in actual

' '>MV>.-ni^««jw 'riiiil«l«i.iiilM>iW>

. i 1 jw- n«-iB

'r^^ .'.f

^overniEent! the Ilonarohy of Louis Philipe in Franoe .)/i.ouls Philipe
car::e Into power in 1830 in revulsion against the conservatisn: of

GharleE5 IX. It v;as a revolution iiiade in the naiLe of Liberlaism,

''■■*"«"<«<J1

;•:■-'■*: A«»»»i«i.v.. ,f,..

Louis Philipe was the bc— ois king ( night stoklng cap, -afllte).
Kls Chief minister Crulzot proslalued the Liberia age : what he
called the "sreat tranquility" , the "3olden aean" so that there
Kay be free developnent. -hat happened?

: >,i

The State becar,;e tranquil indeed, statlc Ei^ht be a better v/ord.
The pressure of the lower clasres for acoe-- to pov/er v/as resited.
If you w.^T-ted power, it was not franohise reforn: which could do

/4DU ^u\\ .:c'.vu lt> Result; a-;itation in

r,

it: / enrich yourself"

« »i»pw»'f—»

^^hich the early socialist experiir.ents are set\ '.vhen the re^cice
feil (I84G) it reant an or-yof ^^soolfia reforrc, i^apoleon III. care

^0 power on a platforrn of anti liberal social reforn:3.
^ /" JB>r ^"* '"^-^^ about England, the Eost potent Industrial nation? Here

,t'r^

to the Liberias thou^rh the Reforn: Bill of 1832 as f inair Tnevote

**■•■*-**»' 'TW iWimi

had heen ^^ven^^^^those of nieians , and that was tca£. 5ut it was
50t. Kere top aTJtation fron: below aH|^. Z/' g ({uA.'i)
I To the lower classes Liberleian. cai'.e sirfe/ to"~':ean a conspiracy
I to uphold private prox^erty T Yel there was feeling In Liberal

I

circlea, by I84S, that Liberi/ airi:s h^d been attained and in

• •j*-\-

3a.

<j/

/^^

Y^ -way Liberallsm>''was caiight aa»n ly thiss I» conservatives untll tha SOties iflll
further universal vote in the realisation that workers in that stage of industr#
development irere less for Liberalism and more f or a dlctatorslsip by l^narchyj
proof: N. III. & Bisn«rck. ^^^ «"^^ ^^-'^ ^f^^flZ^i^J^-^- ^PtT^/*-^.

2o that after 1870 the workers began T*iolly to detach themselves fi*om Liberalism

i.e« 1869 German Social Democrats fonned as out of Liberais & by I9OO English

Labour party»

Populär base -was increasingly nen escistant» ^^•^

^/^J^y^ (J^'^f y

u

J^

)

4.

I

<

Ensland that feeling remained ßtrong until I9OC. At the end
of the centur^^ the conservative Disraeli ir.ip:ht liken a Liberal

TOvernrr.ent^to a< "ranse exhausted volcanoes'*) but John iSri^ht

thou^ht the Liberal ideas had achieved fruition. ^ .- t^,^^^ ',

Did LiberaäisE then have no adjustri:e:its to realityT It did have

..i»p»«il»i»»5' 3^^raKa*i-

-" "»«'MimtiM

these, even after the rniddle of the oentury .

tarti.. .'.^«*-''. mii'^^:

I, Liberais tended in the seoond half of the Century to concentrate
lesF, on free trade^Vin^ayeoor petitive world, as on political'"freädom

II»— >«ri^w-"^<ti ttrmtafyf^

^*fii amfc

■..*ll.!».>^<V^*

*4r«<. . «^ '-V^WMtMQM

and politicaTvderocraoy. This reshaping of Liberalisir ii:eant that

^ ■" ■ ' 'r^TTianMiif fii"l*^

son:e Liberais ^A'ere willing; to uo av/a^^ ^>vith an^?- entrenched prive-

»r 1 tmtt»

le-e, even to have the State intern fere . The^'- can;e to the idea of

tätttm

equality of opportunity and so to have ideas of basic reforms.

-I.e. I9C9 the tax the rj.^ch bud-^et of Loyd 3-eor5e.

^* L£^££^s fron: the beo;innin3 had been syn:pathetic to another
li.over.ents that for -national Independence on t?ie part of_pgressed
Kations. Thus thelr syrpathy for the stru.^n-le for Jreek Indepen-
dence.( I?3I) but also their syir.pathy for ^ern:an and Italian

aspirations for unity. üntil IS48 Liberälisn: and ^^ationalism
often 30 band in band in Europa. Freedon: iceant -ational freedon:
as v/ell as eoonor.lc and political freedon:. It did not iLean,
hov/ever,'^^-.ationalisir:: son:e thin^* forei^n to Liberal credo«

IflM»

I ■!■ mii iMi Ml

■MMK»'

Yet IS48 -went far to destroy this alliance. i^ational pspirations,
above all in :i^«j£:any, seen:ed un^^^-le to be fulfilled ^^ithout
avaoiding .Nationalisn:, i-^any Liberais became ircpatient ./Thus it
was a forn:er Liberal who wrote the ^"err.an anthen:: that G-ern:ar.v,

«!»«.«•

if united v;ill rule the world. Hov/ different fron, the Anthem

4y44>

of the French Revolution to which LiberalsV^looked : the ^-Marseillaise

asks only that the fa^-herland iDe defended.*-

It was tra^io thüf^in central Äurope Liberal and ^^ational were not

•MMM«<nM4«VW

to be together, but to part corcpany. 5fi^ui't> we ^^u Lo tMt örTrHrS.!

5.

€\

vJ

C^

r

Y&^j? oT l&¥^. Let US sun:niarise what we have neen about this
Liberalism.

MMMaMaaMagMMi

^I, it was bullt upon the Icleas of the Frenoh ^^nlighteneiiet , the
"natural orcler of thinss" ani also in.plied a rorality \vhioh tended
to be CalvinisticallAr inclired'. ^^^ *^*^ ^*^*>*^^ ^^^''^^

2. it ^was Idealist,) Free^ trade, as soroe saw earl3^ ( List, I84X)
v/as not based^on the faots of the international Situation. It v/as
'not a Solution to foreign politioal problerrs and econorr.ically it

'-•S'?-.fSX •»'JMfrtÄ-^'tuv»

v/as inoreasinglv poscible as a doctrin only for EnrUand . Indeed
England stuck to it until IS30 when it certai ly had no lon-;er
the sole Inciuptrial leadership. Folitical freedcm in praotioe
oarie, i- +he libarl'^ ■-^'-■■^^ •- ' ^ * on, close to Stagnation ( July
^:onarchy) and had, in t^e end, to ce adjusted to let the State
^^T.l.®^^^^^'^^-^«i' .^^ opportunity. :hile Liberalisir and ..ationalisni

-tmtMattt^imtiit

has v/orked to::'ether u-ntil IB4c, t^-at was to collapse as -^ationalisiü

.i,^-'

•~-n^ ••UiitMH^HM»«''

^l0tm^tmMßtmm^J^'^

But the oontributions of Liberj'aisrc were of the --reatest ii^-i-^urtanc^]^,

j-t was to P®^££^t^^^^ in ideal of frsedom and Liberal parties in
'.'estern ^.ations v;ere r^ot to decline until after loJB. For thoup-h

the rather coi..plete fr^edoii. which .-idar.: Sr::ith and others wanted
prooved inpossible and f.esL.ed to the pocr i::erely a v;ay to proteot

^*' ■!■ I I ■■

-•*M»4MaHfta0«

private property, it iit-^X^ied a doctrin of freedor. and individualisn.

( 2^örne )|^* freedorc and equality

i

v/hich as one early Liberal
■ean that i'^an can be a despot in his chosen sphere of inf luence : not

in kneadiing; people into ocrrKon rr.ass which one calls State, Churoh
or people". J Such a doctrin will continue to influece n:en's thou.^ht
for all the iii.possibility of puttin^into viable oractice. Thus,

flnally while eco^.or.tc or politioal Liberlalma decline, in the

Ma^M«

realrn of thought^it will continue to have ii..portanoe .

6.

Europe, however, v/a'yto 30 a sofL^j^ülÄt different way . i^he

- --^•— *a*«u».- .rff.iiir' iiftir— i'Hi'MWig

-rw- Titurfiiim

/^/<^ ä'-^^'K

A-^i

,5^ ^V?'

^

-^J

ßr^

/

m

Bismarolc

Last time we

talked about the new nationalism ; Today about

Bismarck who actually was instrumental in the process of German
unification. It took more then the a^^^^qt« -i-jke guallty^of the new

nationalism to accompliaL it , and when it was done, the new nationalists
were diappointed and ready to plunge Germany into new adventures.

Bismarck was a territorial nationalist, though he was ready t#

use the new nationalism when it suited his ptirpose^ Te understan*

Lu cuiiüider him and his WörlS»

ack Towers: student organisations d l^t ig/5"

After his ^e^iS^MM

the kind of jacrön-umen^ the Normans a^'^Saxons put-üp over

graves ^ their fallen lieea?- hef^s» Herte the new nationalism.

But xfiiif ication of Germanyl made by men ifho were conservatives

X \ ( \ ^ \

Ld national liberlas. But therefore problem o-f retrai^t biiilt

in.

^' n

Every^now and then you irust have asked jrourselves ; what qualities
must a Statesiran have In the modern v/orld to be a success?
The^arrer of Slsmark can answer this, in part, fr.r -y^u for

^V*^*'"*^

^^-^

X

/^

h9 waa undcH4ht@ri1.\r_a polltlpal, ^nnliin. -^Ä: /-^ /^ ^'^i^^-»

'^yil-.Ppyj^^cal genlus is irore evident In his forelgn affairs then

in his domestic affairs: in foreign affairs he was to be spectaxrulaiiy

successfull - in domestic issues he was in the end to suffer

shipwreck. 3oth his failures and his successes thro^^h muoh light

upon the prerequisits and handicaps of modern statesmanship,

Take his^fore i ga . af f air s fi r s t .

Purposefulness is no doubt part of the explanation for his success

here - from the be^inning he knew what he wanted - G-erm.an unity around

Prussia - and nothing could deflect him form his course.

Let US take here a few examples:

Kis war against Austria ( 1866) was provoked for the purpose of

driving Austria out of the 3onfederation. At -^adowa he was successful.

New pressure _,tp_ exploit the victory: to take Austrian territory and

make a hard peace : the King & Military clamoured for that.

But Bismakr was not to be deflected from his purpose: made only 2

dem.ands on Austria: I. agknowledge Prussias superiority in ^ermany,

2. ^eede ^enice to Italy.

Payd off: AustriaVrenained neutral in dlsm.arks next stru-p-le.

That next struggle was the also provoked war with France 8c Napoleon III.
V/ar on the hereditary enemy would bring South ^erm.an states into line.
At Sedan^French Empire crumbled and at '^rsailles the ^erm.an Empire
was born»

What^d to these successes then: I. purposefulness, 2. |Ceeping the
the main goal always in mind, 3* unscrupoulesness : i.e. taking
^^^.^^vanta ^e^f^every Situation: Schleswig Kolstein & Spain.
Even if in the matter of Spain he had to falsify document ( Ems
Dispatch) in order to m.anufacture war.

These qualitles made Bismark a rcaster of political strategy - and

r

he contlnued this way after I87I«

: ^^ H-4%-f«':-ßJ^ Alsace Lorraine)

The peace with France was harsh^( indemnit^r) why? "^ecause ßlsirark

realised that here splrit of "revenge" present. His whole foreign

policy "t/l^n centred around keeping France in such a position that

s

he would not be able to rcake a conie back«

For his purpose having been accoirplished he v/anted peace for the

new Kation,

NtU/

The way in which ßismarkVoperated r^\i is well illustrated by the
v;ay in which he kept France in a constant State of fear 6f the
conseouences if she would rearni«

T

y

gear.

it^llustratio/. France ^bout to rearir.,

Ke ben-ar/to ir.anufacture

V/ar scare of 1875 exellen^

^er recovery exeede^^^ll expectatio:

international>fer^sion. Used the/^ress. Artic^^es began to appear

in ^eriraX^ewspapers ( payd by/the governirierJt) oointing out that
Fre-^h rearmanent ._Ka^-^ thrjgat to tho poafoo of Europe/

CU>)

While the^Eirperor declared publicly that he did not want another
war, 3isir.arks associate at the foreign Office told the French
Airbassador " if France arns why should weVait: offensive is the

best defensive'*«

rlglTTIfflriT V^rTtntr^ Fm^np^ f.n ^-.p-I^QTrQ flnof PmfiMi.ii mm« ii i> i iw ■■. 1 i >■

he — ^Vi^':*^n9^ ^r°r)rr s^aF^lr^-i irvm h'^r ^rp^rr^ntf° •

ffany:

r—

) By such iTiOans 5isir.ark waged a '* total diplon.acy'* : but in the interest
of keeping peace in Euror:)e -as the honest broker> ---anoeuvered ^ernany

^tT^T-:

into the central position of European diplomaoy

yi ftvftnt.nayiy ^g;rrTianv 'i^ nrp :^,n r^aj^fju uf l^^^^sslpn )- but onlx-

after Jisir.ark/was 'VdroppejO I889.

T>

iOi

For his In-^rnal/polici^s derr.onsti:;g(^te the >feakness of his political

genius --^ustyÄs his

Why?

ilomatiQ/polici^^B present its triurcph«

^0

*>W^N*V>

2«

The Ideas underlylng Blamarckg alllance aystem were two fold.

"•»uiWMMAiiaatfiMaMMMUNaHMMMMMlMMMMMMatMakifi

fl2 Idea Russian -^erman relations were the keyatone for Germany*«

6>

securlty agalnst France /ßlsmarok also vlew ^ German science
and Ru3sian masses can domlnate Europa".
2} Austrlan Empire, though excluded from (^ermany, must be preserved*

. ■ ' ■ ■ ■ .- f . .

For otherwlse dor open for controversy over Eastern Europa and

for Russlan expahelonTAustrla a calmlng factor in thla yerv\L^'/ ^

disturbed aerea. (Eastern Questlon). s/fJ^^^ ^"^

Thufl treatles wlth both Auatria anl RusBla. Here weakness:
Balcan rivalry between the two dld put Oermany up as broker for
a whlle, but bound to breack down, as it dld In the end.-

*^

x^**^^

4otx^ /UxAr,^ ^oJn'c^jL^ ? i^U^ ^^yU^m^

O^vijtXJUyi '

To rs

i^u^'U: >*.'•« • '^^*^'r

I 4Ji

^ -,<

I think the answer Is this: that here Bismark had llttle elbow

roorc: here for all bis manoevering he was ooirmitted to ONE
course of action ■which blinded him to the consequences .
j That coirnittraent of ßlsmark was to settle the Reich upon a
,. strongly Monarchlcal and censgrvative basis, ( 3^ \

ßismark did not*like Parllair;ents or Liberais. Ke had cone to
power in -'^russia as the arch reactionary who was wllling to
railroad through arrcy appropriations even though Parliament
was a^rainst them«

*^isrnark was thus conimitted to iraintainlng orrler on ^ T.nn^-nn.hi nai
brm-1 n liii thnut rcrarri for "individual** interests or anj kind of
^^Li>i^-n^i'C4-gHfi. rSRK ) Nhy^waa this a handinap? ^ecauae it blinded
hiiT to the strength of theYforces which opposed hiir within ^ermany
Let US illustrate this - taking first his Kulturkampf:

— . # -* 1»

.-•"X

Ficrht apr.ainst the ^atholic Church which he thought had extra -
"^errr.an alle^iances^ -"^but still ir.ore a fir^ht ao-ainst the' Genter

Party whose able leaders he detested. ( Windhorst)

Tried to encourage ^Id ''atholicism : native without home« -r^-^'*'*^
— ^ ^^'^^^J- I

isn: ^^:::c j

His yeat defeat - why?(/jbnderestiir.ated the power of ^atholic
- the orreat reallst had little feeling for other i(4ealisrr.s then

y allegiance^o the^ Emperor. ( 3-ood: also rr.ade hin reject racj^^

^4$^ ^

and Cultural ^^ationalisrcs exess^sj". 3ift iriere was ' aiiu Lhüi'" reason ^^
f^r hia fall uro - hft f^uni hn nould not. rin^A^ithout thd^ >^enter ^^

Pfl.32jKj in t.hp ri^et, Why*^ krsa^^y^ is that he disliked the Liberais t^^^^T^

T . »•• - - - -

even irore«

• 3reach came in

i^a-riy y/ork^ng g,ii laj:i^^^»-i'^«^t.wt^<^n ijJHmark and the Liber](Cs - btrtr
msly iffponniblQ w1 th nlqnnrks 14j

■fuyöd Lo supi^ürt* the outlawing of_the
^iHl Deiwuiatic-^rty - indlvidual n'^üduii: aL 'stake^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^'^•
Thu¥ digKark hA4 t6 ciiocTüü belwocii tfe evilB g. lie cnose the '*'r^ T/

3a

H

For here the llmltatlons of hls genlus came Into play: he never

roee over the llmitations of hls background! a Prussian Junker, ^ ^(^^"'Z^

stronlsy I^lonarchical Loyalty ( i.e. vs. 1848 at that tine even -j^iU^'^'^

'Z*^

Vi^

vs, Geriran unlty)*^. Idea of sense of "duty" to the IviOnarchy.

-— .^^

The Frenchman lacks the sense of duty of the 3-errcan, who risidly
Stands alone in the darkness of his post, in peril of his life.
That coires frorii what is left of religious belief in our people; "
they know that there is sorceone who sees them, even 4#-4ke when T^ h^\r
serseant does not'». i'^(c9^^\ Pf^^^^^'^H F^hTn^ ^^«^W^^ ^V f^^^ ^''^ r^^lr^sr

S^fuslon of religion and dutv: but Bismark concieved of hircself
as soldier on his post who does his duty even if serseant is not
lookin^: because a Kigher onä is patra^ailins his watch*

\-K^W^

Lh4 /^.

but also a leading conservative : State a Christian State and the

ftammam^i

^■atMOi

Monarchy as Christian institutions established by God* This includod
the social heirarchies. No wonder anti socialist laws: vs. hierarchy
monarchy and religion^ Moreover intern, ties. Patriot ism: not expan-
sionist but linked to Monarchy and the existing boundaries.

.i!Ml( <i^. .^11

y^HKij^

5B.

Yet after SedanJbhe_Liberals formed an alliance with B. for the
advantage of unity to^clas-es they represented obvious, abd
difficult to withdraw from euphoria> Clue: a kind of alliance
between bourgeoisie and onld order within which the interests
of the cid Order would be saf e : i.e. landed estates, military,
in their hands* Feudalisra within a modern state. Cost high:
civic democracy, social justice and military responsibility all
sacrificed to compromise: new order had free economic hand, and
old order dominated vital institutions. Agricultural protectionism
but industrial free trade, but also

Sucess certainly: oxpansiom of heavy industry, cartels furthered,
new Industries ( Chemical, analine etc). 1/879 '"^ariff meant streng
through no competition atvhome.

Bismarck believed that united Germany was a saturated power. But
miscalculations: seif confidence ( young vs. old nations), vs.
excljjded from imperialism abr^Dad. Thus tJ^^e " reach for world power"
after 1900 about which more will be heard later.

Blood and iron of I87I did lead to blood of igw. Realims which had
been so successfmlly applied to unification could be applied also
to furthering industry and agricultureal expansion.

Bismarck never understood thode passions either which were ideological

either right, as nation not yet spsiritually unified, or on the
left with growing power of socialism.

Mistakes: K^ulturkampf ; oulawing socialists (1878) - both ^atholics
and socialists emerged afterwards as major forces.

Des-p(!te Insurance and health laws. i'aternalism but successful.
Nkt enough.

T

«1

^Jö^servative, even ef tapal, Q enter party.
What was basically the w.Q.ttQTherel
have -^arl. su^rt & thÄ^T though he

tt

eneir.ies j0f the sta^" in praptical

/ X /

/

tO-:»

coffiOT^arlrise and^nd a stj^le basi^for his rMe d- that he was

V^i

#/

er able to do,
ßut arf^-ettöl weakness was that he had to rely upon the E^iperor: C^^^l^ll^X^^« -
streng Xonarchlcal as he was ^ this was ok. as long as Eirperor
Wllllair. I. was Emperor but In 1888 he dies. i^ewErcperor Frederick
III ruled only a hundred days - a tragedy for ^ermany for he was y_.A</ »^
a Libe^ra^r^^ . ^./^^ .-A -^ ^ ^^^^ ^ ^. ^^-A-

Here Bismark lost>^^out. Kew Emperor no stoirach to be Bismarks clerk
hl5 agressive ideas did not Jibe with Bismark^TSoth vain and
iirpresped with their ri^hteousness : but Bismark went and the
Emperor remained.

friere Final eclipse of his political genius: his own consefvatism &

Commitments undid much of his work - exept ^erman unity,
» His r^alism, so useful in Foreign policy, in the last resort

r
\

tel4iq4e^.-te4»-4e-%ke went sour as he 3rew older. He did not
y^^^^^^and the stren^th of Sog. Democracy ( though he tried to
meet it ) not did he under stand the new forces in the making:
he though the i:onarchical^ principle streng and eternal & none of
the -ations with which he dealt now has a i-lonarc]fn^''''he~dis missed
\{ ^"SJ£sJL_^Q'rl. government as destined to fall - and England is
L today the only m.aJor ::ation whose Monarchy is solidly rooted.

For all his Political genius: his Junker outlook on the world
destined him for political frustration and failure in ^ermany
itself -which he had united - and prooved his limitation.
y ^o^ political senius^must rise above his backround andVpre Judices&
and that was the one pi^erequisit which Bism.arl^ lackedv^

/

5*

3isrr.arks herita-^e was notYto the advanta5e of Sermany.

He left bis work in the hands of William II • who was quite
incapable of preserving or developing it. That was ^ermany s
Kisfortune - it was Sismarks fault that this man had too

rcuoh pov;er for his rnediocre talent.

It was Bismarks fault too that there was no -^'arliament strong

enough to bridle this extravagant ruler ( -^erman Constitutiona-

lism) • It Tras "txts fäuTtTtoo th^aTThBTB- was not -snau]^ rndepen-

den^e in the minds of thB" (J^erTi:stTF"i9ee-pi«-, B^y dejrj^g- hlty best to

cOTrtairr-^rK.L^.n Liberia. i.gjm he had ooL.£;leted the work bep:un j

in 1848, S^^^^a^ ^*^Wi^-: ^'-'•-^ 9^^<jyiw^\^ , s^i^^^^^l^^ ^^.v^

IJnder .Bismarks leadership *J"erm.any had becomie united and. strong,
and powerful. i^vi'^i M'tq .■ji'iVi c-iy n-r p^vjpi^ ^r^H int.P-pnr^t hni nv/riirx^pr]
idoaol of fi-^cjclom and hum.anlty^ In the lonK run Bism.arks stern
Ideals of duty did not satisfy the aspirations of the mass of
people: a policy of power and interest not enou^h. So he left
j the door open for the flirtations with cultural Kationalism.
which he rejeoted, V/illiam II. a friend of m.any leading advo-
Gates of Cultural "^ationalismVSria" inf luenced by the^i.
Finall-r jt rr.i-ht oe said that the verv fact that /.ismark V7as so

s uccear f 1.1 1 vi th thg Ii3.ndri

n H*\

T5 — ^ — ur;od - r^r^d — the f^,.-.t — tha-t

for him thono moano — Dq,uarcd !;i*h " ''-^jtsp luli luun fOilth —

uJ

§^

JU^,

<*->

^^

{M^

\M

i-e a .".c 1 uiiLai'v u?. Lh?-j üe

■. :." tiET^»'***'.p— ■—■ ■ '*

olitloal LorLilUry in the

^(?/f-i^7^)

n^j^^ojpn' wui"ld. ^et his work did not lastj, the ro^dtJL Kohenzollern

Dynasty which he had exalted to it*s ^rreatest hi^^hts - had
') ciesed to exist twenty years after his death« ^"^^^^^^^^ .^y r.

We can sura up this v;ith greater conseguences then just ::ilsm.

career shov/ed:
K I. The politics of power and interest can be successful - out

mummm^m^itm

J

6.

{

up to a polnt» That point is detsrndnecl by :

^ :^«V

2. Kow far a staten:an can rise above the limitations of his
background, envircnir.ent and inherited prejudices, Fcr

•■*»»-4. .-..• V ■—.-„.-, ...je»—!- '--

all those rr.ay not correspond to the reallty of a Situation.

3. Policy of Pp^ve.r and Interest is not enou^>:h!/ror the

^^ation not satisfied with sc sober a r:o^l- There iLUst

«M*

)e somethin^ to fill the^void of ideologies - the longing

"1

f^^-<t^^*-^^^

ror ■■•^siiis" had also to be oduj-oxj-öu... v u - - . y ^

We n:i3ht v/ell ren^err.ber these thin^s wjhich .■^isn:ark, to
the sürrovv of future generations, foi/sct.-

■^ 4^>')-

i

\

**?

^'

lyi/pu:

^^ -^'^ n. ^':^'

/^- '^y*"

4a.

b«t funto-ntally hl. J«dc«. o«tleok bU nr^rlik.* tk, IdWrli. -

natlonl Uberala tho««h th.3r ,«•. Th. allia^^^ 1^^«,!, ^
aliOTB «14, hl. «co.fert.bl. «- h. tt< not 11k. to b. on th. «o«f
^th hl. f.iiow Junk«r.. Th« h. «nmc ,ror^ i« 1378 «4 ^j^y ,^
into .ccptlnt t«nff. ^.h aericüt^ iirt.r..ts h.* .1^ ,.^.
Th« .uppert.* «4 h.1]^ th. conswrratl^, 1^ th.lr o^ltlon f

«u-ira «M «.th turiff«.- l.ft iaiu8trliai»t.Vbiä^ tTii^öSti
•''^^^.^l™*^«"*! t«^toiT wT7lb.ria M., ot tr- tTMUC'^J^^'-*^?

/

But it is typical of his

conservatisn: socialists were enemies of the state because they
^^L^-^- upsetjbhe accepted hierarchy and were international ( like the
Catholic Church). He started the buiseness of elininating your
enemy: not t olerat ing but total war against them as he was to^
shrewd to wage total war against Austria earlier.

\JM^

^<ö^:

HJ<

f^

) {w

^at tlme I talked about one man ( ßlsmark) today I want to talk about
ttir^re Iren: Mazzlnl, Pope Plus IX and ^avour^f/f^/ ^ALDl
These luön were the Chief figuers in the^ making of Italian unlty.
And to talk about them is to hishlight the Problems and importance
of that quest.

I-lazzlnl ffilght be called the chief Propagandist of Unlty; the catlyst

v/ho re Invogorated the the aspirations of Itallans*

Es^entlally he was a simple man v/ith little origlnallty of thought:

and therein lay his strength as Propagandist for the cause,

tte aimed at an Italian ^"^e public on the Roman m.odel. He was Imbued

with the ideas of Rom.an Republlcanlsm: Monarchy was to hlm a bad

form of government because it offended against eq^llty. ( t*' ft'-»*-*^*^

He carried on the the Enlightenm^ent traditlon of a vague social

religlon of humanlty: he hoped that the ^^ew Italy would lead to the

L moral and social regeneration ofYmankind*
I
Italy^s mlsfortunes began, for hlm, wlth the fall of the Roman Republlc.

He was in the traditlon of earlier Italian Rebeis who had sought to

solve Italy s Problems by a return to a glorious Republican past -

- i

symbolised by the rfifins of anclent Rome all around them. i^'^- ^^^^ ^^^ ^-^^J
Hls-Rebeiri3"n in Rome in 1848 rei^indF~öTO"ör^the ■e^tri-it5if»--^«aissance
Rabelllon of Rienzi, ( A/pT-J

He believed that his " Young Italy" insplred by these principles
y could Chase Austria and all the other fcfces opposed to unlty out
of Italy alltogether.

^ proovedjvrong : and his contributlon to the cause of Italian unlty
was Insplratlonal : and yet his very agltatlon determlned in a sense
the course of Italian unlty - for JLtJiad ,a^^_^eat effect upon the
one force^wlthout whloh thls unlty (thuld not com:e about: the "^apacy
and Its Imcumbent Plus IX. /T^^viM^^/ i^iu^ T^^^Ü^I ^IC

^^

u.

¥tz^i]ii^ tkt r»TolmtloMTy^ nat eoMerlAe^tl of tk« aoral •qvalltx of samt aad
this »MLZit an •mpkasls oa tka prlncipl« of astooiation ratktr ttom iadlTlA«
National «lifioatioÄ naa tko f irat stop torordi a contiiiaiiit progroaa im
not onlj naklnc aon coo^ k«t also oqval« Tko ronnoration of tko apirit of
oaok ladirLdual mh aoana tkat all oaii aaaoolato tocotkor^ in tko onAj in
aick a apirit^ Voxy TaciMj to ko anro* Bit inapirational#

^-^

i-

X ^ •-

Flu IX was, at bis accesslon, resolved to be a Liberal Pope. In 1848

he too granted a Constitution to the -^apal states. Yet Pius goes , ^

down in history as the rr.ost intranoil^^^it'^^'Qf all -Topes? Why?

Kere the events of 1848 play a leading part.

Plus ideal was a LlberlLa -apa^^ under a Liberal Pope. But in 1848

2 things made thls Incorrpatible wlth reality:

— — — — • 1.^ ■ '

I« ^'^azzini s Republican agitation and bis Roman rebellion. How could
Pius bjK, at once a LlberiaLand hang on to his temporal powei^by
the means of force ( i.e. troups)? ^ ^ , o/^Mt /^^^''^/^

jA«^»r ' ^^

- . : ,.'. ^ -<

1^, The leading part playd by P't«4«eiitVin fighting Austria in 1848

it rather then the Papacy

m.ade him fear that it might be Ph

wnicn wouia --et the leaclershlp in italy. ^, Ai^^ •/•<^.
Result: Pius swung to the other extrem.e:' war upon Italian unity and
upon Liberalism _in ever form.^For Pius was a violent emiotional man «
aM ctlmoot. a f 1 -^^upr nut Qt tho Goun^tor noforr,.ation. ^e failed to
realise the broader consequences of his actions - what were they?
I.^n alienation of the "''apacy from the ^erman and French*^Churches
which looked upon Liberl^ism in a different and symipathetic

fashion« ^■443<;^r upon all ''modern" k Liberal ideas"^
2/Direct Opposition to the aspirations of the Italian people.
The consequences of this second: that in the nfed he had to maintain

hisVpower on^French bayonets sent by ^^apoleon III, largo ly through

.V/hen ^^apoleon III. collapsed in 1870 therefore the temporal power
^^j^lof the ■'^apacy collapsed too - and Rom^^^becam.e the capital of Italy
^^si^Jwhile until j929 the Papacy retired into the "atican%'^ But It meant

I In other words : the papacy forfeited Italian

Iso an intenae antl » clericalism among the Italian people: who ^^aU^
ivorced their faith from the Political ambitions of the Papacy. [^"^^ JjlAw'

adership»

2a.

This Ts not quite fair. Actually he only continued the trend which
had set in with the Fr. Hev: the Chiirch was reacting against

"tlil^ all i:he tlrre ±n the 19. centirry, just as it did against

the Ru^ssian revolution during much of the 20. centuryi»^ — Already

hefore Pius, Gregory XVI had called freedom of conscienae "abs\rrd'^

.,^- ./ and liberty of the Press a freedom jfhich misled the common people^

The startling thing about Pius was. that, at first, he seemed .

willing to reverse this trend^ But it was not to be.

But In the lon,^ run Plus course^^agalnst Liberlalsir, apart from

encountering Opposition of the Oernan and French Glergy, had S=^fen

ff^re^dT&gtotPG^u'S consequences for tne^hurchiA'''^ ^^

•^^_^^5_ Pius throtj^h down the gauntlet to Llberlaism^in his so called

^9

„ ~Ci)i^ i^ f'*^ *■''■ - — ^

Syllabus of Errors : /in that syllabus were found every idea which

the Liberais held dear: castigated as a sinful error. Liberty of

Gonscience and Liberty of ^ress were dangerous errors: Socialism,

Communisn: and Bible societies were (rrouped together as sinful.

Separation of Ghurch and State was an error.

To Liberila Catholics the Syllabus spelled the teirporary end of their

hopes: widespread seccession in ^ernany and France as well as in

Italy was the result: ^he-se-cal IrpI "niof;iernioV' '^'^^^'^^'s^-^r^itA^^MCyi^'^A^f^ /

^V:>/"^

-^

But Plus went even further: in 1870 called a '^atlcan Council to ^
establish the infallability of the "^apacy. ^'ere the ^erman and 77^^ S^
French Bishops led the resistance. The Council booged down. c^^ lj^^

riL^,^ I

The Archbishop of Paris and ^^^etteler in ^ermany wanned a.n-ainst ^"^ ^'•^'^"

the establishrent of absolutism in the Churchw ^'*^'^^^^^'

^ut the non Italian Bishops afraid to cause an open scandal: they

just left the Council and Infalabiiity was voted.^ 0i^ ^ i߀*'-Mft^<

Pius had thrown down the chanllenge to Llhe_i<^lisn: and to Italian

AtMt,'^^^^* "^^ ^^^ "^^^^^ ^^^ ^® n:anasef^%o^eperate the Ghurch from fß$7f^ff0V

^a>#r- adyvanced European though; however his successora^, ^notably^-^eo XIII v^
wT^-^.* ^V»

r^i^ft,^-i5r/^'t,teiT:pted to undo part of what >^ had done by infusing a new social

splrit into the teachln^^« n-r t.v»^ '^M^^y^r^v^( r^^v^y^m v/^irov^nTr^ qdit \ z JTa#7Ti*^

\-

1

Pius iiad expected a iriracle to save hirc and his ideas: but none
/ can^e & when he dies well over 80 the new Italy was in existence i: his
great rival .^-lodmont had suceeded wepe-k©-k what he had failed to

prevent«

The stör«- of PJLadÄÄ».ts success is the story of ^avqur.

Were Bisrrark had been a Prussian Junker - Cavour belon":ed to

upptr »iddlt ^'1mbb%m. ^ ±b m alMost tTt book «xai^t of UWrmliMt
qwlt# Äiff«r«nt frmt BlMamrok. Tor CSatout rtmml tkm nopld, anä It«lj, 1a
tlM laag» «f oonfliotiiM; lat«r««tct ««oiiOKLa ui ptUtital. Suek lmt#r««t«
»kowl* ka^t f!r## play to noftfUB thmma9lr%B tJhl not h% 9XiffB9%d. It um

tk# statnmiui tackt to p««©B«il« tktst Imtw^st« for a »olltital «recran.
He was no a dietator Iwct a raeoneiliater of oonflictiiif Itttoroota*
Tki» could bo bort bo dono im Parliaiünt mro botk tbo fi^o play of iatorooto
anÄ tboir rooonolliatloa could bo Aoaonatratod« CaToup, q«Lto «nliko BioMrck,
llkod ParllaMiKto«

It nao tkLa Idboral nko nao tho poal architoct of Italiaa n±tj. Bwt ho
laeko« a Mbltko» an angr äbä a coiMral» Bou«« ^om -^intil Oarlbaldo forood
blMolf on bin Tfith hia aiwcoaafwl ortrthroir of tbo Klac^oa of Naploa aai
Siollity aaA attoMptod aarch on Rom* OarlbalÄ ma an adTontvor witk
ttctatorlal ambltion», about that thoro can bo no doubt. CaTow um forood
Into kolplnc bla but in «o doinc took OTtr tho loaA* Strucrlo niiioh G. loot*

It WM ono thinc to aot otrt id.tb lOOO Mn to conquop a kincd». b«t anothor
to eonsolUat«. 0. nu pmUjt i»t vwty teifkt ( «oulA nrrar faa-ra attoipt««
tlM NaylM A SielUty thlnc If h« IumI bam) .

( to 5)

|r^^

■tiO-hifi a1ri? -roj:i..he was forced to

/ make^aiipe^- -thair-^^SprbaT^'rT^ be under the King of

iZ

0^

Thus Garibaldi was/Lhe oatalvst^^who brought about the concrete
unity of Italy -^Just as ^'^azzlnl had been the ideolo.priiral
catalyst who kept the flarre alive and sttrred it. 3ut without the
^ practical statesir.anship of ^avour neither one or the other v/ith

their llmltations would have suoceeded. Cr ' ' O y

As It was: Bismark ^ave Italy Loinbardy ( 1866) and ^mpoleon III.
collapse r^ave her her capital (I87I)

The drearr was fulfilled. But not qulte : there were still territories
clairred but u^.der foreign rule : above all on the i^almation coast«
The spirit of the Ri3orsomento>(TEaIy for the Itllans & all of Italy
continued: Mussolini was to use it for lits rise to power & U>4ay.
the quest for Trieste" Ts" part of thatsar.e^ spirit«

Even SQ Itaiy reinained the w^akest of the ^reat powers. Italy 's

/-- '. ^"

Libei^a Ccyristitutiop:' and a^s had to function in a country largely

lll^tera^e and po^rty slfriken« Tfie Gatfeolcii Church had retired

ii^to s/position./^f off^ial ho tili

/ / / / y ''

tiir.es of Kusa^'^lini) yAll tha^ fact^jors foreshadow the conteir.pory

Italy & wir<houtl^ thei]] iL-fnirBt reir.aln a mystery forever.
^errrany & Italy not tha^'only grn/ers achievirog-^sreater unity:

t^oi^i c

lity ( not to broken until the

content

acroo^ff'''the »^c^n th/B ^^ation fron: whftch'^aribaldi

had w^kfiched ttle Itaian ev^nts ^fore takin,'^ action ^oing through

the sarre phase.

TO^tlTe~-6t3rTra"5TT3a t Ion of /A^j^e^can^lTaTIöftality next ttee

L^'ation ^);« Europe itself which went through a National

But one r._, _ ^-_ ^

ivjilLH M^ fi-^iff ''^^^ 09^%^^J^r 4M. ÄT^

crisis Iri I87Ö^nd whose -ationalisir also affected: to France

next tirce.

,J"^

.^

6..

/T*"

But It was not only these unfulfllled asplrations whlch «ere to
haunt Italy's future: there was also a kind oj^lsmuslom^ent .
ThTT^allty of TeUllng down after th^^iol^LiiSi^'^^^^^^
proov^TT; hum di^i^ for mny: and the workings ofa repräsentative
Parllament se^ed not only pedeBtrlan «£er all these great adven-
tures. but also corrupt. For there aPe we^e Parllamentary sc«dals
„hlch shocked and the Parllamentary manoevering in a democracy
seeiTeT^caune after the «aeha? march of Oar^

Resui^TTu^h anti -^arlia^entary feeling. from the^irft. A sort
of wlsh for more actlon, wlthout any dlrectlon, or even definite

purpo se • r ^^

,i.„^-Xiisni^f*'n-mtt

Ttols feellngwill eventually translate Itself Into Italian Fascism.
Whicrwill he a negative anti -^arlia.entary '''^'^ ^^^^^X.X'^^'

. J . ,' .', , *•-,•►" »4--

then a movement with a difinite ideology.

.„^^•^»

to the future.

Thus herejoo the unlfication throw^s Its hjadow ^^
Thr^^^Tcan be sald^ahout France, whlch In Ao/also passed
through one of its great crisis. after f^^^^^^^'^^'^'^'
for 22 years the rule of Napoleon III. to thisji«ct time././.'?- f.^;

'^/jZ^w' ^'*^'

^ s.^>t^~

Real ppoblems: poverty - the problern of the South (expl.)

^'Coc IHK. 4Sr ^i^ft^

Foreign policy: Irperlal ventures - first fallure

in Ethlopia ^1889^ defeat at Adua (I896) and
the annexatlon of Tripoll ( I91I) only small
recorcpense. Unfulfilled Imperial ambitions
\ aided spirlt of the Pisorgomento. \^^^--^"'

n/ . , '^^u^^f. .U-^. ^-^ ^*^

/

y

/

(7

:im

6a.

o^

tka 4anf«r im LllMrallm tkat th# r«eoneiliatloa of latorost« nouLi/bocC

down r da a «talosato of arid and eorrupt parllaBontarj Baiiootnrori»c* ^^^^
notad proTont tko quiek tolTinf of tko kLnd of i^rokloMi Italy nas kosott

-»*«--i.»**-

nitk^ porertj^ ••pocialljr and tkii stül »oro ofpoeiallj im tko Sovtk«
Tko koot mindo ooom tumod tkoir kaokt on tkis witk diag^t«

Some tiTUned to Imperialism as revitalising the Risorgomento - and
eveniraally to advocating Italy's entry into WI#

Ul-^^^lf (J-p ^IVfi^Ä

o

We have covered the perlod 1870 -I9I4 from several polnts

of View: culturalljr, social affairs and eoonoiElcs.

It 18, in a real seaae , the breack In the I9. Century. But, _. w^i

not only the rise of Indus triallsn!, ^-arxlsm a«a -atlonallsm V^'*^'-^

domlnate thls p»rlod: but also a profound reorlentatlon

In Insternational ^latlons. f Ja\

The System of the Gongress of Vienna had recleved a severe blow
with -eman unltyt^o longer could Metternlchs Ideal of a balance
of power restlng on Austrla In central Europe. be i^alntained.
The Triple_Alllance and the Triple^ntente replaced the System
Of Vienna. It. llke the systen: of Vienna. rested on the Idea
Of the balance of power.

We must therefore^ook once rnore cloaer at thls conept which
doirinated\lnterj^tlonal relatlons ever since the Renaissance -
what was lt\s /esse nee?

The underlyAconcept Is that of power which. again. ever since
the Renal^ance\md managed to_enjmclpate Itself from.ethlcal
basls. its sener^acceptance has been clears eretr it was

tij^^y "^^^ irrat\nal Ideais^^nov qM then ( Imtlonalism) .

' ^^°W^oarr.e a iustlflh^onlpllself - we have seen thls in
th/quest for Golonles whK^ had nothing to offer exept prestige.
"cüh illUs träte it apibther way: Öe

^

cquevilles remar

V^

the French in th^^volutlon__hated^e Aristocray so:
ße^cäuse reall^ed that they had a>ready lost power and that thls
^loss was^pot reflected in their fortunes. As lon"^ as they had
held r^ral power ( such as j/srisdiction) they were not only
toi«-rated but respected. Resentmen^ can» ^c^use they had wealth
wlthout vlslble functlon or power.

-imdorly f

Ia#

From the relations emong men we now come xto the relations among
nations; and these go according to a system which is almost seif
generating. We call it the balance of power • P©w#r Is aot^^rautral^
distabodi^dy but assoeiated wlth tk« aims of statte - witk
what ragardad aa thair aational intaraat# The rediscovery
of the unconscious reflected here, in a dynamic, in a
restlessness which comes from the nationalism based upon
a mystique, a capturing of the dynamic longing uyi? a better
World. But thati lomging often pushed outside, nedded an
enemy, it sought to gain fulfillment by expansion, To be a
World power seemed desirable, an ego trip on a national
Scale ( nationalism not always agressive at all^ not for small
States, for example. Long peace had made war eventually desirable,
part of the vitalism which was part of the epoch ( Bergson,
Nietzsche) or of urse for change, 3ometimes any change out of
boredom.

ä

/5ft^)

<

^

r

'or thls

hy lö perhÄpö flöt

ILt was power whlch was the regulator and this
was based on such factors as armaments and diplomacy as well as

national resources, There are two vlewpoints posslble about thls

■ ^ — ^ .«_ ^p OfrM^Hi^s'*^

System of balance of power: ONE stresse s the power faotor and Is
well lllustrated by Adolf Hitler* s remarkt C') ^^/^7^^^'-~ )

I " The whole work of natxire Is a mlghty struggle between
strength and weakness - and eternal vlctory of the strong over the
weak, «States whlch offend against thls elementary law fall Into decay»
Only foroe rules» Force is the flrst law* Through centuries force and
power are the determlning factors. "j

This is stressing power and dominanace» Kere the only
balance of power is that of the strong dominating over everybody»

But the second attitude towar\is the blance of power is different

Of F-

and for us at the moment^more typical:^" To keep the blance of power

and to hinder one*s neighbour froip becoming too strong is not to do

Z ^A f

l\f CT

härm. It is to guarantee onesel^SipecT^ubJection. Therefore in worklng

for the blance of powei^one works for liberty, tranquility and public

safety"^

This is nineteenth Century Statement, before the flrst world

war and it corresponds more closely to the historical veri-ty about

the principle» By means of achieving a balance of power combination

.1

little Holland had stopped mlght Louis XIVJ France and the erman
•«^rinces had stoppea Charles V. and Metternich had hoped to prevent
another excuBsion such as Napoleons. It is diplomacy whlch is here
all important - for these combinations must be manoevered into line
so as to balance to future enemy. Moreover up to I914 all done in
'^sevret** •* to keep eaerny who was getting too ambitious gosssing«
Public opinion was no factor at all ( exeptrt53^1* protJegänoa purposes)
for this System based not on "Wie^jy but on power: on manipulation

3

and^Italy

more then on vltuperatlon, As It wag salf" 300 men who all knew

eaoh other held the destlny of the world In thelr handa" .7

Let u« sea how the balance was worked after I87O and why It broke

down so dlfltastrously In I9I4.

aerman unlty destroys Metternlch's bafww^^^Tnd a new equlllbrlum

of Natlons had to b© found. Eventually thls was worked out in th»

Trlple Alllance and the Trlple entente. Aiiatrla, 0^

^ ■ — ■ ■

were to balance the power of, France, England and Russia.r
But It took tlme for thls to shake down and there were constant
threats to the achievement of a balance, For as Metternlch had
Srasped a balance of power depends on mattere remalning atatlc.
There must t» Jio Xlolent upsets ( Holy Aixlance). But after I870
dynamißm of Natlons st»pped up: Watlonallsm ana Imperlallsm. ne«d
f-or marke to all threatened any balance which was achleved.
.^iifSi^^ ^^0 wanted peace after 1870 did his best. ^ tried to adjust

tne biiance of power by agreement between Natlons concerned. What
was the focus for the balance of power: the sore spötT^lmperlal
clashes to be sure - but more Inmeditate one Nation In Europe whlch
was fare game for carvlng up: for it was alslntlgratlng: the once
powerful Ottoman- Empire. Focus was In the Blacani, 3 Natlons had
ambltlons on the carcass of the "dylng man of Europe":
I. /^ermany ( lines to Commerce In ^ear Aast). 2. Russla ( the J^arda-
nelies & warm sea portj, 3. AustrU l expanslon problem and mlroxiesJ
betoer to have them aU m Empire then partly outslaeJ.
«esult^f nearlng ciash: Conference of ^erim in 1878. Her Blance
adjustea. "ceabe anu -^esit oraer to Kussla und Austrlan territorial
amoltions inJ^alänöÜY hut whlle Turkey artificiuixy preaerved, tne cf am.'«»^ ^—^
agreem«nt favourea Auatria ratner then ^^tssia ( ror ane got Bosnia^nTy
ana russla nothing;, »erbia ana Rumünia gainwa ind«p«naence aa ,\A,Z^^»^

buixer atttoes". Now thls arxaxige.ment xaeiea a goou long whüe. ^

Why dld It breack down In I9I4 when Russia and Austrla did olash In

^— — ■ ^m — . ■! ■■■■>*■■'■ ^" '■■■»■■■«

the Baloans and set off spark for a bloody war?

(JL. ßaloan states had taken matters into thelr own band« Theae

i\t

* buff er states"/^efusedTo stay static* Under the drlve of a
atlonallsm now released from Turklßh domlnatlon they looked

for frledds: tbus put themselves under protection of Russia or
Au8tria# Serbla on Austri as boutiary naturally chose Russia«
ThusVthese ""^ations be^flme 1nvolvedi4h ^aloan politics«
J^. By I914 Trlple alllance and trlple entente formed. No longer
any neutral ^^tlons to enforce a "cease and deslsts" order.

<-

juoh as Germany and England had ^teforced after Berlin« Now
ermany tied to Austria and England

tc^ Russia. ^aiance was

too perfeot: how could one restrAin an ally who might threaten
to go over into the Opposition camp? Whea-

^nt— came

3Xx'biaii~^?ol

di^^-trjf to relrain Auslria« Wa know alflo t.hat-Ruooia was not

^

keen-on war einher. What happened w€Uk'aI-drifting-JLnto war*

Austri«rtiabilised^'J*>^'^

^^ Rtval-airtanöeö were-itn~^wor^Ing order •/Russ iä mobill ee

A^ »^^^r''^ ^riiiaii5-^iiiobilJreedT--»o France- aobilised ■ do war startod . ^^^==*^^^*^ /

>•

There arethus two basic things which happened by I9l4l

I. Bismark had tried to keep balance of power from becoming
tr A perfeot one, His complicated System designed to enable Q-ermany to
j>Q the "honest^^broker%^ William II. chose a clear cut System instea
HeYe^-the-ex^en^ of-William's war guilti — Ha cüuld nut--koop Bi^smarks
aiaiBnce-4.ystem together. OM r^ ^(^ ^^4. ^^^ II^V. 4, 4^ ^^.,1^.^^^^

2. The dymanic of political Situation which always works against

maintenance of the balance of power and is it's chief weakness.

^^ — — — — •«»«««■■.■.-.^

gefore I870 it wag "^'ationalism which was at work. After I87O it
was ^^ationalism too (-eapooially in tAie^ bl^ahacanfl)"» But some

4a«

But in these alliances another factor now "wrell established:

G-ermariy did have ideas of preventive war by I9I4» Above all: if
the '"united nation to be a great power, now the time. Harvest of a

mam~ ,-,

nationalism vrhich Bismarck had never knoifn« f ^^^^*^^^^^^ 0>-f^ tAfcA

Moreov^T tlie estimate that Russia would soon be a maftor power: and

this danger 011S-. Preventive war here» Bethma Holweg on his East

Prussian estatis:^plant no trees now, the Russians will be here soon

tt \

anyhow" •

This psychosis is now well proved ( though great controversy in present

day ü-ermany about it) and it added to the dynajnic which rent assimder
the balance ;Which had been establishedT" A/^O iUCiU. f '^f^^^'c'^^

U/f/C^

/

^^7).w-;^W '^ f/t^^^ Ir-^t/l^ Z*tA^<e>^^ S^

A^^tt^^i^ £)L.^

:^

0-ljh^ 4^C^-(^: 5a^'^ Cr^^-^/^ c^ (pcx^n OyUh^ /?/<^W,

' /

addltional faotors as wellj ^'•^ ^ ^[^-^ p^<^ ^2.,.^,.

Ihe need for marke ta: economic ambltlons mixed up with Imperiallsm«
Armaments race t Stockpiling the ruln of Natlons under cettaln
clrcumstances, for weapons become obsolete* (^y*^ a>"*w^^ / J
Press and mass Communications» Drummed up enthuslasm» And thls

«^'^hMMMCaMl

was easy - for hardly any one knew war any more» I-ast big one
had ended In I8I5* Troups vastly astonlshed when enemy shot
back, and It was dlfferent from a parade* ( E-*--^^^^ ^ ^^ /^ '^'^
All thls worked agalnst the System of balance of ' power» Yet
even soJ when the war ended and the experlment of the League

,_„. __„_^-, ■»»ii ramm II 111,^.,

of Natlona was begun the hold of the System was not weakened.
We shall see It emerge agaln: unier the name oi5^"collectlve

the I930tle8, of ^jaot of Locarno In

and In cur tlme as the defense of the free world» In s^ort
no better syst^ has be^sn devlsedr for the woi^ld of^^tlon Skates»

devls/ one came In 1918/wlth the^peace
Ameflcan Presiüent Wofbdrow WllBon, to

polltlcs were/very uinreal Indeefd»

6.

However, from_the European polnt of vlew the prlce whlch the
Contl*jl»t had to pay for the politics of balance of power was a
^•ii££.°"®* ^^ "fy^l» over- the long vlew, that the powere at the

**««»MaHaa

rim^f Europe had to be drawn lAto these balances in order to

, .■'•.^ \i- ^...

malntaJLn them. Thus^England threw It's welght into the European
halance fron>__the^^century on - and the same can be s^^^ for 'itX
^üiSi** ^« reaultwaa that these powers from the rim of Europe ^^^''"^
"^'^^ f^^® "1°* only to help In balanclng the European powers: but
^^^^ *i?i?^.^®"'3®lY?S.rSse to sreat power and Inf luenoe .-'ThT^ce
whlch Europe payd for the pollcles of balance of power was on
^^® °"Q Blde the Increased power of England and, behlnd It, that

■MMMawMt

Of the United States - and on the other aide of Europe the Increased
PO^y,°f.RusBi>. Untll In our tln» the^bVanace of power Is based
on the the great Powers outslde Europe, rather then_on_those
anceAnt European powers^ who had dorrlnated hithertto.
^® ''B^.*'°ri^ *'»'' alreadyjnade it piain that the European powers

come

tQ.. the ^efice of Ve

no_longer had the force to icaintain thelr own balance.

■ " ' '■ '■' "' !■ * II 1111 IM ill ll> II II

<■■>.»

■rolle nf t.bfl ns, underllRes thls

These then axe some of the facts of the wars orgins, About the ^l/'^>^^

war itself and the Peace of Versailles you must read in the text -

I have nothing to add here. But the ^^y^^'^^jiftmrQ^ '^'^ the war raust

engage o-ur attention» Thooo woro^dotermined by the events in"
"ITügifl^fpi ^l^ptjt^^hioh you will hear on WndonndA^y^ BuL" they were

wha-± ]nnppATOPrl im F^nc:t«inj nnri tn t.hi n wn iri Ty~- a^am<a^^-hpv easter*,

bloodiest of wars, Thus while r^t producing anything

totally new, it did bring about attitud^s which will be important

for the future:

I, idea of heroism and of Community

2« idea of total war

3« changing attitude towards" death? War & ^^ssacresv

Y.

But fflore prosaically: sttfengthened labout & Trade Uniona
_ as well,

^1

Introduction

Lm^

/. n. i^

,J^J

Course: § lectures and section/c will teil when to start etc.)
until then also meetjlridajs, and even_after. These me-^tings:

m

•s due to_discuss this
Problems and questions

then the readings. But noTexclus nre.

'-"■'ext: notice that short and get to it, so that you know at least
outline of things. We shall be dealing with myt^aj-o*» ^"* *®^
r^Lifies which determine them.
Notice when books are due: important. two f irst ones close: give
yoü^ro^^ti^ mood^^ch Stands at beginning of mo/ernity and will
never leacve it. Almost eveiyo>(j-e literate in Euruope read these

3l?tterg- aelf erpTanatory .
Now let ^e say a frew things about what we are about to embark on:

l^, ^'' ^

) Äw4fl5^

/-

(JU^>'

^

Un^

ß-

i/-t^

\\

^

i^"^?!^'

y

I a. 1„ .,e su.„ing „p going .ac. fi^st to .e.a..3 I .ade in
the f.r,t lecture in s.pte.be., and ,.e „,.. „e stand.

Introduction

There are two remakrs above all I would like to make today, at the

outset:

What is this history which we are about to analyse? Because all of

US are always pulled to give one cause for this or that, seek for

simple answers to complex questions this is an important statement

of what we are about to do. History is a like a kind of river: the

flow of events interacts with the more permanent slower changes in
the landscape or the river bed. That means that a lot of factors
work to influenae the course of events amd that is why we must
make" sense out of i%- complexity. ^or it is not economics that

^ , ,,_ ,i.j»ai , 11--— '** . ^^

determines history, or social or political factors but all of these

together« But even this is not enough: men act according to their own
Vision and perception of things. There are always choices, and

the question is why do man take that choice of this ? In the last

*-*^tMHii,mimum-i-4^m

resort history is based on people and their perceptions - not on
cosmic forces or pre determination •

But this perception, these myths by which we all live are informed by
reality and relfect realty^^ e vun If Ihb»^ are mystical « Thus we must

_m WTUJi—

say at the very beginning: what we are concerned with is the inter=

play between myth and reality, peoples perception which leads to

their action and the feality with which they interact« Thus we must

avoid Single causes: economics« spcial streess etc. for it all depends

ri^M^ whatpeople make of them. Only in this way can we come close to

^ f\ historical reality« This is a course in history and not in theology:

'\(^) — ~ -^

predestination, cosmic forces have no place in it«

History' s motivations are as complex as you Won, as it is people
who react and act within the river bed« {^^^^^^^^ff^
B^ut history has another peculiarity which distinguishes i^ frora other
subjects: it is abV^yat time« Time f/frms tradition, but more: time

forms the river bed and the landscape, it determines the limits atf

■nnvapHin

la.

this, the need for utopia, „eed for fairy t*.les ^ -r, ,

«-^'^^) for a happy healthy world a drlvin., ^

„T —JL driving dynamic. But reality

always Stands in the w«^ TT^ — ^

^-iL*^^ ^^^- ^- --« -easuPe_ Pythn. of history: utopia

and its obstacles How to realise fairy tale^^ I. T ^."T •

■ / "...t"-*-^ ■caie.'' In Induatrialisine aee

connected to individualism pathology of soul« Tp ^

World wH^H . -^ - ^ Rousseau) against the

human, political and social. ^ ^*

ff'

2.

of human action. Contemporary history is always like the tip
Of an iceberg which is still manipulated by the centuries which
have gone before. The leap into instant utopia has been attempted,
but never with much success.

M ■»! mitmmm

Yet tirae has another dimensioni it does not pass with the same speed
everywere , You say: time passes slower in the country then in
'^]^^_o~i'^7 • This means that modern means of mass comm unications and
life rythms seems to make time pass much quiker then in olden
times* This is true. Strating as we do around 1800 we run up
agains^ this problem at once. in 1799 the German writer Goethe
lamented: how could a spectat or fresh from the choatic, turbulent
reading of the newspaper ( then newO) find the calm nedded for
literature, philisophy -i.e. culture. But we might say life.

The modern period opens with a hightened sense df the passage
otf time in induatrialisaing, changing Europe: from an underdevelo=
ped to a developed continent. Pgflontrri nn yon Tcry first roadong
Rö-übbbia: (1703 )t r^ mOs >^oaroh£Qr pri-ffldrtive Llmes^r— franhoe
too luakös " time"gtand s-ciii" l amödern~concept ) •
How to cope? Through history, for history organises time. Thus
the great ^Systems of thought of the 19. and 20. Century apt to
be ph^ilosophies of history ( Marx, ^"^egel, etc.) { 2./i ]

sa Lti/tijL.

at thefeföre

You s^oukd remeber that we are d^sOing^ with time

chrgnology is vital, developraent, the framework to action. Always
keep that dimension in mind, fcr it is history. /a/

^e shall then ourselves try to organise timeiTSeory of such

a course simple: framework so~can hang things on it, evenetually
reject it if you like - but strong framework. Question it on ^ridays
with me or in sections. At any rate write questions down, so you don't
forget .

With that we shall start oug properly next time: l^ruiu Imven

to— e«nni7

Please pickrup new 2. half of assignment sheet with

the dates corrected#

[i^^ Oo*^ J ^

I Said last time: must regard history as a kind of river: the flow
of events interact with the more permanent, slower changes in

the landscape, the ri\yer bed. The basic forces which determine

ih

must of history and how man is motivated to act within it.

With these we must begin today. For the fact is that
from I8I5 onwards Europe was slowly chamging from an agrarian
to a less agrarian, industrial base. We call this with some
exxageration the " Industrail revolution". What we must be
concerned with is not the process itself ( you will read about ^ ,
th^t) but instead what it meant for the men and women at the time?
What new forces did it unleash onto the scene of our civilisation?

Now as I dealfwith these forces which come out of the

transition from undepdfeveloped to the most highly developed

continent - ques>4^n wiu.1 arise in your mind. Put them down at

once - so t]>8m on Fridai'^ you can raise them. ^or as T said last

time al^^ events, history leads rarely to Solutions but always

to fil^blemn. Tnu muot regdi'd our""analysis this way.

What effects, then, did this change in Kurope produce over

the 19. Century?

^^Kßytlc

ujUJ^'

/

^/Y

Inäuatrlal Revolution

to la}'' the foundations of

^..»auM

ple n:oven;ents whlch, coiLing

a series of "Isirs'' whloh vou

eanlng at this polnt of
-berlaisn: and, eventually,
tartlng out wlth any of these.

Thu8 v.'e '^-^ve here^ a new fact whlch had to be faced by all the i.ove-

irents wMch v^e will

OlBCllSvS

r^. r<

^rrrfi tVig r — —

* '1

^ v'UiULiun ii..\aii llitü ..^cit

?(? /.

la«

But this was development throughout the Century. At the
begiimingVthe labouring clasoes playd little rolle: the

:5« ^r

riots and populär movement s during theVevolution and afteri^

small Shop keepers, apprentices, craftsmen, Journeymen etc.

^iMiUnasneimaaak

Qa2QS

n\imbers » a.nd

is faclury workers ^begin,

-In France^ot \mtil after 1848.

Moreover the populär movements also contained upper class

people and peasants. Not class was important^but the regional

i^fd^

7/-^

■.■,r,»iii^m

2:ovemmertt) . Class startification only cones out by the
I830ties -"as'yet a dlf rereirT^tratif icationT^ as it -had been
for centuries before.

^«j*^*iea!«J&-««.

But the worker^ the poor realised'^a ^ unit nevertheless :
during the vety short populär movement in the^ Revolution

{ during a part of the terror) - a judge voiced: ^' ^^^y ,

terrorist had been dredged up from their " nullite sociale"
and now that this p^polnr movement supressed they would
" replonge** - without doubt forever»!

/<

As yet the judge was right.' PoiTaia3!--ffiovefiients/ could not
sustain themselves.e^eu LhüU^C agr even in this case -
Sans Cuolotte much cross class). Jacobins inefficient

and rivalling police forces, but after I8I5 getting more

efficient everywere and unified under interior ministry.
Moreover " populär movement" needs tualification: always

V

a militant minority, at timesTTn f act leaderless. Thus-
the " pecple** in fact collaborated with " white terror" -

Ic.

The social nillities were emerging: imder certain kind of

leadership. By I830ties there vras in England and in Prance

a class conscious, seif educated type: the artisan, the

craftsman, the skilled worker. In England he read Tom Paine,

for example. Beleaguered but protesting, organising the

first trade imions.' But this same class could also be

what we call reactionary: in an underdeveloped region like

central Europe they did not organise Unions «a?o read Tom Paine.

There they looked baclrvfards to a supposedly golden age and

became both nationalistic^-and antisemitisQ '

/

Por all that, during the first half of the 19, Century, at any
rate, populär •^movements f » '" /

r

i r^

la 2.

under " reaction". Golden opportunity to settle familly fuedss

— — ^ ^ ^g^ ' ■ - - - -"^-^

^^^ claji rlvalry. Local levell more populär uprisings ( away

from centreFajid , at the same tlme, a matter of clans. famillv

^Hkl4rtAi"-^->-* ^-(^y»3ftw^tm-f»^r^\

rivalry and the enjoyment of sheer" brutallty ( wheel beforet
3^w cannibalistic Mea» after t error,
murders prevailed)>

tl ö3id- public-

^® "^^s"^ theref ore be vJry careful bef ore we call any populär

movement by that name ?ind we must see eventually how the mas..es

-Cr

ijitigrated into the emrging polöitical

were intigrated or not
"Systems of the 19. cenjbtiry* ^''^^^7^'^^' IV^^'//// ^-^''-^^^^ ^ J ^^'ä^'

^ Industriallsat ion/m^ant not^nly the slow emergence of class
-ideas but also urbanibation whieh ig neccessar^
happen in the f irst ip.ace^

trr

^emember: illiterate po^iaation ( Import ance of rhetoric,
meetings etc) elementary compulsory education not until

I880ties. Though the seif educated artisan now already an

important figuer.

wT^

2. J^-

h»^dia^ay Wfe o;et an Inq/easlnp;!;/ urban Population, and civilisation.
3y the end of the yfentury we already have an end tdSf"i.erry Enaand"')

ms»K»»»mm.

«fcgWW»»»»'**!

^^^ ^33-Jil^^' ^-V'-e v;hen 8o/*of the Population v/ill he living in
CitiesV-ow tiaese Bv/ollen Cllies ^resented a soectacle of p:isery
and poA^ertyr so that Disraeli Vcalled England really two ..ations. not

•iäi«|Ui?üM<JM-»inlM%»

.«t«!H-u V •'■'•^•»ititAiäM

VeA'^

|i»

^r

9'

?iiP^^^^^^ ^^ ^-'^^ ^^■^^'^^^ ^-''^^ ^^^^^^ of ^^'^^^e pooH i:>ut thisW-ve the ir.petus
to important rr.oveir.er.ts of social reforni v/hich, as \'v'e srall see, are ""

'^■Tt-war !5**»^<»^

*v*-;» fc,^.s»^-«»i,«.4b»»A*«#fftr*>*». -!l.A|e Ai'^'a, WC-'74iUä

-HC|^.:%;^X»AJ

connected with Li^-erlaliau:, such as the r]vanp:eliGal rroveirent. L^

h^fi^of^a

,.^ .*- -— v-^-.^' - -- f'T^'■^-^ -^ Vi "-"^i:»

'I I ii' nnii-yi — ^'^^ ' *- ' 'f'^i'^iiniii'loii a.iiiigi^iM ini

^^A^^,/**^** for a reason v.'huEch, up to this tiir.e , has never -een really explaired

*«•»

0

this Indus trial r^evolution n:eant an^increase in population. The

Indus trial Cities in England like ^--anchester, .-^irridnshar and Leeds,

of ^rance like Paris a^id. -ordeaux, increased their oopulation by

40;t and the Sn^aiFi'n x^ation as a whole : cre then doubled its '^oou- ^^£^^

V'.-,!>r.«

'./•

latlon. You can see the Problems that this \vill produce, in tur^ J
3. If ''rbanisE^vcrrSTrt^gr^Ti'e terper of our Civilisation in the ic.

n

Vir»

V.

t^-y- «MPW\1i»Tya.>r«»«e.- ••»ivSIrlv

f' //^ Century, so did the chan^e in cor.Kunlpations, At first for Jndustr^al
porpuses: canals to transport tha coal to the factorv - then the
Railroad, then the .-.cndarisation of roads.-fzou ri^-^vt sa^r that while
the 18. Century produced a peaceful cou tryside , «^the i;. Century
produced one withi- reach/^That a rain you iri.-ht rer:en:ber when we

t. f ' ^^''^ tirr.e, about the rolle v/hich natureVolayd^^In the roniantio
r.over.ent! P^^-'t^t'^^/vr/^'^ ^vnHt*-6rf- ^* — *^ $r>^ U<. cc* — '«^«f^-^.

V. rhe stepped up economic develonrant r.eant increasingKilependence upon
econoric cycles, upon rarkets and depressions. Thus econoL'.ics now cor.es

«^7

-'•~- ytSi.1

to play incre.'^.sin.:,'^\..rt in politics.

6. -''e have a -eneral transforn.ation of the European class structure
even apaf^rt frorr: the pressure of labour. For ;ve ha^/e*%?ii '" '

..er '.-e nee

of the(^"^aptains of Induatry".. Those ren who had iriade their
fortunes by ireana of t'ne. new Indus trial ivealth and who were now
competlng for social pre^ti^e and ioolitical power with the older

3.

^^ "^ . ..w'' iJU4/^-^

v/ealth": The iDatriciate whoae econon:ic resources a^nd v.-hose social

, . r :s .>-.*o*f-« :<•}*>'-- • ' ■■ "'**»»

and polltical Status dated back to the I7. or 18. cer.tuiles. tms
"^^ largely cornnercial^wealth. The conflict between the new^vealth

and the old was fought out in thy Century .[fae
lt. you-TTrrrrtTiTh-jrB Ihomao lianni

•4i

j^^ fan^oug ao-eaunt of

dü..aiilir£öX^ 3 v/rltten arc\und IpCO.f

3ut it ia a there v;Mch doElnatea the llterature of r:uc>- of\the ic.

ff^i.)

*•*** "i^ %rt . J. ,*^..Jtt>t f-Ä'». ♦«

;.J^'tfiiiv

Century: the new and ruthless captain of Indus try as over a4lnst
the old estahllGhed patrlciate whose nanner5 were refined and Ird^e*''-^ '''^'^'^
^ Of the noble oläs-es v^hon: they had Initated for so longj

wifeiir!'^»'

.'vter:-,/ „ .lyr«..' >■■ J '-•:»-, r

.~ir;«a**'**i«'

Clasr. Status was ir-portant in the rJurone of our tlii.es. And it v;as
rej^d to Standards of behaviour and culture - Standards Ir^eV
set by the noble classes throu^.hout .:^urooe.
New you have seen soEethins of the effect of the Industrial Revolution.

As you read the details in js^-*": i'O" now have sense how it will con-
Btantly play into our story ;<1^:uch as rell3ious probleiis nlayd con-
stantly into the story of previous centuriesl

>te>-«^

MIHiftI

^}va^ then t^o --^^vre cf th^ -:- t>^,^^..^v,. .n r.^,.^.
It >/as

in the I

^•2-;Hj:i£5L-^^2£^^3^ speaclilr At all - for it started

ury ana v;as not cor.plete in all its rai'.:ifications until

th-

1^^

It v;as the

II -

nduPtrialisa.tion" of the European eocnoniyjj^

;cv; E--;elP, •fTv->,.^.v^ fv

TVX

!■ ■ >l^

.1 W 1. i.\^

way • —

But this only one fajet cf \
perhaps the es<5ense of "^',

o

process : thou^h it oan illustrate
'SS. 2^^^n was a xiev^ industry which

*>?.

oar:e into K-^-^^-nd in^^he 18
wollens and an
produotion c

nve

Spi

^ • <'

Therefo

;try not bound
adjuBted to (^e\

ry. i.uch derrand for cottons over

7 tr-adition was flexible. Thus

d through experin.entation.

taken up which r.:Äa

ii *,yi

toLi

d power" lodri

•n

his in t

mt ir^riustrialisation.
n re- -tion:^.elped to

transforn: doirestio Indutry into factory systeD..-, .-.achines to big

3a.

But the noble classes pushed ever more against the "i-zall, thoiigh

uatil the end of the cent-ury - certainly in central E"urope -

the nolDility still playd an important part«

V/hat replaced them was irhat we call " middle classes": but here

jy a general term, Saw already difference bet^reen patriciate ähd"

the captains of Industry, similarly between the wealtheir middle

classes and the lower one ( small boiirgoisie) : Shop keecper, for

-6— |t

^ \^ \^ jC example« T^^us while we can say that this was the class between

the nobility and the workers and it was differentaited among
itself - also in outlook and attitude*

¥e nrust make^thdr^ame""T?eniark^Tor"The working class: a vast

\

difference between\the niaäs of unskilled workers and the skill@4_

i^dustrial process - and betv^een these and
e craftsman the older patriciate of

worker in the growi
the oiMer cratfsman^.

the working class -/but pushed to wall by industrial proces es«

But once we have diseected the classes in this way - one

factor comes toystand out: byvthe ISJOties there was a class

consciousness A7hich tended to cut across the divisions within

each class ./Especially in EnglandV- the most rapidly advancing

industrial nation. Vniy? The slow, \iece meal accretion of capital

accumu!mtion streched back over hundr\ds of years, to Tudor times«
it hm gradually seperated out the art^an, the craftsman, from

r

Society: beleaguered but protesting» And\in England it were the
*tisans who had thus formed their own proua attitudes:" not 'only

'"'^^'^

4

were they ^ free bom Englishmen"" - but without theTr skills metal,
"\7doT,~"textTles","c'eramics",~^ßiei^^^^\^ not have been an industrial

4.

i

Lastlys changes affected life itself :
not dust Scott: were f^elds not factories, but also that a.straction
of life I mentioned last time. The growing impersonality. Famillies
moved around, difficult to maintaim in urban setting vs. rural.
But even there emigration to urban centree. Politics: dynasties va
:nass politics - great issues like nationalism now lad to mass
concem, mass Meetings and protest ( I. ^erman in 1952 reminded
^plVTf-NapoTe^i^in:^^I^r^the mrach)^. Symbols and myths
as mediting institutions. There has to be some medietioB when
personal contact gone: enü growing pari institutions from I8I5
fulfilled it side by side witk symbols ( monuments. flags etc.)
The rush of time which frightened and a certain feeling of loss
of controll: blamed on finance capitalism by many - which no one
could understand, thus conspiracy. Symbol for modemity at the
beginning of the Century: the newspaper and the Rothchilds. -

Reaction no suprise: for etemal values, for stability,
for inwardness against the changes which were reality^ But the
romantic worship of nature made possible by a modern^evelopment of
the 18. Century: police so you could go see it withofxt danger from
highwaymen, To that next time.

eJnr^

I

Cf

-w\

a 01^1

\

I want just to say a few more words about the new world which was
Coming into being_around I80q_before next_week we come to reaction
against it in romanticism. Read Rousseau now please in this regard
next Friday we will discuss him, and start Ivanhoe also P];_ease.
You should have read, otherwise out discussion will not make much

sense.

But I attempted sh; w you changes in^_class structure which liquidated
traditional personal links, the beginning of severing of local
demographic links and changes, the population explosion in some
co'^ii^tid^ ( England, for example but not France), I stressed the
new world of abstractions which this meant as well as finance
capitaliTirürbanism and isolTbion. But ^Iso^ rationalisation of
government ( expl.) beginning of beaurocracies here as well.
Really all this arose in 18. Century with stress onreison,
rationalisation, on harmonious orderly universe governed by laws

( expl . )

Led to Opposition against Systems ( Goethe: who loves Systems

expelles love from his heart), and reaction of Rousseau who

retiring to the country thre away his watch in 1770: " thank
heavens I shall no longer need to know what times it is" ( Confess.

Book VIII). Rousseau you should read on two levells: I. thorough

critique of the modern'w'orld Coming into being, and at the same

time a description of this world as he perceived iti-

Ct-^^^^'^^ »li

Sm^'i^ /^V"'

/

'*r

■ 5.

tant thoii thc '^üi..jie.^ up LiauKea; tm^t TTr-^h^' J h;ivo jut then. fipst

lAi^'»^ /^^-«*» VIT»' .^ /<i.^-

4.

r

f /

'y^

briefly, tliis meant:

I» Substitution of meohanical devices for human skills« ie»

transformation of " domestic industry" ( spinning iennj too iDig
for peasant living room )

2* marked improvement in getting and working of raw materials,

especially in metallurgy and cha»micals»
Lever was Cotton and the pioneer was England* Why?

Woolens had already made England riches nation in Burope in I7# and

18 • centuries* No internal tolls or customs* Ib^ices stabilised,

mercantlilism fdrst scrapped ( after Rev» of 1688) ♦ Also apart from

Holland biggest merchant marine and Holland remained a tradi*ing,

not ind\istrial, nation» j^

-ir— ~*^— I I _ I — ^^^^

Cotton important because: I* leands itself better to mechanisation,

m ■■■— ip^<w*

2« supply and demand more elsatic# Resxilt: cheap» Price of Cotton
1840 is half of that in I760# -H

( MoreoTer England leads in transporationi ever sinoe 1665 privatly
/ financed network of tumpike roads, by I780ties McAdam. üse of canals

|^i757)v _ZZ:r^ :-:i::-^. ,, — ^

In England then new inventions could be applies» new markets discoTered.
There was enough freedom ftpomäi restriction and enough capital« Here,

consequmtly, the effects of the industrial revolution were greatest»

.aal 1 y

Century,

3.

"'""rTn~ "-- L

;^. U^f^^^

against complex civili^atlon whlch becoming Industrialised and
urbanised, Thus the^cult of the peasant and of nature, as over
against the City, -^'he countryside of Germany^ad the^genuineness

ere a vision of ^history and the search
for the genuine went band in band, T;hn.q n^e writer talks ahout
C ^liTTiyyrV wbn TrnllrlniT ^^ t^b^ Sov^n rr^y^(^<^)r.<^ o.r.vrm\yr\Pi<i wi th the

^nB .^r^which the City lacked»

#1^ C^**Ue^

3, 'I'hia ideal of history, of genuinenessVcombines with certain
scientific ideas : and when it doesVit becoraes the doctrin of raceC^
Anthropologists had already in the last Century classified human
groups into races and attempted to develope a scientific basis
for such Classification, Such classif ications included , indeed

based, upon the external characteristics of those so classi-
fied. Towards the beginning of the Century !:nen, as we have seen,
were concerned with inward man, bis soul (roraanticism )• This had
therefore to e a part of this Classification. Tha-^^ea^^^were
s^i-chr-pf«^»— »«-2hrenoaia>gy (expl.). But from this search for a

correpondence between outwards and the inward developed the idea
thet outward looks are tyDical of inward workings of the soul«

„^^

V/lth this idea once foruralated cultural find portal Nationallsm

X arrlved at a concept of stereotypes, The Gei^an whose outward

.^ \

looks morror hls inward correspondence to the landscape, to

i.«^

outward looks mirror the flatness of a soul which does not have

proper roots to work with.

fUcUj^

u4^

That non ^erman was typif ied by the enly minority in the country'

the Jews : The mirror of all that was ungerm

man. ^ (I

^H^ ot t^p^^j

I. the C^erman was simple, honest, rooted in the soil and historical
tradition. Hq therefore had a soul. C^'**^' ^-U. yi^ ^^^i*«>^ 'j 4^.^^

TheOrand AI 1 1 an ce

We have seeni the International Situation as it led to theiJar,

aftd-^ur-4ud504Bei

Da lädier was

perhappi a Httlo uiicliariiUble, Tuctay f^i^ mrt tlmei^wocomo
to the International Situation as it developed during and
after the war» It can be sumicarised in two ways:
L?* '^^Q Crrand Alliance between Russia, Englani and the USA
whlch lasted from August I94I - when the Nasl's Invaded
Russla, to roughly 1947.
, 2. The breaeklng up of the Grand Alliance whlch doniinated the

International Situation from 1947 to
Today-^we>^.ar»-.<^ncarnad wl^k -thg- alliance l-tsel:*^, ^and next
tiü^e^e wlMi. ^^e conoemed with It'i» Igfeack uin
When we left the future partners of this alliance in 1939
their union could not have been forecast. Only England was
in the fighting; the USA was sjtill^eutral and Russia was indeed
linked to ^ennany by the I939 pact*

The year I94I changed all tha^>/-Tt was^liltler'd Invasion of
Russia which produced the most drastic change, affecting all
of the other Kations, Why did Hitler turn Russia from an ally
into an eneicy? J^^-u<- \>*^^

Phe—answer ur"th4^.,^uestion has_nnt yat been re;t^i2y

'*^*— ** <^Wi».«^ •

mlght put U thia way> I94I the military situaUon looked as

"~^ -■ - ■

follows: Hitj^r^cpntrol^ and only England, as yet,

it seemed, resisted> At that point Hitler was supposed to be
planing the Invasion of England. It is doubtful if he ever did
this seriously, VThy? Answer may well lie in his Invasion of
Russia. For he hoped that England would make peaoe once it was

11 III "^an

clear that Hitler^ was now going against "Communims" - and to

^t,'-» tuj>

V-l

a4^'

2. ^ tJ-^ ^^* A^^

the East« What Hitler seems to have gambled on was thls:
( I. that England would look favourably on a anti -Soviet

crusaftde -It had, after all, -been Chaimberlins Intention
In the I930tieB to turn Hitler to the East. ^jCjMi^*^^<^(^^-''^'
;2, That If he offered England the seourity of her Empire, she

would be glad to let Europe go.
3* That if she still resisted - after he had oonquered Russia

-SRH^vmnvüanMAi

he would be in a nuch stronger position« Not only wheat
of the Ukraine, butL.j3a. would be felile to malio a Junction >^ith
Jqpfln \x\ th^ ^«tf^t-. And ne-ene doubted that Russia would
fall in Short order, ( *'^ ' ^^-^i^^-^ J
Churchill would not bite and decided to support Russia at once
thus forcing Hitler to figjit, at least, in the air, a two front
war« This support was Supplement ed with a 20year alliance be-
tween the two countries in Ig42. This was denounced by Russia
only thio yo-»r»( Hf^)

The USA also became a füll fledged partner in 19^1, though
ever since 1949 she had acted as the "arsenal of democracy"
for EritairiY Inaeedthe British-American alliance continued

•w r.' XX**--"" " '* '•

•» t . T««*' "

side by side with the G-rand Alliance for, after ?earl ^arbour,
it meant that sti'rategy had to be harmonised, Churchill and
Roosevelt had frequent meetings. Militarilly speacking the
Anglo -Americans were one side of the alliance, and the Soviet
Union the other»

i-«M^i^MAMMaMMa«#i^«i»

It was this G-rand Alllance whlch attempted to shape the.Jeace«
This hkaping of the peace was made by agreement among the
''Big Three" heads of state, each one different anl each one
with different ideas about the future« What they had In common
was what they conceived of as a greater realism in their

approaoh to the settlement of Europe, They were determlned not
K^^^^h ^^*'^-' they considered the mlstakes of Wllsonjs I4polnts,
The first result of thls was the call for CJermany's "uncon-
dltlonal surrender" - made by Roosevelt and Churchill in 1943
and endorsed by Stalin* T^ls was to prevent any new aerman
"stab in the back" legend or the idea of betrayd hopes*
We know now that it made inany, even non Naii's, desperate
fighters for a regime tliey abhof^red, " '" **^^>'-^.
Onoe "unconditional surrender" had been set up, the next step
was to plan in more detail. The result were the Conference
^* Teheran (1943) and that of Yalta (1945). These key Con-
ferences among the big three bear looklng at. I will talk
about lalta because this extended and climaxed the trend
present from 'Teheran on.

By the tiroe of Yalta the axis was in füll restrest - CJerman
troups had fe^d across the Rhine, The Big Three met in an
athroosphere of elatlon and agreement whlch marks that con-
^Q^Q^gg,.A°. j^he Jilght of the arand Alllance. Three thlngs were
done: I. reparatlona were to be taken In klnd and thus mlstakes
°Lt5I9 avoided; 2. rlght of all llberated peoples to choose
thelr own govemments was reafflrmed; 3. Basis was lald for

*'^®.H* ^" ^^ """"^ *^ ^* *'*8 declded that the flve permanent
»e.b,rs .ust ,. .manl^ou. in docl.lon» In eeounity counoU.
Led to the veto ^ower* Idea; realism again* C ^"^V***- ^'V^ ^^"^^'
Now It was especlally the second polnt whlch was taken ae
statemanilke - for "free aectlons" had come up already. There
were ^wo Polish governments: one In London and one In Lutln ^J* S^
(communlsts). At Xalta the Russlans agreed to have London ^^
Poles taben Into Lubln govemment. All looked very rosy.

4.

Roosevelt was partly justlfled when after ^alta he thought that here

was a framework for a better world. It all depended wether the h»»inony

-^ - ■■■><■» - . , ,

of Yalta could, sunong the Big Three, be preserved.

At this point It was Churchill who was the sceptic. For him the
Conference was not realistic enough - the term "free eleotions" he .
already saw as confusing» The old power polititian had suggested a
division of Europe IntcT "spheres of influence • That, let us say,
Russia s sphere be Rumania and Bulgaria and England s sphere be

MnHiaaMMiaMnMimVM

*M»

G-reece etc. This was rejected mainly by Roosevelt as horsetrading

ople'^IyAnd

which one could not impose upon free peopleivAnd yet, in retrospect,

rf^lft (what Churchill had wanted in the first place actually came about
n'^ X,. ^^ "^^^ ^^^ " only now to the benefit of Russia and not without civil

. #t#^ I war ( G-reece) •
w i * /J —

o-^'l^ ( ^or somethlng went wrong^fLer ^alta/Wlv-at this was Is still occupying
» '*/^y historians aaJUpolit-itians» But^^ere is no doub€>'that there was a

^^

^^'
^*^'

r^post ^alta shift"jin Soviet pollcy« While chanting allied unity the
Russians immediatly did impose Communists governemtns on the saaller
countries were they could and supported the Lublin governem4nt in its
Communst form» iThe Soviet union backed away from co Operation with

the allies in G-ermany» Why the shift? There may be several factors

■* ■ (

involved:

w^-^^

\i^^

j>^'/

i}*^

ly with vlctory there may have been an Intenial shlf t in
the Soviet Union» Foreign ministry loosing power to the economic
ministry - bend on squeeiing everv possible economic advantage out
of occupied countries»^- and towards the secret police which enforced

^ - ■iin.i -.^

^) discipline in those countries. ( ^'^^j^ 5^^^ f^^-^4)

2, Exepctation that the USA was bound to pull out of Europe

(i^iHi^orJ — ^ —

as soon as possible. Aware of agitation to get our boys home and at

mmmmm

^alta US officiala had made it piain that they could not committ

^^'•rilH

(/» s

5-

fv^'

AX

^JT

7

C^^H>

USA to specific and continuing European policies. (Morgenthau ^^^jß^

plan - no interests in future of central Europe) ♦ ?S ""^^^

3^ Here Soviet Union ^bm it's moment coma for controll and
^« fulfillment of age old ambitions^' Before the temptation to use
HQjl^^. its actual power ( Red Army) standing deep in Europe to assure

domination, the principles of Yalta and the Grand Aiiiance vrent
by the board, After all, conditions had changed - this was
victory and not war»

You can sum it up this way: Soviet calculations were based on
the Coming Isolation of the USA from Europe, the expected end of
England as a great power, and France byond recovery* Thus the
Soviet Union could easilQy fill the void«

It is after Yalta that the Soviet policy moved into it s openly
exiDansionist phase. Yalte was in February 19^5 in July of that
same year the last of the "Big Three" conferneces took place*

,,-»»»•'

The ConferBöce at Potsdam gave a preview of events to come«
Byrnes has rightly aalled lt{^The Success which was a failureU

The Grand aiiiance was about to breack assunder. It had, inspite
of the high hopes, been no more then many other alliances in
hi Story: a war time coalition to defeat the common enemy. Like

1 ..j r~ ■"— — .-,-»■-• «-■>»«~-^».-' -■■»II» — ■! » W

-•..''»■ "^-i^JS

most similar coalitions victory spelled its defeat*
shari"-s«e, ' tfeginhing wlth Potsdam i^?wxt*'i?l3nB[.t...

■^^ ^"1 ■> iiiwi' 1 1— »^nwy^ff"

How? A look at the Soviet dernnds at Potsdam will rnake this
piain: Proposal to get a4^ntroJr3r?of>^the Rhür basin through the
establishment of three power controll with a veto* They now
wanted inoney reparations , instead on in kind ( as at Xalta)
which would have given Russia a irorga^^e on -^ermany ( none of
the other i^'atlons wanted reparations: thought of reparations
fiasco after I9I8). They wanted acess to the i^ardanelles and

—»«■»1

•V

I

6.

an complete con troll of the Bi^ncans: which would have realised
a centurles old Russlan dreara. Thls 'was here no lonp:er a
Programm oäT' Russian ''""^atlonal security", but a Programm of
controll of Europe«
At Potsdam the Russians did not galn their demiands. Instead a

«■rilMHV«to4«a«H

compromlse whlch meant llttle: all the outstandlng dlfferences
were passed on to the forelgn mlnisters of the big powers. In
series of meetings lastlng Into 1946 the only accomplishm.ents
were peace treaties with Kungary, Rumanla and Cheoheslovakla

which v/ere supposed to guarantee "free electlons".

The failures of 1946 ^otferences ml*nt, In fact, the breack up

»■«gO/ttWW f Wwiwi.

of the Jrand Alllance ^ singaalised by \Vinston Ghurchills
Iron Gurtaln speech at Fulton Mo. in i^^arch of that year -(/f^V
a <^eech which signalised a general change of policy on the
part of the '»est: a-ohango which jj3 otlll with u<, and -■^-

which 'wy iruBl iJttBs next time.

_--'•

-^

^'

result: Europe split into two. Balance of power wnet
straight through continent. This remains true u ntil today
Division of Europe ends the course: though both sides of
this dirision built upon the European past, both *^est and
East are products of European history - sum up course next

l

The arand Alliance had won the war, a^id once^üernany was collapsing
the " Biß Three" attenpted to shape the peace. At Yalta ( 1945) there
seemed a^^eat deal^of agreenent/ Basis was laid for the U.N. a^d free
elections pronised to liberated people. Rejectedjhe^ldea that the
World should be divided into spheres of influence. Tet^_^retroBpect,
"that "is ^justThat caiie ahout after Yalta. There was a sMft in policy '
and~thXeS^i^5iron the part of the üoviet who believed ( with
sone justicef^at IB wo.m^l.xai out of Bin-ope as soon as possihle.
There woxild then be a vacuum which the Soviet could fill.
Potsdam in'j^Aly, 1945 the Boviet Union put for^-rard nuch more far ^
reaching demands th7n it had it Yalta ( conpare then in Source Book).

The Breack>up of the Grand Allianr^A

^^

/N

VlctOT7_spell9d the beglnnlng of the end for the arand Alllanoe.
The Conference at Potsda. (July, I9A5) ^"i^^^^^^'"""
Wliy-Sas It^a^üaucccesa. whlch was a fallure" J A 14ek at the
^°J^ denanda makea thls piain. They propoeed to get controll
^''^^J? ^^"'' through the establlshment'of three power controll
wlth a Veto. They wanted now money. repapratlona from ^^ermany
^ vs» yalta) whlch would have glven Russla a mortgage on derinany
whlch could Promo te^soveltlsatlon through blackmall . They wanted
the ^ardane lies and complete controll of the Blacans. Thls was not
a Programm of "National securlty", thls was a programm of the
controll of Europe, '' ^^ "

At Potsdam the Sovlets dld not_galn thelr programm. Instead the
agreement was a compromlae. Yet Tt wa8__ore _whlch dld not glve the
Sovlets any of these thlngs. What happened essentlally Is that all
inattera^^^e2MPas8ed_on to the forelgn mlnlsters of the^great powers.
In a serles of meetlngs lastlng Into 1946. the only concrete
accompllshments were peace treaties wlth Hungary and Rumanla and

i!:!f^i^X^^_J^iLill«!5„_>'J?£L_9"PP08ed to guarantee "ffee electlons".

The really Important chariggv±Tr^Ke-yeärs between 1946 and
I?47_was the change In US oplnlon. At the beglnnlng of thls s tage
there was much sympathy for all the Sovlet unlon had suffered In
the war - at the end of thls stage, nnrin>. tvn impo^-f ^f

;he«g^r'anj/

settllng a dispute *lth Russla was an "appeaser".
Thls change reflectedTtself In a way h^2y foreseen by Stalin:
that the USA dld what lt_had_been_unwllllng to do at Xalta - bamely
tocommltt_ltself^ Europe. You will remember that Russlas^^ollcles
were In maryr ways based on the contrary expe^tatlons . Two e^enta
one 1947 and the other In 1948 made thls clear and, Indeed, put

2.

Sr^-

"^.P-^-

an end to Russias drlve for power in Europe« The flrst of these
— ^ ^ eftt'^7i '^'^ — *^

came to be known as the "Truman doctrln • Offer of ald and

m^lfi0ft^mm\ •« iuwt^MV^nH««««

Support ( comiDitinent) to any Nation wanting to halt Soviet

j. _ ni [ -1171111 ■ ipMiin iwiwiiB—ii. _L m ■

agTOOoion» Cause was the civil war in Cxreece, were Soviets
supported the Communists. Moreover the Truman doctrin could
book a success imroediatly s in Oreece were US aid and British
manpower halted the Comraunists and dafaatftrl th<»m» The Tj^uman
doctrin was implemented by the Marshall plan (19^8) • Offer
of economic aid ( committraent) to any Nation. Shrewd, for in
the first exitement even Communis t satellites accepted, only
to be pulled back in line by Russia«
It was in 19^7 that the USA broke with ancient tradition to

fill the void that the Russians hoped she would leave« '

iLX\ (äir<^y

Byond this the Marshall plan offered a

c approach '^^'^^

went went byond " Containment" of the Soviet union and produced
grave internal crises in the Sattelites - crises whlch were
mastered but only at a price.^To be sure that price was first
payd by the "^est: for a nervous Russia did two things: !• it

selsed and Communised Gheckeslowakia, 2. Seperated East from

:\o.()p-; ^ — -- "^ ^ — ~

West ^ermany« But these very events showed that Soviet leaders

now realised that their earlier hopeä/were not being fulfilled«

US action was capstoned by the NATO set up in 1949«

What was the result? The Soviet union had lost the initiative

in Europe« From this point of view the Tm

T+^.T

policy

CM.

was a biM?4ilaat success« It had recognised tfee 'reality inherent

*^'^^jji^ 9jM awry. England was na4; through as a G-reat Power • It sent an army
^Ij^ tft^Ou/^'^^ G-reeoe to defend it against Communism, it supported Turkey
^uJ^'uh^^ against danger. The G-rand Alliance had collapsed: but the Anglo*

l

in the Russian demande at Potsdam and had acted upon them^
At the same time another calculation of the Soviet union went

^^^

pUt.i^w 11^^

3.

American end of It had remained intact. Through NATO it was

even steengthened« ^ 3*y

The result qf the rerrwed vigour of the Anglo -American alliance

was, If not "llberatlon", at least a stalemate to Sovlet

ambltions»! Llke in the trench warfare in WWI

5^

now 'y ' 0

i^

^1

attempts to breack through this stalemate« These tended to

be spearheaded by the Soviet Union. Most famous: blockades
on and off of Berlin, to force the West to give ground. i^^*^ ^
In this new Situation the agreements of -^alta arxi of Potsdam
have prooved valueless. Not because the men who made them were
evil - but because of the dynamic of history, or^ bottar^ — bhe
dynamio of tho Sovlet ITnlnn 1n the flrst great vlctoiyVSfter
the Revolution. No more was the Truman polioy a wilful com-

mUt:ting of -US to Europ<

,Qgio of-

1^1»- — '>■•■

The period of stalemate after the Truman doctrin and

the ^'^arshall plan once more began to change by 1950. For

—^t^ 'im\%,^m

whlle there was stalemate In Europe,

rindfall

;''•

in AolfiT^ffith the vlctory of Chinese CommÄnism. The West had

falled to get a compromise Chinese government at the end of

the war - Just as they had falled wlth Poland. But here too

once the logic of events had been realised, a slmilar policy

was applied as in Europe. The Korean war was to stop agression.

Just as it had been stoppea>Ih Greece. But in Asia there were ^

no clear cut vic torlos and thus there Is no stalemate .'^^The y>'^i^'

reason for this is easy to see : the Problems of peoples only ^^''^y ,y
^ . .. . ^ ^w^'* - -^»w

recently liberated from colonial rule who are atty»#tod to v^t^^'-»'^
»ueh of Gofflffiunlsm and who f?^a£_the West. But I me^tion this a^Mu^^u
only so that you can see what has happen|ed on a global scale.^^^^.
Let US sum it up:

4.

1. Soviet pollcy had been ^'contalned" : succespfull.Y- In Europe and
wlth rruch less sucess In Asla, To that extent Soviet post

war policy had been a failure.

2. Kowever, the containraent also meant that the Soviet did gain
some of her aims in Europe as a stalemate ensued« 3ut it gained
neither the whole of ^ermany, nor the whole of Baloans, not the
Dardanelles. TheVpotsdan: aiirs were not fulf illed;il>-»? ^^^ ,^*^ ^'^^^ ^^

Now this stalemate had it s njeaning for Europe: for it divided the

•■-•'-— -- -~— ^'^ * __ Uli. ■■■»■rf ■ Uli» ^i^tmmmmm'm.'m

continent shrply into -^ast and '»est: with ^erir.anies division acting
as syrbol for the two Orders arising in Europe. ^U. ^"^^^^-^^ /- U^M !

I f -we-ircro-k at the

'--the -öeKRuniß t»---^-Qrld-> for

n^üLtt-jLl-cfi v;e notice that %we-%l«4Häfß-karj9j9eweä4 the n:ost important
thing politically v/as the errergence of the centre ^rties in the
Western aountries, '.Vhy? TheJ were the £l<i "centre" parties under
new names: like Christian ^er.:ocratic in Italy and "*ern:any, or
M.R.P. in France.

Their eniergence is connected not only with anti-Comrunisn] but also
>^ith hi Story and tradition. These were the old ^atholic i^arties:
and after the war in these coun tr ie s the ^atholic Ghurch was the

only Institution which had reirained in tact. The appeal of these

'TffAV (j>>R^Mj' C^tü^i Li.M^n! :r~~:.^=fc— g'^

parties wasvthey offered, on a^Ghristian foundation,' a very ^jt^^/

broad ajgneal : I., -uarantee for the stabil! ty of existing rela-

tionships, esi^ecially property relations hips ; 2. a proniise of
social reforrr. Short of socialisir, 3» an ideological foundation
which gave^those opposed to socialism a fcaven. / ^

Out of these apoeals came the probleirs of these cartiesl'they
soon ffot two win^s: a reforn^ist and a conservative • In France
the K.R.P. not able to keep things together: lost to a reinvin-
gorated oocialisic. In Italy: kept together son-ehow, but tension
really dorcinates Italian politics. ^eft wing (aronohi) and the

Tl^

«l-»^

■»uy <"r

I«.

(7'* "'

5.

rlght wlns ( ella) . In 2-eriiany the streng flguer of
Adenauer provldeiuthe coheslve eleirent.

These Christian deii:ocratic parties were also those parties*" ^ .-r
which most strongly advocated European unity: on thö^fibr. *"^''^

fo^undation, of course. ^^ r»^M<>>Pi ^ i^f.^* c' . ftvA^'..;»^^. '2f2^^

Beside then^ the Social Dernocratic pö.rties sprang back into

life in the »»est. They ]^so had their probleir: nairely to

:rv

lay the G-host of the populär front .^ In ^ermanj; the SD,

party'took this decision in 1946 when it ^'refused a coalition ^^t^f^*^*^)

f^ f/HT *^i^Hr tHTC "UtiHff yu4Tj f4^t" *^H9BA Bi^S/^-U flCA^'Jt'». i^^kJUtt'

^^^^ J^^® ^oi^n:unistsy in Italy noT clear cut but rcade for ^^^j^ijL

a split in the SD: Nenni wing and the *^a^ wing which en- "^^*^*'

tered into a coalition with the Christian i^er.ocrats/ln ^ hJ\ ^^^•^

^'^^^?^. y^^ Socialist party has also from tirce to tirce repu- ^^d^"^.

diated the populär front ideas.

Kere again the past iroportant: in that crisis of SD, their

hlstory of legality and revlslonlsir asserted Itself, The

T^'

Mim»ji..jv_.

AVOo^v^

^^91?.® ^^i-^ t^ey J^ade led to greater stress on this tradi- p^
tion in times of prosperity, The C}ern:an SD. party has ^^rr-

alir.ost abandoned even it s -^-arxist vocabulary. ^ *^,^ u.^: ^^-^'^^

--I n I maiii ii-i* »

^»-7-"."^^'^ *'*'**'•

f«,*^

Between the Chr. Den:, and the SD. the other parties of the
centre have also revived to a certain extent. ßut the dilecrra
and search for a progrann: of the Oernian FD is typical for
their renewed dilemica, UJ^n^.n^^-^^'^'^ ^^t^ 4 f^^ct.^ T \^jU'^^-^ i^^^'^*

'^^® ^.^Lty.S.^^ structure of the rtTest Isbased by and largeorT^ ^

these two parties with their problems> At 4time of prosperity

which^is aift-t of the success story of the ^'^rhsall plan and h'^t^nm^

subsequent US aid, extrenist of rig' t and left ar^^quiet. 'f^^t-^'-^

The large, but hrad pressed, CoKmunist parties of ^rance and k^^^li}^^'

— CAkfic

rtaly^have again tried to ^ollgythe_^ Populär front tradi tion^T^

I ff

as their aims are*otherv/ise not too near realisatlor^• '^**-'"

■■!%:■ y^tfrmj-iff:^

Qbviously fluidity hexe - "but not any nore in Eiiropean spheres of
inflTience anong the two ^Teat powers* A kind^f nentrality possible
only for Jugoslavia after 1943 - geographica! position essential; and
for the France of De feulle»

All thiG can not yet have an ending. But now, in the last 2 lectirres,

we rraist s\.m up aroimd sonie thenes. First, aroimd the therae of

Btiropean imity, and then arotmd the theme of freedomt

T'-e 3rcay^-up of the >3-rand Alllance arü the Polltical
Structure of the .^est.

!• Ghange in U3, opinion and polioy

2. i^iarhall Pia/« and Trurcan Dcctrine

3. The Christian -^eniocratic pa^rties of the ««est
4* The Social Deirocratic parties of the /«est

6.

It easy to» glve a crltlque of this polltlcal structurej

—————— «p~-««— i^.»_»^,,_,^_„____^_^

(^Xl It has not been testeci In the iratter of baslc social
reform In a tln^e of properlty, and Chr. Dem. parties with

♦w.^

m^mmammam

thelr Wide niembershlp have had a ha,rd time asreeing on

. ««Am »^\. riirfBB^ill I

re form' in thie flrst place» ( ^erraany : mitbestimrr.ungsreoht,

II - • .. . ^».4 ' -

Italy: Land reform, the real accomplishaents)

2. It has meanty^especially in ^erm^y, a confessionallsation

of life which^Ts^ery forei(pa to us. A System were every

ipti..x_ iii>imT idiiifliin^iii'rflM'

aan wif

public Office soes by either J^^rot. or Cath. denoinination.

tt»«»*^ j^tmt SK«k >«i»4^

and were schools { exept for SD, ^^essia) are confessional . f^p/i

HC'

schools financed by the State

$F

OS^

ü^

ccf.

Yet, this structure has given to the V^est a remarkable
time of stability and, in the case of ^ermany, enou^h stability
SO that the new dercocracy has been able to establish itself
and to find it's forms and institutions^c ^'^^^''^ ^

^ - . • . ^ " *

The V/estern structure is thus one of the political center,
whjjc-h-wa .Eustj neKt-time, contrast with the structure of the
peoples Republics in the ü^ast. 'Chen you will see how deep the
split is in Europa: deeper then it has ever been in it's long

~r •

history. And this is a result of the dissolution of the Grrand /
' .1 . - ^-VäM^ ■"■'■ /

Alliance and, of course, the legacy of thSyÜAjf*

/Uu^A

Or-yit^^c^

^^u^

/^

;i^wa>r

f^7V^*^ .

'«JB.'«J' '»»iJWl «T— MlliW^W

This split was formalised by Nato and the West and the Warsaw Pact
in the East» Moreover effortd for a " united Europe" means in

terms as we use it only Western Burope. P\u:ther firms that

- •-■ '— ■

division,

The Common Market ( Source book 273) was to provide the underpinning.
But England omitted and formed its own free Trade Zone ( 274)

This not too serious if the problem of European unity had not

je. -

^«r

raised some age olf problems -

^huiYy

i. the Cooperation of France and Germany vital. The eiiem^ datlng

from I8I5 has been attempted to liquidate finally: Adenauer -
"De Gaulle policy» This done \mder shadow of Soviet threat#
But the vanishing of that threat also removed cohesive element
- here ( 211). Future is open. — —

2. How much unity? Attempt to revive medieval Catholic and Chr»

foundations failed* Nationalism moreover was not dead, the

//-

<".

nation State not through as men in 1945 had hoped. De Gaulle 's
" Europe of fatherlands" expresses the real nationalism still

alive in European nations: stimulated in/some by loss of colinies
after the war, liquidation of their Empire ( Erance), and
others by attempt to get out from under Big Power domination:
""and here this works east and West - France and Rumania. But

worfcB *o revitalise the old »and ever present nationaJLism» -
^*^ Thus future is open ended, as it must be, of course, in the oon=
tinued dynamic of history#

^ ^

\1^'

,1

NatlonallsEi,

We saw last time how x^atlonal aspirations i«^ to thje^,defeat

^^ ^^^!r-^i^i?..A^,.J^^^» ^^ ^s ^o -"^ationalism that we irust turn
today.

Modern ^'^ationalism^ is made up of two elements :

I. Political: superiority of the State over all it's citize

ns -

/NO

allesiance belongs to^j^he Nation* Goes baok to the Impetus of
the French Devolution, Not the ruler but the "i^ation", the
"^eneral will" is the focus of allesianceo The State beconies
a Personality ( corporate) which had interests, desires and
rights. Kere the State was territorially defined. The fact of
% t i o na 1 Jo o und a r i e s determined what was a l\iation. As men

T

like iNiapoleon III. concieved this there was no place here for
considerations of ^^ational culture of of National irdnorities.
It was strictly a territorial concept. National aspirations
oentred around politics to enlarge the boundaries of your
territory. Political Nationalist had this realistic bent to

Wilthl.tbip) political^Nationalism grew up Cultural i^ationalisn?: ^ i
the idea of the Nation ^which, as a cultural unity, was suoerior^
to other ^^ations. This isVa consequence of the RoEantic movement
with it s emphasis upon the "Volir\ Its Starts, typically
enough with a collection of folk songs by Herder in the 18.

-üi iii » ■>■

Century. Idea; creatlvlty only valld if It caii:e throup;h the
corcr.on emotional expression of people united by a common tradi-
tion and language . It follows that this is a concept which has
nothing to do with boundaries or frontiers - with oolitical
factors. You can ne^^er leave it. tc^^Ar A^c^'^i^ ^^^^^^'"'^^

^

r^&^,£^:;> • ^'

2,

regardleas of the shlftlng national boundariefs, ■territorial

element plays no part at all. The "volk" was^the only valid unit.

Thi3, then, had nothing to do with boundari^^s but with emotions

and ties of traditiona^ and language.^^^^'^Cj

Now Herder mede es yet no Judgement of one Vol^ as over gainst

another - but this was accomplished with/ the Napoleonlc conquest

of Europe, V/hy?

!• Volk Idea appealed to peoples who biad no territorial boundaries

but were becomeing patriotic under French occupation: i.e. Germans,

aU/ i^-^

also Poles, Slavs. (

2. Under such occupation these ideas became easilly ideas of

superiority and seif assertion.

Thus Fichte *s (Tamous lectures nnre nf ^"rhln^* y^n ^M 1 1 r^n^ *n ^^F,

The Community of the Gerraans is what all should integrate with and
it is superior to all others v- "only the CJermans have character".
This was undergirded by tr^deve\oT3mentg f ^/^> ^ ^ '^'^^'^^jfljL \
'easing awareness of nast histpry^: common historicel roots
which we saw with römanticism. These roots c ame to
i© be denmÄg^in terms of a distant past which contrasted

—^OCTM^^

sed

^ v/'( |/r)^^f ^^^, "^^^ presents ; in^ terms~~ofM;ha rjoots^of the volrk
fcf^/f^ 7 ^'^iirthe I830ties by ^rofessor of Folklore^at Berlin: ^'ather Jahn
^cjffti whofre-hnir had turnnd grny nt Jei^^ O^genised his students into
L\^ groups vs. frenchlfied manners, tn ftirthnr n rul^- nf ^^r1 «rhnp'rq ,
To wear dress of the anc**nt Germans. Thus could the strengt^ and
:i>urlty" of the folk be_recaptured. ?^r^^^ < '^l '- Oj^'ljjJj^fllEt'
f2_M the Wkm element of purity brings out another Ingredient of this

^^ue^SHr ^r^ cultural nationalism: it was^a search for the "genuine" as over
y^y^H '^^ M / C )

Herder: A •

childhoo d of p people: songs the more wiler, the more spontaneous,

thö more imagination. Does not want to retum to childhood, for

G-ods plan must work out ( a Luther an clergyman) but spirit must "be

kept. Thus it waa a literarj movement which awoke national

conscious in central and eastem Europe: Herder and the fairy tales

and sagag - History is mobilised but not alone# The history of' a

people to be genuine must continued the sp itaneity ot Childhood

( dances, songs, tales) but also live in nature ( romanticism» Everj

people its won nature ( expl») its own landscape» Combined:

history ( se essential vs. rush of time etc#) with nature ( so

vital to the gen^iune and etemal - i.e* Werther).

But all this for brother Grimms, for example, (1809) means:

that the etemal, the invisible towards which all noble hearts

strive is most clearly revealed in a Community: in the Volk."

Thus longing for Community becomes national, consciousness:

the Volk as the vessell of the Lord ( literarilly in the Holy Grail

arcival legend expl.)

Such natlonalism was vital to all disunited countries: "^ermans, Checks,

Poles - all of them.

wwmammmitrTmea

2k.

meant bauty ( gymnasts, unfororm) "^ahn« ^reek and Germans holy people.
■^ahn on festivals: democratic ( give example). ^eople worshippin
themselves - i.e. Rousseau* s general will ( expl. Obgectification:
human äbereotype, flag, anthem, monument. All this captureä masses
( Goethe and Verona arena). Tree ( the oack), symbol of German unity,
Holy flame = sacred fire - origins many but also that fire connects
heaven and earth ( populär Christian theology),

eil US something of what was really happening at the beginning
of the 19« Century. In Middle ages '^ Sacred fatherland" connected
to Christianity - final goal was Christian salvation ( Cola di
Rienzi in 14, Century). J^'^achiavelli seperated Christianity and
the Republic. but now the nation itslef was " sacred". The
people worshipped themselves ( Rousseau) adapting Christian ideas
and liturgy ( responsas, confessions of faith, flame: also over
altar, martyrs were those who feil in patriotic wars and not

to propagate the faith).

\^

/'^> ^ T^ P^"

Geibel no racist i.e. friedndship with Pelix Mendelssohn, the

composer.

666666666666

Theodor Koerner für alle Vaterlandische Begeisterung verliebte
sich in eine Judin ubd sah dabei nichts unruchiges. 116

( in Karlsbad als Student on leave ).

Korner based one of his dramas on Percy's " Reliquies of anciwnt
english poetry(! 1765) 190

Tod wurde der Heiligkeit des Untergangs, Kein Tod ist so mild
wie der unter den Kugeln der Feinde. ( Korner) 210
Koerner called for death for the murderous enemy, even if
they plead for mercy. 2^7 Wars of Liberation embitter and

brutalise more then other wars.

'~~"~~~~~~~^~— — — — — — -^— — — — — — —

Koerner feil in war of liberation.

Karl Berger, Theodor Koerner, ( Bielefeld und Leipzig, I9I2).

_^ o2, -^^Z

,J^^ t^''^ ( /^ -' "^^

l^ It^^j^ U/U^n^ iy^^4^ (^l^fr^-lfft^J

Klopstock crowned his first collection of poetry ( I77I) with
concluding " My fatherland " (1768) Fatherland drips of blood
of i;^s own blood in seif imposed silencing of the sword. 18

K. foderung für ^eben: Wiedererweckung der deutschen Treue -
vs. Biurgeois and coiirt, not only against ^atin forked tongue.
24 Begeisterung tamed through reverence 25

Germans could be defeated in war, but their Isnguage was iramortalj
the " harp of Walhalla" 28

Heinz Kindermann, Klopstocks Entdeckung der ^ation, -^anzig,

1955

Klopstock confronted German myth edda etc with ^reco -
Roman world, Edaa- myths of the north had been reawakened in
17. cdntury. 56, 57 'rench and German scholars of the enlightenme:
had thought such reseraches into scandinavian past barabrian,
This changed : i.e. Gottfried Schutze, Beweis, dass die alten
deutschen kleine Kannibalen gewesen sind" ( 1746). But now
■^rench puvlications of celtic myths ( Hallet, i?? 1756)
Percy's FHHie-pee%3?y-*Faft6ia%e4-^FefB-%h»- Five pieces of runic
poetry translated from the Icelandic Language ( I76I) aided
to Idda fragments already transalted by Germans in I7. Century.
57.

Kampf, Wunden, edles *eldenblut, rote Roseglut - all
together in Geibel. (125)

Karl Theodor Gaedertz, Emmanuel Geibel, ( Leipzig, 1897)

From lerder to Geibel - much touched by the example of

Eng;ish folk mudic, i.e. Geibel cried ( 180)

Geibel 1850: Rot ist die Liebe, schwarz ist der Tod, Und
Golden die Auferstehubg. 257

sautOBBiaBBaiBaB«

5.

0/. ^»^ ^•./ /, "^^^ ^®"^® *^^^ raclal nationaliam was att-ev*»4<>a_«f ^e

be -Tml-^M^d-ettd-wtJ:», Rnri thon oll will g^ well, --As a member
of the »ifp»i4^ race you muat do your duty in raany lowly
profeasions - but you will do It gladly, for you now have
^ P"^P°^^ In that, namely to fuse youraelf with everyone eise,
TJo one In theauperior folk Is intrlnalcally better: but there
^3t be leaderahlp. It glossed ovei- in thla ivay the class con-

1 A^.' ,^ <

ÜJ^

u^

/

fllcts of the Century: Ellminoto thn Tpw nnd oll will bo woll,

Thia Ideology dld not go out with German unlficatlon.
.^or it could aerve not only as a call to unity but also as a

""* ^^ " I I IM II ^■%_»,>,.^

rallylng cry againat a world aeen entlrely In materiallstlc and

,f'<

^^^^^: scientific terms. Thus it was geraane againat the iiaterialia

TS

>'*^-^^^'

m

4r

of the end of the Century, just as it was to the natlonallam et
the beglnnlng,"

To sum up: Culturel natlonallam of thls sort:

I. worshlpped the common roots of the folk In a distant paat

fe. iiearched for genuineas in the romentic fashlon: stressed

jUi^

v^

)

the interoction of the !3oul and neture: but only of both
contalned valied historical memories (SBK)

3. added from physical anthropologische Idea of race as the core
of def ining 5.tself *- ^^^ -w/'^^v ^ '^^^.

4. posited a struggle againat inferior reces ( IF TmE: %^^'''^
C'-aimberlln S: Idea of force) "'^^

'^he anpeal of the Ideology was that broke out not only in Germany
or among the^Slavs, but even in France at tlmea of streaa (Dreyfus)
that it was used by the Britjsji^jiot^at home, but in the Bnplr^,
and^ln America againat the Negro, El-aborated In Germany, %t

mmmmm

6.

f.

v*-*^^

.-^

it spread b«yo?id_Jjt^i^^!v^n before NS spread It wlth some success
to all of Surope,

But a Nationa history did determine it'g form ofl Natlonallsra:
in Italy Liberalism and Nationalism went band in band; f or bere
Italy bad brief time of unity ander Liberal auspices in 1848.
In France tbe Revolutionary tradition determined part of tb at
Nationalism towarss idea of equality and social ppogress. In
England we bave tbe idea of pari in tbe centre.
But bowev-eiLjttiatmay be : rarCTal^ Nationalism was tbe otber great
isra of tbe Century, standing besides Liberalism, ^onservatism,
and Marxism.TTtSs appeal was beyond &Qrmyhy for it too offered
Solution for tbe ills of times. Romanticism was strong still
and tbat helped, it bad a scientific veneer and tbat belped
too. In tbe 20. Century it will, for a" time triumpb.
But now to tbe actual unification of Germany.

Especially »e-Weä^of traditional institutions: the Volk,

/

the nation, substituted its own symbols - festivals and
National Monuments. ( expl.)

' \

4.

-VC

3!

^.

OuJ^'^^

f2, The Jew:' no true hlstoripal tradition, Cltj^peraon divorced f^J^
from nature; a materiallst. Outward appearance* slothful and
revoltlns._ ^J:^""^' ^^^' ffj;^^A< /»■ A ■ ■ p.^'

Nptice: accusation of materialism and urbanism; Th4s ITationallsm
was directed vs . Industrial revolution In it*3 aearch for the ^y*^*
genuine: and it eqauted thia with the cult of the peaaant, of jv^^^iM
the landscape, of the romantic soul«.The Jew was v;lthout feelinfe.

.^^

■»fii wCmm n mjfß00Mißmmfar'iwi

ui^ 1

But notice^too that this puts emphasis on rooteness: in nature
and in the Volk. Increasing concern here about the middle claases,
who seeraed to have mobftlity, and whose economic ambitiona seemed
to dlvDDce it from the folk soul« f'araous works were written to

y\(rrtM^ jf^tl exhort them to "rootednesa ", to imitate the rooted aristocracy

;fjt^^\ and the peaaants - inaintays of the Volk./ In others the Jew

ft^T ^ _^^ : -^ ^ — — ^ — ^

Cornea from the City to take the land from the peaaant in order

{^U^J^ /ü^

/ZiCr^^o/j» /^r^ - 1 ^o build a factory upon it.

/#* But the superior Volk will win. This was not always so in
evidence. Gobinaeu (Sm) took his science more serious : no
specis can live for ever, not even the Aryan. H13 peBsimism
in raid Century: aryan is in decline^. But this was not accepted.

jUkV^aiuMMa^ki

V/hat was wanted was a leader who who lead the Volk to vlctory.
A new Siegfried in the ancient Vision of history. Wagner was to
put him on the stage with this in mind.LObviously such thought
was anti Liberal ond cnti domoorotic. V/hat it wanted was the
"organic state": a state were the Volk was united in emotion (^^^''5

^^» ■ .'•» I ■ > '

' II IM 11»^ M«l"<l

rhoughl

The< believed that e superior ^olk so united would automatically
solvQ the Problems of the tlniea, Af tBr- all, what uumibtid waa Muns

4a* This S3/'stein of Classification depended upon a view of

C

nature - not only a classifyable but also as part of a

' — — ' *~ ..«1 » ■».■■1 Hill.. ■"■■"""- y^ I

hierarchy - fixed hierarchy, Nat\u?e knows no equality./^'^'^^y
Thus " lower races" - thus " Appearance"# This led

tmmmtmrmamK

in tiie lli to the doctrin that the negro was between ape

.1^1.. —■■ti M^r

and man, and in Europe that the Jews was between ape
and man» No soul, no true sentiments» De h"uiQanisations

process. But one distinction between Jew and Negro arising
ovds of the dif f erent situations of America and Europe : The
Jew becarae the focus against nationalism because he cane

'ttf.r .j«.'».;"^^^^

to stand not for primitivisra but for modernity* This though

i

the cultural setting was not dissimilar: two c\iltures in
Situation were national Identification became primary: —
difierent cultures - Jews, newly out of the G-hetto and
the nasses of East European Je^/ry still within it#

'V-*^^

J'T"

/

Y i^^

<^^ lUt^^^'

Su^^tfiyiii öf Pictatorship

j4s_X n,pw Jbalk about the the climax of f a&clsm;-4»äeed„ of all modern

dictatorship, the r-ule of terror and what it means, I will draw the

exaraples from the cliinactic event - that is from National Socialism.

~ ' • "' " ' "~ - — - ,1 , .. , _■■_■■■, ■ ■■■ ■ ****1f— ""^^Wlfflt— .^_

Bat the success in manipulating men is not isol-j^ated at all -

it effected the democraoies also after the WII ( as we shall see) and

it hrought to a fore a nightmare which came with the industrial reV:

man is degraded to a_mere instnmient ( vfhat liarx had meant by the

alienation of labour). No doubt, tijbe 1^ »4wte eventiially ( though
not at the beginniZg) showed that %k% otat# ~~

1// aJ&^^^Un. A/L^6k^ SJ^^^ U

I

1

\i

--7)

C,

rtr T nii-i

3d.

of the surrouiidings ^d process ( Iloess relief when Oas Chambers

caiiie in.)

I ara avrare that these points weee lost in the trial ( ajid here he

■ ■li» ' 1*1!,' '■■

is ri; :ht a{:ain) throiigh the efforts to spare the sensibilities of

the Adenauer c-overiment in Crermany.

V/hat I nust stees finally is that the process leadin^' to the final

Wi ■IWfM— i^f

Solution Start ed as merely a prof^rariri for exclusion» This seeried
to many justified in 153 - but once there had been acnuiescence in

«H

this, the escalation, though slow, was concernted plan by the
^^ap;i leadership* Indeed the acquienscence in 1933 also made it
difficult for the Gliristian Ghurches to disinvolve thenselves and
for individuals to resist. The very natirre of the slow excalation
was an initre^^al part of Nasi methods. Por it oould not be taicen
for fpranted that the population was so fiercely antisenitic ( to

be si:ire Protocols sold 100,00 copies shortly after their ^erman
appearance in the early I..20ties but Remarques All Quiet on the
V/estern Front sold 250,000 in the sin^^le year of 1929) • Sven within
the Nasi party this is tniBf at least until I934«
To sunmarise:

\

30.

titillation T^y^^the_ occxat so much a fea_txu-e of 19. cent.^j^
I Plrst_ phanplets:' c^nsiracy in^cenemtary in ^;a^e and this
trend ;.eves to JheJ^otocols ofJhe^Elders of ZionT Russian
forcery inspi, ed by nostly earlier Gernnai models).

Hitler taelieved in the occiat sciences and introduced^ the
conspiracy theory by refugees. of the black hvoadred after the
Boviet Revolution, as \iq know.

Thus the^nj^ii. o^ depersonalisation, of difverence at first ( ori=
Ginal Ilar.i proc-raxB. only exclusion) escalatid^- always f irr, in
Hitlers and Himmlers iiind. -«—

But, n^d this^is vrere /o-endt cot into trouble: she ri.^htly presup=
P0.0S a rayth ofjhia^jcind f or ^iclnna.^, Uxt refuses' to presupoose
this for the Je.rs vrith which he dealt. But the Judenreate ( expl.)
were elderly ,,entlenent of the upper olasses: irabued wlth liberalism
as auch Of youncer Jewish Generation ( like'Sendr^rself ) no lon^er
./as. Thus they co^ad not^conceive of externination in theJO, Century
They still believedin the 3nl^and Liberal tradition, they had kno.m
"°*-i^.^S ^1^«- ^ f^OGifies the nature of the confrontatlon of
EicMa^, and the Judenraete. She is ri^J^t that Eictoa^ ..as "nornal"

if norn^j^ea^ in tune vith the donina^at yalues of the tiJes - not
of Hari times but those boia;.:eois values which had doneinated ever
since the becinninc of the 19. Century. iBut the racist' nystipue had
f used with the^^tionalis^ nystique and existed side by side with
the other values. Thejs^dge was the stereotype - the de huriani=
sation of the victins who no loncer h^uian ( Iloess and the Apple
l'ree and fanilly). But in the^^ernination canps this was f^o-thered

^^ip

6.

M» exariple attractive and follwed: \mtil rou^^ly 1938 Italian
fascisn dominated other fascist parties» But there vrere different
types :

1. Glerical ( Austria BOi-ope In Heviei'/") • Gatholicism provided

the ideological accompanienent of dicta.torsliip» ^Wnt:

close to reaction rather then fascism: little d3nianiic
above all protection of imling group and Ghiorch. rj5;csupicioug
of mass movements^ ^^ pt^^^J^^' ( UJ

2. ^ascism "based upon peasants ( Estarn Eutrope), workers ( Peron).

iii

In tliis case fascism inportant werever there was no viable
socialist novement, Pirst to involve all classes in politics
if as myth ra.ther then reality»
But this was so also in Fascism in general: gave the appearance of
participation: lit\ir{^, rites of mass movements, total or^^anisation.
iind indeed: new hierar chy as over a^^ainst the old - of function

not of inlierited Privileges«

Itlay WS the first "but G-ermany the i*kea?e-

othor m^j3t inportant» Mge inemis tall^iii^ fir

Rgpiiblic«

r-4^^*Ä

•man

5a.

Heimwehr here: aryan clause, reuniting of Volk. Mossoll, wanted

Austria like Hungary to becorae fascist on Italian model. But imposs.

in Austria really: only a half way house to ^'^ational Socialism ( as

it prooved in practice). Unlike Italy a racist tradition, reunting

with Germany, not with Italy ( South Tyrol questions). Huganry

closer eventually ( Gombos). big landowners and capital made,

however, here for reaction. ( industr. workers real fascist

supporters here). Different conditions in different nations.

/

/

^ici^^^^^ ^ /?f n^

You have now seen something of the chief cultural movements up to
I939» The change of European opinion, fascism, varieties of socialism

and Ghristianity have passed before your eyes - and I hope minds* I have
left the last three lectures for more general remarks. You can take the

next two lectures as s"uinming up, but this lecture is slightly different:
if also, in a sense, siunmary»

Much of what we have been concemed with can be called " myths" - the
" myths" men live by« In a more positivist ic age this would have been
denied in the name of science and progress. I^ making so much use odF

this concept we are ourselves child of the tum of the Century - of the
" redis Cover" of the imconscious. Only it was rediscovered merely by
contrast to positivism: in Christianity, romanticism even in much of

the Enlightenment the importance of mans subconscious mind was well

understood» Psychology painted its landscape: whatever theory appealed
to you - Freud, Jung or Adler ♦ Still mans mind is central to perception

and perception dertermines the view of himself and the world« This

perception is, perhaps, only lossely connected to the extemal forces

of life and much to the realm of inner experience.

The reason I had you read Eichman is this: it is a discussion of myths

on the basis of actual events. Look at Eichman: he drifts into the Nazi
movement ( Arendt does not make much of his youth: Greifen (expl.) his
recruitment in Lina ( Hitlers town) a border region* There is not doubt
that he accepted the ideology and then on this basis became involved in
the Nazi death machine as functionary - not leader« In face of gallows
he invokes the Germanic God of light and sun ( outside Arendt »s scope)*

There is, for him, in the end no real disction possible between ideology
/TO and duty^ That must be^ clear« But there is a second reason I have had

u.Q,0

■^•endt rightly makes rauch of Bichman as a fxmctionary. His administrative

point of View - which made him fight against any exeptions to the depor=
tation, and when Rail transport broke down in Hmiagry, even the forced

march. No douht here Organisation playd what I would call a liturgical part:

the^i

P^Ä

immmmmfä.

vC — :

gave a framework and authoritj - the^security which was always inherent

'mtmm

'fe<^^^>/ ^ this idelogy» Why? -^e cause i^ was reraoved from reality ( aryan^ pre-
industrialism etcVand through Organisation its followers were connected
witli>reality. I.e. Hil^ers I^Iein Kampf; Half Organisation, half ideology.

But I also think this cömbination; captive of myth and "dependent
on State Organisation & authority is connected to the mass politics we have

mentioned so often. The very " banality of evil" Springs from the

P^y^fa f "fcl^« " public image" whioh'"B»^<»#c"-^eEe^reality» An imaginery

reality ( Jewish world conspiracy etc) becomes trutfe within the ** con=

servatism of orowds". That tru^th becomes part of a perfected technological
Organisation neccessary to rule in the age of the masses* ^^

Bichman symbolises the producrfc of the confluenoe of myth and
prganisatiou»L_-

It is true that the security fo\md in adminstration can be such that
the "underlying ideology which is enforced becomes second nature, is

taken for granted# ^ appened to Bishops in 16. centuiy - one cause

of Reformation. And Bichman seems not dissimilar in this preoccupation.

How do the viotims iDecome instruments of their own destruction? Eichman
developed a System whioh saved G-ennany manpower and tijimed Jewish organi=
sations against their will into his instDTUjnents and executioners.

2.

you read the /book - ^ot juot to ill^lotrate the power of myth» Por Arendt

is right about Eichmann and wrong ab out the Jews* For she strips them of
their myth and üses a different analysis on them then on the Nazi» The

Jews she says spidely could be " trusted to collaborate" - and this was

tinie. Boit why? Because they also had their myth, the aged and distinguished

gentlemen on the Jewish Councils» They were the Jewish bourgeoisie and

imbued with ideal of the enlightenment, of liberalism» They co\ild not

face the depth of this evil» She h^ould have tumed to the Diary of Anne

• .. «

Frank: who "parents taught her Goethe even in hiding» Scattering might

have saved famillies lifo, leaming how to sirrvibe under extreme conditions

was objectively more important then school education« And how does it all —

end: with Anne arrest but also with her proclaiming her faith in the

goodness of all mankind. -^v^i^*.,^ /V^ ^ T^X

How absurd! But how in tune with the myth to which the cultivated Jewish
boirgeoisie had clung ever since'^mancipations - and not only it but also
the' •^'Wxists of the hearfC now in exile)» This was the ideology of the

«"

Jews who faced Eichmann - and their unbeliefin evil is as much a part
of the Story as Eichmanns committment to it# ( ^f^^

For h« was indeed no monster« Indeed the confrontation of Eichman and
his victim has this deeper and more general meeting: his ideology made_
hiB a glad accessory to murder, their ideology made them imable to
imderstand this pehnomena !bi an age of/progress and enlightenment» Miss
Amedt omitts hafl of the story - and because she is right about the
other half her book is most imstructive» For in the face Eichmann all
the general explanations of evil ( criminality, nonnalcy) fall to the
ground as indeed he hightens the fact that men are captives not»^f

2a. ( if time)

moreoTer Hitlers go slow policy had left Jews ill prepared* Emigration
encouraged until 1939 - re settlement thus familiär. One^tep led
tp another: euthanasia programm Ijefore 1939 made possible gas Chambers
after. But no one believed this.

3.

their economic neccessities but of their

h - their

ologj,

And yet there are links with the environment, of course: the

whole course of histozy» Cli.max again; for in the end, in the concentra=

OMMM««

tion camp the ideologues manipiilate a controlled reality so as to reduce

men to the stereotypes which the ideology wants them to he» Bettelheim:
imder conditions of manipiilated depreviation the infuelnce of the

environment over the individual can hecome total» But in order for

_«•■

that to happen it must "be preceeded by an appealing ideology which goes

in for Stereotyping: the Jew has no so"ul, is not hiunan - for the human
soal is all that raatters» / 3a.^

Then you have a bifurication of morality which again is new only in
its climax: the virtue, middle class virtue'^of theVin group and the

evil of the "others"#

^'^Bxi as captive of his myths is a regulär thing, the violence he does others

*^*> -«Ate . ^^ ^. i^SHHMHHiHk ^HB^Mi^^M

depends upon the degree and immoderation which is built into his view of
himself and the world» Christians bumt witcTilSfe and Jew^äf^ socialists

fci -■'«1«^

practiced the tyranny of liberty, Liberalism stood against this, but

depressed the working classes« The fear of technology was right in this:
it did produce a State or regime which could manipulate environment so

Lf^uHt'iM that as Bettelheim put it, men became " living corpses"

^ i^^i^/jiKiVH I am suggesting that this was only partly due to the regime, in

. ~-"* «ur^

as rauch as that is one levell of analysis, if you like» But it was a

kiMMi

a-'^'s propblera for all ideologies and especieüLly those who wanted to " bulld

Jerusalem without tarrylng" as the Puritans put it« The liberal tradition^

•*•

in as far as it deplored all dogmatism was a bairrier akgainst this develo=

■ ■jwv

.<^< »««»

ment but Erasmianism could not stand against the longing for change - not

3a»

But i come here again to mass politios« The " collective tLnconscious",
if you like# These belief s become a "myth" which links with the

conservatism of crowds" - defined as they are in Opposition to rootedness,
to sharing a common past# Against the newly emanoipated intruder» Jew waa

central through the course of Jewish and Christian tjistory - the Jew, not
all of humanity woiild or co-uld be involved» -Pb becomes a faith -
a beleaq^gaered faitii in the view of the idiology«

i^fW^

4*

/ ta^ Uc^J^^^^^"^ t^^— ^^ ''-^^

^v ^^

even Ersjamus's life time» Lutnerans assrted that G-od was a " mighty
fortress" - and such a fort/ess^protect;?^ in the in group sind trains
its guns upon the enerny»

IIanna4 Arendts book then raises the prohlem of ideology once again: f or

'»*>—'» v<it.

Victor and victime o

All yo"ur readings have raised it: ^vn^^ Preiid -
"but also Kyo whose moral postirre makes him kill and be killed and

Le Bon who f oresaw the age of mass politics giving a hightened

*»'

millenarian cruelty to that myth which had captured the masses©

Now obvmously yo"ur evaluation of all this will be based on
several factors: what is the connection between historical ennvironment

( not reality: for mytlPic itself part of historical reality) and the
mind of man? What I called myth and ideology I4arx called consciousness

but I have suggested that in the transformation of Marxism this itself
became afilled with a categorical imperative or mass manipulation rather

* . — ■ ■!■

then closely connected to an economic reality» I^larxism itself tended to
flee into myth» Another factor: if you believe in a truth then you
^ u0 i^ *^ will also believe that whatever is done in its name must be right and
M/ rf^^/*-'*'^'*^ therefore, in the end good for humanityi You must understand that I

^ speack to you about this as a historian for whom, by definition, only
history ( and not what Stands outside it) can have reality and who

therefore is a good analyser of dilemmas but not a prophet for the

— — • — ' — ifc.fcifc

Solutions» More about that later»

It all adds up to the dilemma not only of mjrbh and history but also

about the individual in an existential Situation» I have made clear

the importance of the ooncept of myth for this course^ I must now
in the first of the final lectures talk about the individ-ual»

^* atory of the unlflcatlon of (^ermany and Italy has seen one
flguer sltting, somewhat shadowly. In the backgroundt Napoleon III,
Emperor of the French.

^' ^an wno'wa» th^ Inherl tor j>f tHeltsvoitrtjfcea-ofLXa^s^^ pranc».
and belleved himself^^oJ^K^ Inherltor of the Napoleonlc tra-
dltion. Who was borjv^lAy exlle In Swltierland and who, after I870
was to die In^arfie In Erij^land, not far from the place were Louis
Philipe hajk^ied, aiso In eklle. Whose aon and heir was to die

Thö View of the second^Einplre

a few^years later In a imseleVs Britush war agalnet the Afrlcan
Zulu trihftfl^ "7^^% g^ngZ/vj ^^Uc^m.\

W^JZlAlf^ /'^«'ST P^JHCC NS^^iJ

^eYVhlch Is taken by icany, includins

•firgang, Is that It was a fallure. The Emperor was a dreaxner and

p _

* QQ"s^J^<^tor not really out out to be a ruler, and certalnly not *^^
to further the rolle of a resurrected Napoleon IMT. Another vlew,
exactly opposlte, seer In the Emperor the great mlsunderstood ruler
of the Nineteenth Century t a n»n who wanted constitutional rule,
who was concerned for social reform. Whose stature has been
obscured by the Napoleonic myth whlch he himself used to get to

power. But who once in ^ power did not_want to be a i^apoleon at alli
who renounced a tlght dictatorehip for a combination of order and
free dorn»

ff^ Stl3^_a_jthli^ View sees in Napoleon HI. the precu»sor of modern

dicta^or^^;iP^/«e,,.4j«»5_j3^^^ ^^^K^^ the_2re'^i^ciU?^u8ed

Mt furth^ed by^his^^^dnephew, There i,

" flrst by Napoleon
jiC the kind of fr,e«doffi whi\h he gavV? tradeXunions were free but
0^<i^ Sorsanlsed Iftto syndicateaX ßontT^iieVfroni the top, there is the

^ _^organlsed iftto syndicatesV contro

•1 - '' \

plarmeji'economy. There is, Wve all, \^ dynÄBilo: the search for
SlolT in the i^apoleonic tradWon, to be sure, but also to keep
the Empire goins» {"^p-^^t^fUlt') 04)

Remind: 6 weeks a wook rrom (juilay, ^hrough Third ^rench Repuhlic
( Feb. li^, as on your outline).

in.

^i^^

^fi^*'^^

^ T'-^-^

ir t-e3£%

V/

^

^/

elected President of the Republic established in 184-8, then in

1^— !■■■«< ri****»%w»r-

185 1 coup d»etat and use of force to lifiuidate the RepuMic or~
T848» More then 15, 000 püüple^-^'sent into -exiie ( Republicans>i; —

-^ieans to legitimse the coup: plebiscite ( expl,-)-- This is of

_^ - « - . — «

-importanoe : already used by -^^apoleon !• Such a kind of

•in^.tw-«- —«»«*•"

,deinocracy i^ave: the appearance of " rule of the people"> In reality
imple yes or no «uestion means that easilly managed. Napoleon

s

^-

used it now and then, and even in I8Ä9 he still got a goodly

majority in such a plebiscite •' He did establish the plebiscite

as an alternative denocratic device to Pari, govemment -
and as such it renained alive and the longing f or such a^

" democracy*^ göes^ into the Third Re public ( Boulanger) and
indeed will be used by modern dictatorships to legitimise-
thenselves as denocratically based. (^"^V

iiapolepns Constitution had a legislature. Elections were not

so much openly managed as through govt. pressure, But as the

reign wr/et on an Opposition did tend to energe, Moreover

-J.-. jLt±ii;«t-r'-i!*-j'

there was a secret police - ÄS-ther^ had-«i?Pftys been.« But, as

a matter of fact, it did not markedly increase during the reign
at all. Napoleon mähaged the country reälly through - "controll
over prefects in the provinces - and, above all, through

alliance with existing elites - especially thaoseof the middle
class, but also by his attention to the workers»

The Bmperor was influenced by ideas of I83Qties - especially

w jn . ^ ,.

thöjse of St. Simon of the importance of industry and management

\

^L

3

pfi F<r c" L cyp/PTi'fit^ Ut'Tk T^cuN ace4c^f^

in solving the economic and social problems. Active governraent

role in economic affairs»

■ trw

in a phaiaplet of 1844 - the extinction of poverty - he had already
believed that v/orkers must be settled on property of their own and

educational Programms instituted,^ There can be no doubt about

r-——.. !-•••- i->'=-i'*"»'r"i'

his coininittment to such socisil reform - and he hadVworkers supportv

But the es3ence of hie programm was, in fact, industrialisation#—

How was this done? By creating new sources of credit.«

mtimmimmmtm

Thos golden age of enteprene-urship» Joint Jtock banks ( i,e»

»•""outmtmKtSD

Credit Ilobilier which jrovided cash for large sclae buiseness

enterprises). Result: fairly rapid industrialisation and, above

~:AA

all, in transport: Railways built, telegraph, canals« At the same

time 705^ more iron and steäl.

.•*••-•' -^s-i^iHiit:... T

But, perhaps, most spectaculalry building. Rebuilding of Paris

by Hausmann ( as you see it today). Typical mixture for Napoleon

^w.^.^jAJ*'

^ ^.ft."* .*r*t.t»^

in planning: social ( better housing, sanitation, water) and the~
^ glory and order" ( boulevards meant grandeur but also dif f icult

^or barricaeä to be built )♦ ""^apqeleon brought ideas -frxm his exile

in England: above all the Parks» Glimax: Universal Exhibition of

•«>• #K »^^^^'^W^'-B^!

1855 in Paris. Such exhibitions of industry were part of European

•:Rwr

Industrailisation, the " vrorlds fairs". Host important in London

,Nhn^f^t ^^ 1851; But to industry now added " culture": painting and art«

v.u.-

>^.-vti^fmt

""g*'»»?aF";w

Exhifoition of 1855 was beginning really of Paris as a tourist

. «itMiMttuti: '''•>-

-^;;crt

/^>,^i-.y>ui attraction: the new Paris which l^apoleon was building.

K. ■ %;■-*>■* v.^^.«

r:.r.::ifU.,l^M-i

Ter to hlsr aoncem wlth lnduBtriallsatlön~^we rmi^ "ädd:~^is concern for
-culture. -"-e himself was an admirer of things German, in his exile

„. .-a.-.^. «'■*' "

'-^>

and imprisonment he had read literature and philosophy and cultivated

7

'^'«WiWI

an interest in music. Reult: not only the building of the Opera

as the climax of the nev; Paris, but a general furthering of music

«W»»." wj«*9ff«WWt«

»•-V.*

<f-

and art in a " la belle epochU,

: .»iai*.' * "sj»- 5»^

-«i;rnirK;rp%»!p5**»T»!i»

But here there was a contradiction, as in so rauch of the Third

^ ^^ ^^^^ Empire, ^^apoleon vras "beholden to the Gatholic Ch-urch which ^^
'^^'^^''^'*^ — supported him against the KepubliS^. Kuge subventions and educatioir

,'^li^>Uftrm'*i^t

r fUMyJyti^ K

m^>-^<) turned over to it. But Napoleon himself encoura/^ed Henan in his
" Lijfefe of Jesus which exposed Christ as an ordinaryVfchoUj^

«•«JMSMtMOMkMMMB

brilliant person - tranfered to irance the kind of biblical

•SiWi*',,^

^/j fif^

xfT^ criticism in vogue in Germanyi Yet the nost typical aspecjrs of

i>r»fM««««»«*f*i?t.iurT:unitn»

r/d^ ' ^-<^'^ "this culture under the Smpire link with it's basis of support

and thrust»

f ^^'**^/ I have mentioned ITapoleons interest in dustrialisation, in

planning, in efficiency. In most of the culture materialism and
positivism reigned: the environmentalism of Taine in literary-

... : i .i\;.t;«-''*(»-tVr>»lH<»>

-.t't'ttmtKn-»''^'

_ariticism, the idea of empiricism and Classification of science -

rjM,^:t»iM-!tii;,

^•«ciJ»«'

■i-^iha^.

an Opposition to all Utopia { Gomte), Romanticism was receeding

— ^ng^^pmg— — 1_ . _ __ — . — . ^iiii' iiii»i»^i,.i« M»''*%iu)Mi — ■

here for a greater realism ( Plaubert: ^%dame Bovery). ..nd in all

»M»»i 11)11 ij- n ' II 1 sitnt »1»iilli'll(1*ifllift . — . . _^

Of this the sciences were flourishing: Pasteur in IÄ70: 4;he most

K3»mi. >'>«»:<«tv .I>''K»

•>«y*i^!!*TR*V'

glorious rei(^ in history»*^

Thus if this was dictatorship, certainly one imder which there
WS a Singular fTöurishing of culture. Perh^ps^ of the tension:

-realism and the Emperors own romanticism: his love for Athens-

-and for V/agner#-

ß7 TveTT^^ ^

This_culture was cajried by those who, ben^efitted: new enterpreneurs.

-4.

5

the middle clasKjes. Who invested in the new enterprises. No longer

'■v^^^ffW*^

an aristrocratic but, as in England, a middle class elite« Only in

ikJ.u.-.^^l-U'J-' !'U."i!.PaB>ito: —

.j'!'.'t,a'-Bi

Cxermany and Austria did the old nobility still maintain thmeselves.
No Bismrack in FTaiioelü'^'T <fiii^9i- Te^^^i^^tJ

• r'jHv'V*^"'"*'?.

^f^Airf .•-'*■"??•>

It was different f or a growing working class - another product of this

■■„.-.:»*Cj»f>

!.;i.-*;i*i'irtW*S,»S>>;-

industrialisation, Xapoleön splpatTletic ,T)ü^ always half neasures .

-^ etter housing: tax on empty apaprtnents but no expropriation at all^
Sympathy for aspirations: but no unions until 1868, nastrike

<.»^ ^'"fff^eSfti-

--. -.•''•i.^.-.»:':f»'««'^'i.

1 laws of the J'rench Revolution prohibited this anyhow)> Always

troups in industrial centres. I'Iarx not so v/rong.f when. lookinr at

. '«R:v''^ •*«•*<%

the ^DoulevardsVhe said liberty, ewuality and fraternity had given
way to considerations of infantry, cavalry and artillery.])

The v7orking clasGes vrere under these circumstances of half broken
promises developing a clasa conscieousness^ which will breack forth

in the Paris Gonmune of 1870 •

■-'^iml^f

■ -^titi». ^:'

But Napoleons greatrst failures and fall were in foreign policy^

attenpt to pT;j?sue glory of the older IJapoleon*_^levant : that all.

^ iM^— jaif^i»*'-— fc?*^J>»l*^

his life he was working on a work on Caesar: but again not so much
for glory alone as also in Imitation of CJ-erman scholarship*

i mnw I uwjnuj " ■

J.1B

Kis positive accomplishmHent: trying to help Italian unity, but

^' ;<Är*-^

.— .UV««

again half measure: to cement alliance with Ch-urch at home had to

--V ^^v^-W»^*'^

send trouj)s,to keep Pius IX in power in Rome« You could not be the
friehd of >Italy~and of the Ch"urch. i^e tried again: to compensate —

•-■VMrH>-J!>«i>,»:

^' ^: mtmt^t.

V ' r ".■,(»

-Austria in Mexico for a voluntary withdrawal from Italy. But that-
also was a fiasco« Napoleon bound to Italy: had been ä ^arbonari—

»c;«''-»;

in.exile^^familly came from there ( Bonapartes), Romanticism again,

M

Were Italy not concemed more successful: near Saat specifically -

«•^♦n^taij«»

arbitrator between Britain and Kussia and the Turks«

But these attempts at foreign glory not as important as his policies

_eoKC»"myyi£pmty')'^

"**"* "^'ilffiy

■»•""«"•«f»

at home« A New Image of Prance ( G-ay Paree). A new confidence«

^•^ 'O.Hte^kA'.

This made him go into the adventijires in Mexico and Italy but also,
In the end, made hims misreäd the' power öf PnisMa - äjid thät "was"

his do^mfal at Sedan in I870*-

-Was this, then, a dictatorship? Labells can ab very misleading«.

"•»*^»it*>»>.i.'es

»;*>.-W Jt.* «•: •■tffc^.'^Tw—

There was an Opposition which increased v/ith time and the late

■••*'i.'..'/^-uSt.

" liberalisation" of the iimpire. The limits of freedom vrere wide -

rr^-^:^,-^r^

as I have sho^^n in the floi;Lrishing of a certain cult-ure« No real

Organisation ( such as one party structure) or efficient secret

'"'»"•s*-.v

policy, no terror at all» ( amnesty by 1854), Above all: no
mass movement. There v/as some attempt at Propaganda ( golden

.«»,o,,iCj*-.'S.V-» *«.*»..

'^..iZitt*^ *••>.

** N" appeared everyv^ere, references to Napoleon I.) but as yet -
in itoB infancy really. Perhaps a mixtL"äre between ancien regime ,
modern govemment and social aspirations» ^

.»-••*'*•''*'

"^^^M. "^.^^sio^s were -unresolved. And when ;^^apoleon feil, they were

to threaten to tear Frajice apaprt» Por there v/ere those who wanted to

go back to the ancien regime; there vzere the middle classes who^ . .^
wanted to continue in a moderate regime friendly to their interests,**

,^.->^H<L>-rjL.

»^3«<V^^

and there were the newly conscious working classes»

6a*

The instrument nost important for the future: Plebiscite» That

kind of alternative of democratic rule. But the group that had

originally supported Louis Bonapafre in his coup - the " 10. Decenber

'i r4icJ»)J*«* J W « »*ft?f *i**r IT» •. j

Gociety" - did not naintain itself as a source of mass support.

.^..^/^tU**"- **«*«A-' fcft.,.-.,

No more then later the followers of Boulanger could maintain
"themselves ör the änti Dreyfüsards. Fe cöne Here tö a fimdamental
fact: in Prance it was always difficult and indeed impossible for

movements other then of the v;orkers to maintain theraselves - to

-^

^ake„ the j-unp from a crowd to aTnovement> In ^Jermany t hi s was

^iiite different.

V/hy? ^'"^ntality, not doLibt. Individuali sm in which always sonething

of the revolutionary traditions jsurvived even among the anti rev.

forces. The petty bourgeoisie» Central Europe had no such tradition

M«M«W#9^. ItiW T irifin-i , I »IB^

of revolutions, exept for the failirre of I848i

Modem dictatorship is based on mass movements and mass politicsV ~

That whole dimension is missing here. Not everything was annexed —

to such a movement or to a.jfia;:ed ideology. There was none, exept

a vague " J^ap ol e oni sm»»j^iiaa§, movements and ide ological conormity

thus both missing.

^ /

l

5a»-

4^

t-

t

old intepr. of thejwaTj.ike woman, given to absolutism, will no
longer hold water» Read Pourrier with 18, taken with Napoleonio

legend. Political woman. Her advice good at tlmest to interrene

-\

vs«

•^rassia in I866^^Intereet in social questions:äpprove^"tliat^
^ x...-^

her son read Mari* ^regjit of Ni\as a " workers Emperor".
Fatei EmpeyisB~ f or 17 years , and ex Empress f or 50 years thereaf ter

( died 1920). Shespans an era - her ^iterary^ f riends included
Stendhäir (184^7 änarirovteäu7

f:

But though plehsictes not tme expression of opinion, never heless
we know that for many lower classfts ( peasants and workers) to vote
for Napoleon was to vote asainst the " Lords" ( later, same regions
were N. got some of his largest votes will go socialist). But in
reality Napoleon had long made alliance with ruling classes.

Ph

But ideal of Hebiscite as alternative to perl. dem. most alive
in France: Napoleon 1. had nsed it before Napoleon III. Semms to
idealise the " people": true democracy - but in reality rigging
of questions and eeven different coloured ballots. ( Hitler used
it in JOties, but not such a deep tradition). Springs out of
ideal of " people" but in reality adopted by Right in order to

exercise authoritanian rule. ( Intern, affairs: adopted 1918:
Saar and Upper Silesia).

mmi

The end of an T^a

<fifh'^ t^9(lLi6

-The war ended the 19. and began the 20, Century. Gone vas the feeling of
security vhich, however, challenged, had yet pervaded br^od 'spectrum of_
^e Population before I9I4.

-The conBeuqence of one of the bloodiest wars-pf hlstory was a pro^;;;nr"
dlsorganisation in allmost every~c^uStr7 of Europa. One_slgn of this
diBorganisation were the revolutions which-broke out in the nations

■which collapsed, but the longing for change vas not confined to the«.

THere was a widespreadj-eeling that something new was^needed In the vay
of goveminent_an£_econoiny which clashed wlth the ol^ePf orces which Van"ted
to conserve what came from the past^ C^'^^^ ^^' -^^ -

The_revolutions of I9I8 - 1920 were not mere i^ltatlons of Russiarindeed-

so^rne^of_^hem hardly influenced by the Soviet Union at all^ Let WTööF
atthe.: _I9I8_BelaJun established a State on the Leninist nodel in
Hungary - af ter^^J^ber^^ experiment in government had failed. It lastedr

only from March to Augu^, and eave wav +n ~T „« * •

_ __ "6 , ana gave way to a reactionary regime dominated

by the landed aristocracy which vas to last until Hitler deposed i4T^^

^ -^slaJCunJxad^le^to^R^sia but the other left revolutions pre...t..

each an individual complexi^ 19I8 also revolution in Munich. This led _
by intellectuals who wanted to avoid force/who were unwilling to establish
^alitarian controlls. Eisner, the leader, was a unortliodox socialist

who believed that the moral imperative of the new order was so strong,

that man woiild follow»

But he was assisinated ana here also^revolutiön movedinto a Soriet RepublT^"

-B,,t it was^short lived. I919 it_was supressedrand-iT" Bavar"ia alsT^fche '

reactionary forces_^ot.a new lease of life out of_the episode - during

it national Sooialism was bom.- -Simultane ouslyä revölu^IöiT ör S-aiöST^-

la»

Kone followed the pattern Marx had forecast: nowere was agriculture
givin^^ way to'industry in these nations, for example» The reason
was more immediate: dis2iocation and misery of the war, the very
abseence of aay repsonsive political institutions and in Kungary
and Bacvaria: defeat. Bolshevicks in these coimtties preached an
"unrestrained liherty for the iia^sses: which could not be practiced
once in power, of course» "^et us also note a similarity with
fascism in this kind of coiildron: for many Bolshevism was a kihd
of reli^ion - baclcward regions of the Garpathians and Ruthenia the
Population petitioned the government to appoint bolshevist bishops #
Th^^j-many uui'i'yjiL. Nut evun iieoces'jarilly LeninTst \ which

I^H^-waf4^r-^^Tf^T--te-^^^ ^^^ ^^«^* ^*» ^^^ ^^^^6 ^^ common
in thBBB revolutions: Hungairy, Bavarin, -^erlin^ Poland and
Austrla: instrumant of the soldiars and peaaanta eouneila«
Hussian modal harali Eleetad by workara^and T^tamaa, bnt alao

peaaanta ( bavaria: peaaant couneila)« Rer« weapon« But
daatroyd: Hungary a yirtual dictatorahip by B^ia Kun, ^avaria
nerer total beeauae alao '^arliament; Berlin: SPD managed to
infiltrate and get co atitutional eonvention: i.e. arliament«
Here eounella ra« -^arliament claarly« Ciearly alao everyone
repr, in -^arl, but Councila a reTolutionary yanguard.

but alao aoldiera oouneila aprang up apontaneoualy at the front
aa chaoa followed defeat* f^>y^ ^ d^^^i'^' ^^^^ - (^ o^

mm

2.

— c^j^yAj

was_also_ supressed» More important in Berlin itself the Spartacist

upriaing (I9I9) was a revolutionary attempt opposed, this time.

to Leninism: believing tliat a rev« should depend upon the democratic
wishes of the niasses# Rosa Luxemh-urg« Also supressed*

Between these revolutions there was never a anjr coordination,

i-j.^C*»- :j^**^-:?->'

hardly any commimication. Theit supression was accomplished

fairly easilly, they were not the beginning of the " world revol»" *
after ^nii :-) fcUi^- $y,^^',i^AM^^r^^^^--^^

But those who lad in their supression, provided the troups, were

as alienatedTfiröm the new world in which they f ound themselves^ae

■ II.

the revoTütlöhäries' themselve^ of the war» Such

men retumed_after fighting f or the fatherland and f ound the

kind of fatherland of their patriotic Imagination imdermined»

They sought with some desperation to keep the coraradship they

had known in the trenches. All over Ei^rope, with the exeption__

of England, servicement operated as distinct political groups and

^J 1 over Burope they opposed the new worldj^iich they now faced»
In (xermany they made up the ^ge^gogps : now para militaiy

Units which were used to supress the revolutions I have mentioned:

then, still as distinct units they linked themselves with the

nationalist right« Tn Ttniy, n,1n" f^f ^j n+i^"-*- -^'"^ ' m ''*"=^y fought
to oiiproGO any pof

mid uiipalrio'blc revululion»

ThQy were oallod " fagci" and we will meet ^thegai again» In France

such serviceiQen4> strengthened the groups who had always been

hostile to the Republio, though it had won the war#

Ai^ft^ ^ ^tH^

Thus the nfeding of the war pitted thiö.-Qleaxly defiued

part'of the Population agaihst "the revölution* The revolution was

2a.

What carne out of it was a proposed alternative to Parliamentary

Govt, In all these revolutions: co\mcils of soldiers and workers.
These elected also but directly by the soldiers or workers«, They
seemed a direct expression of the " people" governing thenselves»
Educating themselves in seif government • Por members mostly were
simple soldiers and workers, This not just on the Russian model.
But here democracy stressed, especailly in ^ermany, rather then
the Councils as a raeans of furthering the dictatorship of the
proleta^riate ( Lenin).

2k.

In Italy the fascisti di combattimento were difierent in some
ways: i^anted, at first, a " national syndicalism" , were
anti monarchical and there relationship towards socialism
was ill defined, ( Ilore next tine). Ifussolini only £p7ad"aally
in controll»

supressed, with the exeption of those who were changes of forms

'■ ■ " ^ ■■■ ■ I II ■■■■■■..

of govemment rather then revolution seeking to change the base of

Society: the republic of Checkoslowakia and the G-erman Republic* But

while in Check, the patriotism cemented a newly established Republic,

in G-ermany the Republic was ( as we shall see) "undermined constantly^
_*— — _ *" /f/^ > ^'

by these very elements - who had helped it to supress the revolutions

in the first place.

Nothing had been solved. The shook of the war and the disorga=

nisation which followed was superimposed upon an essential contin'uty

of social struct-ure and economic division. The same, is, of course
true in international politics: the supposedly new depart-ure of Vers.

iras superimposed upon the contihniiation öf old balance of power
politics.

Glass differences stood out more sharply then ever. Efforts

were made in G-ermany and eventually in England to provide for some—

mobility in education.^ But by and large free education until the.

a^e of 14 remained the fact in most of Europe - dividing line here_
was as hard as between any Hindu csist. The same can be said for the
unequal distribution of wealth: in England Ifo of the population

owned 2/5 of the national wealth: it was not so different elsewere.

What coiüd hold a nation together under such ciscukistances?

Religion could no longer do it - was in decline from I9I8 on. The

sight of clergy blessing arms on each side had not helped. There

^^7.

was instead an apetite for a general unrevealed religion: supplied

by the voguer of astronomers ( Eddington, Jeans) in England but in

much of Europe by the equally unrevealed religion ot nationalism.

Mc^^^rC^

The Ghurches came increasingly to relate theraselves to that»

Indeed here a possible oement against fragmentatio^

and class rigidity« For such a nationalism also advocated a unity,

a Society were national identity and not class mattered«

f^^JT sr^r

But those nations were best off in such circT;iinstances which posessed

a streng middle class which could penetrate "both ahove and below*

■n ni

Act as oement in outlook and amhition. There was really only one

such: England, thou^h Prance ran a close second» Here workers
wanted to become bourgeois and aristicrats were be Coming bourgeois«

Helped along by more equal taxation* For this the one advance

almost evetywere after I9I8: poor no longer had to pay their own

way: the rieh were requred to pay at least a fraction of the costr
Thus then the pü^c^ioiis position of the structure of—

h

Europe after the war# Led inevitably to the continued questioning
of the foimdations which had been laid in the 19 ♦ Century* Here —

left and reaction met: old political forms outdated? Parl^Govt^

a form suitable to the I9# but not to the 20. Century? As Parl.^

after Pari, coramitted suicide peacefully in face of the diff icul=

V ties I have outlined, alternative ways. of Organisation suggested:

corporate stateTuLeadership State andy of course» dictatorship,of
the Proletariates Right and left met, indeed often membership
wandered between these poles. Shared also Opposition to class

Society, to materialism of acquisitive middle class society.

This, though Solutions were to be different.

t,i>i ii^*^

The intellectuals were caught in this sit"uation. First an
oütburst of negative criticism against a materialist civilisation

■Problem of intellectuals after 19I8:

a, hope of revolutions

b. disappointment follows, especially in those nations were
the abortive revolutions had taken place. Atbsame time:

c. srowing isolation from workers movement in ^entral Europe
( less in France and England).

d. choice of ftbedience or expulsion: i.e. ^eorg Lukacz, at
fircjt unorthodox, idealism C Class Consciousness and Society)

then knukling under to keep contact with working class. But
otyer left wing intellectuals did not.
e. result of disillusionment :

(^^ Ofu^^JJ^'^J

dru/^ ^ f..^^

5.

which could not cope with it's problem and instead\resorted

to repressive meas-ures left over from war, I9I9 Manifisto of
Independence of Thought" "by 100 int eile ctiials. but thid was

no longer good enough. Alternatives had to be suggested#

5H»!«*">t»>«B »_ ■ i_i.^ ■

— V

)l

t

Many went towards Commimism, as the way out#/The Right with its
nationalism coiild not satisfy the belief in the people, the

•universalism, ^esides the Soviet Union existed and seemed to solve

«--•^•'.T**

its Problems • Thus as crisis deepened became for int eil. an

»iS-aJ:^!^

increasing Impetus, Webb: Soviet Russia, A new Civilisation -
published with question mark after title in 1955 and without in
ISTl. But brought up problem of " independence of thought"

-which Bolshevism woiild hardly allowT

p Thiis parallel to the problems of society and politics, the intell,
raised their own problem: [how co-uld you have "thought the slave -

•y

of no one" and yet aA eqiial Communist society? How could you solve
the Problems I have sopken about and yet keep free thought and

.expression? Would concentrating on tye latter not make you merely
a critic instead of a builder^ ^

^■^M'±

l Lj They were

irtenr'on

.ce=

and by many

other nationalist groups in between. Only the traditional liberals,
. social democrats and some conservatives seemed to stand for the
\<l^,^i^^^J__ Status quo; iworking leisurly through parliajnent, ordinary every-

day politics and party beaurocrfcies.

o^C

Por activism was the order of the day - the response to a disorg.

r^t^/f 0^ *^'^'

worl| unleas-it was the despair of Spenglers " D^cline of the

5a»

2 nerit notice: Dada - G-erriany and ;. wirrer land. Epater the "bour/^eois
vrith ridiciile - tliroxich ridicule, satiire, nonesense, hrlnß the
exlBtlnc Order into disrepute. G-ross: " Dadaism was oiir awaekenin^
fron the seif deception that art was nore inportant then man.
\7e saw the riad final excrescence of the nilinn order of society
and vre hiirst out laiifhing". 3ut not enou^h - Gross iDeoaxie a

Gori-unist» Dada a 'orid^e»

Forti^JTisn: Italy and Prance. Dates to he{:inninc of centirry.
Exlats violence, oattle, speed ( notor car is raore beautiful then
the Nike of L;aaotiirace)o " we want to sing o-ur love to danger ..•
the lorinci-ole elenents of ovir peotry will by courare and indig=
nation. Only in stniccl© is heauty - no masterpiece without its
essence of a/jresoion. ü^he world has a new heaiity: the beauty of
speed. i3ut not enou£:;li. 5\iturisu linlied itself with the Pascists
di Gorihattimento»

6.

iJ'sr-

4i

g^

West" or the intemalisation of the new psychology« l^*^)

But/events wo-uad not stand still« [we have seen I9I3/19 rev* of
th^ left - they were to be succeeded by more successfiil rev. of

right: not the conservative Right but a right which had something

in common i^ith the general Vision of activism, classless society

,^ajid Spiritual unity» The sucessful rev« of the non consorVative
right we call fascism - to that now* 1

9^^^o-H^c4^ uj > <4h4^^ pi.^t> ^ 4^ -^^^T/ /

'( /

Oy^H^fy^ w^y jt^^ z/p*>^if>'/t%., /^V>'^ >*^.

-^ ^

^'^^yy<^4^^ ^/^^^A<c

^y/%*^

6a«

Indeed a Solution cominon to most: elitism ( Comirrunist party leadership,
intellectual leadership, Rightist leader). *^earch for a " new man"

or a " new type"» Jmengers "Worker": strong, without ideology, cohesive#
Fasoism will advocate a " new man" - iDut so will many others»

Reality: experimentation in art and science-
Germany ( why). Expressionists - existemtn, episodic, filM,
But also opposite: new pragmatism ( Sachlichkeit): Bauhaus
new technology accepted, intigrated.

^e seene in whieh most of thes« Intell^etual d«bat«8 wo» set
was ^ermany and the newly foundad ^etnnan Hapublie« To that
va must nov eoma:

3.

bUt also then:

urge to activism - problem of expressionism ( & Nazis, idea
of soul etc.) 'Dy'VMA. /{^.W/3^J [T^^-^^/fifJ

Urge for wholeness and unity: ^auhaus especially here. i./f^'^
Still in end pessimism reraains: great influence of Spengler in
^ermany and on Mussolini:

^/l \

^j^ ^-w i-'^^' ^, a^ -> ^r^ )

Bela K\m
Kurt Eisner

Dada

Puturism

^^^>r TiaY^

lafM*

l^

li-

.^,,M

The fin de sieole

T

V

^^

M*^, A/'^

>'''<^-.«^

L

ti

^^^ '^^^^^'^^T^^e^ deapite the relative security of th* non working^
class World is par:4ly due to the f act that throughout the whole
of the Century what had^lseen fundametal was questioned. The very
splintering of ideologles must make this obvioiis - the ideologiea
WC hare sluda-e«! arrived at different ends from qviito dlfferent suppo-
sitions. Whatever the differences in 16. to 18. centuries there had ,
been a kind of consensus: Monarchy was the form of Government. GödV^

5vi?^. 'V\<^- existed even if the function and nature of Christ was^iiTdispute,

v^^^'

6t »-

u

J^*p<^

**/,'-^

the \miverse was a whole: religious or Newtonian. But now all is

,4^-*.«-f^ doubt - consider the ränge of^Mills discussions: Is there a God or

wA

ü*^

.v<

-« uxx^x^ xxui.x fnau is «-nrisxianixyv Angiioon ProtogtaiiU hlgtt-ehurch,
Xpw^^lhiirnh nr :wha%? Have we the power of moral choice? are we automa-
tons? Is a man a man or simply a higher ape?J Ideolpgy had become
unstuck and moreover with increasing literacy there was no longer
ajman ^oterie of^ intellectuals which could ^set'^ the tone of society^.
j^ Co\jrt_ culture and patronage, then the salon and now a deve-

^''^///- loping mass culture.with whi.ch Wiliiama lu üu cunueined//

ftc^

^r^

tj^ fiff^i^^^

Yet ^öntii-j[ap-Bnd a£%er ad»i* this questioning there^ was
^'^J^f^if^ ^^^^ tJ^^ ^^ ultimate truths ^SÄgion, ethic^olitics and

7s <

H/l^^i^

L4--an3tQji<

/;«<»iWw^" °^ truth. All the ideologies v»-.ha.ve-«tud4«d had clearly defined

a^^^l^ idea of truth, ultimate truth and n4e denied the mind as an instrument
^-^^^-«^ to reach that truth. Indeed there was always>n authority which temp*ered

^W^^ L^^^individualism ; laws of history etc. or ( Mathew Arnold) authority of

l^^^jp]^^^ "^^"^ Bhould Check individualism.' There are Standards, and
^?^^ tV*^ r^*®"^®^ *^® ^^^® °^ questions posed, the answers were within a
l ^.liLit^V"^^-^"^-^ °^ truth and societ^T^E^n the anarchy of Proudhon was not

a crass individ\ialism but a dependence on natxiral laws»:

[ 'SJ'^

The 19. Century ^8 ,^ Ai^ its last decades, w*«a what seems to us an
athmosphere toth of doubt.and of belief in ultimate truths^, and the
teil^ons between them. On the one hand the ra^e of questions posed,
/ke yo« have sceB-4».-4toi«-e««:"se~) takes in all of human condition anew
on the other hand every ideology still believed in the existenoe of
some ultimate truth, something which r^ovided a framework.

-Bgt-^>^fr-I88e-ou 'ITiTb n;^^luxrrffagr^^pe€rbythe rapid dev^lpppent or

^itiiismt^hat -ultimate .truth seemed increasingly eqauted not with

^v

po(
;V/'^''^:^-^iüas but with existing reality: of industrialism, of bourgois

-Society. And Ws^^^ by the vogue of what we call posi-

\fL^'^\ tivism. a result both of the progress science had made - especially

CM

/

Darwin/sm^ - and the agressive reality of Burope in the age of high
industrialism and Imperialism. M^cfliger it wa»-a3^^ inoroaoing the

, V-- ■ / a46=oi' Uiti "uiiuullmea iiutJug^T^oblems were Coming to a head.

^■»'^•« ^ "s ^ , ^^^^ T'O/«'^ •

^■'iC^^^^'^ iGTSefore see the reaciiSa ( of which N.^^ifra culfeination) we must

'>^fi!'y say something^out thip pbeitiyirsm, influönc
Ä*^ itself>^teh poait.ivif^Lc3[>g:n<»ftg<»d Ihe naitjlu mm

<^

as it was by Darwinism
ic heritage»

I shall be briTef about
Problem the men o
and human

. tatg-%hout the Chief

disassociation of society

^^as they defined it. Here your reading of Wedekind

and Giüöfthen comTiä^^tions : the elevation of the senses and
itr^sequences, the elevation o^the will (r^tTTB^lng) and what

it was to mean»

/

'^/^

7 • {M-^^^^^ . .

/

v.,->^/*^

^

A>

TMS mass ctüixo-e is important/to us, in the sense, that it

provides a Taase :^tor oertaln appeala - not ^because It it playa
^*eative roll^. That is playü by intellectuals in a society were

thepf ormed a fairly well def ined and seif consoioua group» The
readership for their works, the audienoe for their plays was by

'feuoi^

iytfo

and laxee comT)osed of ©«eh: intellect^ials wJfÄ«h overlapped with
professional olasses, teachers eto. Nene of the cultural manifea-

tation Of the tum Of the oentxoy " were " populär" hut they tended
to hecome so when ahsorhed into the general athmosphere of the

... - .«r-MrfkMdMMMMaaMMiaMaMM

20, Century: which did penetrate downwards, ^

iv The reäding ^SHmost men is rgrootic - as the TIS pointed out in 1950,
^ unchanged for centuriesK. " the need of a scullery maid to dream that
she will sofceday marry the duke is a hasic pattem that hardly varies,
even in an age when scullery maids are dying out and dukes Hransformed

.11 '

^

xn-co U^t ifo" attendi^^tee-at their stately homes".^^^^

It might Vary with increased education: but above 15 this only for _

^^'elite^hroughout our period. Seif education was beginning, howev^x

l

^' fK_ expecially bb part of the Sooialist movement and inoluded skilled

— workers« — roir their idnan irern nnrrl nii^ p^..^tri .> i.»>i iinMTOyrifl s« —

— But when we now talk ahout the change from I9# to 204> Century, we
_ taliokhout one, culturally the most important, segment of sooiety

only» i^ow thjier ideas vrere used and penetrated downwards we shall

-— ^^^— »

corne to in due ccurse. It is of crucial importance,

\

llf^o SLKdGPE AMTi T^ Mo■DeA^4 C0O^L"b - -B£TU)££ u T^g oOAAS ^"i^'

It Is easy to say that N»S. caused theVwar - but the reallty Is
very much more oomplex - It is the fallure of the peace.
That fallure only apparent In the I930tleß. Prom I9I8 - 1929 a
perlod when international rel. seemed to be improving. At Locamo (f^/^* J
G'ermany re entered the familly of Nations. Russiawas, apparently,
giving up her world rev« plane under Stalin and was recieved into
the -^eague of Nations«

The Briand - -^^llog pact outlawing war (1928) seemed to be geared to
highest optimism, Yet within t^wo years - as we cross into I930ties
this hope gone. Economic crisis' produced the "prelude" as we know
^ now, to the second world war. Events happened in rapid sucession
to dash the hopes of peace of the 20ties:

1930 N.S, party Jumped in Reichstag from 12 seats to 107 as largest
party. A year later ( I93I) Japan invaded Manchuria, The next year
( 1932) the Disarmament Conference at G-eneva broke up without
results. The next year (1933) Hitler became German Chancellor«
In the relations between Nations the 1930 ties were dominated by
THREE ideas or course of actione:
[Ij pattem of agression by Q-ermany and Italy»

2» Idea of Gollective security of the peaceful States

/ _

3^ Idea of Appeasement«

I shall take up each in tum - though as you will see, they existed

side by side.

!• Pattems of Agression: a« G-ermany: not haphazard but Hitler

pursued a definite technique. Here applying shrewdness & logic to

his irrational ends of making the "Volk" dominant« ^■^^ . . ^

This technique: altemation between agression and appeasemsnt« Let

me illustrte by one example: the re ocuupation of the Rhineland by

i\

JLp^asemexxt factorsj last tdjnet
C;^ ri^kim» Vietini Spaiii

Foreign policy: Hitler started the 2 WW, and for him it
was a racial war ( against the Jews) still, foreign policy
all important in that respect - and today. Shadoq of Hunich
analogy large responsibility for Vietnam.

( idcU^ i^ 5/>%< /

,4 i/-

3*

have survlded; but linke d in the axls both were doomedj •,^P'*^^
Agalnst the pattern of Agresslon stood the doctrln of

2. Callectlve security t
sponsored b/Russla It meant to revitallse the League of Natlons

' --'-■^~-^- >-»-'•- *' " %« ■■ I ■iiir.ii^ii I I ■. „la .»III». »■■1— ■■■■iiiMi am ■»'-■•- —

as an Instrument to stop agressors. It assumed the Identltv of
Interests of all powers as agalnst ^ascisin* LU'^ U^'^^
Thls was a miscalcualtion. Such idenlty of Interesnts dld, In fact,
not exist at all. Why?

]^i Fear of Russia greater then that of the dictators who mlght,
after all, be gentlemen^ Th^result was: ^

^. the policy of appeasement defeated the pollcy of collectlve
security.

3^. What was this policy of "appeasement"* Here England is the key.

^ ^^-f ^u y^u navo oouu, i'icUiCü was Luu wuack Lo play a role uf^ier
.^wn. Let US look at the ingredients of this conept first: ( ^ f^^)
Fear nf Rinaia -_it_was Chalmba^a-4^fl A^-nmm fn ^^% G-ermany

^_ • - -.1 ■ »»I I Wi ■ I» I

em>3:*biled with

sia: "a plagu^^n both' vour houses" •

#^

Serious r^gtfits ; a. alien^i^ted Russia s^,^to drive her, by

/ jcv< l935^nto the arms of-^ermany. Ups^^he balance in favour
'rj^ ^u^tv //of Kitler and enabled him to s

t^^^:,.-'^

the inyasion of Poland.
^'^u^'^'^'^^^r'l ^^ ^'^n^Gh» ^i^sia not cons^lted over ,.t!ie fate of Checkesl.
r 'iV^ ■ j^. ^^^^ whichshe had a. f.r^^afy .^f -^nif^riTO,

^■^ ' _"*• '^*^ ."J -l J"*^Alr_^9£»_J^"" " t\iQVQ is a wild hunger f or physical

safety which paralyses the power of thouBht"r](exp.) f-'."^^f *

J T. J-snoring thejlnternal nature of ^'ascisin! Its dynamlo."'' -./"i'^rir^/Ä-

_^ — y.

"*• ^"Sland in no poaition to go to war. Why? a. slow rate of L^^f^J

rearmament. (ducks in trench etc.); b. fear what another war

c

might ^ring^ to England power in the world*

9 ii 1^^ '

■^<v.

Hllter playd on thls by always assertlng that he had no quarreil

with the^ British EBipire: nmslc in the ears of a conservative govt'/'^^V

__3a I^

^

_J?.-^^ policy of non inuervention in Spanish Civil ^ar proposed by

Blum« Idea: to get out of internal difficulties if Intervention
by Populär Pront, but also to minimise danger ofvVar# Germany&

. 1. MMHMMHMMHMHMHMB . mtimoMm*,*'

Italy signed (1936) but vialated. ITow Prance caught: had initiated

and give example of compliance» Moreover Chamberlain:^ "¥e might

just as well say that a dani is not effective because there are sorae

leacks in it.»you can stop up the leacks. It is very difierent from
sweeping away the damia altogether." J

But leacks "were great - eventually the " drama of conscience" of Blum

government meant that surreptitiuusly tried to aid Republic in
1937 5: I958* .

"Blun ready to collaborate iwth dictat ors" ^"Hitler "to avöidTwarT

imrrtffmmrmfmmtfH^

■This basic to appeasement: fear of "war» Saw non Intervention not

^.««u-»-4W**2

-ash^trengthening the dictators, but as preventing a seeond World

•• I— /H .— •iX-il-lX-Jjkl

war,

tmmmmmm

>-.;>• i'i'^-i-'-e*'

r r^ fij

3. A.

fjL^, the persistence of "splrlt of Locarno" . As late as I936,
after ^'Itler had reirllifcarieed the Rhineland, one of the En^l.
^^^^® ili^„^^^®^^ ^-^^^ Gonfldential advlsors had this to say:
"we had hetter accept the Situation while denouncing it and
Start r^aking a new Locarno with ^^^itler^ "

otreser.ann'* . (Jones) ^
P ^^ Here fact which I stresp.ed when talking about Hitler's soing
slow: even this otherwise quite perceptive Englishman still
"^^o^S^t that Hitler could be another btreseicannl

2. The old left. idea that Chamberlain wanted to push Germany into a

.-■.■.ii;ijW.-- ■.• -.^''*-\.»»*^-,:

'- ..'.■.-■*»f^*'*'

y^f^t like most
Englishmen, he regarded Germany lesl wicked then Russia. Horeover
practical iÄÄe- side: Russias p_ower rated low. Just pvo-ged her military
leaders; also: cordon _sanitaire still in existance. If the settlenent
of Europe had to be revised^ one way or another - here also risks: if
^^™ffl^^^ ^^«" «^«^ morejifficult, and it looked as if G. would win.

U£i?0' Glear that such a settlement laust recognise Germany 's
sphere of influence in Eastem Europe. Pinally: settlement to suit Ger=

"^"^ ^'"' lÜ^ ^^^^ <^^^ *° ^^" ß^^^ia ^ Lastern Europe. Russia
would want to com: ,unise Europe ; Germany satisfied to redress national

^^^I^^^ ^^ ^°^'i ^i^en settle down to partnership with the WestT/
3j Moreover: clear that Britain could not give any direct 'military
Support to Eastern Europe ( logistics). Chiefs of staff made this clear
Playd a role in Munich settlement.

if. Prances contribution not nerely imder IJritish pressiire. Defensive
€' ättifüd¥: Ilaginot lii^. Äejection of mobility ( De Gaulle) even by
pju^ ,H^. Popula-\^front, Here also: what help coiad Prance acttially give to
'^rj.^n ^'^^'^'^ nations? Belgium saw this clearly aiad opted out to neutrality,
\^^^ v'/w- Destroyf effectivenesc of Plaginot line - could not be continued to sea.

5-'

4i

Who were the v4r&*lms of thls Appeasement? In the last
resort England & France, as they gave one trump after another

._ _ I lim iiiiiiiir - ^ *"*• — *-• ■ • ^ jTi ' ~

■p>i ■ ■<timwiwwinit«—aujumj^giiw* ^^^^^^^ _i II MT — r^^^

out of thelr hands, Thäe moro tangiblo vlctljLS vueru:

!• Austrla (1938) - gave Hitler what the^'democraibiea had

refused to the ^erman Republlo«
2. Spaln';^'Tiere' at it s most flagrant. Hltl^r^ and Mussolini

committee^'

had armies ip^the fi^iÜ vs. *Re public ^''^"Non-inter^enti^

r set up^x^ which these powers, as well as Engl«

/ . y / •

and France were members,, A sham which woriced vs, Democratic

govt* which, in the endy'in despair turned toVRussia« Thus

appeaß^nient meant setting up a ^Ä&e±«t controlled govt. in
Späinw ^' "^ *^ uc^^^ ^vv^<» .. irC.4L.\

3* Checkeslowakia, G-reat military potential (Skoda) • Here *^
all appeaseiDent factorsopSTSTEe^T^

Hitlers technique, ignoring of Russia as a power

f^

j^x*^

4. It was global: in Palestine the Arab extremists encouraged

,f^'^ :

<l-

inpite of their tie up with Axis "to win thein over". This
was a big flop% Egypt and Iraque sided vHl]b"^>6e4flVuntil
subdued by shows of force*
It was Che ckeslowakia which was the turning point* Why? Hitler
overbid his band - his techinque went sour« When he violated
the Munich agreement only a few months after it was made, by
occupying Pragufe - this was too much, Resultt Englands guaran-
tee for Poland« "^^/^'*^'»-^^**^^^^?'- T^^^^^*-^^

V 0J9:T' Cc4tnd~ '. P*^ *^ C^t^^ir-

But now we see end resultof"'the policy of appeaseir»nt :

irantee affectivem ThönghtH^y-

Gha:t!BTJBr^b±n- vma Just a fool. Confused obstinate» sticking to
his policles with stupidity* Thus went ahead.

'-^n»»m^,ytlCgemg%^gf^.^^^-W'm'»il'm'''^'^^^

^^-i.— '■^ '^^^•*%».^

4a*

fl6i^^^^^ r. fOC^

sVguaranti

warning. Knew that England could not actiially aid Poland at all#

Ho-nse of Gommons forced a war on a reliictant government and that
erovernment drag^ed an even more reluctant France after it»

-,'i'>r*»M;*^V-i'i''*

British govememtn this polish gaarantee was a gesture« Had no way

of fiilfillling it at all* Prench conmiitted without prior cons-al=

«tuiäUbiAÜMr«*

■i«j« <'>.■. 1;-^

tation. Alliance iwth Soviets which might have put teeth in it was"

•»■■■'■•-■'■

k^ac

•;*1«^.'A^*^-. ->t

pursued reluctantly - and then Soviets were supposed to ^^^^e to

_ ___ __ _• iK -t-i»-» i_i_ r\ ^. __

tüne'^tlie British called« Result: madTe an alliance iwth Germany.

The British hluff over Poland was called, and evea?-%ke war

started over the most reasonable of a3JL of Hitlers demands#

fc.v< ^—v--

'»i-^Sf«

5.

Through Engl Iah pressure /France had sacrlflced her *'security*'
System at ^erir.anie s^backv In Gheckeslovakla she had sacrlflced

^0ßimmmiimwmmm'^m

the strengest link. But even Pol and began to have doubts about
^rench strength and thought ever less of that alllance ( le.
Delbos not allowed to Inspect Pollsh defenses In 1937).

»rw*-—wwi»;,^Mi,„„ ,^, , ^,»

^gsult : Cnce Short Polish war was over, all^ ''erir.an resources could
be thrown agalnst France In iAO-r 19^0, and France subdued. The

^*— *<— i*— towiiw II ■mm wn niw —mK

tv/o front war for ^errra ny, on whlch ^rench stratep:lsts had banked

ever slnce I9I8 was thrown away. Thus the end result of the pollcy

of Appeaseirent for England was that she had to face ^ern;any alone
in 1940 -I94I.

:..^Zt\. .' :.^'.»u1j-*^-.-»--^..».'''-U- !»»

^— ^

3. The fatal "^errcan* Russlan pact of 1939 must be viewed aoainst this
background. Russia irade two calculatlons: !• Tha.t collectlve
securlty was dead after ^--unich, '2. by chooslng as allles the

^ernians instead of England and France ( she had the choice), she
irade the sarre calculation which Mussolini had irade when he loined

•"■■ ■■ -s^*» , _ ._.

the Axis:Lthat England and France were not ready, and would not , ^-^ •

flghtJ That too is a result of the pollcy of appeasen:ent . in^'^^^ft^'^^

It was the -ritish people who, In the end, showed the sarce "^i

character in resisting Hitler ^kenas they had shown in breacking (

up the Koare -"^aval] e agreerent to divide Etheopia. If Kitler and tUÜL-

Mussolini showed in the I93Cties that they lacked charcater and jjJUj^

were conritted to interna tiq^nal disorder; Ghaiirberlin, ^aladier (tLT.^«

(n^mcr^did not resi^n until a?ter ..unich) "'

^^^J^^SI}/^^^^^AJ!^^^ ^^^^^'^^ ^^ great naivitee at best. When

t mmttn

•MtrtMM

stuff then their leaders.

Cne last coirnent is in Order jAppease^ent as a policy irust not be f^füJT

corfused wi th

f

in 192A but i'

'A

. i-«~> , s. •»•-«■r»'-*,iw«»

#l^^%^^»

.^IHm.

j, 1^^-^ y^-^ ^^'"'^ '*^> ^

?

the last peept resort/ appeaseirent a£ a xjollcy was bullt upon
a lack of politlcal pre/6eption and an unwillin?^,ness to take

.■WiHMMMK^MWi

■ — iwrwrj^NKt

account of the chanpröd internal condltions of the countrles

,.^-r*. iZ.*,"'»*! '*•'»'■-''*■'''"'•'''

**»*>j"*^'ftrv,-'

wlth wMch It de^alt. It was based therefore on the Isnorance

;;jjfcJB ^-iVÄv.-.

of the real Situation, and like any such policy it must fall*

"**«<^;»Ci<fcii>ri«iiiifrTi'<in »i»>.^waiW»%»*J*?l> ■■■;"vij.iiii>mniMi.i »n ^

Now we will, in this course, sc^p the 2 WW. as a r.ilitary
venture, Just as we skipi^ed the !• WW. in that aspect, and come
strai^ht away to the post war world«

y^tmi>n^Vr߻j:nbu..''

■—.„•..vü. -»»■•■■*.*■'

»•«•HS-:.

2.

&erman troupa in vlolatlon of Versailles (1936).
(3* sudden move - element of suprlse ( Sunday -Engllsh week end)
2. Indignation, followed by declaratlon the^l have no more
territorial demands In Europe"^ followed in turn by concrete
proposals^for^uropean security - proposlng air pact as well as
new demllltarlsed lone. TEGHKIQUE SUCCESSPUL«- FOR MEN COULD
NOT IX)OK INTO THE FUTURE & THEREFORE APT TO TAKe'~HITI£RS IEACE
OFFERIKO SERIOUSLY. Whlch was the true Hitler?
^f^^ of thls teohnlque - confuslon among the other powers. and

L.^.,,— .,.. . ■■— fii Mn^gijgr

Hitler could _take füll advantage of lt. Subsequent conquests
followed the saine pattern - rapid action, followed by appeasement,
followed by concrete proposala. Playd into those elements in the
democracies who wanted peace at any price.

B. Italy: more Päimatint agressor, forced into it by faselst

uld

need to\"expand or explode" . Chose Abysslnla •

affect^Leajtrijtg-poweTB-and- trled to make a deal wlth the one
affected (England). But Engllsh public opinlon not only pre-
A'-'*C^ ''®"**'^ *^® ^®*^ (^936) but also forced aovt. &League to
9^^jl^) Sponsor half hearted sanctions agalnst I taly .'^SULT j Axl*
JJ,!>^ "^pact whlch brought agressors together. ('I^^J

^^44^

9f

J^

Now thls pact meant two things for Mussolini: a. that he. as

the respec table dlctator. could become the spokesman for the f^'^»"

Axl

s powers and play medlator. Thls payd off at Municifr

^^ '"^-^ ^* ''^^ ^°'' ^^^ */**^l alllance. If he did not want to become
^f r*^' *^^ ^""^°'' ^^''^"^'IrJf; ^'^ *° rlval Hitler in conqu_e8ts and ^^X-
lu^^^l^^' agression; Aläbnii'^a4 then the,_fl^s£ojS*SÄce.^T~^i,r^^^^^
"^ ^^^°.^^° fatal for Hitler too. Made hin, more willing to run

risks, untll In Poland (I939) he ran one too maiy.
Sometolng in the Statement: apart both Hitler and Mussol. mlght

2a.

Not internal motives so much ( young generation esp.) as
foreign: to test the attitude of powers towards ^"ascism, esp,
France and England. Vital» afraid of Germany's new power ( case
of Austria). Dreara: Austria, Hungary, Italian alliance ( little
entente), But Austria NS. rather then fascist. (expl.)

England had emerged from the war^eackened ( as you will see) but
none of the regret for war missed, the new race of raen etc.
Instead deploring of war by the vict03?y quite dif^rent then in
defeated ^ermany or even in France at first ( Poem).
Why Britain so different? History I9I8-I959 explains it ( nothing
njeeferrral about it;«

5/ ^^^ttt^

Base Detail

-I£ I were_fierce__a^

I'd live with scarletjoaj^rsatjthe Base,

And speed glum heroes up the line of death*
You'd See rae with my piiffy petulant face,

Guzzling and ,^^ping in the best hotel,

Reading the Roll of Honor« "Poor young chap,'*

I*d say - " I used to know his father well«

Yes, we've lost heavilly in this last scrap#"

And hwne the war is done and ^routh stone dead,

I»d toddle safoly hone and die - in hed,"

iU^JU^.^^^^^^^

\

|^HC^^^'^^ fec^^'^^ge'^ rHet^r<s

England had won the war, Yet It was clear that no one had really
won: even the proaperlty of the USA crashed In 1929. Yet Englands
Position was peculiar in this: I9I8 means the declinej)f the great
British age. Why? Economic factors;

1. Now a debtor Nation to the USA

2. Her best European customer, ^erinany, lay prostrate

3* Stepped up Industrial competitlon from USA and Japan* Stepped
up tariffs in the world. Serious for a Nation dependent on

V

^ foreign trade. (l^;Af^^^^

No wonder, then, that the years from I9I8 - lij^TlImeToT'^^^^
of attempts to ad Just to new conditions. And the most important of
these conditions was the enhanced power of Labour:' for economic ^ 0^^^
condition of England meant unemployment and cutting of wages» ^Tf^S^/^^o^
This especially in the most sensitive Industry: the ooal Industry.'^^/^''^ ^.

By 1922 the general unemployment reached one million - and it was

C9^ KrV^

never to fall below thi& until 1939* Easy to see how the first post ^

war depression might produce a crisis. ItJLid.l In I926 Englands ^

siokness dramatically made plain"^. Led by the coal miners a strike

ensued whioh soon became a "^eneral strike% Here beginning of

revolution? Syndicalists had thought any ^eneral strike would be.

Now remember_^tUC_. was mild_j30cialism. It took a great deal to

persuade them to underwrite a strike started by the rank and file.

Key jaan, however, the Prime Minister*

Stanley Baldwin, leader of Gonservatives, has not fared too well

at the han^ of Historians. He was unsj^ctacular, a manufacturer .t

from the midlands - a man of narrow Inaular disposltion. But _ - /^- z^'?-

^aldwin had come to one realisation: that Labour was there to stay; —

That the ^abour party had to be rekoned with. It was his idea to

"teach labour the democratic process". To educate them in government.

He^was the real founder of the new Gonservatism which recognises

Labours Importance and It rights* It was he who handled the
strike wlth shrewdness« At flrst he resisted: Government cannot
be challenged througji revolution. Then he "bought them off" as
he was to put It later# Started negotlations wlth T.U.C, whlch
soon deserted the ininers and they In tum had to fold up»
He succeeeded partly because the leader of labour and of the
Labour party was really a very slmllar man. Ramsay McDonald was
the mlldest of soclallst. He too stressed "consent" and deeply
abhorred revolution > He was educated In the democratlc process*
Twlce hls party was in power: 1924 and agaln from 1929 ©I93I
each tlme In a posltlon of not havlng a clear majori ty and thus

McDonald made no moove to put throw'^a soclallst programm»
Baldwln and McDonald domlnated Engllsh polltlcs In the twentles,
and they were the key flguers when the great post war crlsls came»
1930/31 England too hlt the depresslon. What was to be done?
Labour In Power. But from wkiit I have sald about McDonald the
Solution he found cannot be suprlslng. Not the puttlng Into effeot
of Soclallsm, for he thought he had no clear marxiate for that*
Instead he formed a government of "National" unlty wlth Baldwln

^ \and the dwlndllng Llberals. BUTNOW SOMETHING WENT WRONG: The
hnJr . niajorlty of McDonalds party refused to follow hlmi Refused to

^

igate Soclallsm to a government wlth Gonservatlves* Soon the

obvlous happenedt McDonald deserted by most of hls peirty had
^(^^•••^ ( ^^ ^^^® ^^® ^rlme Minis tershlp to Baldwln whose party had gone
l'*'(/pjtj^'\ completely Into the National Government*

Thls sets tone for the thlrtles: when I* National povernment' flrmly
^L^.P^ / ^^ ^^® saddle, flrst under Baldwln, then under Xhafterlln a»A

^^ V' ^ -.

''^.->'* •• '• Labour goes out Into cold. A mlnorlty party throughout thlrtles.

^.

i^trr.a^] bitter at McDonalds "hetraval" . IptM^n^

What thlfl Story must have made piain 1b that there was to

be no extreme Internal Solution to Englands lila. Moderation

p Hff /w/k«p (ffie/hCk ^i'rn rne fA^r

prevalled. Exept In one partloularY" England at long last abandoned

free trade and In the Treaty of Westmlnster wlthdrew behind the
ramparts of Imperial preference. This was the Solution and It

would not upset the internal applecartTvLlberals left the National
aovernment: but who cared, they were practically non existant,

their day was done • ^ ^^^ )

Yet there was hope. This hope was based on a quieting of the

tfts

international Situation. From the beginninef England had persued

a policy of peace in Europe which might lead to_a_retum of pros-

perity. More then any other Nation England was comltted to the

Leaguet and it's Ideals. In practioal polltic^ this policy meant

restoring Oermany to the familly of Nations» At Locarno in 1924

this policy reached it fruition. It was a general guaranteeing of

European frontiers which gave to the European powers a sense of

"security" they had lacked. By 1926 ^ermany was a member of the

^eague and by 1928 the Young plan had all but settled the vexlng

reparations question. This policy of "peace" or of "Locarno" as

it is called was sparked by Brltain. It was to underrwrite a new

prosperity •

What tripped it up? The advent of Adolf Hitler. But even for this

- - -^vT.-^--*

»■■»^■■•««toM

British statemen were reluctant to abadon lt. From the policy of
Loaarno it becomes appeasemenV^. The National Government was slow to
rearmt partly because it was slow to see the danger and partly

y^ because it was wedded to the League and still hoped of disarmament^
'^''*'*'^ ' ^^w Neville Chalmberlin^who dominates the thirties^was a man not really

L*.-^ fS'*' f "• " ♦ Hfi4^9 hAHvfA<^*''^ffi

ally
iUit^^l^'^ go different"from Baldwin or McDonald. He had however one slgni-

ficant quality which they lacked: stubborness to the point of

Cs^^^tyf-* complete seif righteousness. He would not yleld, and the lack of

'\

an effectlve Opposition in Parliament meant that he vras not checked»
vOnly within.h^s own party there was a^lone wolf; Churchill. But
Churchill was discredited. As Baldwin said: he was happy that he

had given Churchill an inconspicuous Job during the G-eneral strike,
otherwise there would have been more bitterness» He was aan of
extreme views on a political scene were moderation was priied« C i
The oontrast between England and the dictatoi*&hips is, I think,
of the most extreme. (Chaimberlin and the park). You may ask why?
lo A well working ^arliamentary government^ combined with a

high tradition of civil servioe^ ( ^j(UA^ " P"^
2. The still lingering sense of "security" from Englands great

age of the 19, Century. It is during those times of the British
age & -^rosperity that Labour was formed. Fabianism was, you

V

i^-t^^y

remeber, far from revolutionary. Liberal Englani decline faster
in^politics then in a "state of mind*' .

.ju.1^^^ '• '^® streng idealisffi and pacifism, especially of the Thirties.
^i .j^^ *~*~ — *"" — — ««- , ' * •' f

.X

i

which was against any violence. The "peace at any price pledge'*^^ '^'

Ä.fd#^_''' the admiration for G-handi etc.^This made rearmament difficult* '^^

nst

/43*^

rearmamanti CkÄrge ^andsbury a thoroughoing paclfist* a'^Vo^^t?'
To be sure there were extremis ts. Sir Oswald Mosley's ^lack ^-^^^^ ■

; Communism ^"^n^^

Shirts . Bwt notlTIngJ.n the way of a mass m^v^i
^ Iftughod out t»f^-t>6trrt: ^allagher M.P. a likablo ^^«..*,^*w x«u*x^x- -yr- '
then a sinister menace. ^^^ ^ /' ' ^. j a y i^ u^tf^^^

It took a second world war to go far towards destroying some of
iTihfN'r^t these moorings. After I9*5_theJLe^^ no longer hesitated to

^^'^^^tiL^/y P^^ "^ P^^S^^^^ ^^^^0 action - but then it had ävmajority for the

first time. A still tighter economic squeese did bring forward
some more extreme views on the left, like Bevan. But even so
a Singular stability. We have here a truly remarkable specta^cTe*

Aq^

^^^^ refer back to " end of an era": emb ovcrge o i s ement well advanced.

Rieh were paying f or more of the poor and less rieh» But still class

structure well defined# Bxmaple: education I93I: 51/2 million children
in elementary schools, some 600,000 in secondary schools and 30,000

undergraduates in Universities* Will not change markedly \mtil well

after WW II»

But it did mean stability of a ruling elite: great
private schools & Oxford and Gambrid^el ^ad its limitations

in outlook_but^Ä^<
public Service»

^w

mm

Ab^

ineffective not only beoause Pari, minority - /but contrsuiiction:
vs« rearmament and at the same time wanted tO/ Support loyalists in

Spain and proceed against Fascism in Europa»/

Simi.lar dilemma of League of Nations Movement s» Also G-ovt»

Support of League: never askedcjii^fs of stadtdt how that Support

could "be implemented«

»t^C€ /n Kic THe hO'^*^ 6^'*<- %^y>^-^

I^'eville Ghalrr.berlin was noj a devious man, on the contrary.
-— - — ■ — *^ Älf't* f"

Lloyd G-eorge once sald of blnVChat he had a' *' retall nilnd

in a Wholesale buiseness'* - and indeed he had no Vision and

^jrs'»v.- iifc. w

•«wnNr.p*iM«M*wa

none of the daring of the PK. of the first World war. If we

sav that he was very "English", it can be said that he was

the kind of nroduct which an En^lish i'rivateC Public) school

^ff«MAi#«. #Hc h^-^^ y^wU4^ 4ij^^ f'^'J

education ptrives for: Loyale and filled with a sense of
responsibility, not too learned but abhoring all ostentation;^

'■•^.j^,'^ r>C.J^

How Kitler underestircated himl Once he ^ave the Polish

(/f^f/

\y

\

guarantee it would never oa^eed his rrind to ^^eack iüjn. And
he, how he inisread xHitler, by his won Standards. He thought
that Kitlers prorrises were as sacred to the '^^erran asjiis own

were to hirn»

He was really rruch like ßaldwin and Rarr.sey KcDonald, in teinper

and outlook on the world.

^

U^

L

y

^D.

Exeption: Mosley and British Union of Fascists.

a. new deal party to start (I93I)

b. immffitated Mussolini

c. racism at end.

I

Like Doriot in ^ramce, but less large etc.

' ~1

A great power decllnlng slowly and wlthout great upheavalB» —
In many \*ayfl England can be grateful to her Baldvrin's, McDonalds
and Chaimberllns - whatever their limltations and , In foreign
policy, their diahoße^^y which we will see later* But above all
It was the past hiatory whloh pays xxpt. The great^ Revolution
was a long way's back and the Viotorian age had given a security

t^

which was slow to vanish»

Englisli democracy survived in tact
hair*s breadtlju^örthat n

► btrt that of France by a

, ^ H^ ^^^^^

But also: II WW a tlrue peeple^ war - no sense of fultility like

after the firsto Not only patriotism, but in war !• people better
off economically and lessening of class differences,<_2.. differences

between soldiers and home front vanished ( ie servicememan problem).
No Sassopns, Blundens o* Owens nov* 4^^fy5"*

//

L^

', fjiAHce fl>e<r^c&N r^^ & U'A^j_

v-.

France llke-fin^tasa: survlved the great gps t war depresslon Intact«
But when France feil In 1940 the world was stunned. Dld France not
boast of what was thought to be the best arny in Europe? Then, after
the fall of France, Xmemoirs began to appear whlch revealed a polltical
corruptlon in the French Republic whlch astonished even the pundits.
One lt!»adlng cuimuanlatop^ven. blamed the weakne ss-tJ^-i;he Republic
upon-the--qt^€^rre-ll Tjutweuii'i^hQ mlatresBes uf the two öhiei'" f iguers

on the poJIt.lQfil artanas PaXA44-^T* and Reynauld! a quai'i'Hll whlch was

Said to have brought thlng to ft-Rtflii'iPtll 1 hy TQ-y^o,

Let U0 look now at the facts of the case. There two weaknesses which

standoütt the polltical and the economic«

The polltical weakness of the Third Republic dates to it's founding.

A Constitution which failed to channell responsibility. Ministers

who had to have both the confidence of an popularly elected house

and an indirectly elected Senate« A ^resident without much actual

power but much residual: for he chose the ministers and in a Situation

of coalition governments thlp could ba important» But the -^resident

was elected jointly by House and Senate: a'figuer'of compromiseX ^*^^- ^**r^

— — — " >v^-^/»--

Weack and lacking colour. Who remembers the last -^resident: Monf^v ^

Lebrun? Grermans thought him so innocuous they left him a liberty
after I940«

if the Constitution was one weak:ness> the fundamental di Vision of
allegiance was anothei^* The Third Republic never overcame the handicap
of it's birth« The Right looked to a streng man: a search made mor«
urgent by the instability and thus the fear of radicalism in the
Republic« In the ne'd many powerful elements said: irather Hitler
then an continuation ofVt5onditions were ^adicalism can hold sway^
Thus you have: !• weack Constitution which meant a constant
turn over of weack governments« "Every Deputy once Prime Minister";
2. A Republic wjtiYh a goodly and streng number of anti -Republicansy

\

1»«WWM— »IKH »■

All thls transposed wpjm a war ravaged country beset wlth ' ' ^ y
economic crlses.^ It was the economic weakn^ss wh44h made acute

the politlcal 111s •

^ /l.

^^"t ways put were trled? Fbope ways whlch we must dlscuss:
(^» ^553iP?'l!!i^^ o^ ^^® Rhur» Idea was: ^ermany should re flnance the
French economy - should be made to reflnanace lt# But after
♦ years of occupation this prooved a failure»
2. France i%0if Jolned with England In a pollcy of European peace: to
rebuild upon foundations of a quleted Europe, Thls period Is
associated with Aristide Brland, ünder him an effort to wln
G-erman friendshlp» Seconded by Stresemann» Together the Frenchman
and the ''erman liquidated the Rhur fiasco* Briand entered into
Locarno pact» The re entry of ^ermany into the ^eague was supported.
But the crisis which began in 1929 hit France - and the policy
of peace had not solved internal problem» Inspite of that France M-^o
kept that pollcy: and became a part of appeasement»

--T-^ '^^y fftfttf-i.'i-ft

3>sThe Crlsiö^affected France from the first: ^^Sk the explofrion

v<

caa^when it got a politlcal scandal on^top of lt. When the
two factors of^Vweakness were made evikent^ Stavisky scandal:
corruptibin into the cabinet and Hojtjtse & Senate. Result: effort
by the Rlghl to liquidate the Rjfpublic . Attempted Revolution of
in "^aris ofl95Ä. Brölcen by jgeneral strika of workers. Here
Socialists and Co^unists yworked together. Thus was born the
most important experimaiÄ in French Internal politics: the
Populär Front g o^vorpft e ttt : veted in lliat-yeay. rne A-a^eM^t^c^''^'^

4. It lasted for ovrt» a yearV-^but It s importance far more then time.

^y^ \ L *** handicaps

Let US See tm accomplishmeitts under Leon Bi^m and the eeA»#%ueMee8«

«.»wre^-r^»

• Ä. Accomgrlishments : Tpying to sötlve internal problem through social

r'vTfSrTJTiTir«'*)»! c(^ K4-n.fiOA^PS, HunTW^N^ it^^v^TiLf <^

reform. 40 Hour week, vacations^with payi Yet these accom-

-> Just as Panama scandal had brought on Dreyfus afaaire, Honesty of polititians
#and pfuidtj of juitic« put in doubt. S. cooifidöncc ran, Tlncr but caii« at
2a. right aoa«nt to chri»t*lli«« «Lia«ati«faction.

(3. The crisls of 1929 affected France from the start. But what

M«H

brought on the actual crisls was when a ix)li tl cal s candal was

, -j» «K-K« m^t fc^jfc ■■

added to the economic instability* That scandal was the Sta-
V»*^ i^^visky scaadal (I93l^). A swindle which took in the_hi^hest

fiT

\

officers of the governrcent, includlng -^aladier the -t^rirce
Kinister, ^

a

Now this scandal ae^.^ravted by economic Situation produced in
that sair.e year a series of riots^^which had started as demon-

strations by tliLi^jjftiti'i ^^'aooiat partieä who wanted to transform
the Re public into a dlctatorship irore or less on the iviussolini
rr:odel,/^he riots were auelled^ when a*'strong man^^called in by

e nepublican parties: Doumer^ue . 3ut before he could irake

.^^'^'•^

hiirself dictator, V^e-was- his national governirent was over- tt

thrown, Cnce a.jain the suspicion of any streng ir:an evident.

WlM^ "* .j^ iThua here no "'■National SoverniEent" Solution as you have It
^ \tt^^^ — — '

ty

in England, for exarrple>, üntil the electlon of 1936 weack

■»'•■'■■■■■•■■■■■■■MV

governrnent went on, But that election was to lay the foun-
dation for sorr.ething new, For it was rnarked by a Jurcp, a
spectacualr Juirp of the Corrrrunist party from 10 to 72 seats
in the Ghar.ber of ^eputies, But this Jurcp was not to ir.ean

Mamii 11 ' ^

the specter of Gomrrunist controll, but instead the development
Of the Populär Front [^overnrrent . ( /I^J/- /fi^' - v^^'-^ '^^^ J
4, That government was ir.ade possible by the fact that the
Coirrunists decided to support of Socialist jovernKent: not

.^,^-» ^«sw^w

to enter it thercselves, but to give it their Uk%\X support.

^^ . r^ j^L^ jar.^ • ^^'w^mrw-.r^^ »-.

0r>i^4r%r^r:^ir^:T'^^^'^\.^-

A new policy of collaboration with deirocratic elenients against

■ ■ ' ' '■■■ ■ ^ A*^/i>— 7Cfv^«-<^^v^

the rrenace of the right: against ^ascisir. wlth it's anti-Gon:i::unist
slant. A change of Comcunist strategy to which I have referred

previously. Populär front governiüent lasted for over a year

To *2X\

2k.

Jr/e_must look_aiJJ._closer t_Itis_importance traxiscends the brief
spa2i of its rule» " Popu3-ar front" became a Slogan, an ideal»

The old ideal of lef t imity: the healing of the socialist -

iWMM«aMMMMd*

Commimist split, the f erging of a block against fascism.

In reality it were the Gomin-unists who oalled for it# ^eon Blum

• mt 1 1 I I I ifM

reluctantly wnet into it# It were the Gommxmists who were the

moderates and saw need to collaborate with middle classes against

- ^.st^mfiljflU'mMmvj-

öH*'A/i:^X ^faäcist meiioae* Blnm caught between ideal of keeping out of

^/*^^-*^W coalitions imtil major^y and the need.

_ f , ■■>■ Uli II m ■ ■ ■"" —

^oliiJ^f^' ^^"t^^siams generated ^y popiilar^i^ny^cönceäri^^^ was more

ag-reement on what it opposed then upon what it signif iedT Crisis
from first inherited: wave of strikes, almosT gener al strike^'against
Inflation» "Xt ^rere the Cominimists who put them down» It ima nT5t

fanned into revolution -as it could have been»

Blum became Prime minister — €irst socialist P»H. in Prance, and a-

Jew besidea. Ilis iäiäi was not I4arxism but the New Deal <^-Roosevelt.
üe-was man of iiumanitarianism abova- all^- S-trxmg ethical dri^ra»

ac^illes

week a great accomplisliment, but not combined with increased pro=

"»'■wfiini »jw— a— »«

ductivity» The Civil War in Spain broke the heart of populär Front:
non Intervention o^tt cif wt^n;r;jieg3-»

Fundamental to understanding Pop\;LLar Front is Blioms belief in 2

things: the importance of staying within the Constitution» To

defend the Re public the PoIät Front had been formed; 2. Eis fear

of civil war» Intervenation in Spain might have raeant this in

. yt^ii ^^^' ^"^ ^^*-^ -iy^ ^t"-^ "f*^^

-Jeft^" ' v<^ /«;/ w w^t*^-^'*-^ . /V#i p.u^ ^u4 A

IqZj^

-^T^t^'^'*^

V^'ty^

fUj^^i^^ ^

U'f^^^^

bitterly di-j^ded France* Bliun right at Rion ( expl.) I prevented

Civil war» Oonstitiitionalism meant resigiiation in face of opposi=
tion in Senate rather then mobilise his followers#

It miist be Said: Populär Front did preserve the Hepublic imtil 1940,

' - - /- \^Jt(-

it did prevent Civil War» Bat it also contributed to Frances defeat»

Por its failtire brought a disillusioniaent, a depression, among the

**■!—

Support ers of the Republic which was to last 1937 -1940.

These were the rnain accomplishments and consequences. Immediatly it

e^^cU-^ h^^juf^L^>^

did riial^e social reform: 40 hour week, vacations withpayv/lt

nationalised Railroads and munitions industry ( ie» Neye Repört77

But the Right now t^ötally frrghtened'JT

f'7 7-1?- % j

pllshmentß under great hancLlcaps»/JE^ Mistrust of workers who

trled to force the pace« Tvo i^sons : mls trus t of Blum, the

iJUi

Intellectual non worklng^ass leader, speedlng up refomi«

as Sociallsm to slowyto Gommunisti elftmont^

alTCeinpt to bring Bif*essure« Reußlt:>81t down strilt&s etc.

»irtlUirr« --«^ -^ui«.*»»

V

NT

f^,/.' ;w /f3^
v^ -^^ ^'^

2. Forel^ polloy: too weaok ec^ynomloally toXake a stand,
follow^d' Englands lead^^^rlous blow^;TO prestigö^^xjolned
in npli Intervention J^Spanish Ci)^>ll. War. Why2^paniBh

Government also a/popular fro^rt govt - and: French

sacrifioed to Hitler and Mus

front häd to ydee

ri;pi

fused to a

3» Financial« Conservatlve Senate

Brought down government* / , ^ • ^. -#-

ConfiTequences: a. Ko doubt it saved fee^^^^blic^^or
y^eln^. But strength ofVunited Socialist -Communi
frigl-^tenftfi thft Right. flt.ni m?»^ , Now "rather ^erman ^eneral

ures»

e xime
coalition

Stäff then another populär front*'» b» Thus almost irrevocably
split Republic - but split already there, all Populär Front did

was to drive Right to desperation»

The aovernments between 193? -19*0 were caught between the populär
front feeling and thevdefection e^ the Republic by the Right.
Daladier who presided over the latt two years tried to play
the streng man. But not Äble to do so. Had to watch the dis-
memberment of ^rances carefully built up alliance System in the
East - and consent to it at Munioh. Internally too tenuosaa hold
to deal with economic Situation or the corruption in high placea.

rootin^ that today öala(j;|,<=>r Via« t.m^n^f;! ^q fVia 1 a-rt. •

aiii_iÄ-Q0J

xif.f fli^lring (^.ftmf.A-r r>r>ft1 1 f.1 ^^1« ,

pleno o mada

an^extrarrl st out of him.

4aV

y you want another analogy between ^etain and Hlndenburg:
both were royallsts to the core. Hlndenburgand Emperor, Petain —
^^ ^°^^°^ ^^o^J-SQ» ^om out of the Dreyfus affair - to restore -
a Zing, to go baok to regionallsm of anoien regime, Patrlotism:
Maurras always anti German and Petain resisted many Germ^demandB^
as best he could, ~*~"

mere then Juat dua to a quarrull "buLwyen IM iB4fl-4ressea of* tne

twQ-jaoaiJjiipQnlÄnl-paopl

tho government > Frances baslo

Problems the economic and the polltlcal vvrre never solved,
insplte of all attempted Solutions» France too never re-
covered from her victory of I9I8» Yet you will note that a

dictatorship was avoided, but you will also note that it was
more narrowly avoided then in England» 193o it nearly came
to pasB_A

M^NU^'r v/ HbBKS^^y^

Ä^f)i^^ *^ ^^^^^^

.y came

v:ri?'5

r N«

U^'

What torlumpheä' In I94Ö*^were the enemles of the RepubllcY Marhsall

•^etain was unlike Hind'eburg in this respect; he had sworn no oath

of loyalty to any Republic - but he was like Hindeburg in that

he was figuer which symbolised Frances erstwhile triumph* Here

it was Verdun - there it had been ^annenberg« Thus under Crerman '{>^^

defeat France got - what it had avoided since I87I - a Dictator.p. T^^j^

^r Jȟ-.-

•mlBm*

il«*<V

It was the profovind dlsllluslonment wlth the Republic whlch L

IN rfpISH

gave him his support^( 1939« what good is ti all?) until under

Cxerraan mistakes a resistance built up. Laval, the real power
under the aged i^rhall, had also the past in viewV 'He had believed
passionatly^in Briands polic^'^The had been P.M.) and now saw \'l^^^**^
in collaboration with the ^^a»i's a continuation of that policy|#f^^-;

Because he was not wedded to the Republic he had no abhorrencb

of dictatorships. He saw in collaboration with the Naii's a road -^
to his own power through a policy of Franco -'^erman cölTaboratlon^

But Hitler would have none of it. Here again ^erraan mistakes

^*»a— ■ ■> ■*!

not only led to resistance but made policy of the Vichy dictator-
shipj^JLmposslbility* ^i/<n^^(^»r "^^ T4S^rS^. Csu>Hi. »^ 9^^^^"^

The aftermath of the war, then was fateful to all of Europe -
^^ermany and -'•taly lost their seif government , England conatinued
lers »na Fpance scraped throu^T^s, But the fatal crisis had started

11 Oll'. W!ia t-"BlJont tHe USA? TO that next time.

••-.

/

• «

— m I —■ — — jp»'**i»— »— -

ünllke many fallen 'äemocracles, the German Republic actually had
a funeral Service* The date wafl 25. Karch, 1933. The settlng the

•w- — — ■

Dlet meetlng symbolloally In ^rederlok the Great's Churoh in
Potsdam, The N.S, had afm'^orlty - but not an absolute one.

Hitler, the new Chancellor, asked for an "enabllng law": which
would glve him emergency powers* None of the) partieVopposed.
(Only one Social Democrat spoke up in the name of humanity and
human rights] The vote went through: and mapy of those who had
voted "yes" soon found themselves, dead or exiled*
What happened - how does a parliamentary regime committ suicide?
That is what we musj^/ discuss today^ .

^i

>irr?/i*i >#*

n-.

The aerman Republic went through 3 crisis in the 15 years of it's
life, and the last was fatal.

The first crisis is tied up with it's birth. The Republic was born
in revolution and defeat in I9I8. It could have survived the
slgning of Versailles - but it was the revolution which oriented
it. The Revolution was a conservative one: The Emperor went, that

was all. But there elements who wanted to go further. «^ar-there

jt^p-rgr; ■"■

notr Kus&la? You remember that these years were years of hope for

a World revolution. in I919 you have partially successful O^pmmtet

revolutions in ^avaria^ and Prussiif. How was the government to

proceed? Only thing: to use the old Imperial Army to put down those

who wanted an extreme revolution. Why is this important: it meant

once again Status for the military, the Army became once more an
»

important factor in ^erman life. But there was a eecond importance:
fromjiow on many thought that the danger was on the left.
That can well be illustrated when Rightist forces tried to overthrow
the ^®P^^^]^^!^ taking ad van tage of the f ight against Q^rnmxrAnmi The
^pp putcnrfead it'g^-^oantre ,j^x^ae-auain in- Bayai-tA^ Tt fnn «nn piif.

7.

It Is not only the night 11 fe of Berlin ( whlch NS. attacked)
Whlch glves the tone: but real and enorirous cultural accoinpllBh-

irents In a sooiety whlch was, for the moment, bothe yyee of
governinent censorshlp and searchlng for new values ( I.e. ^

^1i>» '■IIMll lllll—i a^ __ -. _

Mfc:*i— 'Hg**W

■■■MMHkiaMM'WMM^

^^MhtaaiMhAfilkMMtaM

experlmentlng wlth cultural media; from stardnp: to muslcal
expresslons) /

^'ihuo the nopuMl

nnt Q Inat nhnpfnY. nf Uay^p^py^ Itfe and

/ .cSBnö4, uiiljf b^ JUd(5tid by It's fall. — However, aide byslde

' >

Wlttl

JTJrpXrsTircents was the growth of N.S. wlth It's
cond^ffla^ttünfo^ r^

OQfflo noxt tlnx^.

u.-^.;. ^. ^^ /^'"^

^''

«V*- *• -«•-♦-* '»-^ '■^^

^^ ^,'. .^ ^ ^-

Nasis, the revolutionaries of the Ri^ht hated that which was most

civilised eiid creative in the üepublic« - vs. the leitist intell.

/ — ...»^— »^.^

3ut it is their Ideals of mass culturd and Liass movements which was

_»>• .» ■ ^

to be succesGf\n?» For they also opposfed oeaurocracies and the
static nature of the political part^es and used nationalism as a
dynainic ^"^^lichwagjift^ oe tamed into a " raovenent'%

4i^4

Vr -i-iir^,'

i'recicely becaiise the liberal Republic ( and -^-^iTLSsia) imposed

no cencorship* 3ut the disorG^anisation: a search on the part

of intellectuals f or ne>r avenues - no party seened satisfactory.

m

Thus on Marxist side experiinentation, new ideas vrhich made
'^erinany ' the laboratory of ^^arxist thou^ht. -^""roletarian theatre,

Brecht - all "unorthodox and constantly at odds with Gormiimist

w mm

»'7*7 ''

paxtyi v/deed, as so nany intellectuals at that tirae, to the idea
of dialectic, of fluidity ar:ainst talcin{^ anyhthinc ( even

Non Marxists also, ahove all critics of the culture andj^ovt.
"which Europe had produced^Tln a sense all intellectuals feit
thenselves soiihow as " Outsiders", though they were in reality
the " insiders" of the Republic - and that /:ave nuch room not only
for criticism but for experimentation on every front. Por Utopias
and rLQ\j forras ( Baiihaus). , ,

Bat if I vrere to Single out one characteristic: belief in a
comj'iunity of reasonVhich they did not see in the Ke^tiblic-. The
.^eat liberty f^iven by the Republic was used to undernin^/it»

'-- ' - ■ -^ ■■'"' y

It was never to obtain aG'ain - at least to that extant#^
Republic not a lost chApter of G-eman life, intellectuals were
in niany vrays without real roots in the nation ( /ewish and Urban)

^ - — — ~y~ c^mi^^v

but their ideas revived even in the WA of the^ I9bOties.

InJS. put in oM bw;t a^ainst this ciilt-u^e in t\uie with

roroantic, vstatidf populär taste»

Sa»

Intellectualß coriGtantly deflected to a criticism: nilitarisn,
the rifi:htist kind of Justice meeted out»*Biit also: never coiild
get into relationship with nasses. Thesef organised in left or
Hi£^t parties - and parties seemed to siifle freodom and all

I II i»it r 1

of them suspicioiis of intellectuals: rii;^t and socialist«
Thus nost of the art and \^i%eä?«:tre floi^isihed in Isolation«
Only vixriter like Thomas Ilann joined a, major party ( 3PD)#

yJMIIHiMliaJIii

was led by free corps { last time), But here conflict within

the Right. Pree corps vs. respectable oldmonarchists ( like Kapp)

who simply wanted to restore the Wilhe! minian Reich» Thus putch

never very united and streng. Put do\m easilly. But sigbificant:
Students and boiirgeoi|^ youtfi in general large partictjf^ion,

!rhis was sign of the way they were t o radicalise themselves - as

in the past ( nationalism). EA.'^ually sigTiificant:

Kit*- -■"* icrtPÄI

Priday: part lecture, part discussion.

Kapp Patch

Hindenb-urg

Bruiiing

Schleicher

Papen

CJ J.

:rl

o-Girseraaim
aiihaus

I^u^

\] ^^--01^

l) l*i^

i/u^c ^ n^n '■ '

ö ^

'I^

/

'Je are aiiead one lectiire, as you riay have noticed. I will^
therefore, divido tlie politics of nasG movenents next week into
2: PoliticaJ- syi-iuoliam aiid nass nove:ients and then a lectiire on

-J-T.

cne oerror«-

Sc6ial experimentation:

welfare

Bauhaus ( nexae Sachühckeit )

Literature ( problem: Th« Mann and SED - other left wing intell«)

M

R vival or raarxist zneacyi a« Kant

hm Hegel

5a.

Barne cycle repeated itself 1923 • Comnunist putch in Saxone and
Kit 1er putch in Bavaria» BoW^again put down» But emphasis not
just here a£,*ain in sentences pas;.ed on Cormunist vs, those on the
Hitler putchists - but also seen in another way. Gomnunist party
increasingly under Russian influenae feit it had to conpete for
nationalist votes and impetus. In 1923 and then in 1930 - 1933 f the
party adopted nationalist solgans. Can show you the inportance of
the nationalist rather then leftist ra,dicalisation which \7as taking

place in the defeated nat:

0

The Ile public attempted to he one of the centre, hut the 2. crisis
did not let it reat even when cycle of reyolution and reaction seemed
to be overcome.

l^G

3

jä^rwm But It Is slgnificant that the prison sentences for the
Q^iujunl-Bt totalled 4092 years - and for l^pplßts a inere 4 yearso
It is Important because from now on many in the government looked
with fear to the left and, in the and, underrated the^_danger from

./ /./

National Socialism. i ;^^^ ^^^^^ / ^ y'J ^•/^U^'^^J

It muBl Ije uUviuus that- tha RepuhU n vaa of thft r.

these

w»r»- tiaeo of iroii wliuii lüün'a Ininds driiLed into exli'nuies» And
4rhe 2. crisis of the Republic mado this evident • ^ /y,
Occupation of the Rhuln^eantri^flaTion on an hithertoo unprecedented
Scale • Millions of marks were worth what one mark had been. In 1924
savings of the middle classes wiped out# They became disgruntled,
depressed in their social scale. That this coincides with the
increase of the Rightist parties is not suprising, These people
did not want to be proletarians - thay wanted to keep their
Status» Rac(^ was the attraction#

The ^rk was re established largely due to a witard called Schacht
ard to American loans. But when4 the third crisis came - here
were people who had had enough* The years of relative prosperity
which intervened between 1924 and 1929 were to thein only an
interlude* The breadlines did not vanish, they were ready to
listen to any hope for a better world. What about Social Reform?
That was slow for the Social Democrats who had made the Revolution

^Qpt pnmn nwaj nnri Ihn nimm

^ —

1

Jhfh-£i

-thoy had uaed-

Vc^»^ ^

3

But It Is slgnificant that the prlson sentences for the
O^emnnintFt totalled 4092 years - and for ^^pplsts a mere 4 years.
It Is Important because from now on many in the government looked

wlth fear to the left and, In the and, underrated the danger from

7-^^

«^T^vl^^^.

/./

"t ■ WiWigll-rlfufcMWg^i

-National Sociallsm* (^ ;^.f^ P^^4 p-^'jp — -^ LUA }

t iiJUBt Ije ubvluuo that the ^QP^-^-^AL^l _^^^,_g^t„,jl!^,?^
were- timeo of iroii whun men'a iDlnaa cirit'töd Ihto ext:
4rhe 2. crlsis of the Republic mauie this evident • ^ jj
ccupatlon of the Rhui^'Seant^ytTfflatlon on an hithertoo unprecedented
oale. Mllllons of marks were worth what one mark had been. In 1924
avlngs of the mlddle classes wlped out» They became dlsgruntled,
depressed In thelr social scale» That this coincides wlth the
Increase of the Rlghtlst partlee is not suprislng. These people

did not want to be proletarians -
Status« Rac^. was the attraction»

they wanted to keep thelr

The Mark was re establlshed largely due to a wiiard called Schacht

and to American loans. But when4 the third crlsis came - here

were people who had had enough« The years of relative prosperity

whlch intervened between 1924 and 1929 were to them only an

Interlude. The breadlines did not vanish, they were ready to

listen to any hope for a better world» What about Social Reform?

That was slow for the Social Democrats who had made the Revolution

never got a majori ty government«> Why»--fe6H? of the-^9^ uprislng

I

k^pt flOny? flVIi'ij' \\\^ '^""' \ Hnlin.jirit. t.liAti t.hny Imd ufiod the Arfty

tfj nrush 1ti "^^v^^ nvny-TrfThern •

T^ h

->t ''»-^

/^-^5 <^pv^»v <^ r*u

v^^ ,jU^: ^^ ^y^ ^.A^--- ^ Jy

*itmmmmm

i[iWn^ili*pi#-M*iJi I lltB»*iJtfci# ^J

4

X'

The 3« crisis was not slow In oomlng: it started with the economic

collapse In Wall str. In 1929 and spread to Oerinany ( 8c Europe)

H^A-^^

that very year» Wi

Ig the <^erman Situation were political allegances polarising, were
the previous orises had weakened the structure of the State, it
was almost immediatly seriously» In fact the start of political
disturbances on an ever mounting scale. Comnunists and Na»i(8 were
at each other throat on the streets for controll of what seemed
a m«^ibund System, ßetween I. June and the 20. of July 1932 there

were 461 political roits_in Prussia alone.

&,^')

At this critical moment the coalltion system/in ^arl. broke down:
no party could get a majority to rule effectivly. ünaer these cip- 'w^-
cumstances the President of the Re public became the key figuer • ^^Iz-
the future of CJermany was in the lap of a man well near hls 80tie8(_
but respected in the Nation as no other figuer: Hindenburg. The
Victor agalnst the Russlans In the war. /»^>^'^ "^ ' ^ <i/i '^ f CV. .'
There has been muoh bltterness around thls aged san. Yet there 1b
no doubt that Hindeburg had swom the oath of loyalty to the Re-
public and as a Prussian Tie sought to keep that oath. What then

nr of pQfii't war momoirs this story seemfl

happened? 0)

Qlonyry to eaerge:
^ II. From I9W on to I93a Hindenburg supported ^e desperate ef forte

of Chancellor Bruening to obtain order. Bruening governed by
decree he had no ^working majority in Pari. He was a mstn o^the
Gentre aÄ hls hands were tied in Social Reform? Hls customs
Union with Austrla was vetoe^ by the French - who later gave in
to Hitler. Yet Hlndeburg dismisaed Bruening from one day to
another*^-. why? Two reasona: a. he trled ^aAt Prussian land
^ij^^^^ reform and this the Junkers who were Hlndeburgs closests

frlendfl could not atonach; b. he forbade the Nasl's but not the ^ ^ ^^^' "
rJr^i;'A!?i/°"«^* *^" ^^-"y *° sppress N.S. The Army pro teste d:

^/Hr ^rN*<

t did want to get involved^ln party strlfe; And wlth Hindeburg

the Army had flrst say. ( o*
2» lÄy^he^leotlons of 1931

Näf

ißi/ft

efflargAd as the stronRest sln«:!^

^y\^^t ^IL^^^^^' '^® efforta of Hindenburg must now be seen as tryln«

W^^^V ^"^ "-^^ ^''^ ^Tf ^^® P^^^y ^^^^^ legitimatly nilght have had It^

r ( 5. He did thls^by tuming to two^ men. First to ^apaenand then to

__^.. iw^^wv* „vy v^w^/o nx Uli uiio ui-xBiB* X canno
go Into the Intrlgues which prevented them from aotln«. Here
^-°^-gJ:^°^^^ ^^ Important for he mlght have saved the slnklng shlp.

- . ^>,

But ^pen manged to tumble hlm with a new Idea to aolve the

crlsls. Take the N.S. into the government: responsibillty will
tarne them and If nötl^^iinslbllitp then the "old man"i t'N^'J ^*^ t

Hindenburg was at last persuaded to the manoever. Thus
4. In »»anuary^gj« Hitler came to power„lesltiiDatly ^'with Papen as ^-1»-^^
*'°.^*^°^^^"e influenae as vice Chanoellor. And In March the enabllng
1/,^' ^1^^ act__wa8 passed. C'^!^) ( /.. ♦ ä-*^ A^^ i

-' Yet Papens calculatlon went wrong. Why? I. he unäerrated the power of
*^5-?*^* *"*• 2. the health of the President. Soon after March th«

(

rB'^ ^''*^^*^*"* retlred to *ast Pruasla In faillng health. There Hitler

nobody as^W^soon found out, ^'

It is In thls manner that the N.S. revolutlon triumphed wlthout blood-

Bhed and the Republlc commltted legal aulclde.

I have glven you thla detalled narratlve because It ln_ltgelf nn*e*-
^onain^Duta tue »a^jm^^lrflt caus^-ae-^t^-why-^ELS. succWad^And why
so many people went along,- It was never a questlon of barrAcades>
It was a questlon of drlftlng Into lt. ^^ftrft aro ^^^ nt.hftr rnnannftt

f^fHOS ^ Sl^PJhfL^O^ /^g->^g /fftc-AL DT^u.iK C9.K,y**^'r$

5a,

Army

•uaüMk

headed by a Pield tiarshall. But it's " Biu.lt" isreally tvrofoli.
Pushed^ Kepublic to the Right by insistence that any criticism of
if s violation of Versailles high Treagon ( i.e. secret training in
Russia etc). And it's very " neutrality" worked against the
Republic. Hever wanted to get •• involved" in civil war even on
side of Republic. It was deieoted to order and discipline, not
xmder Republic controll ( President only) - ajid thus becaine in
efzect a Rightist force operating freely: but no Hasi - rather '
conservative, restaurative of the old order.

6.

Social Democrats who topg the perty of the Ilepublic imprisoned in
their legality: mjorities neccessary in Pari, and they hardly ever
cot them, Did protest against enabling law - but too late,
Oomimists now totally under Russian controll not only attenpted to
adopt nationalist stances but even attempted to collaborate with
Nasis in order to capture some of their success. Appealed to them
for end of " fratricidal war'% Also real collaboration imder the •
ascpect: regime mast be brought domi: even if Na^.is come to power

first we will be next. Chaos as a good seeting for power. But it had
» -•*

not worked in the Vi est I9I8 - 1920 - why now? .

C-ommuniBm u

nomy otood on the left«

formo

Meyrorer It wag oVerlooicecf thal/Lt^the twojrpueh^ ^^ tih^-Q^'^*^^'*'-<*
ooYS:B^boi^3:Q^^xk-^^ni:%ittord Y Both wanted to make It imposslblo
the regime to contlnue^VIn rrussla they voted agaln and agaln

n the same aide« Until they broiJight the govt« of the largest ZTa^^-^l«
tate\ to a standstill. This led to the only early act of vlolence.
^apens dismlssal of the S »D ♦ govemment of Prussia» L'^he hope vras
that the fanatlclsm of the Rlght could be tamed - It could be
- tamed no more then the fanatlclsm of the left# J
fi/ The attifaction of wa^t was after 1934) the largest ^erman polltlcal

it's^vaEe stariidd tu deolino arter I93I» Te- that
we muflt oomo whon we dl acuaas -W^S^

Now the Re public Is usually Judged by It's fall and that Is
not a fair Judgement. For It dld have_posltlve accomplishments.
What were they:

I. Stresemann negotlated the French out of the Rhur and brought
Crermany Into the Eague. ^ermany In the 20tles once agaln became

)(/i

interna tionally respectable and even a stabilising force (Locarno
in your readings), The effect benefitted Hitler: for men were
slow to abandon the plcture painted durlng the Rg public of a ^ ^
respectable and peaceful J^ermany. (^^HPh^ä^^^ - fi^^^ '*^7^>/' J
f 2* Social progress there was on Ähe State and munlcipal levells
above all: housing projects, slum clearance: adminpation of
EuropeT^''^ T^ ^ v^rn e^J^.

1. Culiiural yelea&e which made ^erlln the cultural cajpltal of

5pi*-^ Eure^e-4«rlng the I920tles: no time to go ^^•*:^ tih1 n huti you

wUl Imow ftbnnt the j'rernian Film ( l-tarlene DieLi'iuh), the "^erman

the^Ltra f Kay Reinhardt) and aernian luusic ( Burg, "Kui'L Well) •

PYf^^^^^ /^^

Lgular

was censorshlp absent, but the very cycle of revolution and
coimter revolution stlimilated nev Ideas and ezperlments*
The new revlTal of Marxist thought outside the established
^arxist political paries I mentioned last time» But that is not
alle

Beca\ise of this social dissnlution, this ferment, the intellectuals
especially strove towards some kind of unity and by that they
meant \mity of culture» You can see that abore all in the new
architecture - the Bauhaus - groping f or a new tmity of form
which iro\ild integrate untylity, aesthetics and democraoy« It
was supposed to be craftsmanship •• a Single shape rising to
heaven built by craftsmen'** Ideal is all around you: in every
modern sky soraper and not to good advantag«. " total arohltecture"
whioh stressed a democratlo slmpllclty.

4<

t f » P/^ j

^PP^^ iL.

1^/32. c:u<P^PS. AMD TMfc MCDE^M OOOfR/^b" EXAMATXOMS /VMb PA^Ä ASSIG M ME i4TS l^S^^-^VS

*^- -^ .-/•_!

'•„.«■«j^ ' .-ryfsLifavi^mtrßmmt

sMwaiMMiLmiiuftjiai«i

History 120

UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

SIX WEEKS EXAMINATION
October 8, 1975

Mr. Mosse

Part I: Answer one of the followlng:

(20 minutes)

1. Dlscuss the polltlcal tactlcs of 2 of the followlng

a) Blsmarck

b) Cavour

c) Adolphe Thiers

d) Mettemich

OR

2. How did 2 of the followlng define human nature?

a) Methodism

b) Herder

c) Adam Smith

d) Rousseau

Part II: Answer one of the followlng:

(30 minutes)

1. Of what political importance are the views of human nature
you have studied in 2 of the followlng:

a) Werther

b) Emile

c) Marx

d) Stalkey 6e Co.

OR

2« Was Marx a Romantic? Define your terms carefully.

History 120

UNIVERS IIY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

SIX WEEKS EXAMINATION
October 8, 1975

Mr. Mosse

Part I: Answer one of the followlng:

(20 minutes)

1. Discuss the political tactics of 2 of the following:

a) Bismarck

b) Cavour

c) Adolphe Thiers

d) Metternich

OR

2. How did 2 of the followlng define human nature?

a) Methodlsm

b) Herder

c) Adam Smith

d) Rousseau

Part II: Answer one of the followlng:

(30 minutes)

1* Of what political importance are the views of human nature
you have studied in 2 of the followlng:

a) Werther

b) Emile

c) Marx

d) Stalkey & Co,

OR

2. Was Marx a Romantic? Define your terms carefully.

Histoxrv 120

IJI^iVERSlTY OF WISCOi^^STN

Depaxrmeot of History

Fall 1975

Fli\al Exairi

Mr * Mosse

Nor oiotc than 10 double -spaced itypewritten pages or oae 16 page blue book.
Due: Deceniber 12 In claes or earllet but aot Xater*

Notice: You do not have much space and tbat is inteiitlcaai . You will be «»valu-
ated ia part on your conciseness end clarlty — botb of these must coln<!lde Uete*
You will wlsh to make several diafts betöre yoü get your answer down right .

Answer 2^ ot the follovring 3 questlons:

1* What Importance do you tbtnk che varXouß revolts from 1S70-1914 have for Ch«^
perl od 1918-1933?

2, Do you thiak Chat tbeories which posited the ratlonaHcy of oiac had dlfferewt
polltical cousequences from those wblch were pessimletlc about man*» potentlal?
Or do we alwaya have a pull to on« ot the oiher regardleas of the baslc content'
of the rheory? Choose three theorles we have diöci»3sed and you have read abcut
and dlfycuss tbelr politlcal consequencee withln this framework,

3. It hae been sald Chat the development of the Radica.1 RJght between the !^«rs was
a nc-w phenouienon in Western European pojitic«. Is that so? What wau ü^w about
them corapared to che Rlghfceat ideas of the 19t b Century? ße very specltlc.

Uleitory 120

Depart(&«DtL of Hl»iory
PaII 1973

Itr o HvfkOilp

f-eögth: Not mor« than 6 d<kL«bJle »paced typ<^w*Jtteo p^jg«»« tojt J 4Y?>.dit#«
Not »öre Jfban 10 4<»ubW *pa«^f!di typewtucexx j?*>gi'?* fi^r 4 «'led^ri»

Fc^ütöt Cat^iully loornot^d to th« scNirctta«

rbe tüpJ^ l4^ied bi*lc*w ^3ad tmU wby rbey diJttre/ed «ad wtmt ehit f^w-
ecqueoces ojt rbJ« dlffeiein:«* v^^t«:

4^ (eint<f«pt ^JJf tb<ft p^stjüitiotMi
5« th« ide« of jtx^ti«o«

1 hmsrnjo^ itm^ wtU «id pit«»ifi.d«?o^#

8 «ffi^iitud«»# t«^i»td politli£:«i p<9i#9r

9. AetiLudfK« tcn#erd th« "rtttjMP'n p«»opl»*'

10. defl»if:t<?n ot InteU^x^iMil ritfeUiiD«^« and Xft«id«t^b?Lp

II C4>iit«pr öf bomao rr<»rdrf«n

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1974-75

History 120 — Final Examina tion

Mr. Mosse
Peter Gordy

Papers are due in Peter Gordy' s T.A. mailbox (number 5069 Humanities
Building across from the elevators) no later than 5:00 P.M, on
Wednesday, May 7, 1975. No exceptions will be made.

Papers should not exceed 8 double-spaced, typewritten pages (16-24 bluebook
pages, depending on size of handwriting) in length and should be neatly
written, if done in longhand.

PART I: Answer ONE of the following:

1. In what ways was World War II a consequence of the First
World War?

2. Discussing politics, international relationships, and
intellectual developments, teil whether the First World War
represented the end of an era or the deepening of existing
currents.

PART II: Choose ONE of the following:

1. Are the classifications "left" and "right" good classifications
to use when discussing European political movements of the period
1918-1945? Using specific examples as illustrations, discuss the
remoteness or closeness of "rightist" and "leftist" political
movements between the wars.

2. Would it be true to say that nationalism infiltrated every major
mass political movement since 1880, even those which claimed to
oppose nationalism. Taking two representative, specific examples
(excluding German National Socialism and Italian fascism), show
why you agree or disagree with this contention.

PART III: Answer the following:

Brief ly discuss what is meant by the word "freedom" in the following
Systems of thought:

liberalism

Marxism

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1974-75

History 120 -- Final Examination

Mr. Mosse
Peter Gordy

Papers are due in Peter Gordy* s T.A. mailbox (number 5069 Humanities
Building across from the elevators) no later than 5:00 P.M. on
Wednesday, May 7, 1975. No exceptions will be made.

Papers should not exceed 8 double-spaced, typewritten pages (16-24 bluebook
pages, depending on size of handwriting) in length and should be neatly
written, if done in longhand.

PART I: Answer ONE of the following:

1« In what ways was World War II a consequence of the First
World War?

2« Discussing politics, international relationships, and

intellectual developments, teil whether the First World War
represented the end of an era or the deepening of existing
currents.

PART II: Choose ONE of the following:

1. Are the classifications "left" and "right" good classifications
to use when discussing European political movements of the period
1918-1945? Using specific examples as illustrations, discuss the
remoteness or closeness of "rightisi:" and "leftist" political
movements between the wars.

2. Would it be true to say that nationalism infiltrated every major
mass political movement since 1880, even those which claimed to
oppose nationalism. Taking two representative, specific examples
(excluding German National Socialism and Italian fascism), show
why you agree or disagree with this content ion.

PART III: Answer the following:

Brief ly discuss what is meant by the word "freedom" in the following
Systems of thought:

liberalism

Marxism

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1974-75

History 120 -- Final Examina tion

Mr. Mosse
Peter Gordy

Papers are due in Peter Gordy* s T.A. mailbox (number 5069 Humanities
Building across from the elevators) no later than 5:00 P.M. on
Wednesday, May 7, 1975. No exceptions will be made.

Papers should not exceed 8 double-spaced, typewritten pages (16-24 bluebook
pages, depending on size of handwriting) in length and should be neatly
written, if done in longhand.

PART I: Answer ONE of the following:

1. In what ways was World War II a consequence of the First
World War?

2. Discussing politics, international relationships, and
intellectual developments, teil whether the First World War
represented the end of an era or the deepening of existing
currents.

PART II: Choose ONE of the following:

1. Are the classifications "left" and "right" good classifications
to use when discussing European political movements of the period
1918-1945? Using specific examples as illustrations, discuss the
remoteness or closeness of "rightist" and "leftist" political
movements between the wars.

2. Would it be true to say that nationalism infiltrated every major
mass political movement since 1880, even those which claimed to
oppose nationalism. Taking two representative, specific examples
(excluding German National Socialism and Italian fascism) , show
why you agree or disagree with this contention.

PART III: Answer the following:

Briefly discuss what is meant by the word "freedom" in the following
Systems of thought:

liberalism

Marxism

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1974-75

History 120

Mr. Mosse

Instructions for Paper;

Due: Week of March 26. NO late papers will be accepted under any circumstances

Length : Not more than 6 double spaced typewritten pages for 3 credits.
Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages for 4 credits.

Form; Carefully footnoted to the sources.

Topic; Taking at least TWO of the books assigned for the course (3 credit)
THREE books for 4 credits write a comparison of the authors on ONE
of the topics listed below and teil why they differed and what the
consequences of this difference were;

1. the nature of human reason

2. view of human nature

3. view of the ideal Community

4. concept of the passions

5. the idea of justice

6. view of nature itself

7. attitude towards contemporary personal morality

8. human free will and providence

9. attitudes toward toleration

10. attitudes toward political power

11. attitudes towards the "common people"

12. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

13. concept of human freedom

Honors students talk to Mr. Gordy or Mr. Mosse about topics.

History 120

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1974/75

Six Weeks Examination
Februarv 17. 1975

Mr. Mosse

PART ONE (20 Minutes):

Identify and give the significance of four (4) of the following:

Adolphe Thiers

Adam Smith

Cavour

Reform Bill of 1832

Herder

Frankfurt Assembly

Realpolitik

PART TWO (30 Minutes):

1. What is a usable past for nationalism? Does it vary in the
various forms of nationalism we have discussed? Be specific.

2« Discuss the political consequences of the following:

romanticism

liberalism

Be as specific as possible, referring to concrete political events

History 120

PART ONE (20 Minutes):

UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1974/75

Six Weeks Examination
Februarv 17. 1975

Mr. Mosse

Identify and give the significance of four (4) of the following:

Adolphe Thiers

Adam Smith

Cavour

Reform Bill of 1832

Herder

Frankfurt Assembly

Realpolitik

PART TWO (30 Minutes):

1.

What is a usable past for nationalism? Does it vary in the
various forms of nationalism we have discussed? Be specific,

2. Discuss the political consequences of the following:

romanticism

liberalism

Be as specific as possible, referring to concrete political events

I I ji I Mmmm^minTwmnmmm

UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1974-75

1

History 120

Mr. Mosse

Instructions for Paper;
Due: Week of March 26. NO late papers will be accepted under any circumstances.

Length; Not more than 6 double spaced typewritten pages for 3 credits.
Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages for 4 credits.

Form: Carefully footnoted to the sources.

•

Topic; Taking at least TWO of the books assigned for the course (3 credit) i
THREE books for 4 credits write a comparison of the authors on ONE
of the topics listed below and teil why they differed and what the
consequences of this difference were:

1. the nature of human reason

2. view of human nature

3. view of the ideal Community

4. concept of the passions

5. the Idea of justice

6. view of nature itself

7. attitude towards contemporary personal morality

8. human free will and providence

9. attitudes toward toleration

10. attitudes toward political power

11. attitudes towards the "common people"

12. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

13. concept of human freedom

Honors students talk to Mr. Gordy or Mr. Mosse about topics.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

Two of the questions in each group below will appear on the final exam
and you will answer one in each group.

I. (1 hour)

1. A concem of many during the period covered by the course
had been the creation of a "better world." One of the
Problems associated with this desire has been where to
begin. Will the reformation of individuals produce a new
and better society or must one reform society first to
produce a new kind of individual and create thereby a
"better world." Discuss this proposition in terms of
the Views of three men or political movement s.

2. In many ways, the differences politically between the
extreme left and the extreme right between 1900 and
1930 seem negligible. Do you support or reject this
interpretation? Why? Select two different countries
and give examples.

3. Why is it said that the nineteenth Century ended in 1914?

II. (50 min.)

1. The III Republic in France and the Weimar Republic in
Germany were both born in defeat. But unlike the former
which lasted seventy years, the latter lasted only fourteen
years. How do you account for that fact?

2. Compare the foreign policies of Otto von Bismarck and Adolf
Hitler.

3.

What explains the greater appeal of national socialism
compared to socialism or Marxism in Germany between the two
world wars?

UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

Two of the questions in each group below will appear on the final exam
and you will answer one in each group.

I. (1 hour)

1. A concem of many during the period covered by the course
had been the creation of a "better world." One of the
Problems associated with this desire has been where to
begin. Will the reformation of individuals produce a new
and better society or raust one reform society first to
produce a new kind of individual and create thereby a
"better world," Discuss this proposition in terms of
the Views of three men or political movement s.

2. In many ways, the differences politically between the
extreme left and the extreme right between 1900 and
1930 seem negligible. Do you support or reject this
Interpretation? Why? Select two different countries
and give examples.

3. Why is it said that the nineteenth Century ended in 1914?

II. (50 min.)

1. The III Republic in France and the Weimar Republic in
Germany were both born in defeat. But unlike the former
which lasted seventy years, the latter lasted only fourteen
years. How do you account for that fact?

2. Compare the foreign policies of Otto von Bismarck and Adolf
Hitler.

3. What explains the greater appeal of national socialism
compared to socialism or Marxism in Germany between the two
world wars?

UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

Two of the questions in each group below will appear on the final exam
and you will answer one in each group.

I. (1 hour)

1. A concem of many during the period covered by the course
had been the creation of a "better world.*' One of the
Problems associated with this desire has been where to
begin. Will the reformation of individuals produce a new
and better society or raust one reform society first to
produce a new kind of individual and create thereby a
"better world." Discuss this proposition in terms of
the views of three men or political movements.

2. In many ways, the differences politically between the
extreme left and the extreme right between 1900 and
1930 seem negligible. Do you support or reject this
Interpretation? Why? Select two different countries
and give examples«

3. Why is it said that the nineteenth Century ended in 1914?

II. (50 min.)

1. The III Republic In France and the Weimar Republic in
Germany were both born in defeat. But unlike the former
which lasted seventy years, the latter lasted only fourteen
years. How do you account for that fact?

2. Compare the foreign policies of Otto von Bismarck and Adolf
Hitler.

3. What explains the greater appeal of national socialism
compared to socialism or Marxism in Germany between the two
World wars?

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

Two of the questions in each group below will appear on the final exam
and you will ans wer one in each group.

I. (1 hour)

1. A concem of many during the period covered by the course
had been the creation of a "better world." One of the
Problems associated with this desire has been where to
begin. Will the reformation of individuals produce a new
and better society or raust one reform society first to
produce a new kind of individual and create thereby a
"better world." Discuss this proposition in terms of

the Views of three men or political movements.

2. In many ways, the differences politically between the
extreme left and the extreme right between 1900 and
1930 seem negligible. Do you support or reject this
Interpretation? Why? Select two different countries
and give examples.

3. Why is it said that the nineteenth Century ended in 1914?

II. (50 min.)

1. The III Republic in France and the Weimar Republic in
Germany were both born in defeat. But unlike the former
which lasted seventy years, the latter lasted only fourteen
years. How do you account for that fact?

2. Compare the foreign policies of Otto von Bismarck and Adolf
Hitler.

3. What explains the greater appeal of national socialism

compared to socialism or Marxism in Germany between the two
World wars?

HISTORY 120

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

FINAL EXAMINATION

Mr. Mosse

Write on one question from each of the two groups:
I. (1 hour)

1. A concern of many during the period covered by the course
had been the creation of a "better world." One of the
Problems associated with this desire has been where to
begin. Will the reformation of individuals produce a new
and better society or must one reform society first to
produce a new kind of individual and create thereby a
"better world." Discuss this proposition in terms of

the Views of three men or political movements.

2. Why is it said that the nineteenth Century ended in 1914?

II. (50 minutes)

1. The III Republic in France and the Weimar Republic in
Germany were both born in defeat. But unlike the former
which lasted seventy years, the latter lasted only fourteen
years. How do you account for that fact?

2. What explains the greater appeal of national socialism
compared to socialism or Marxism in Germany between the two
World wars?

HISTORY 120

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

FINAL EXAMINATION

Mr. Mosse

Write on one question from each of the two groups:
I. (1 hour)

1. A concern of many during the period covered by the course
had been the creatlon of a "better world." One of the
Problems associated with thls desire has been where to
begin. Will the reformation of individuals produce a new
and better society or must one reform society first to
produce a new kind of individual and create thereby a

'better world." Discuss this proposition in terms of
the Views of three men or political movements.

2. Why is it Said that the nineteenth Century ended in 1914?

II. (50 minutes)

The III Republic in France and the Weimar Republic in
Germany were both born in defeat. But unlike the former
which lasted seventy years, the latter lasted only fourteen
years. How do you account for that fact?

What explains the greater appeal of national socialism
compared to socialism or Marxism in Germany between the two
world wars?

UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

Two of the questions in each group below will appear on the final exam
and you will answer one in each group.

I. (1 hour)

1. A concem of many during the period covered by the course
had been the creation of a "better world." One of the
Problems associated with this desire has been where to
begin. Will the reformation of individuals produce a uew
and better society or must one reform society first to
produce a new kind of individual and create thereby a
"better world." Discuss this proposition in terms of
the Views of three men or political movement s.

2. In many ways, the differences politically between the
extreme left and the extreme right between 1900 and
1930 seem negligible. Do you support or reject this
interpretation? Why? Select two different countries
and give examples.

3. Why is it said that the nineteenth Century ended in 1914?

II. (50 min.)

1. The III Republic in France and the Weimar Republic in
Germany were both born in defeat. But unlike the former
which lasted seventy years, the latter lasted only fourteen
years. How do you account for that fact?

2. Compare the foreign policies of Otto von Bismarck and Adolf
Hitler.

3. What explains the greater appeal of national socialism
compared to socialism or Marxism in Germany between the two
World wars?

UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr, Mosse

Two of the questions in each group below will appear on the final exam
and you will ans wer one in each group.

I. (1 hour)

1. A concem of many during the period covered by the course
had been the creation of a "better world." One of the
Problems associated with this desire has been where to
begin. Will the reformation of individuals produce a new
and better society or must one reforra society first to
produce a new kind of individual and create thereby a
"better world." Discuss this proposition in terms of
the Views of three men or political movement s.

2. In many ways, the differences politically between the
extreme left and the extreme right between 1900 and
1930 seem negligible. Do you support or reject this
interpretation? Why? Select two different countries
and give examples.

3. Why is it said that the nineteenth Century ended in 1914?

II. (50 min.)

1. The III Republic in France and the Weimar Republic in
Germany were both born in defeat. But unlike the former
which lasted seventy years, the latter lasted only fourteen
years. How do you account for that fact?

2. Compare the foreign policies of Otto von Bismarck and Adolf
Hitler.

3. What explains the greater appeal of national socialism
compared to socialism or Marxism in Germany between the two
world wars?

-- k -

HISTORY 120

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

FINAL EXAMINATION

Mr. Mosse

Write on one question from each of the two groups:

I. (1 hour)

1. A concern of many during the period covered by the course
had been the creation of a "better world." One of the
Problems associated with this desire has been where to
begin. Will the reformation of individuals produce a new
and better society or must one reform society first to
produce a new kind of individual and create thereby a
"better world." Discuss this proposition in terms of

the Views of three men or political movements.

2. Why is it said that the nineteenth Century ended in 1914?

II. (50 minutes)

1. The III Republic in France and the Weimar Republic in
Germany were both born in defeat. But unlike the former
which lasted seventy years, the latter lasted only fourteen
years. How do you account for that fact?

2. What explains the greater appeal of national socialism
compared to socialism or Marxism in Germany between the two
world wars?

HISTORY 120

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

FINAL EXAMINATION

Mr. Mosse

Write on one question from each of the two groups:
I. (1 hour)

1. A concern of many during the period covered by the course
had been the creation of a "better world." One of the
Problems associated with this desire has been where to
begin. Will the reformation of individuals produce a new
and better society or must one reform society first to
produce a new kind of individual and create thereby a
"better world." Discuss this proposition in terms of
the Views of three men or political movements.

2. Why is it said that the nineteenth Century ended in 1914?

II. (50 minutes)

1. The III Republic in France and the Weimar Republic in
Germany were both born in defeat. But unlike the former
which lasted seventy years, the latter lasted only fourteen
years. How do you account for that fact?

2. What explains the greater appeal of national socialism
compared to socialism or Marxism in Germany between the two
World wars?

Course Paper
Mr. Lampe

History 120
Spring, 1971

European Nationalism and Imperialism before 1914t
The Case of Austria-Hun^arv

You are asked to select one of the three questions below
as your topic for the course paper. Each question was chosen
with a View to shifting your inquiry away from the narrow
intricacies of Balkan diplomacy and also raininizing the problems
created by students* presumed lack of faniliarity with Hababurg
history«

You are urged to confine your reading for the paper to the
Gollwitzer, Jaszi and Stavrianos books as indicated below. Also
consult relevant, sections of the Clough, Pflanze and Payne text
and any other course readings you feel night help. Bibliography
and footnotes are not required. Give author and page number
in parenthesis after quotations.

Papers should be no less than 6 and no more than 10 pages
in length. They are d'^e the secoi.a w.jek in Kay; late papers
will be subject to a deduction of half a letter grade.

1. Consider the various manifestations of imperialism. in
the Balkans during the period 1878-1914. To this end, corapare
the specific policies of Austria-Hungary, Russia and the
Western Powers, emphasizing principal motives behind the res-

, pective policies. Can we also speak of a imperialistic ' *'
inclinations among certain Belkan nations of the time? If so,
how can we explain this phenomenon? (Gollwitzer, Jaszi I. III
IV, VI, Stavriancs). ' '

2. Discuss the evolution of Hungarian nationalism and
imperialism within the confines of the Habsburg Llonarchy.
Pay specific attention to the interrelationship between the
two movement 3, including in your answer comparisons to the
political and socio-economic. experience of other European
countries. What part did Hungarian aspirations play in the
shaping of Habsburg foreign policy in the Balkans? (Gollwitzer.
Jaszi, I, III, IV, V, and Stavrianos).

3. The pre-1914 cohfrontation between the huge empire of
Austria-Hungary and the tiny nation-state of Serbia did not end,
as students of European imperialism might expect, in an easy
victory for the Habsburg side. How can we expain what actually
happened? In your answer, consider • the decisiveness of any
special Habsburg weaknesses not common to the other Great Powers
and, by the same token, of any special Serbian strengths not
common to the other Balkan nations. Comment on the role of the
other Great Powers in this conf rontat ion. (Gollwitzer, Jaszi.
I, III, IV, VI, and Stavrianos).

DO NOT HESITATE TO CHITICIZE ANY OF THE A30VE AUTHORS OR TO
CONCLUDE YOUR PAPER WITH IITSIGHT3 GAINED INTO THE GENERAL
NATURE OE EUROPEAN BEHAVIOR IN TEK AGE OF INPERIALISPl.

Hlstory 120

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II 1971

Final Examlnatlon

Mr. Mosse

Due Friday, May 28, 8:50-9:30 a.m. (3650 Humanities)
NO LATE PAPERS ACCEPTED. Not to exceed eight double- spacad
type-written pages or one slxteen page blue book. Part A
constltutes 60% of the exam, Part B '" ^

Part A:

The entry of the mass of the population as a dynamic force
Into politics presented one of the Chief oroblems of the
period we have studied this term. (Be sure to answer both
1 and 2 in part A)

%■

How did two of the following attemot to deal with
this Problem?

b-
c-

J-iberals
Marxii^tß
rightist movements

Uße one example from before and one from after World
War I for each cf the two movent^nts you select.

2 What was Freud 's attitude towards the two raovements
you discussed?

Part B: Answer one of the following:

1 Discuss the role played by mass politics and fascism
in one or more countries of Eastern Eurooe during the
period between the two World Wars. (:ierfnany and Russia
are not to be considered part of Eastern Europe . )

do you account for the success of Coramunism in ^^
ia and for its failure in Germany? ^

German

What were the major Problems confrontin^ the
middle class from the unification of Germany until
1933? (be specific)

In the period we have studied one of the great Problems
was how the intellectual or creative oerson relates
hiraself to society. Compare and contrast the views
given on this problem and the Solutions proposed for
it by any two people read or studied in the course.

HiBtory 120

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCÜx^SIN
Department of History
Semester II 1971

Final Examlnation

Mr. Mosse

Due Friday, May 28, 8:50-9:30 a.m. (3650 Huraanities)
NO LATE PAPERS ACCEPTED. Not to exceed eight double- spaced
type-written pages or one slxteen page blue book. Part A
constitutes 60^ of the exam, Part B

Part A:

The entry of the mass of the population as a dynamic force
into politics presented one of the Chief Droblems of the
period we have studied this term. (Be sure to answer both
1 and 2 in part A)

did two of the following attempt to deal with

How

this Problem-

a- liberals
b- Marxistß
c- rightlst movements

Use one example from before and one from after World

War I for each et the two

movea onts you select.

What was Freud» s attitude towards the two raovements
you discussed?

Part Bg Answer one of the following:

1 Discuss the role played by mass politics and fascism
in one or more countries of Eastern Eurooe during the
period between the two World Wars. (Gerrnany and Russia
are not to be considered part of Eastern Europe . )

2 How do you account for the success of Coramunism in
Russia and for its failure in Germany?

German

What were the major problems confrontina: the
middle class from the unification of Germany until
1933? (be specific)

In the period we have studied one of the great problems
was how the intellectual or creative person relates
hiraself to society. Compare and contrast the views
given on this problem and the Solutions proposed for
it hy any two people read or studied in the course.

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Monday, 5 May 1969

Hlsfeitry 120

Final Examinatlon Questlon

Mr. Mosse

X

^

bC th! f«n„ r /r^"^ '^yP" "^ revolutlons which may be categorized
loi^ „ J "^^ loodels: 1848-.ltberal-democratlc; 1917--Bol8hevik-
1933-Natlonal Socialist. Wrlta a comparative ess;y in whlch you '

a.

b.

analyze the slmllarltles and dlfferences between these

Inrgoalsr ^" '^""' °^ ""^*''' '^^"^*='' ««^g^l^tions,

and

evaluate how and why the establishment was successful or

unsuccessful tn defeatlng or co-opting these revolutlons

JuLin! Iro^T^ 1 ^ ''""' ^''**' "eologlcal forces of our time."
mli vf!^^!!^" ! ''^««•^««t °f this theme. the detalled examples in
fo™nl«^?« 7 »1 ^"'^ ^*""" materials. what credence do you give this
nCto^Jr ! " '"'"'^ ^""'^'^ ^" '=*'* ^""'«'^t «f developLntf from the
te thtsoroceLT^H "^^l' J"**«'"« '"■" ^'«"'^^' ^^ ^"e role of rlclsm
r;iate%;TirprobU:* '""^ --P-lson. how other fascist n>ove.ents

Please note: this essay is due on May 26.

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Second Semester 1964-65

HISTORY 120

April 7, 1965

Mr. Mosse

I. (95 Minutes)

In your opinion, how valid was the Charge that Germany was guilty
for Start ing World War One? Discuss.

II. (25 Minutes)

How was the OUTBREAK and DEVELOPMENT of the Russian Revolution of
1917 influenced by the following:

Marx

Lenin

World War One

NOTE: Do NOT limit your discussion only to the events of 191711

THE ÜHIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Second Semester 1964-65

HISTORY 120

April 7, 1965

Mr. Mosse

I, (25 Minutes)

In your opinion, how valid was the Charge that Germany was guilty
for Start ing World War One? Discuss.

II. (25 Minutes)

How was the OUTBREAK and DEVELOPMENT of the Russian Revolution of
1917 influenced by the following:

Marx

Lenin

World War One

NOTE: Do NOT lirait your discussion only to the events of 19171'

?

ä

\

History 120

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Second Semester 1964-65

FINAL EXAMINATION

Mr. Mosse

I, (75 minutes)

It has been sald that after 1918, men*s alleglances were becomlng
polarlzed,

a« What Solutions to the concrete crlses of the post war

World (1918-39) were offered by the various doctrines stem-

ming from Karl Marx and Fascism?

b. In offering these Solutions, did they remain faithful to
the System of thought of Marx and of Hitler or Mussolini?

c. How specifically and through historical development can
you explain the fact that in some nations Fascism tri-
umphed and in other nations th« doctrines stemming from
Marx triumphed?

II« (15 minutes)

X

What differences or similarities do you see in TWO of these
European peace Settlements?

a* Peace of Versailles

b. The Munich settlement

c. The Yalta or Potsdam Agreements

III. (30 minutes)

Do both A and B.

A« Explain how ONE of the following changed the course of develop-
ment of the Third French Republic:

The Paris Commune
The Populär Front
Captain Dreyfus

B. Explain how ONE of the following changed the course of English
development:

Reform Bill of 1832
Statute of Westminster
Founding of the Labor Party

Hlstory 120 12 Wks« KakSHip DTo Mosse

iipa^il .'^^i^ ^ 19%

1 Widte a Short asssy <ai three of tha follc>«±ag» (2D Min«)

2o Decjembrist Revolt

3« Congress of i3erlln I878

U» Dreyfus Äff air

5o Compraiiiise (Ausgleich) of 1867

n Do cffie (30 Mino)

A^ Xpou havB studiod the dom9Stlc historj of Franc© in the Third

Ifepublic to 191U* Hovj did Intomal da\nalppnentr. affect orteraal poü^i
io©o^ wss Franc© strengthened or wsakenod as a Bin?opeen power? In what
specific ways would dcoastic politics havB implioötions in fopeign
affairs?

Bo VJhat wes Russia's interest in the Biaksna fron i877 to 19SU? What issws
wate at stak» and vhat policies did sshe f cOloii? Also hoar did iatellectoals^
such as Pan-SlaV3 affoct the policies?

NoBo Question IIA« is designed to test your ability to
observe the material frora a new angle o

•^^^ä^^^^^M

rjTsriw"

THE UllIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of Hlstory
Second Semester, 1963-6^1

TWELVE WEEKS EXAMINATION - APRIL 15, 190+

Hlstory 120 - Europe and the Ködern World - Dr. Mosse

I. Answer one: 20 Minutes.

1. Discuss two of these Interpretatlons of Imperiallsm, drawlng
your own concluslons: a. Lenin, b. Schumpeter, c. Palmer.

2. Discuss two varleties of soclallsm whlch you have studled and
analyze whlch one was most successfui In the Non-Russlan West
up to I91I1 and why.

II • Answer one: 30 Minutes.

1. Discuss the Balkan problem: a. as It was settled at the
Congress of Berlin, b. as It stood before the outbreak of
the war, and c. as It was settled at Versailles.

2. Compare the evolutlon of Russla and France I87O to I91U. Why
do you thlnk It dlffered?

"^ ^^ -.Ji-.^«»^:»--.T-J«li*«

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Second Semester, 1963-6^

FINAL EXAMINATION

History 120 (3) - Europe and the Modern World - Mr. Mosse

*

I. How do you explain the success of fascism as over against socialism ^
In certain European nations slnce I9I8? Define fascism before you
answer this question. (30 Minutes)

4-

II. What are the similarities and differences between the foundations

laid for a peace after the second world war and the peace of Versailles
after the first world war? (20 Minutes)

III. What were the long ränge effects of 1 (one) from each group of the
following: (20 Minutes)

a. 1. Pact of Locarno

2. The Populär Front

3. Presidential Gab ine ts in Germany

1.

2.

3.

Father Gapons Petition to Zsar Nicholas II«
Bisroarck's political iaeas
Metternichs settlement of Europe

IV. a. Discuss the changing definition of what is meant by individual
freedom in TWO of the following and how this freedom is to be
maintained: (30 Minutes)

1. Liberalism

2. Marxism

3« romanticism

b. Analyse how, in your opinion, these definitions have stood up
in the development of Europe since I9I8.

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Second Semester, I962-63

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD, I8I5 TO THE PRESENT)

Final Examlnation - June k, I963

- MR. MOSSE

ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS: READ CAREFULLY

{kO min.) I.

We have been concerned with the prob lern: how does the present
State of thlngs evolve out of the past? The following nations
either maintalned their democratic form of government or lost
It lgl8>l?39>

1. Choose THREE of these nations,

2. Going as far back in their past as necessary discuss the
importance of their historical development in explaining
V7hy detnocracy was lost or retained,

a. England

b . France
c • Germany
d. Italy

(^0 min.) II, We have been concerned with this prob lern: why did certain

statesmen fail to achieve their objectives? The following
statesmen failed in some important objective they had set
for themselves,

1, Choose THREE of them.

2. Discuss the factors--historical, domestic, foreign, and
personal- -which made for this failure.

3» Draw some general conclusions ahout the 1 Imitation and
nature of statesmanship,

a. Metternich

b. Neville Chamberlin

c. Bismarck

d. Adolf Hitler

(i^O min.)lll.

We have been concerned with this problem: what enables a
System of ideas to become important in history? The following
ideologies became important during a part of our studies. /
Choosing THREE of them discuss; Y

1, Why they became important when they did.

2, What is their contribution to recent events (I918— ).

3» VJhat enables Systems of ideas to become important in history.

a. Classical Liberalism

b. Marxism

c» Fascism

d* Imperialism

Histtay 3 12 Wks, Make-up exam May 1, I963

OTo Hoaa»

Wa^Ith^'^ir^if ""^w «M^ dswloped In divergent dixeoUans «ftar

tue doeunents abottt sueh dsvelofianitB. dlaouss tbm «nd 1M1
In «bat m^ thqr differ trm «nd «n adailar to Mwnu

go (2(l!la,) Waroa» tlie froblan of B«ikan natlooallaB trm tte
CoD^ss «f Berlin (1878) to the T»«ty «tf TewSs. £?<»?
Sl^rSS SJT '**"^ to deal mth the probl««? Hw no-

m (10 Jüa.) Hov dld tKO of tbe tiaiatOae
Rossi« Rerdutlon of IJIT?

1« StelTpin Batoam
2« Ihe Dom«
3« Oeteber Hanifesto
U* Father Qapon

Histoiy 3 12 i^Jfcse I4ak8-up aaraan Usy 1, 1963

OTo Hosse

Sl^STSS S^T •'^^^ to daal Witt tha prtbla«? •hST.S:

^ UO Min.) Hoir dld two of tha foUoidng
Ruaalan RaTOluUo© of 2517? ^

1« Stolypin Raf onaa
2o ^lia Dona
3o Obtdbar Kanifaato
lif Fathar Oapon

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Second Semester, I962-63

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE & THE MODERN WORLD: I8I5 TO THE PRESENT) - MR. MOSSE

TWelve Weeks Examination - April 22, I963

I. How close or how far from Marxe's ideas were TWO of the
following: (I5 minutes)

a. Salnt-Simon

b. the Fabians

c. the Paris Commune
d • Lenin

II, In what way did THREE of the following further or hinder
either the outbreak or the end of the first world war?
(20 minutes)

b.
c.
d.
e,
f*

Reply of Serbia to Austria (191^)
The French occupation of Morocco
The Conference of Berlin (I878)
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The battle of the Marne
The government of Kerenski

III. Write on ONE of these:

a, Briefly outline the changes in the European power
structure among nations as a result of the treaty of
Versailles, (I5 minutes)

or

b» What do you think was the long or short ränge im-
portance of ONE of the following for the Russian
Revolution? (I5 minutes)

a, Kornilov

b, Decembrist uprising

c, constituent assembly

d, Lenin 's April Theses

e, Revolution of I905

.d*

A-aswer 'i^'JO c-f -^ke K^U:cainz 'ZIT^ME m:^äS?.ci3n, Allein 20 ^iim-^X2S

vJhat: tjera ehe Chief c^cvlaticnÄ,. istid be^-j ead v-'hy dld eo^cli
di^for frcQ Mars:?

<n.\tb?reek of Hcrld Her I? Tuiy?

II. (10 i^lnutss). I-Jhy dxcl Che P.uS'S^rlr^ EGarolu^lcn gct

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD, I8I5 TO THE PRESENT) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester

Twelve Weeks Examination

April 17, 1961

I. How close or how far away from Marx* ideas were TW of the following? (15 min.)

a. Saint -Simon

b. The Fabiaas

c. Robert Owen

d. The Paris Commune

e. George Sorel

f. Edward Bernstein

II. Answer ONE (20 min.)

a.

"A concrete interest may not be economic in character," What did
Schumpeter mean by this and how would you illustrate it from the
history of Imperialism?

b. Which of the Balkan crises and which of the Imperial clashes do you
think most important as a cause for the First World War?

III. What do you think was the long ränge or short ränge importance of ONE of
the following to the Russian Revolution? (I5 min.)

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Revolution of I905
Kornilov

Decembrist uprising
Constituent Assembly
Lenin *s April Theses

/

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD, I8I5 TG THE PRESENT) - MR. MÜSSE

Second Semester, I96O-I96I

Final Examina tion

May 29, 1961

I. (30 min.) In a Europe where allegiances were becoming polarised into right
and left, what were the difficulties encountered in this regard and the
attitude taken by THREE of the following:

a. Stanley Baldwin

b. Stresemann

c. L^on Blum

d. Kerensky

e. Gregor Strasser

f. John Reed

!!• (20 min.) ONE of these:

/

L

III.

IV.

a.

b.

What similarities and what differences do you see in the European alliance
eyetems prior to World War I and World War II?

What similarities and differences do you see in the allied peace aims at
Versailles and those after the second world war as revealed at Potsdam,
Yalta and the founding of the United Nations?

(kO min.) Discuss--agreeing, disagreeing or modifying the following Statement:
''Twentieth Century ideologies of the right as well as those of the left were
simplv the products of the Industrial Revolution."

(20 min.) Take some of the major problems faced by EITHER France OR England
1918-1939 and analyse to what extent the historical development of the country
in the previous Century contributed to their aggravation, or to their Solution,
or was simply irrelevant.

k

*■»

\y

/

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - KR. MOSSE

Final Examination , 28 May i960

I. (60 min.)

Salvadori writes that communism negates the noble attempt made by
Western civilization to make liberty the basis of the social order
Taking the period since 1815:

SO

a. What definition of liberty has Salvadori in mind and how
successful or unsuccessful was it in the West during the
period we have studied?

b. Were there other definitions of liberty put forward diiring
the same historical period and how successfiil were they in
coping with the social order?

C#f^f»^^^

tj^ T/l^***! 6<s^*^-

^^

II. Answer ONE (30 min.) ^

V ) What theories of democracy were put forward since 1918 which opposed
,>r representative government as we know it?

To what degree was the peace at Versailles responsible or not respon-
sible for the breakdown of the peace by 1939? Stress your source
reading.

X

III. (30 min.) Give the importance of FIVE of the following in the period
we have studied:

^''i

j

-L^

1. Locarno

2. Maxim Litvinov

3. The S- S.

4. The Maginot Line

5. Pierre Lavall^

6. Old Bolsheviks in the 1930s
?• Populär Front

8. General strikes

9. Potsdam Conference
10. Eduard Benes

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - KR. MOSSE

Final Examination, 28 May i960

I. (60 min.)

Salvadori writes that commiinism negates the noble attempt made by
Western civilization to make liberty the basis of the social order,
Taking the period since 1815:

a. What definition of liberty has Salvadori in mind and how
successful or unsuccessful was it in the West during the
period we have studied?

b. Were there other definitions of liberty put forward during
the same historical period and how successful were they in
coping with the social order?

II. Answer 0]® (30 min.)

What theories of democracy were put forward since 1918 which opposed
representative government as we know it?

To what degree was the peace at Versailles responsible or not respon«
sible for the breakdown of the peace by 1939? Stress your source
reading.

III. (30 min.) Give the importance of FIVE of the following in the period
we have studied:

1. Locarno

2. Maxim Litvinov

3. The S. S.

^. The Maginot Line

5« Pierre Lavalle

6. Old Bolsheviks in the 1930s

7. Populär Front

8. General strikes

9. Potsdam Conference
10. Eduard Benes

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. KOSSE

Second Semester, 1959-1960

12 Week Exam, 6 April i960

I. (20 min.)

/

In what way did THREE of the following fvj-ther or hinder
either the outbreak or the end of the first world war?

a*
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Reply of Serbia to Austria (191^+)
The French occupation of Horocco
The Conference of Berlin (I878)
GanepaL-^Ludendorff TJfti #F ß)i^4<4//4
Tha Treaty of Brest-Litovek
Battle of the harne

II. (30 min.) Answer ONE only

a. Grane Brinton siimmarizes the work of revolutions
in his book. Do Marxist aims and techniques fit
in with v/hat he has to say? If so, whyV

b. In what sense was the Russian Revolution Marxist?

a* Did its origins and what it tried to do
fit in with Marxist thought?

b» If so, with what development of Marxism
would you link it and with what would
you not link it?

HISTORT 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR, MOSSE

Second Semester, 1958-59

Tvrelve Weeks Examination

April 15, 1959

I. Briefly analyze the relationship of Marxism to THREE of the following:
(20 minutes)

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Hegel

Eduard Bernsteines Evolutionary Socialism

Lenin

Anarchism

individualism

II. Answer ONE only: (30 minutes)

A. Compare and contrast the problem of the liberalization of
government in 19th Century Russia with that of any Western
government of your choosing, How do you account for the
differences?

B. There is often a great difference between the appeal of
an ideal and the way it is put into practice. How do
Napoleon III in France and Lenin in Russia fit into this?

C. Discuss which was of more long -ränge importance for the
outbreak of the first world war - Inperi allem or the
rivalry in the Balkans. Refer to the principal crises
which might have led to war before 19lU.

1 ■"" "Wl

T-

1.

11.

mSTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD, I8l5 to the present) MR. kOSSK

Second Semester, 1956-57

Twelve Weeks Examination

Identify THREE of the following and stress their iraportance in
reJation to one of the movements we have studied.

a« Boer War

b. "Decembrists^

c» Friedrich Nietzsche

d. St« Simon

e. "Lost Generation**

15 minutes

The following areas played an important part in the final settleraent
at Versailles. Select FIVE of these areas and teil what country
ruled them BEFORE the Versailles Treaty, and what country ruled
them AFTER 'he Versailles Treaty.

a.

Bosnia

b.

Syria

c«

Palestine

d.

Tyrol

e.

Bohemia

f.

Strasburg

g«

Transylvania

h.

Dalmatian coast

10 minutes

III# SELECT ONE of the following»

25 minutes

a.

b.

The period from 1870 to 1918 has been called the "decline of
**Liberalism/' Defend this thesis. Be specific.

Compare and contrast the different forms ' • i%rxian Socialism
took in Iiiurope and in Russia.

^

pooKTe^TX - h/isTocJ 1^

ö

I. (fcO% J in two or three sentences on hcjir each

CcMinent /^r^//K/^//^ of the following passages illustrates the
Romanticismt

"As I expected, the smbassador annoys me. He is the most
punctili-^us fool under heaven. He does everything step by step, as
meticulous as an old women,,,"

I am fond of him until he says "however"; is it not self-evident
that every universal rule must have its exceptions?

■ r

f. ,

'r:y

Nature alone is inexhaustible, and capable of forming the ^reat
master. Much may be alle^ed in favor of rules;abont as much as may be
sa d in favor of middle-class sociaty....yBt, say what you will of mies,
they destroy the .genuine feeling of Nature and its true expression.

II* r'JH',

■j i ]■ Olf-s

y

!!• Identify in a f ew words :

Talleyrand

, " "lo

tf^''

I •

Austi^ö-Slavism

f' •■ *'*'r *""'":.

i ,-^

:fr

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iT^i'

;jc

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KLein-Deutschland (Little Germany)

Uyij-UVitlw/

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r

HISTORY 3 (EÜROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - Mr. Mosse

Final Examinatlon

June 13, 1957

I.

V-

(40 min.) Answer ONE

DRead the questions carefully, you vrill loose points if you leave
out any parts of a question]»

A. It is customary today to suggest that the Soviet Union ia one
more dictatorship or one more Imperialist power. Do gjrou agree
that Ru3.sian communism is essentially the same as German Nazism
and Italian Faocism, or do you think that there are significant
differences?

B. In vrtiat ways could it be said that the second world war was a
consequence of the treaty of Versailles?

C« VTiat Import an ce can be assigned to the following factors in
accounting for the rise of Hitler in Genranay: a) the poli ty of
foreign countries since the armistice, b) the weaknesses of the
Weimar Republic. Evaluate these factors.

II . (50 min . ) Answer ONE

A* We have discussed the present political structure of Western
Europe, and that of Eastern Europe. Discuss the historical
factors, since 1815» which have gone into the making of these
two System) s of government. Be as specific as possible, using
a concreto iiiustration to make each point.

B. "The twentieth Century saw a tüming pway from pflilitical and
economic freedom." In expiaining this, answer these questionsi
a) how much political and economic freedom was there in V^estem
Europe, 184Ö to 1914? b) what importance in this trend would you
give to the first world war? to the depression of 1929-1933?
Always use specific illustrations«

III. (20 min.)

How does your book Interpret, or shed new light on, ONE of the
following :

a« the rise or maintenance of dictatorships

b. the Problems of nationalism

c. the Problems of Communism or socialism

d. the weakness or strength of liberalism

e. if it does not relate to any of thsöe, take one of these con-
cepts, define it and say why the book i* irrelevant to it.

\

120.

I. To what extent was the first world war a watershed, and
to what extent did it mere deepened older trands, and

if so, whmch?

2. Are left and right good classifications?

1. chosse two specific illustrations, one from before and
one after the first world war.

2. Discuss closeness, remotness, or interrrelationship

of left and Right, whichever you think applies.
3. Would it be true to say that Nationalism infiltrated all
movements after 1880. even those who were opposed to it?

1. take two specific exaznples from different countries

( ^ascism and National Socialim are excluded)

2. test^if this Statement holds or not and give the reason

Diplomatie History

Mrs. Garlick

!• Answer ONE of these:

a«

Wrlte a defense of Palmerstone 's forelgn policy«

Analyse the disintlgratlon of Bismark' s alllance
Systems« Do you think that Hellste In and William II»
bear the responslblllty?

Discuss the formatlon of the Entente Crodlale and
eisraluate the rolle playd In It's formatlon by
Delcasse and Edward VII»

II • Answer ONE of these:

a» It has been clalmed that what Neville Chalmberlln
really had In mlnd was the contlnuatlon of the
Locamo pollcles» Discuss thls contentlon»

b. What Importance should be attached to the treaty
of Hapallo? What consequences dld thls treaty
have for subsequent European dlplomacy?

c. Analyse the Brland -Stresemann pollcy of conclllatlon
In the T920tles« V/hat were It's streng points and what
It's weaknesses?

III»

Answer ONE of these:

a. Analyse Rlbbentrop 4s forelgn minister, paylng attention
to hls achlevements and hls fallures«

b. Discuss the Rome-Berlln Axls In It's consequences for

German and Itallan dlplomacy»

c» Analyse the disintlgratlon of the Prench alllance
System In the I930tles» To what causes do you
attrlbute thls disintlgratlon?

/

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2a.

But eyan so - after thac2. World war whan pari did not

work or workad badly, longing for a truer Community comes

^ »

to the fore again as it did in tha past: as the new left
or the old left^ as the Student riots of I968. För that
is es entially what they were about* Liberal division
between totality of culture «j^ seif govemment, between
life and politics, is attacked and denied - for a total
Community as we had itvwith fascism or socialis» which
do not make such distinctions in the name of freedom«

2a#

Times becomes a problem when the old is changing rapidlj: when
people perceive such a change and are confused hy it# The 18.
Century with which we start was such a time: new syTuhols, new
ideas like the nation, new abstractions, Your first reading,
Bmil«^ Rousseau attempts to ignore time, to educte his emile
outside any such framework» Emile proceeds by his innate clock
not outward one one, as you will notice# Rousseau rejects dependence
on man, but in reality he attempts to throw away his watch ( expl#)
Werthers retreat into nature similar, Nature is etemal, innate in
man. Thus Opposition to civilisation#

l^A**/^^i^y ''^

The basic myths and reality rythm of history does have important
continueties which we should remember without forgetting the
cataclysmic changes we have witnessed: ^rench Revolution, 1848,
Russian Revolution and, yes, the first world war which really
introduced a violenve and disorder unkmown before into its post-
war World. These explosion come surely when the difference between
what is and what should be becomes too great: when new forces
pushijg to the fore can no longer wait ( new classes and forces
in French. Rev. and 1848 against a static rule) . But even so
all these cataclysm seem to order themselves into society, into
tradition ( ^enin: one step fowards and two steps backwards), and
that is why tradition is s oimportnat .

That is why we see a continuing unity

i

C^^t .....4-/^'^

^

/H^

Final lActTxre

The unity of Exirope was rent in two in 1945. Bat inspite of this we
can also see a continuing ixnity in the problems vrhich have been ovx
concem - and these problems are related to some deeper longings which

tm-» ■<* wwiiw

have siirfaced throughout» ^ We must remember that in the last resort
history deals with man and we must never foget that man is not just

awr"«*"

n»i»X

motivated by one factor, like economics, bat that his psyche is mach

more complicated then that»] Aa you Imnw frmn yonr vfM

Often you have seen contradictory longings Coming to the

fore: while undoubtedly " freedom" was a Standard by which people

evaluated their lives^ this concept could be taken in a Liberal manner:

%*** «*Jiw<naMA»

the greatest kind of individ\ialism. Tet this was always limited; even
Liberalismvthrough strict morality. But Liberalism was always directed
against the state and Church. Tet the longing for community, for
group cohesion became increasingly important with industrialism and
Urbanism - with the breackdown of traditional relationships like the
famillyl Preedom was freedom in and through the group: nationalism or
socialism* Community of the nation or of Proletariates Freedom in this

■ ""'"■I -»M—»«— «O

definition dominated since I9I8 certainly and it meant the decline and
sometimes the suicide of -£*arliamentary govemement which in the 19.
Century had been regarded as the highest good: Bnglish Reform Bill of

-* t • > <•■

1832, Revolutions of 1848 were all about representative govemment*

. ^ /rTrrppi — —

But the revolutions of I9I8 -1920 were to lifuidate representative

govemment in the name of ^kedifferent modes of^democracy: soldiers

and workers Councils or the kind of didtatei'lal mass democracy in

FaKcist nationalism. Charles Mq^irras about Pari: ^ the vehicle from

^''epovingian times must give way to the motor car". i /

This kind of change is striking in the conflicting longig^sfor freedom

and for comm\mity - it was conmnmity which won out in a fragmented

la.

It was against attacks that ^arl govt. defined itself as the
only kind of democracy. But not true: rival kind: .nass democracy
^rench Revolution, Rousseau (expl.) Another ri;ral kind: elitism,
leader ( but ^e Bon) combined eventualis with mass democracy.
To interwar leaders like HitUr and Mussolini.
L Still with all this also traditionalism: Monarchy not dead:

1. example of Queen Victoria

2. longing for Monrchy in Republics ( France and Gemiany)
5. development towards constitutional monarchy
^. new stateV-'thought that they must have one ( G^eece, Bulgaria)
Part Of longing for personal relationships ( personal sy^ibols)
for a real community which is is involved in all this Opposition
to the " Quasselbude",

MHwugußi tmMjmr^H^^^mtmftmM

i//H^t's^

^^^.l^^^^®*^* ^"fe^^is Statement vould be true from the vantage point
Q^_£g4-5 but no longer from the vantage point of I97X^ ^or as a matter j
of fact both Liberalism and Parliamentary govemment revived in West.
Europe after 1945 - and both Christian Democrats and Social Democrats
became in fact Liberal parties in most ways. However tenuous this

revival was in some place s: i.e. De C^aulle and the continiial flux and

Chaos in Italy» C^^j

I. "

The fact is, as you may have noticed, that there are no really endings

^^3i^^^^* ^^"^ ^^ ^^^"^ ^® ^^"^® discussed goes on despite war and
cataclysmic events* That there is much that is new, but that the old
also dialecticalyy reasserts itself^"^ For imderneath it all are the
longings I have talked about: freedom and commimity.'^u can see this

•UMk^^tMMHHh^

Century

Always: against what is experimental and tuite new, Always concemed
with continiiities and security of one kind or another; what is sometimes
called escapism but which as you examine it is really always a fight
of darkness against light: light is the traditional morality, virtues
and the good society of ofaeiV<As oneVHter put it at the end of the
last Century: " the good old bourgeois order were everything Stands at
it's accostumed place". ^Thus a basic conservatism in popiaar c\ilture
reenforces the old, though in times of crisis it may be relativly more
receptive to the new in it's hatred of an establihsment which has
gone wrong. But this is purely relative and the strength of Fascism

^^r^mr^mmi^m^wmmf-

X^Bh^^

&

was precicely that it blended with the traditional *5näre of populär
culture. ^^ f 3 ^.^^^

|gvegtuaj.-Ly even ti^ very new: like i^op^diracted against" congroner soc

;>c''expression^.,-b€comei
at all ariä indeed bctSmes sneti^ieil^l and nostalgic. A longing for
hapiness which iö' coopted into society - but the word cooptation ia

->

qf.1^ "äe"^ n>^^iO*F I^P-PFP-

^

C^

±B-ml^lQadjjig9:=^£ßr m.1 populär cult\are sooner or later related itself
to the longings I have talked about - and these are also apt to be
a pre industrial nostalgia: for a time when preß-umably personal

TBrrrrrmw— -

relationships were still cohesive - something mass movement s and
mass democracy used for an effective politics in the twentieth

mMimXt iw— — l*'*»'!'»^

«t-Mr.""'; V.i :'.>f|i'<C

'n- f>r-

Century» as we have seen»

^ But then thereyaTe" tne int eile ctxials: that group of people who were

ooramitted to an ideology, a definite vorld vie'!'f, beyond the daily

u'T^fii" '^ CEf\r/if-ic^L^ a^^^ ^f^f rt^t^^t- [ i^i^c'i»^

pragmatism ofVßolitics» They thought of themieiveävas custodxj

\/P c

of an ideal which must always be held unsullied before the people»
Thus they usually regarded themselves as " above class" or " free
floating". They were and arVa7neccessJ?^Tirorder to -fulfil the
kind of Utopian longings so neccessaryVin any society. To be sure,
for that reason they tended to be bad politicians: unwilling to use

.^«MMOAAMMIMfetfNA

the instruments of mass politics or tactics or compromise» But
optimism: wether an idealised fascism or socialism did fulfill a

important function in driving matters ahead through holding up an
ideal Image of what the world could be* Thus their political ineptness,
their failure to capture the masses thejrwanted to reach does not

deny their historical rolle« And at times, as with Hegl or Marx

0 ,j

»«•* *MflM(««aMU*i«»*

^^fi^^iH- their Ideals did become a part of the thinking of large part of the

V

^)ZJjLU^ Population who were not int eile ctuals: even if their ideal, their

^^Oi^**' XJntopia never really came about • For intellectuas can also give society

A a method of thought, of looking at itself - fuite apap6rb from any

custodianship-^ of a final ideal» [UoCÜ'. Hua^-:^ f t/4^^) Cfin^^^
I The failure_of many int eile ctuals is explained by the fact that they
failed totlink themselves to history and rather linked themselves to
an ethical or social abstraction»! egel and Marxe's effectiveness was

A.

becau^e they were philosophers of history rather then because of
the end in which they believed ( but for Hegel history had no real
end, and here is his still greater effectiveness)»
The simple fact is that man cannot escape his history and that the

4AU!-<U«-1

.,^«BJ»U-iii'«Kr«*Ä«*'

^ course of history itself provides the limitations of change, sorae

^^\L/ fJ^'Z^ he counce3-led patience until the objective conditions were ripe: that

of which I have tried to indicate»^ As Maia himself thought: before
change can come about history must be anajysed through scholarship
( and he was, as you know, engaged in painstaking scholarship most
of his life). When he said: Philosophers must intepret the world,
it is our buisness to change it - he did not mean it -propably the
iffQy thooo moont it who jiu-l ll'un the wal3^ üutside-~th±«-i^eem - in
the terms of a jump to freedom: a breack here and now» As a historian

tttMOmutm m»imt

^**>

is imtil history had taken the proper development»
This is Mrx as historian I want to stress, as a scholar - not his
actual history which was conditioned by the mid 19« Century« Por he
saw the neccessity of scholarship for change because it is neccessary

i« »11 1 1 1

to connect with the flow of history itself» For history is the
expression of the deeper longings and nature of men: perhaps the
reflection would be better. But in this reflection it itself creates

powerful myijhs and attitudes which, in tum, become part of history.

Hegel once said that hapiness is not the end of history. Ha
meant that history is a continuiim without a prophetic end or the last

-•MsaMM

judgement» This is, especially for intellectuals difficult to take»
There are Problems which are worked out only in time and never wholly
so - that must be clear to you by now» There is adifference between

history and Utopia« Higtory must guide you in making change but it
cannot guj^ you into Utopia» Utopia is not a historical but an

emotional comraittment. Yet it is a neccessary part of history. Bert

5.

I hope that you have gotten some snese of this history.

As I Said at the beginning: all vre can do is to give

you a framework with whivh you can agree or argue, but without

which it might be difficult to make sense out of the bewildering

Chaos of ideas and events ( at least so it seems). Tou can now

go ahead to fill in were your interest lies and do further

reading on what seemes to you especially important ( that is

why at one point I gave you the extra reading list).

5.

so is Scholar 3hip> There are no Instant revolutions or instant
satisfactions w^chjÄst.Look at Bavaria or Htuigary in I9I8 or even

nd the Spartacists, ^ -I-t follewü Llia

^rimHMMMi^MNMaMMN

^larsnxp, on pailenir-l
^or^ilTOre. Wlml LUIb yoai-H6 1 hupe Ixa^done for you is to ,
^^^'^^^^;^^^^y^^-^^^^^ f?r sch(Wship ..

wfa±SP^i=^5i=^^t1nn o77^H,u.iolLj<v gar-troBrtTglng- besi^ the

POilT

for ohange tliin la umulai. TUere mlgtiL well have

Doircoiu, k^l ad!jLj.\)jd Lliü tlj.;jLj.". {Q^i^n, totalÄy

'.rrGVO,Lll,-ni .-.•>■».. v>^^ -Tr-,

J.,,X

<■ I I ■ «0?1| liijllH il't

■ IM H IKWIM«

'l\ ' u- :.j, Tou might tliink about
thataiid thft natiiri^ oT Uiaiige .wiixoh is what the coirrse has been
all abuut;

I can cite the words of the great anarchist and revolutionary
austav -Landauer who periehed in I9I8: " That man who does not
take upon himself the dangers of loneliness^of set backs, will never
obtain victory".

5«. .

By this I de not m«aai th« orgy of positlvism revibsd whleh
you hav# with • coputert statistics» Thasa have th«ir usa ^^^7 j^
only whan accompaniad by anaylisis and such analysis must £^/^<^*^
have a thaoratieal baaa whieh takas tha facta into account <- . ,,
but hlatory Is human and tha dapth of human natura eannot ba
ignorad thay must ba axplainad as rafractad by history«

Searcb for laws populär in the 19« Century as analogy
v/ith science ( cyclical laws wtc.) But there are no laws really of
historical development which can be forecast, for history is based upon
people who do not always react the same way even to the same crrcumstances
( fallac3^ of .i%rxism and all such theories). The limits of human
action which we have learnt are different from scientific laws which
even scientists abandoned in our Century.

We must be aware also of historical analogies for they ignore the
specific time bound conditions: i.e. Munich / T^ 6 iL

I !

flhi/hu L^L.Tv(i.e^ ifif

^

^ e^

I d» not think tkat yu neet tke usiial siimmarj - f or j«u kave

finiske* tke final» and presmmably kare an oTerriew «f tke per i od
witk wklok we kave dealt«

Tkeref ore I would ratker today answer »one questiona^' puklicly wkick

A^JTSli — ' "'" — "^

soBie af yau kare eitt-^ me, oftenjpriTatly, orer tke last semeter

©r eren orer tke last year«

^ko-4(MrW^ane oanoemtf tke releranee ol^ kistäry^iReleTanoe is

K^us ^^ -fi/hjejZ^

notklng immediate in kistory - as peaple liko Maokiavelli and

etker tkougkt in tke Renais sanoe« But ratker semetking vkidk
depends ©n tke rec©gniti©n of differenc« and akang^^relatirit^

©f Standards and practioe» - irky ©ne System sncceeeded at a given

time and anotker failed» Tkes© are tk© understandings irkick

kistorical distance can gir© ins» And tkis kn©wl©dge is

— ■ -

cejiirtianly relerant because eTorytking w© d© takes place witkin

a kistarical fraaeirarko Tkis is ©kriaasi it d©fin©8 the limits
witkin we ©perate* And kei^e ©he eaii be still mar© specif ieV —

"carefully aT©iidling tke idea tkat kistary repeats itself ©r

'—'-^— ^ y^f^^ —

tkat we oan telesoape erents and ""vnderstaad tkea« Tk© kistarical
dimensian is jLtL intigral part ©f ©%J©e

Iiet as tak© s©m©tking wo kar© talked abaat a littl©: tk© kist©ry

©f modern Mass palitios» W^ kn©w fir©» tke gast tkat it is reUttirly
_©asy t© ar©ifti^e p©p41ar f ©eling in certain situatiens ©f f3ru8trati©m

t or Boulang:

tk© prablea ^1 always t© transfarm tkis papmlax feelin^ int© a
n©T©a©nt« W© kn©w tkat tkis kas ©mly takan plaa# wkam e©rtai»

M»

©©nditi©n8 w©r© fiiLLfill©d and ©xistadt tk© wid© spread f rastrat iam.

<•

tke appeal t« p.iml«r_aishes wUJleslr« -Wt «a tiU l»sle « -

«»T€«eat has meant_4i8cipIJLne_^«Ml leaderskip. !• b« 8«r. tke»«

h>Te c»Bat«iitly been in oenfliot Kltk tke wge teir*r4B HULlTldmaity
«Ä^n4e££5Äene«. Tkat ia wkj s« f«!Liiitellectu*lBj.,i4, üi Ei«r.pe,

Kitk mass morements and leaderskip.

tkej langed

■W!*-

Jkin«

.A»'»! -

This kas keant In practie» expleitia« p.ssibllities ( as fasoist «n«
Cmunist mereaents 4i4, f r exa«pl«) ^^ ratker tken tjie iBunediacy

•' ^t?^«*i»» •' tl^« abseltite- «••d^ciety. H.ir it is qHite t^e
tkat kere we rvm up agaimit^tker pr.bleai leadersklp. iiseipline^
taotios tkese kär¥ eften miant tke sttbaergence »f tke geal ef a eee4
Society in a weiter ef pelitie» «oUl persenal MbitienerTk^ SPcTi»^

te pall

* ■■.■»

direetien ef eapiricim - «i4 yet iritheut tactics, «iscipline «Ä

leaderskip «e*em aass aerements kare not succeeeie« - indeeÄ modern

ptlitioa—Jüstery is littere* iritk aillenarieixs an« AnarckirtT

wke «r> lerely peeple> aeral peeple but irkese iapaetl^, in tken

end^in tkeir .im terms, .Ta^erated. I dare say Batomin was ene of -
tke aest leved pe^plsj/- «nd p«^ beca^e kTVas net tkeugkt really
dangereua«

Tkere ia, kewerer, me built in neccessiiy wky taoties, leaderskip _
«d discipline skenld l«id_te tke eresiwi^ef tke geal ef a aereaent.
Tkis preblea saeas te ae easier te a^lTe tkat tkat ef indiridualisa

wkiek I mentiened eaxlier. It is te(/«y rery eften assuaed tkat it

pv^'

-6-c^ »^

3.

^^-nA^^ ^^Wi^.^^ /...^ ^ p z^-^' ^^*^ ^^j^cA«^

MUöt &• s»^ Wkat really seem» m#st iifficult t# tak« ie tke amonrnt
#f patience imrolTei in builiing such a moTement« itut^tkat patlene«'

pe»l0

aeeos needed in aay eaoe to carry a aubgtantlal gr#i

witk you - aaA nat juat •& a «ne akat aA kao baala# ^

Tkeae censideratiaiia kara i* aany waya damiÄated mj attltuias tawarda

wrangly

aenaa la aa aA kaa eutpaiirlnc af ematlanaUam: far aa Marx aal*

An^

7-iK/.*^7

;-. i'^*^

^'*^

lang aga tkere muat be'4'eaaaÄ and^eTen a aeiaaetf Aegree. Tka ^^'^•
abaalutVcaa

üy be reackeA tkat way* Tau irill aay kair Aa yaa
oaTmtep eaoalating •preaaiaa^tkatiray? It may ba taa lata«
Tt la alvaya taa lata tä^eauatar it witk aA kao actiaaa irkiek oannat

^^■

3

^ ba wan becauae tkey oaJJ.apaa - all tkey Aa ia ta^ faetray tke elbaw
j^"^ ^^^ P^^i^ vkiok atillaxiata«' I raminA yau tkat tke Cannmniat tactioa

^.

^ri'4f^ in 1933 Geraaay faileAi Aetroy tke regime, aroiA alliamoe witk etkera

vka alaa vant ckanga ( erea if it ia aet ye\2ra alltagetker) aaA irr
will ia tke enA triwapk» If tkera ia urgenay tken tke exaaple ef -

»pular

releranti erea tkaagk tke parte te it kaA ta put äff tkeir riaie»
ef tke geoA aeciety« ^kla waaitjJfe^r(»iiiA_yeu, a pelitieal aeTeaeat«

If yea Ae want ekaaga

ergaaiaa

Te« »aat kave werkeA eut taetioa, a leaAerakip aaA a aeeial analyaia
ef tke aituatiea ae tkat yeu uaAeratanA tke " ebjeotire reality"
vkiok chaage oniat werk« I tkink, anA yeu can, ef courae

mmf

II I <i

Aiaagree, tkat tkia ia atill a pelitioal retJLity, tke reality ef
ferming a pewer baae ia aeciety itaeljf« ^^^ ''/ »^ ' ^*^^*

. «^. "^ i^

4.

Tkat tkls sheuld be retard»* as pesslmlsm,/ tltat s«me bltterness

abgilt wa4(atet •pp«r1niuiitie8 sk^vild be r6|;artlM as an existentlal
aoeeptanee^B luiwarrsntet* Ta build a mmr^m/mt. j%vl kare ta imderstaStV''
reality anA Äiaw yaur oen^basitÄS frem it# ly^r uaderstantlag anA eTen
Mj gaals are^Aifferent fr#m aay «f y©urs: but tke principle still

k«lAs« Tke erasiaa af rati^allam, xkiak wa kaTe st-uAlaSy leaAa %m

fasciat msTemeata s tk^agkf as j%yk kzi^v fram laaaak Areadt tke
.^f^* ^^ terrerXjLa ratieaal» aaA mastly man Tialen*^( tke arrest af SDß

Jä^ ^ -^ / !ll_.. , „^

M^M^' leaAers seeMS te fall ander tkat cate^ary) - but^ agaln, ta say

tkat yeu kare ^^^ elbew reem now, tkat yeu already lire luiAer a~
tetalitiarian reglae ef tke European aaial is , in My epiniei a

,. i^^'ix tatfO. misreading af kistery and ef Objectire reality • Ta fi^ikt

(VT'^ ^M^ IUI lull I* will im

^aT aj^ epressian yau must cend to tkis figkt net witk a sele dedioatiam

/^^"J^^JX "fe* absalutes as tka öermam left winc intellectaals did but yaa —

Bnist be willing ta usa these metkads wkick will build yan a pawer
base: and tkase mean nat enly an abjectire knewledge af kistery —

kat alsa a ratienal appreaok and net an

I de net vant^'Ve' ainfine tke issue ef releranee te tkis: tkeugk it

seems te me tke niest pressin^;» Tke cenditiens en Mifflin Str« are

— — n/'*^ **/^ /**t<»^ *^^t*i^ To iY

a geed oeniaunity issua and X de net wwt te see iii tkrewn*' avay a^in«

Hgleranee, kewerer, alse^eana persenal releranaa : there is a ereat

deal te tke old fashiened netien ef breadeninf yoiir nind« Tkis is

iindeed tke prerequisit te

eise« Sokelarskip as suek

needs no extemal J'^stif ioatian fer tkat fersen wkesa life it
fulfilla*

4a.

-"-f mj pera^mal releraAoe «f kist«rj is attaekmeiat to a pluralistie

Society «Ad tke suspielon «f all «[•gMatlsm ajul absolutes ( tkls wuiflt

$^

be elear) d^ figktiÄß^#pressio»>^suök as we be^ia t# see todaj/ w«

still kare tke eaae eneimy - Ivi^^ic^'C^ /y/a^ 'Z -^^ ^>«^ -^^ ^5^

IB"

4

AB.

T«u feel tkat I kare been tee sareastlo ab«ut tke various Ut^pia's
we kare disousseA» T«u naj be rlgkt« I am sareastle kecause it

seems ta me tkat Manj af tkese UtopiaB kare misleA men fram tke

real fifkt« Tke Left wing int eile ctuals 1a Grermanj and elsevere

0^ ^u^ LAm^^"'

kad suek a Utopias: ve casi all a^ree wit)|[ tkea - tke oategerieal
imparatlTe, mau must nerer be a meaas but alKajs an eii«L«/ But ?
wastlj prefer Tkemas Mann wke Jelned tke SPD "Im erder \k de seraetkini:

oeneBBte abeut stepplac tke Nasiss tkeu^ tke SPD was /in tke eni,

unable te de it and was filled iritk faultsv It kad a, ekance, tke
left winc intellectuals kad nene*

«'VL

But4 tkeir simultaeous alientatien fren tke soeial erder ef
tkeir time, baeed en tkeir rieien ef Man, and yet tke attempt at

intense inTolTement at tke same time - tkis led te an almest

tetal lack ef perspectire, an almest fantastic nisreading ef

tke pessibilities inkerent in tke ebjectire reality ef tkeir time«
Teu kneif frem vkat ire kare treated tkat men are apt te enrisien

tkeir situatien tkreugk mjtks ( Arnedt beek, natienallsm) • Bat tke

itmamttm^

waj te pieroe suck mjtks \( wkile taking tkem inte account in any
pelitical merement, if it is net te fall) JB^te cenfrent it witk
a balaneed seoial analysis«

l^/

jj I ^'Y^A^^ 3^ f"^-^

5.

Vke plea fer reasem wkiek e«nes tkr^u^ kere is üigeAdus #%
t« ererj sck«lar» But tkere is a wlde spread misunderstandljic
ereift kere« ^asen dees not mean adjusteMent ta realityjglain and

simple« Tkase in peirer kare \ised it tkis - eaaptad tke term« Bmt far
^egel it meant imderstandin^ tke legic of kistery and enpkasis uf en
tke eonscieusness of freedem« Fenndatien ef ireasen is knewled^e
and JndceMent* Let me put it anetker waj: censcieusness ef freedem

iiust be based upen kisterieal reality and reasen werks witkin tke

framework Khich coaes frem such kneirledce»

^Mmmm^tf^m/tm/mmr^immt^m^f-^

Censcieusness ef freddem is easilly timaed and perrerted te a fusien
iritk a ki^er and kujnan tetalitjs especiallj in tke age ef msuss
peütios» Tkis brin^ us baek te a dilenna wkiek I kara already
stated* But I tkink tkat we ean all a^ee tkat in tke late I960ties
tke battle is, enoe again, fecused against tke destructien ef indirid«

freedem frem tka arensed Ri^t« But tkat battle can enlj be wem if

Linij te abdicateniTpaJrENef-iJr» Te be sure. I belieTe

4j,(ye'

primary

te keep tke terck ef freedem^n an age ef iren« Tke task is net te

.Te iii

let tkat age axrire, and kere I tkink I kare illiistrated seme ef tke
releranee ef tke cetxrses e-y&tL i#v^n quite personal terms*

I ß^ ^/^c -^^^

IMlty of Western Civilisation

Now that we have seen the deep split which WII produced in Evirope,

I want to fSHg aljouii -bhcrTpröbl^s of xmity today - and in doing so

stm up a little ^ and thon t

ahmit Rnme nf the Problems

iritTi irhirli irr Tnnvn "hnnri JTivoTvrrti

Weefet. Civ# seems to have disintigrated into sets of mutually hostile
cultures. The !♦ WW and the 2. WVT were to a great extent wars of rivalling
ideologies - aad so *s the cold war» Whatever their roots in balance of

power - since I9I4 tended to be conflicts ( or see themselvesas con-
fliot)between " ways of life" • At the same time that this happened the

c^^'C^iiS^n

older concept of limited, territorial wa'ft* gave way to ideas of total

-, — ..■ -^ — --' — •

war, of unconditional surrender •

^ I IM««!!

the middle of the 19 ♦ Century such a hasic cement did exist#_

In Medieval times: the common hond of a Latin Christianity, never un-

contestedg_ but providing in the last resort a common frame of reference
and common Standard of judgement» Bond gave a kind of security«
cN^2^^Movements changed this state of affairs and provided the transition to

modern times: rise of commerce and trade, rise of the Nation State, the

Renaissance and the Reformation^ Tet, at first they did not destroy the

\mity but only broadened it# Renaissance took in all Nations of the West

it was common experience, The\4lßformers considered themselves one of a

^ common corps of Christianity» X^^ /^'^jiruU ^w ' y^My^ p^^v^W^' j^ ''^^'^
fe nation^lrbate beffnn the movement of Splitting apaprt tte^«p*t/secula-

til

It seems difficult to imagine a time when our civilisation from the new .

World to Siberia was indeed more or less \mited around certajji basic

ideas of what life and civilisation was all about» Yet, at least until ü

ith^l

f-irst# But even wh^ we"

i

But the rise of science and secularisation did not change this much -
on the contrary when we

.>fß:Ci^^

'get the climax of the secularisation ^ the Bnlightenmenx - this

I

stiesses the universality, that etil men are the same» Nor can the

rise of science be blamed: the early 17 • and 18 • Century scientists
stressed the harmony of the world and its jmity»
The I9» Century sees hoth the heights of the

anA ita

dissolution» The heights: it produced the last great syntheses of all

human thou^t in Hegel upon whom Marx huilt# A common working of history

A

for all the world, But Hegel hlmself typifies also the new: progress
u-D the ladder of history was emhodied in the nation state - that nation
State which could become a seif sufficient c\iltural unity« The experiencir
of the Prench Revolution had given modern nationalism its impetus: always
building on the older idea of the state as the highest secular authority^

We must not exxagurate the growth of the ^nationalism, even in

the 19« century# Bismarck still thought in terms of a political rather —

then ^cultural and agressive nationalism» But the development was there«

Nationalism triumphed because it became, in fact, a new religion -

I

\

the development of secularism, the Enlightenment, had not proven enou^

to give men security# Aod that they needed» Especially asy towards the

end of the Century, cenrtainty was vanishing even in the science8#

. ■ ■ <-■

Open>Kepler or Newton ^and harmony is the first Impression you

i^iJ^^' receive, Secularism is combined with a deep f aith in Gods order for the
^iM^»^ World - an all encompassing order« Science gave assui^ance of security«

it the end of the 13. Century - with the the " nei
the " uncertainty principle", with the Theory of relativity which ^^ff^

made space and time uncertain • this vanished« Moreover science became

real 1 y

the scientist divided his labv aad method fTom the world in general;^

■ ■TiW

i^KfeMVM

^

2a.

t

oenirury

R>'^r

•f a natienal

religion» Not ®nly in literairure but als« in tke " National
Menvuaentjf yhiok je auppepott to opj^c'^^^y •> particularly^ glorieus

/

y

ft -in Vii«tory, ffi^rl^ir "^y

n'üian in tho '^'outtlmi'gor f srooty

ilö» as 1 xoit" jfott b

o in

nwitionalism

as aass mevemont gets its onw liturgy ( largely taken fr#Ä
religious soiirces) like^^tlers mass meeting. But auch earlier,
Tke Prench Rev# haA pi©neere€ this when Liberty *s replaoed tke
Virgin Mjory or tke cult of the martyra f er libery replaced tke
Christian cult ef martyrs» Netre Dame transformed inte the - —

Temple of Reasen«

All tkis to indicate tkat xitk 19. Century national ayst4que took on

liturgical form» [phe age of mass movements and mass politics, which

we have discussed benefitted nationaliismwith its irrtational

mystitues and liturgy. ^' ^>^^^^c^>i^ .v^^ 4^-^^ U^^^e^^ _

)Pn h'jl^n^ P^yc4-^J .At^T/V ^>/, ^U^ ^.^.^ ^ T^^'^^''

W-^^ir^ ^'^^^-»c A r'C^^^^ ^'^*^ ^K^J^^ ft^C^-^-^^^^^

3.

( 2 leading Nobel men were early Nazis ,

example ) •

The only intemationalism left was socialjiim: but even here it was
sucked increasingly into National conpOTns, and after 1920 the supposed

international Comnrunist parties b^^iame the instruments ot the Soviet
feton« Ceetainly arxism as
invisaged it, had fäiled^ ^

temational movement, as Marx had

The' war tl*) with its ideological f oundation added to this nationalism.

and we have seen it tvsl on between the wars^ Could after 1945 the

wheel be tumed back? I i>eld you 'hhat xhe Christian Democratic parties

had an older, almost medieval, Vision of European unity#

But what sort of unity? After Napoleon such dreams had been dreams

not of a unity of euqals, bound together by the same concems, but of

a unity of domination by one Nation over others# The dream of world

revoiution ( equality) fetill dreamt by Trotksi and Lenin, became

$Y,4^Aj/^T . ^^^ ^^^^ ^v^^y^ f4/Lrk< J"^-*^' "^-^

the" dream of the domination OT uovi^i>olicy» ^ddly enough the final —

r.*-i

Nazi dream - of a racial„SS elite ruling Ihjrope from Burgundy was

international ( race not nation) but hardly of eq\iality of peoples,

ter the, war a^start was made in a saaller BuropeiVthat

of the West» Attempted economic coordination, for example ( Common
Market), a common "^^arliamentary meeting ( Strassburg), Iren and Steel

Community» More of an attempt then ever before* But the economic

iU^ levell has not been enough: what about common goals and Standards of
/-^'^^ /jA'r^udgement? The spiritual impetus of anti Communism too negative

^ß,^ /v especially with t

nmnnftp-h-Jlnilft»^«' KuFVSj^^ift q.fl Tnft fatnV^ylpmd of

NSTüIons»

De "(?äurie""»^3 tro^ the — nationälist traaiLiuii Of rraiiüU. hel^htened

^^

3ä.

Äeirever rev# impetixs tended, eT9n in the I9, oent-ury, to "be

E^iropean rather then national ( a territory coopted by tke
Rigkt)» Typical: MasEinl: tke reTolutien ( i.e. Italin unity)

vould lead to the freeing of all the pe®ple of Europe» There is

in nwtch nationalism this Icind of tendency.anl we must not ignore

it# This even apart from tke ideal of Korld revolution wkick
ifoiild by its very nat\ire transcend all nationa«

y

mv. Mgl

4.

exile -,and the neccessity to restirrect the spirit of a def eated nation,

^ I * . _ __ ^1 I Ti ^ I ■ I tr ■■» A. . .__ __. ^ . . ^HflhttiA£a^^M^ft«bi. ..^ ,

■maA^a^mmmAUMÜn

Burope ibo him should be not a true *ederation, but rather all nations

-m

ÜMMMtaJSal^

allied tWether for specific purpöses: largely economic* To him, ojf

the older Vilitary generation^Ambued with Prench former glory, this
means that' iiationalism can b^'^kepiCThis is not simply to be brushed

fZ.'-^

• —IM^M

-»^i»'-Vf

aside- rather\two problems/arisei

_J\\ _ • -■ — ■*•'* --

"rXiT can nationa:D^sm~so k^pt be ööhtrolled, kept in limits? The angwer

may well be j^^s, :56r little can be done without the super powers»

It depends upoi

-^ 2# If not nation^li^Bm, what is to form the common cement? Burope after
80 many ceinruries >has no real 1 y common tradition. as sucht ve havr —

Seen how

The

differant traditions have come out of it» Por example,
eland is not merely the centre of Catholicsm but also the

m

)o we theref ore have to go back to nationalism which triixmphed iiL

»*-^

face of insejjigjjy and 3»cilc of traditional forms, in the recent past'

V.^ This is not only a Western "^^roblem - the Communist Bast shares itt

-wlial we eall tho bi'eackii

• meanst^e emer^
gence of the same old and disruptive nationalism which has always been

so strong in Eastem Burope and the B]^cans# In these terms, the West

i

and the^East wrestle with the same^^oblem, the same ''issu«^#^

The unity of Burope, theref ore, has been disrupted two wayst by the

Bast -^est split which is a result of the second World war, and^-a

-'w^MtaMirfB

iM !■« I im.

igiatof power polillmi üumbliieai (»ut secondagilly^

tion of Leninism u^en pooplea..m1n(ini The other split which takes in"
Bast and West is the^'issue of nationalism* It is symbolio for more"^

I ■• ulfcM«»

then that phraae impliest the quest for a security, the quest for

4a*

Here also a common market, common economic and military planning. Under
Soviet controll but here also centri^gal forcee* 1945 -52 kept under
controll by purgee of Comraunist leadersiiip in the eastem European
countries, but after that centrifugal forces present* Tugoslavia

1«'
revolt in Berlin 1953 1 Hungarian revolt and then rague and poland»

Partly troubles of a " revolution from above". But while rauch of

these revolts Gomminist: national Communism vs. Bloshevist Comm-unism,

still. ••

t:

^^^.^^.^'■'^S^

,/^Ua^'

5,

y

i.

roots in a >tapidl3r shifting industrial society and life under

the Atom^Bom"b# It is, in the last resorty a nostalgia for a time

/^MV

when it seemed as if there were fixed personal relationships and

^ -^^^^ govemment and above it, a universe which cöuld be~Txpiäijäed

^,,>.^cc7" ^^^^ some cerualnty* The shock in the !?• cnetury
^ %u>4^^^^ fix

jCu. ^* indiistrailisatioau Much of what we have studied was response

jMrMMMMiM

«MMih«!

üfciiiMW ia>

Ihrti^.

to both. - for, in the last resort, men want not only seotcrity Imt
Solutions whioh are " forever" and fixed» The modern world is füll
CrVmsoluble pcroblems instead, and the end can not be fDreseen.

Ulis aiJil cauBOB» Mut

of a üiytiTnary»

his next tlme^ and more

föfi 4^r ^^f'i^

The pmchant for Utopia is important: there has to be goai; And
we have seen a good many Utopias which govemned mens minds ( in-

it^tmimtm^^

cluding Marxs: h\mting in the moming and fishing in the after-

Od*3y

fit^fi>4'

conöerned With I3

la in fl wban niYi¥4-4'11gation and- always
•^'^''^'''■■""' ^ '"Ti ^-"r" ntTt time nbmit this»

The lomging for happy and healthy world meant for the many
eventually comujunity in the form of mass politics, myths and

Symbols which were traditional, but for intell. the utopia

was decicive ( T9T8: hold conscience of the revolution).

These then are some reflections on the conclusion

of what we have done, others will present thmeselves in your

finals and when yoü have had time to think about it yourselves.

— *_ _— ^

^^emeber: there is nö" end in sTght, no derterminate laws, oniy

6.

n.

mostly human frailties, for history is made by men. egel:
haDiness is not the end of history, the struggle continues and the
end is not in sight. V/hat" was true inl8Ö?>TTas remained true in
1-975 as the only remaining cenrtainitynd safe prophecy it is
possible really to make.

4a.

As Roosevelt told Churchill i "Winston, you have four

.4..- • J. ^M.w'-J*' --

hundred years of the instinot of conquest in your blood,
and you Just oannot understadd that a country does not
want to posess other nations which it could have v/ithin
It'ß srasp» A new epoch of hlstory has begun, and you
will have to confdrm to It«" J

■nfciMiM .tfci.i

^^■^

Final l«ect-ure

I talked last time about the setting for ciiltuire - the
broadening of that setting in the age of the masses and
rapid industrialisation. I mentioned the problems this raised:
above all the reaction to this: the creation of class of seif

conscious int eile ctiials« These tended to be either outside

11 1 ■ 1* I

the academic world, protesting the phillistinism of the present.

tammmm

or indeed the academic elite defending its monopoly of "culture"
and the middle class ideal of being " ciiltured" ( which I tried
to explain last time). Academic elitism subh as ^athew Arnold 's~
" Culture and Anarchy" (1869) - struggle between the party of
salve s and the party of light. The diatribe against middle
middle class philist inism in the name of a Standard of exellence.

That Standard opposed to the mechanical age: a Standard of

aesthetic appreciation in this case. The academic elite,
moreover, sought to defend the old classical values in the

name of an idealism ( inner man, whole mans education) and opposed
all ^educational change»

But the academic elite defending it's status and the other
int eile ctiials rebelling against middle class Standards and
Conventions had one thing in common: the dream of a total
excape fl^om interest politics, the yeaming to transcend the
political mechanism in terros of some Idealist ic absolute» One
kind of intellectiial'^thought that they were " above classes"
because'" free floating", the academios because they were the
custodians of " culture" which unified and did not divide«

They fiCted in with what I^Iannheim, much later, was to call

2.

Utopia: an ideology in whlch present conditions are seen and
judged in terms of an abstract-abefce&^r^future ideal#
It would, however, be wrong to say that the literate public
stood apa;^t here» Exaniinations of popiilar literature sincs«
1848 make it quite clear that on this levell of populärst aste
muoh the same conditions prevailed» Bven if middle class life
was praised the hero is a ereat-ure of idealism and that is why
he suceeds, even in buiseness, The Utopian longings are expressed
in travel literature or in the peasant novel# Positivism made
slight impact here and there are no ^^aratio Algers, for example
in G-ernan literatiire»

There were common ideological affinities and mental habits in

all of Western iJurope. That is the point worth exploring, as
I have tried to do. This is a different levell of analysis
then the equally importafet suclal hlglöTy^ you shoiild laiow
both but we have not been concerned with the latter» For
ciiltural history is a matter of such affinities and attitudes -
and these nust stand in equal importance to other, by no means

negligible historical factors. I am sorry of this has become

obscurcd Cpfr some you« Attitudes towards culture - art, literature,

language - are as much part of ovx objective envlironment as any

stone or tree or economic endeavouro Whenever one or several
men create some outward signs or impriiTns of their private
thoughtö and feeling, a vital element of the historical process
is " objectified'*^ made concrete and subject to analysis. The
study of history iirust be, therefore, in large measure the

Alas, as Lucien Febre remarked i'^iany years ago we have no history of
MreHrüTjr--^ love, we have no history of death or of joy or of pity -
— — indeed of man's sensibility»

57

" ob jectifioations" of mans consciousness» ■fk)r ouV thinkin^ is

an interÄCtion beirweert between our own " subjectiye" mind and

producta of other minds which confront us everywere> This shoiild
be obvioiia and it is this which forms the " attitudes of people"
which leads to their actions«

I have by implication condemed a great deal of the idealist
tradition, especially as it related to so called absolutes
and Utopias# But this view of the historical process we, in
large measure, owe to its Inspiration - especially to that
of Wilhelm Dilthey in Grermany. As a matter of fact, psyvhology,
which Dilthey did not as yet know, has reenforced this point of
view» -

This does not mean that attitudes could not be raanipulated - they —
could be and were, and every ideology we have treated tried it»
But there Kere and are limits to such manipulation« What these
are can certainly be leamt from the successes and failures of
the past» You have shown a certain resistance when I have mentioned
them from time to time: the need for traditional contexts or the

need for a historical framework, the nedd for certain myths and

Symbols, the need for authority» I^ the age of mass politics
tkeee-ÜÄ*5fee-k»ve-e^4e»-feee»-%ke the reco^^iition of these
limits has often been the difference between sucess and failure#

To be su2^, sone individuals stood aside - but like Nietzsche

their historical importance consists in their taming# As I have

Said earlier: the main kind of intellectuals did. not, thougb

authority here can be the tyranny of an absolute or of a Utopia

4.

or it can even bc the categirical imperative • At any rate: the
authority provided by a definite and «temally - that is historically
fixed goal»

The historians task is the analyse these affinities, these
attitudes and to come as near to historical reality as possible»
He must be able to imderstand attitudes which are to him, per=
sonally, distasteful - and we have dealt with some of that nat-ure
like the new nationalism or ( for me) Nietzsche» Understanding
means empathy - to look at the world, at least for a moment,
through the world view of others, however distasteful« This

all important fact - which older men called " historical

distance" - is vital. It comes easier the more one knows, the
more one is leamed« But it is most difficult, I think^ for that
Person who himself is coramitted to an asbolute as a truth which

Stands outside historyo

Ferom what I have said about the human attitudes which form history,
the Problem of consciousness and objectification, it must be clear
that historical analysis is not simple and that no simple use can
be made of history« I personally think that the historian can show

you the problems which impeded Utopia rather then the way to Utopia«

" ' — ^-—

I f ail to see why this should be an unwbrthy task in a f ield were

sucess and failure count, and were, as I said earlier^ to few

intellectuals have, capti^red by a blinding visions, pays attention
to that fact - unfortunatly others did»

I hope that all this makes you understand a little better why I am
so opposed to slanting history to such visionyJThe history of the

4a*

For to achieve the desired objective the historian nrust
be a"ble to exaraine his^values with sufficient discernment

to recognise thier place in a long siiccession of opposed
or comparable committments«

We are aicways going to ask questions of history which are
those of ovoc time, but the answers we give must be arrived
at through such a " historical distance"« History must not
be read backward through the eyes of a Utopia which exists
outside history itself or through a^ormnittment to the
present from which one is>able to stand back and take a look,
We must not role with every p\mch of today - it will make ~

it difficult to "understand the pre catastrophic ages -
difiicult enough for generations who have ^f^rown up since

I9I4.

r

5.

19* and 20. centin'y is, for better or worse, not the histo:
of Marxism, but Marxism nrust be balanced in to all the other
movements so that you may have fraraework for understanding«'
Some of you have not kept that in mind, I am afraid, and I

should have made this point earlier. Per we are concerned^

this term and next with the cultural history of Western Europe

■ » <

which has been both bad and good, and a mixture of all of these»
This depends on your point of view, but there is such a thing
as historical development which, again for better or worse does

not« You can reject the past at your perill but you cannot

— bend it to yo"ur exclusive will» But the more leaming you

have, the more you will be b^le to see what you can do with it»"

I do not end on a pessimistic note - that, perhaps,
should be reserved for next sernester» I think after what I have
said you cannot call it a cynical note eithcr, unless you call
all that lies outside Utopia cjniicism» I enä as I believe a

^ j.

profesional historian should: /that as there is no truth expect

history we should get as near to historical reality as possible»
That we should empathise and analyse from the documents»_That

,. vbA(

.^^'^^^

^0^^^ji^ meano indootrinati-on aiid SWlhging wn;n xne xime

/^4/itr5 7y B^ <'tf^(^

).

^^ih /^\Ji ^ will lead, in the end, to a better world - l^itiin the limitations
L ^^"^Ji^^l^to^. But^^Trecognitionoftil^ir limitations does not,

r 9-^ '., V v^

^ after all, deny comnittment but _directs and tempers it. And

. IJ^^r/'C' that is, I think, as it should be.

Final: given out at end of lecture Wedensday. Only time it is

given out. Back due on Priday in this period«

Staff : meet after class Wedensday#

Final Lecture

It Is dlfflcult to sum up the whole development of ^esW^i Givlllsatlont

W«***M^«NBW«i«BM«i>«MaM

^^ ??®^^i.l^^^« ^^ ^^^^ could be done there would be no need for the
other if lectures which you have had durlng the year.

..^

^"^^Lf^^^^S ^P ^s ca^^ ^ö done, I will do around two problems whlch
have been presistent In all that we have studled: ^^'^'

I. the Problem of unlty In ^«^estern Clvlllsatlon

2. the Problem of freedom wlthln thls wSSSrern Clvlllsatlon.

--«\»-.?*»; ->->-»«»., ,*^-J^*

These are such closely related problem that we must look at them

together; stresslng the problem of unlty.

What seem to have happened to WwrfcSr5?n Clvlllsatlon? It seems to

have dlslntig?;»ated Into a set of mutually hostlle cultures. The
I. W.W. and the 2. W.W. were to a great extent wars of rlvalllng

wer polltlcs. /y

It seems dlfflcult to Imaglne a tlme when Western ClvlllsatlonCfrom

the ^ew World to Russla'^seemed more or less unlted around certaln

baslc Ideas what llfe and clvlllsatlon was aTlaBouT; Yet at least

untll the 19. Century such a baslc cement dld exlsts.

In ^'^dleval tlmes there was the bond of Latin Chrlstlanlty whlch

provlded a common frame of reference and a common Standard of ludae-

did " •^ ^

ment. Thls common bond 4A glve to man a klnd of securlty, a klnd

o^tTQed.omi the freedom to choose the good Christian llfe - though
thls way of llfe was lald down for hlm and enforced by the Church.

Four movements changed thls State of affalrs and provlded the
transltlon to modern tlmes: the rlse of commerce and trade, the rlse
of the Nation States, the Renlassance and the Reformation. Yet at
flrst these movments dld notv^detroy the baslcji unlty of cur
Clvlllsatlon - but only broadened lt.
The RenVassance wlth Itst^humanlsm took In all the Natlons of the West

(},JU^

^Ca^*^^

and theVReffijCDars consldered themselves as part of a oommon and
renewed Christian herltage,

But slowly thls Christian basls of our Civilis atlon was challenged

'" ' ' II—».,.... , *— '

by another movement whlch agaln traixLescended i^atlonal barrlers: the

rJUacL of §r,1.»e^efl luadliig to the "Enllghtnement" of the 18 • Century.

Thls movement took In Franklin and Jefferson In the New World - and

In the old - the Kings of France and the Zsarlna of Russla,

Freedom here was no lonpcer limited by theologv - but by thelaws of

Science or of nature. Qptlmlsm about man waslnthe alr. The great

French and American Revolutlons stressed polltlcal freedom, whlle

the Indutrlal Revolution was worklng towards the bellef In economic

freedpm.

Wlth the beglnnlng of the 19* Century we reach the hlght of optlmlsm and

' — •"^•^■"•""•"-nriMMiM nur -T- i ^-^

llberty: Classlcal Llberl^lsm belleved In the unlty of Western Clvl-

llsatlon: not through theology or sclence - but through free trade
and theTti^rBhip of llberty. ^^se/0e^^T. ^.u ^.^^Tv^ tr.t..

Yet If we reached the hlgjit of Ideas of unlty and freedom: there were

t

already port^nts In existence of a qulte dlfferent nature. The Nation

State had rlsen In power and strength. The 16. and I?. Century saw
the acceptanceof Ideas of absolutlsm and of reason of State. Here

Freedom was limited by the Interests^ of the State. Here the Nation
tended to become a good In Itself above unlty of W.C. andMlberty.
To thls the 19. Century added f^cultural ^^atlonallsm"! The State now
becomes not merely a polltlcal entlty but a *• wax^of llfe"s a doctrln
of superlorlty of one Nation over all others.
Freedom Is now limited not by God pp ^"^ftture but by theVtlemanSs^f

State - and the State Is

.aw unto Itself.

In the 19. Century It seemed at tlmes as If the only Interna tlonallsm
left was that of ^'^arx:/_*' workers of the world unlte".jBut here an

equally Sjtri^gont llmlt&t>lon Upon freedom! hoth thAnT»ftt.1r>fl1 , nQpfip,, ^;^;.

3a-

3mt it Must W cl#«r t© you that representatiTe ^oTÄrnaant Is not, as -bh«
Liltaral» thoii^ht, thejrwy ba»ic faloric of West. Clr. It iias challangtil all
th« way antl Most by itloologiö» whioh took aocoimt «f Man« l»asi« longin^ f*r
scciarity anÄ hope eT©n if thi« »eant an esoap« froM reality an* an cscape from

f

t,^r

T«J# '^^

^-^z.^^t^

The Jcline of ,liberalicnn in the t^tie«), centuxr in,rld '»=^^P*°"«*L«J*''
'aIXeardx for s«curity ai^ son»^ Ideologie^., certitude in a «^rldj^r^^rj^nd^crises.
NatiJnalian ««d'^Manci J^t*«Üd to inany to gire aud^^f^H^ «^ ^.SiSß^» ''^

eertalnty. Uore»™r =«p.ci.lly ^«r «» «■»<• '?rM,'»' "»^ ^'^ "»* Ä.°"
I<irof the mevltability of pix>gre5s no longer h«ld, that mterial things^ffered
no rear security ( ie. ^ and depressions) and so they searched^for_nen and U^r\\

^€ V ir^tior^rutlets andr^SthÄm«. Fa3ci«m and Nationaljocialiam provldedtti«^
Many joliied Marxist parities for such «notioral reasons^as«!!.

-y J^ Many joined Mancist parities ror sucn «noT>xo™u. x^»»«.»^-^-

^f/^^ Thus the ienti,;th centuxy sa. the xdse of totalitaxlan societiest^^re ^thuaiasms
., A" for an ideology, secuxlty .in belonging^to -ss ^^^nts, f eelings of natlx^oal or

raciXi^riorLty^^e put bÄany defirdtion of ^Xf^"^'^^'^^'
jcnown it. ffeedom ^s indentifixation.irith the natio^or^the party or th^race.-

arui f olloning out it's destiny.^5|«,ipelou^^>olitieiai*^!«d^^

••«»«.— - ' -

Miifl^nlinl and Hitler»

^

n»^-.,, -..-«^■'«r:

" ^rfäiwnntaiy

|»»k!i«<#>1»»****^>*#'''^<*"**' •'*'**■•'

•,^"»«.''**>

^chin'^ands case had bec^me a jratter cf nationalism in itself . Franoe irlth
its flnotutai^i^tory, ^ch you have studied/between di^^atorship and a still
live revolutionary tradition-barely survived the onslaughts of totalitarian ideas.
and fron. Vichy to de Gaulle has repeated that kind^of ,AS«*^*^°°« ^ -
T^e härm studierf our historyJLargely in National, tenns. Was that right? As I told
von the'^tyof Western Civilisation had dissolved into Nationalisms and the
survir^ or defeat of ideas of f reedom. waj. in itself bound up ^th the national
..™n™nt. ortStrie». This lies onJifiRof a kindof N.tlonalis«

mmmmmmmm

developed e^^^xywere and, as we have seen, develoged^^ädlarly in manär^ses«
^ so"^ prob:^', oXlabpur, of socialism, confronted all nation«.//International
politics taTWlved the i^ole Eun^pean state System, as you have seenjll alongi
frorMettemioh through Bisn«rck to the *«• and^^er. There is » European

<

h

history as a irhole frhich interplays irith national histopy: thcy are linked
together« A movwnent like National Socialism bascd on racial ideas, in the
end soi:ght to shcd it's national aspects, as Himmler 's SS dreamt of a race
of aryan elite dominating Eiiropc froin ^urgundy« Nothing Gennan about that,
in their thought - just as Communism believcd in tho unity of Europa on

a proletarian basis thi^Dugh trorld revolutionV

Yet Himmler was def cated by the Grand alliance and, as you sair last time. National

aspirations prooved to be the achilles heel of post war Coiranunism» Here again

jfc;»'»^^':?.?"«»^^^

you must see European wide ideas and nationalism work together« We cannot speack
now, really, about a decline of the Nation state»

But "we can speack about the fonning a system of balance of poirer were most of
the European Nations have lost their freedom of actiop, to those two Nations
irtiich, were, urtil recently, on the periphery ofEujjope: The USA and the^SR
and with it the ideological division of Europe into two about Tihich I. spoke
at the beginning» But iThatever greater unity ire might have now: ^rxlst

in the East or Christian in the V/est still -we see oncc more the interplay of

.'^ ••*■. . . -r - ".^- »-"Kf;^

-(^**t ^ V .''^h.! '*-'W^\^

It must have been obvious to you that our story is far from being a simple
one and the meaning -which it can have cannot therefore be simple either. There
are a sct of common problems in European histpry: and we have slanted your outline
around^themi ideologies like ConaLitfaüiiiai tjj^egaliom, ^ocialismj important

•-rr

events like the revolutions of 1848, the irorld wars, - matter i*iich raised
issutfs common to all of Europe« But then again we haT^e had to deal with national
phenomena like Napoleon III. or like Bismarck. If one thing is true about all

of this. it is that politios and issues are contuing things and that no one
event« or ideology with irtiich we have dealt has solved everything: or even come
near to this» But because politics are a continuous thing, the past is, in a
sense "present politics", as one historian put it« Above all I hope that you

«"?>»,

■"■nfei^" I wnjwigm

5»

havB gotten this aenge of history. That is vhy in thia svim&ry I have gone,
at the beginning back beyond even the starting point of this course. For

•■ — •s'ty»owr»iuki.

•.•»t.r'«,r^

*^!^..^**'!^ "^ ^'^**^ *^,^,S5^°'' ^^^3 '^^hin a framcwork irtiich haa
*° t.'?!?!^*^^« ^•«'^ ^•^«^l^ifor him by the kind of histoiy we have
^if.Si?^*'^* ^^* ^= "^^^ outside history no reality at all seems posaible,-

^r—-». ■ *A» w.Nrf'-'iiy«*!*-

"'^iJtS^ff^*» W this I should fUially make clear, many intepretations of thisV
"^"L!^ possible beside6,the one irtiich I my have giTCn you thi^. term.

^i'jÄ^.V.'C

^ Pinal lecture

The unity of Europe was rent in two in 1945» But though the Leninist
World and the West faced maihh other in matters of ideology, politics and

social structure - the coramon underlying problems did give another kind

of -unity: the prohlem of freedom is, in some way "basic, to most of

what we have discussed» Around this I will make my concluding

MÜSlirittiii

remakrs today« Even today - both East and V/est, the people are apt

to evaluate their life by the kind of freedom it gives them.

What is more t^^e then that the " longing for comrannity" - so eraphasised

.;i^;v*;?-

in the fragmentation of relatiosnhips during the industr. rev» conflicts

with a nostalgia for individual freedom?

^latt*-

Final

ur«#

To the Problem of unity which^I raised,.Jtast time , we can add the

Problem of fp^dom - aß-^unifyJ^lg elßSs^t of what we have be«i

BtudyiH^ These

Diily i:

mmmtmaai^

fPT» jr^ti hav9 now onough laiowledge to do soj

It must strike you that every movement we have dealt with was in

»^.„-^ >.^

some way conoemed with freedom: freedom for the nation, the workers
or free trade. But^hTs freedom was always, at once, l^ited: by

the State as the ** highest good»* from the 16 • Century on in one

^ • _ ^

"respectt by the laws of aod and nature in the 18/ Century Enlighten-
ment* Surely it was limited also by Liberalism: the lawsof nature
whioh eventually the laws ofsuccess> But still until the French

Revolution, at any rate, the question was always: how great is the
-individuals liberty as over against state? Here were two entities:

_one/under God or the natural law, the othervneccessary for the

_keeping of order and for the imposing of justice among men#

It must have occured to you that_with the increased presures of

lee Ins"

^U.^H^i^^\ industrialisation and uncertainties i see Inst lectur-e) this concept _
^Äfr^^^ ^derwent a fundamental redefinition by the middle of the 19. Century
'^cSl^- ^^ ^ot everyvfere but in many places. Freedom was freedom only in a group,

man must not stand alone: this was nationallsm on one slde and Marx
on the other - the race, the Volk, the fatherland - or the communlty
of the workers, the proletariate»'

These redefinitions meant another matter of importanoe: a challenge to|
reüresent^tive govemment, Parliaments, which so many In the early

part of the Century had regarded as the highest good - ie Reform Bill
in England, R^ution of 1830 in France, the revölü^iöns öf I84B

{^^^if^i^^^

2.

Vr

1r6n

had all wrltten this'^on their "banners» Bat ^f mens fteedom is

defined by coherenoe with a group then this sjrstem of govemment
IS divisive - it makes for political parties,^class divisionsV

"i •" 1 1 It' '-'-

The redef inition of freedom was an attaok on the previous tra-

dition and the attaok on representative govemment an attaok on

?. .i^.'-«*^*

HMIfe

liberalism^ on an " outmoded bourgois form of govemment" as
a (rerman nationalist put it# C ^^

i^^^v

The totalitarian movements after I9I8 olimaxed this attaok» If

men are linked by race^ natlonhood or common Leninist aims - then

a leader linked to the people can express these aims - withou't
leading to divisiveness# Moreover representative govemment had

proved that it depended on consensiis, that too deep divisions"

ji 1WI afifc

could bring it to a standstill# That it depended, in other words,

upon a universally shared world view ( such a one, as, for

example, Liberalism believed in)» ''^rooved because the Pari*

V^iA^LÖ

who volimtarilly committed suicide between the^wars were legiMai:
Germanyy Italy, Portugal, Austria and in France it survived in

Chaos» Only in England were it was part of nationalism was this
form secure - not only part of nationalism but really furthered
effective leadership ( P»M. can do as he will expl»)

After 1945 representative government seemed to have revived in

Western Europe and with

he concept of ind iy idualism of an

older vintage - i^.-t^position against Cojjarünism and t^fascist
experience» Mt that revival difficpi^^ in Nations Vhich »tili

faced deep divisions. The Third Republic did.^ot sur^be the

/

divisions of the Algerien War and France went to a streng
Pi*esidential Government without any effective checks on the

2a«

or Sharles Maurras in Prance: " ^raliamentarism which, according to

Montesqueu arose in the primitive f orests of Germany, is an engine
of baxbarism - to slow and cuiibersome to deal with new siiruations«
This vehicle from Merovingian times must give way to the motor cax"#

3.

[C\juJf^*^ -^

BcooidonV

not all there is to the classic

representative govemment is still with \is today and with the

crisis of this form of govemment the problem of freedom f or which
it stood^»

KtÜ*

Here once more we face the longing f or sec-urity, the Opposition to

Tmcertainty and disorder in a changing world» Is it true that in

dangerous times men never feel so secure as when part of a crowd

^yf^^i^ ">^"- *•»>* r-^-,

- ^»j* t^-f-

With shared emotions sheering a streng leader? Theis thesis first —
put foiTward in the last yeaa?s of the 19 • Century has much about it

« ^f-

which must be taken seriously»

For the crowd did become a part of the redefinition of freedom and —
govemment: mass meeting the forum of such types of human Organisation

wetheinLn fascism or in Leninism - at least until recently. For when
there is no crisis the older idea of^ freedom seems to^assert itself
East or WestiT

No doubt for you this is another unsolved problem - it would have
been easy to give you answers, a coherent world view, and I would

have transformed you fromstudents into disciples« But this is not,

in my opinion, what the study of history is all about» Many such

All encompassing view exist: you can be an Hegelian, a Marxist, a

Nationalist historian - there are as many varieties as there are

ideologies« Fac^s do' not speack for themselves, but only through
analysis. This means that IfkTa sclentist the historian Starts

with a hypotheses and then tests it out» The test is, of coursey

3a«

The new politics were, in fact, a new religion» Ilen saw the
coimnimity as a reality statiding outside 'reality - it was, for

them a flight into an eternal ideal, into a myth. The connection

with the idealisiii of the romantio movement is obvious. But another

' TIM 1 IMIII I ■

Statement can also he made:

how near it comes to historical trcrth - notwether i*can help

o change the world« Por the world can never be changed ualess we

know the historical truth about it# We do not liTe in one dimension.

Q^xr predestination is perhape not so much of God as of the history

■Mii uri

of which we are all a ^oduct#

Each of you has a long personal history and the history of the

comnrunity interacts with it, defines, gives it the liiiats of

possibilities# There is a difference, unfortunatly, between history
and Utopia - history can giiide yoin in *^hange but it does not guido
you into Utopia. This is not a historical butySST'einotional matter«

„,, . •— »•*..^jt,-'ij*-i

We"live in a world of possibilitieß not of absolutes'» It Iß the
task of history in a special manner to give you a balance - a balance

•«««MM

Which comes from an analysis of a historical Situation ( and every
sitiaation is a historical Situation) through scholarship: that is
knowledge of facts and the ferreting out of new knowledge; as well
as through rational analysis» This means testing your kypotheses —

by putting yotirself into a historical Situation, into the mind and

the aims of all the actors - if you like them or notT^If you want to
change the world thro\igh a pure emotional committment, through

conotont aotiviom instead of scholarly analysis, you will siiffer
shipwreck as so many have done before you» r^^^^J

Lastly, it is quite true, that underalying all of this is, in the
last resort, a vew of human nature» ^n maJce history and not the

cosmic forces of inevitability into which so many flee to find their

brand of SeClJrity» Th^ iHqw n-? hnmay^ nfl-kn-ra fl-t: wVri /^Vi j^^^ ^J■^^^ qt^Svo

through your study wdrll dt^Lurmlno much of your futur(

ihaJLL not

teil

lay what snouxa <^e— oto-1nna: tRat^I do not

5a#

We have seen him fly into emotional security of " higher forces^

with the reaction to industrialism or political frustration, we
have Seen his activism at work, we have also seeS^an attempt
to maintain rationality and £reedom* ' -^^'^T^ • ^-^ '^ ^'

^Ic^/fv

5.

&

History as a discipline has often been bound up with the urge for
changing sooiety: has provided the rationale • Both Marx and Hitler
( ie« Bullock) were avid students of history. But their history
was part of a gener al world viev which was coherent - it had to
be, for it projected backwaMs and forwards in one unity*

»1^'

^t.' «.•<«*.•>/>•.■•.,'»

«R!^.'«>»>3¥f

•»;««■ ^^>tiy,

But the historian as prophet is not the historian concerned with
getting as near to historical truth as possible - a truth which
is pliaralistic - for history is made by men and men have choices

•-.^•••■»;"i».".-i

•••'•- r^»/ii"'i.Ä

• >:-.'-rf»fc>W«,

even within the development of the environment# The problem is
why they take the choices they do? Here concept of hiiinan natiire
are important, and for all fee determinism^^'^^^heories like Marxism

■■&'..• i1s.Va:>«

have a very definite concept of man imderslying historicauL inevi-
tability« The goodness of man (18. Century), the possibilities
which spring out of his goodness. Pascism: the need of man for
activism and security in emotional terms.

These are again too simple: perhaps man has within him all of these
factorsj But you can make up you won mind, draw your own conclusions.
What is important to emphasise here is that the task of

•Ji.^"

±B no'b Lu afelLatii uü buLalf uf au future wlilch

yöTl llkd - with you emotii

Ä«s.l»»i-»^-*-**

tabieir

to confrojQ,t your committment with the world in its historical
dimensions. Confront: for it does introduce a sense of limitation.
of possibilities rather then absolutes: this is not pessimism but

is

.# --v--»* "--^

^•-#* ••*.", »'^v

change must be built

■W«Vl.^»ifc«<w*«

«»--•••^.•~iö(,;

historical realities, and not a blind Utopiani^ jtft also confronts
emotion with rational analysis throu^ its criticism of ideology
and " myths" - which make up the essence of ideology# the consistent

•'»."J&JSl.

*>*ii»!<.rj».

5Ä^

V/e have seen the penchant towards absolutes at work« The modern

^««MH>M»4tfM*MW*

movements like fascisrn and Leninism start o^^t with the individnal

. — . finanr

mmi irmmt^mlM

..- ili^lT» i'Jlw

and then end up with a closed society:-a?eHBt^e85^B Ptobespierres

*s~''-.-i. ^.■_. ,;.v««^M^

^«rt4n«il»Aa(J^W«ä9

-— V*ii»^^-*

i" force nien to be free" still relevant as it was for the acobins

inthe Prench Revolution» This is not only a predeliction of

."A-t^ÄH»

modern int eile ctuals, but, in a sonse, part of the existential

.H.:^':^Xi

dileiiina ( ^ascr.l) mans unrest: he tries to know tkad "uiiderstand

M&K-

everj^thing, bit his reason is to feebTe'to dö~ so, Ähd" cönveht^iöäT
reii^ion in the 20 • cent\:ü?y no longer a haven a refuge: faith no
longer the accepted Solution»

•-<*-rs

•/«-<»«

6.

t^liP

k/,fv^^^<l^view. This ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ «.« u.

prophetic leader - to subttitoite histoi^r To?V5eligion ( f or

Ln the I9« Century) ♦
For to give you a balance does not mean defeating your moral
vxß^ for change - it means no Opposition to change^ for change

-'TtfVir''

is the essence of history» It means, however, a greater chance
for success througli making choices based upon rational analysis

of historical development# Keeping in mind the prohlems of imity
and freedom, which we have spoken about so often - not-temshing

11 -t*»'^--

<*

them nfilrfft in -fQvnny n-P q M-iii j-ng^jar-^«^ I hope we here have

made at lesist some impression upon yo\ar own view of the world, not

tf " » ■ ■ . ' * ' * ■.

by exhortation but by confronting you with an overyiew of the

. ' . • • *

development of modern history^

l'^/i^ E(AP>OPE. AMbTHe MöD£AK| ud&AL>>-7S\/0LüriOHS ÖF ISHt hi-h-

V

*• \.

1848

1848 -

be clear why these series of revolution/ are important; for in each

t

op-^ .

^eading,

part of Europe were they broke out, yiey brought to the fore those
f orces which were to determine the .future - and which had sltunbered

in the fiest part of the_ century/lf you look at the history of Europe

in the great sp^ between the Prench and Russian revolutions then these

revolutions-^ conneot J)oth with the past and with the future - with 1789

and with I9I7«

This I can make clear if I take the main themes which run throu^h all

^A.'-i)-t«jn 'ct.«--» . ' . -D—

■•^^e aj^-biclea you aie leading in Ihb Luuk: the prohlem of the mlddle
classes and especiälly the educated middle classes who led the revolution
In tue first instances: tho ortioloo ofton catoGorioo'^thftm aa " Inlelleo-

^iajal&i4 the Problem of the masses, the-mo% and the associated spectre of
class struggle; the problem of nationalism which plays into the ihter-"^
nations scene. Keep these in mlnd - for not only will I speack of them,"

but keepmg them in mind will facilitate your readingT""^ — '

None of these are jiew, and all of them playd a rolle in the Prench

..ri I 4 n

Jlevolution and indeed in our story up to this point, as well-j-

The mlddle classes had st^ated the Prenoh Revolution, had again triumpehd

ln_I830 in France and in 1832 in England - tkis-w4rave--BeeH. But nw

_in 1848 OÄe liberal expÄPiaettt collapses and s-^ats the cycle of revolu^ -

tlons. In France "^^i^l^^o revival of Jacobinism (■ ao lord Elton

s

) but what was this? Republicanism, certainly, bv now
an almost mystioal faith/that Republicanism would set all right ( we

will meet it again in j870)# Again they were organised in clubs and
again they used the mobs. But Jacobins wereno socialists, on the

-t-

Mfh

M-i'i ^^

4>-*^

.1^ v^

«>#^*

small proper ty holder s -

beratly transf ormed the national Workshops

contrary: they were also proper^v holders, -urhan ppoperty holders,

hoiirgQJBle»^ The quite dell-
an experiment in state

directed work (WPA) into a travesty of charity# The Constitution of the

*<»f

Repuhlic ignored social demands but stressed political freedom, which

included freedom of association# Thio wao tho kind nf freodom which

Constant hfcul blruBübd ( 13kl;k 133) aa " modern freedom'*» T3

to

-litioal pt;würy the uunueru for indivi-diial rather-i;hen

clcfuMfi

-gr,-g-nKta!«Bt

^^''^j'if^ The men who atyatoA 1848 in PranceVwere not so different fi'öm the meö

who imitated them in Central Burope* The Constitution of the Frankfurt

(,e<?^) ^ " * '

Parlaiment was indeed quite similar: individual fl^eÄdom, access to

political power, silence on the social question'j' —

Hone of this is really astounding: for these menHrere classical Liberal»

^y-

V

"TT'' — and we deflned their thought last time, The penchant for compromise.

r\^'/i H "the avoidance of ruthless decision has been attributed to them as

^Ir ^ EOt'c^rffö

f/„.^^ intellectuals/ To be sure the men who sat at Frankfurt were anVelite^

.ndeed the leaders of the Fren^C>^evolution<
To be an intellectual does not mean al3. tMs: Robespierre was an intel-__
lectual and so was Lenin» But these men were liberal intellectuals :

Men who accepted the ideas we discussed last week - men who still
invisaged their fi^t to be with Princes and aristocrats^ as indeed
in 1848^ it still was» They carried into their revolt a mentality of

f/M4^l^

the struggle for liberty against the ancien regime!^ But it tumed out

4. -_.- ■!:*-_=-■-

that their enemy lay elsewere - that was the essential tragedy»

For 1848 brought out the Isolation of a class ( intellectuals or not).

2a»

Individual independence vs» collective mass democracy» Individ»

,w4k»iu«MaMtMMnk

inependence needs to be protected from masses as well as from

inherited priveleges of nobility. Therefore the drive to make

constitutions ( which lay down the protection - ie, qualification

of franchise on one side, abolition of special privelege of Church

and nobility on other)«

But conflict in rev« with the aspirations from below. You can see
this clearly in Erirope in Review: (ruizot fallen from power deplores
democracy as leading to class war - pleads frp leadership of wealthy

and most enlightened ( go together for him - some truth, for they

could afford education)* Extract 148 vs. 149: Louis Blanc: govemmeni:

as regulator of production, idea of assocäation#

But for Liberais s^iäST ässociations would lead to democracy - ie»

tue mass rule whlchy aooordlng- "to'übiYS'fejyt, wöuld make alT'slaves.

"And it were the liberal förces whichVwon controll over ^Ehe

Hevölutions, though they started with collapse of the~irberal Mgime

diirPrance«-

3.

From wfabt? Two elements of the popvilation, The rural element.

^tm 1 11 I i ■'■■■■11

It was this which eTentiially defeated I848v>whioh like the Freneh

Revolution of 1789 was " made In Paris". It was thls whlch Isolated

III Uli Ulli III

the men of Prankfiurt and Vienna from thelr so largely rural siirroua-
dlngs* No wonder that the Fraji.kfijrt ^arllament had no rural or

agrarian polioy» Small wonder that the peasant, often a proprtied

peasant, thought himse!lJ^menaced ftrom the " City % Tor ^"h^ and
this comes through qiiite clear in the reading - the inevitable ~

dichotomy hetween City and coamtry is exemplifiea«

The other element is that of the'^masses« How to handle these? Liherals

lacked the ruthlesness)^ the ideal of diotatorship of Robespierre* It —

^e^V / should "be suprise that their approach was one of persiiasion, of

■MMMTiMnaaAMMW

^duoation - I made this clear last week# But persuasion from above»

6^

For the parliamentsVwere elected by universal suffrage only in

-brance were this meant peasant conservatism. The Frankfurt ParlV

-Was not so elected ( Qorroot tho readliigü in LhaL - Hamuruvy aiial^üls)»

Jn fact they were elected by a property franchise - much as in England

after 1832» ^Vhat does that mean? Political access to Power defined

in Liberal terms: " enrich yourself"t " oulture yourselJT"» iUutJ^C^^^J-
What is new is the awareness o£^ this Situation: the quite overt fear

of class struggle which you have in all these revolutions. For the^p"
wer® truly democratiac uprisings irivGermany, they did not last even
though Tferz pinned his faith in them. This wareness again points to
one of the principle problems of the future: how oan the class

^ " ' struggle be overoome?

^^^ ^^® '^ö" o^ 1848 tried throoigh liberal aji^oaoh, but it would not work»**

*•" ^f"

4.

This is perhaps most Important of all - f or two alternatives

presented themselves in 1848 to the liberal appraoch:

«..1 V

T^L^'

~\

<^' —

I# fight it out and make all one througji a worki

and true equality7 QMiio woo^^Itoray of coutooi but t
prepaa^ed through tho otfaer-sxyQialidms which grew up
PhllH^TgV-ll^^^ral regime lii I8;oties> is^/><t fAr^^^r/»^.^^

^ 2« Overcome class struggle through nationalism* Por

•iWMWMMMbMü^ttab

^/^yjK^

le-^i^^ one, not socially, or in politioal power, "but in the ITaT^ion» This
combined order - so desired after 1848 - witL. freedom asi part of ^

all "were

\

the nations freedom# The soll was prepared here also: yoitontioismy
( morQ nogt time) but it mean'ft a reaction. Napoleon III* blew this
ttme and so did Bismarck» Por here Nationalism could be combined —
with ^paternalism and order - not struggle, not civil war#

Isolated and horrified the middle classes and many liberal

intellectualsVfied into the arms of reaction - but it was a
nationalist reaction into whose arms they fled# The " ne«__

toughness'l Pal m er/ was exercised in the name of nations - ani

Ml

^NMa«hM«a»

irtson quite coi'i'eclLi_cla3s stiniggle was deplored, but

wars ajnong nations were praisedjL ( ^y _

iJJ^ 1848 foreshadows; decline of liberalismf the rise of nationalism
A V Ä j^ to new hights and the beginning of overt class struggle within

are int

x/- /^^^^^ nations - which again hightened the nationalism itself •;

AU ^ ^^^'^

fU^^U^?^^^ The analys

i^H^C c^-^ ^ illustrate

4a>

But even this not so clear cut. Under the Stimulus _of revolutlon

and Parliaments some workers t^ried to Imitate: artisan congresa-
'^^t~^;t~the~säm^^ Parliament. But manifesto-

"reäctionary: back to ^ood old times. The democratic movement

-ßpüt: idea of soled/arity found more in those who wanted to

Protect themselves against what was new then in_non artisan

^type workers.

_Marxe's paper in 1848 ( Neue Rheinische Zeitung) was influential ~
but not in terms of creating a political party, Re j e cted^all

MtaMaMtüMM,

work towards a Constitution, even trade unionism. Marx'and Engels

believed at that point' thatthey couia: still influenae the

Bourgeoisie of the Rhinelsiiid in their direption, Goramunist

l^ifest£;in haste and imprecice: looked differently in everyones

head. Apart from l-iarx there were real but short attempts to

build a workers movement ( Born)«

_The democratic and workers movements failed in^_I848 - very badly.

That is no't were it was at. But industrial jev. continued and thus

by 1859 new and more promising " workers cultural^associations" -

not under Marx either.

••*«« ".',Jfe" "• «inj?

AB.

This also is foreshadowed in 184-8 • "^esitant as the men in

foreign affairs much less so. Advocated a wax with Defamark

for exarnple, over borders of the Gonfederation. Damned the

King of -frussia because as a conservative he really did not

^,f- . ' V •*^ • "^ *■ ■

— 4P

want süö^i an ^ MVBTi1nrre'\ Similarly the matter of Poland,

ivhich Talmon mentions: eagemess to interfere for freedon

9^^ — otu^^ ~T( — ^or Poland, to be siore, but little thought that this woiild

^pLA^

mean war with Russia»

Liberais became easilly " national Liberais" in their majority

.* H'..»^«*''*^"'-^.-*'*

after 184-8 in G-ermany. In Austria •['^ite similarly: for here

*^- , .-* - .Ä* •

■-'"•»?#».■»

Germans besieged ( they thought) by the other nationalities

of the Empire. In any case: attached to dynasties with their
ideal of constitutional monarchy. E«[uality yes, vs. inherited

-*5* *■— «-y- • «-i ^»* ■

priveleges but this excluded the dynasty. For here a safeguaxd^

a stabilising factor vs, democracy.

-Thus Frankfurt, at one time, even supported reactionaty ^essian
ruler vs. his own "^arliament.

These nen well prepared for reaction. Indeed whenever an

'■"^^^'m^-^'-ft

attempt made on ruler s life during revolution, the opportunity

seised for repression and with support of Liberais.

All this means is that their moderate position of constltutlonäT

—' ^f-r ^••-ij^^'

monarchy difficult t o maln^ain and idea of political freedom
Tinder such a System difficult to maintain if ruler would not

r^»c

play the game. Not merely a matter of pressure fro^ belo¥_

—but also from above. Cierman tuestion; Frederick William IV.

of Prussia ■» they were most unlucky. Not only mentally

4B. 2

vmstable but ailso a reactionary ( medieijal ideal of chivalry)
and, worse yet, believed that Austrian Bmperor had precendence
( medieval ideal)» No wonder he ref\ised the crown when offered
iDy Prankflirt ^arl» Then there was no were to g9»'but home.

France the story is of similar disappointments. Napoleon
had social aspirations but, above all, dictatorial one's. Here
liberals could not overcome the haiinting shadow of Jacobinism or
of the Napoleonic i^egends»

Liberals faced not only the social tuestion, the
national fuestion but also the problem of Monarorhs and
rulers which were not made in their image - as Louis Phillipe
had been so constructedo

5. .

After 1848 the coimter rev. triiimphed : we must take the
Word " counter rev, literally here» The forces who wanted
to li«[uidate the revolution. In central Europe led by the

/

consei'vatives who had always abhorred the revolution and
in •^russia^^for example, or Austria, had never lost the
ruler's ear»

They had always attempted to catch up the revolution and tum
it back, Their weapon were the provinces f or they did had
have an agrarian policy - paternalistic, re affii^ing the
ancient links betvreen landwoner and peasant. They also
used the weapon of Christianity: supported by the Pope and
Gatholicism or by the rulers who controlled the -Protestant
Chrurches, Gonservatism presented itself as the part of law
and Order and of Christianity - an integral part of this*

But they were nor t alone, Thet soon received undesirable
allies: the very liberals they had opposed. These now as -
" national liberals" got acess to power; They had kept their
devotion to speration of Ghurch and State, political freedom and
free trade« This went on: here the counter rev* was not merely
a conservative revival,

But this was not all. In France, especially, a new awreness
of the power of mass politics - not just as fear but as opportunity.
That is how Napoleon III • regarded them and here the counter -

rev. vas not conservative at all#

\.
For, if we draw the final balancö sheet: conservative revivaJL,

Liberalimsm goin on with emphasis on law and order, the new
pehomena of mass politics, of mass democracy was now before the
door. No one could ignore it. Conservatives tried: at end
of Century ( Maurras):" the Ipberties which a hundred ^fears

6.

of Caesarism have made us loose, are^the liberties that our
forefathers contuered for_us_i|x^days gone by under the rule
of the house of Capef^^ These liberties were lost.
The liberals also could_not come tT^rms with mass democracy
exept through representative institutions and Pari, were
Increasingly vmäer attack.

fationaliszn had no such difficulties. It becan:e, in fact, the
great engine driving :nas^ democracy forward. To that next ti.e.

f

constitutions like Prl, will only
work of they are built upon a general ^^o^ßensus - but this
ever less true.

v''.

1848

The year 1848 is unique in European history. ^^ever before or sinoe
has / there been such a spontaneous outburst of revolution on the
continent of Europe.*^ It started in Sioil/y in January, ^vere the
KinjT of Kaples was forced to grant a Constitution - at the end
February the throne of Kin^ Louis Philipe toppled in ^rance and
by i^^arch all of G-errmny and Austria were in turmoil. Small vvonder
that Karl Marx who lived thrcugh these years car.e to believe in
the possibility of world revolution.
At their be^innings in Italy and France the revolutions were directed

against oprensive^lynasties . 3ut as they spread the Revolution
varied wi th^^locajL. .Qpnditions o In the Austrian Empire the Kungarian,
Check and other minorities rose a3ainst the "^erman predoniinance •
In G-ermany itself the Revolution was, frorn the beginning, con-

erned with I^ational unity.

What is comiT^on to all these revolutions is the longing for freedom.

But freedom, again, was defined differently. These were not all
uprisings in the nan^e of "Liberalism" • This is above all true in
France, wereVtrFie~7tevolution overthrew a_ Liberal regime.
For the Revolution of 1848 was not only a testing 5round for
Liberal aspirations but also_for thos^e of the classes Liberäiism
had left out in the cold. Ideas of equality and of socialism
were also to play their part/ '.^e can say It best like this :c what
held the Revolutions together was demand for freedom and the oppo-
sition to the Conservative"^ regimes. It was chain reaction, set
off in Italy and spreading throughout Europa fl

To See the interplay of forces in the name of freedom we will first
consider the Oerrcan Revolution were you can see therr; very clearly
in action»

»*«H«»^'*"WI

2a,

But as all forces interplayd with national imification urge,

so did the left« In 1848 Marx and Engels associated thenselves

^,ttmm.fm -mmiA

publicly with the cause of German imification while remaining

true to the principles laid down in the Gommimist League. And

yet we raust remember that this left operated within the

^' ::JlMff >'.W.4

franework of the "bougois, the Jacobin boUgois. That it

thought of the Revolutions of 1848 in the way all Europe

■B*

was to think of revolutions throughout the Century: in terms
^f the French Revolutiono

"Ähd yet the revolution of 1848 proved "är^urhl.ng pöiiit here also:

Xt "disrüpl;ed tlie alTiänce' between~the middle class, the peäsänts"
and the urban workers which had been the basis for the democratic

movement of the French Revolution* The increasingly socialisir

«•■MMhaiMnMMaaHk^MM^

left and i:he bourgois middle cää^s were left to confront eachr

other as enemies.

2.

The G-ernan revolutlon of 1848 was made in the narne of Liberalism

»iVM"w^r« ■■■T^

MttflBl»<«iiin iTlTaiWi^— wWMt«^tt

and it*s failure will discredit Llb_er^alsm In^Central Europe •
The nen who rcade it put forward a Liberal platform; free, Press,
free Speech, free eleotions to^a law makin^- Parliarcent . i^"^\l.) '
Together with these purely Liberal derr.ands the^r pu^ forward the
dermnd for National Unity.

^jntt^aMmmv

Now this was ircrcediatly successful - an all ^err::an -^arliament met
in Frankfurt ( Ä^.) "'coniToosed out of those who favoured the

. ,..„w«,w;-r^iS»u*a

Revolution^ Yet inspite of the i^romising beglnninss it all

ended in failure. Why?

If we list the reasons you will see the interplay of foroes which

the r-.evolution released ( not Just in ^errr.any) and the fact that ^

Liberalism was'^etween two fire«: fron: the left and from the

rir^ht.

I, The ^5£lia,n:ent lost ii.uch valuable tin:e in talk. ^eoause too many
Professors? No, ^ecause of a filibuster fron, the "left". This

left wanted a Republican ^erri:any with power in the people. They

^ t^. .«^4UM«4h*M*MM

u

wanted to overthrow the existin^, order. This ap:ainst the

..'.■iffiat-.»iW -äf ^

Liberais who wanted not overthrow but recons truction towards
a Constitutional I-lonarchy. The left asked how does this Square
with "freedoir:"? For these rr.en equated freedon and-equality

^^y.6v%^ Ai£^^>r" i j

for allY i'larl i^^arx worked with this left and typically enou^h
the hos tili ty of Marx and others was directed rcore to the
"niddle class" Liberais then to the reaction which they had,
for the rror.ent, overthrown* €01^^ '^^^''•f^**^^ JtffHfJ *^( ^ CcJ

2. The fillibuster of the left tave a Chance for the Princes and

Gonservatives to reaisert their power in the individual States.
At first they had thou.^ht that the nasses, rioting in the Strects,

were invincible. But soon becane clear that the one njreat pre-

i

3«.

Bvt tlM raal Ocrau prololMi also äkmmi. Um r«ljitl<m l»ol>tlwi af tk*

s

Cltj a Oon|rr«88 of C^erMan eraftsMn« Th^ nw h9±Dg fosIumI to tlit

^., - ..,„^— ^Ma— MM»» »«»■««■••«"■■'■'■■'■»AM* '

nall Iqr tlM Iniustsrlal nTolvtiOBt aad thalr Mnif^sto •onioMS b&th

CapitalisM aad tte prolatarlaW« ^^1*8 ma a poortaziA for futura atmcclM -
tte saall holter^ eraftaMm^ tha saall balaanaasaan 4iA not look to a

^ßtm

libaral norld tat to a atroiif gcnrmvmmvi lAilok wcnsld protaet tkaa botk
trom tka gronnlxif pirolatarlata ani tka largar eapitallst« Tkaj TotaA
CoaaamttlTa and Mationaliat* Th&j lookad baak to tka pra inAvatrial aM

■ V ■ %

asd iroulA oontiima to io so« Tha IdWral fallvra at Fraakfart atrancthanad
thair haaA« ^ j

\

J^^^ UM

Ua^^^Ct^- ( C./'^'v-t-'

V

/J^^^^

But in the main the llTerals miscalcualted : they never thought
that the autöcracy would breack the link with the nation, or
that the army, especially in Prussia, might gain a popularity
which would enable it to dispense with populär controll ( ie.

Bismarck)

mm

3a2.

-¥e- can also put Jihis in another way ^■^ri^titgiied_bx,„the

xevolutioj

üerman middle class now wanted to return to

Status quo ante 1848 • But_this was to be impossible - for

the foundations of German sociaty were changing: greater

into a worship of strength but above all into a nostalgic
nationalism ( more next time). Longing for the Status quo

in a changing society ( Heine, if time).

3.

requlsit for revolutlop was rcissing! not one aoldler deserted to

^■»«»«■«».«ii I

■ f ■, .V.^.-u~>^-

the x^evolution. Theee rulers oould thus relyon their armleSo
While the ren at Frankfurt talked the Conservatives Y/on out in
th^^ tates. ,

• ^t-»r^=— ""«"Ärt-i-f- tW^*'*i;^Ä-^»»**-.., V^-^ .% .c»- •*.- • r**'-»^«»'.^'»'

/Ü

/3.^; i^^eoause of that the Kins of Prussla could reject the Emperors

Imi'i i.tt«J"»i«a«

crown offered by a Liberal J^arlianient. ^hat offfer had^j)assed
only by a small rcinority anyway. Why? Some wanted Austria in
^ern;any ( ^reat ^eriran) son:e v/anted aRe public, t^Z'^.^W ^ermans"/
only o;ot north ^errnan vote but this vvas a small majority.

It was Conservatism which dealt the death blow to the Parliament

- cnce the King of Prussia had refused to becorüe Emperor there was
nov;here to ;^o. But the R^publican and Sooialist left had helped
to bury the Liberal hcpeSc i i^)
:;hat v;ere the long ränge res ults of this failure?

1. National unification carre without Liberalism: through "blood

2. The G-er^an ir.iddle classes ^^t a fear of the '^rnasses''^ Thils due

-'S

and Iron

" • f ^V«wr»< ^ UJtm^ijU^^ *" H^i^Ürm^'^^J

*-.-iiJ'yiirti..rts-aii»K.Mii»jri.wwrL»,a»i "lnft.fc- Ti«P

■ii'v-Jif ■). ■■■'-■^--'v.-. .■»«.r --'jcv..^,"»»- ■

to the left inspired riots^'whioh tended to get out of hand.

— n inii I — ■! i-Witw aüliwtf— ml '^ ■* f i>i tri *'-*^*

, *Ml»,>M»'>.^1^ -•

As usual the supressive r.easures by the police exited less

attention. |*^Red terror" alv;ays rcore attention then the "v;hite
terror" *^ thou^h in reality^^l^^hing to choose between them.
In ^err.:any then the interplay of forces had ir:eant the defeat of
Liberalism and given impulse to authroritarianisn:: to the strong

».^wa^Wr^A.

n I •>

ir.an worship, -rern:any missed the Liberal boat. If Frankfurt had

■'^•rÄWrf»,' -.-

4v«.a«^

suGceeded ris5 dlV^T^rmany would have been peaceful and it*s even-

t* It*

tual fainViess catstrophic. C <?J^J[M2»5'

CC^

<,fy^^^J

^Kff

In France IS48 was directed a^ainst Liberalism/ Thus from the Jr ^
be^innins the left - the radical forces oould haye free play./^ ^ i.c^^

France became once again a Republic. Not only this: but for
the firat time you have here social experin.entation on a 5£iand

4a.

V

w^

The thlrd ^-^-reat aerea of the revolution ifi n:ore difficult to
analvse: the outhursts in the Austrian Srcpire v;ere connected not

nMMtHMMHMtfhHtitfMMWiA**'

..^*^'^'»'•mtmmm^m

^a0ft«totfH«*Jk»«

only vv'ith LibP^liämiL but also with the prohleir of national! ties :

_Lllli— ri „I i^a 11, >i nUMT^T ** -^^-■,—^.fc^^— »—.■*■

With the (3o ination of the Empire from Vlenna».. The uprisings
in Hunjarv, anion^ the Checks and arrong the Italians conroined both
Liberaliw^.ii-1 and Kationalisn: as the uprislng in G-erivanTr had aone
at first, v;hat l-a^ppened here is not that dlsanpointn-ent led to
a Gwinp; towards conservatisn: ! for bj^ Karch 1848 the £.n:peror had

**ft*.^^k* W^ri^VN»*!»'"**

to give autonomy to i'.ost of bis ^^ubject :;eoples, above all Checks

and :-unp*arians: had to e^^acuate rnost of ^'ortlj^rxLJtel^r .

But here internal dißsension playd irito the band of ^'f.ustria. In

5obeiT:ia the 3hecks feil

vd th the 3-errran population

in Italy the local princes were Jealous and refused to help Piediront

mm0t^ i»»*"»^.

unite the country. Republicanisrc in Rone and ::aple£^ v/as fri^htening

"^ MIHI II " '- " '^' ■■! iL._ *"^ ' »"^'^^mmama^mmK^mt^^t^^^^^mt

to eBtablished re-'-inies. Thus here in the South the old order

r^ii m« 1 I n»gi

restored. Hun.o-.ary, the Rtrongest of the i.dinorities in revolt

^W*-""^ J 9

v;as crushed by RuBsia aiding i^uatria: ivussia af^raid of Liberal

t-nurt

^e:riires ( Kossuth) . L<Srtc /^ T.^j

Here, an:ain, v/hat rernained? A

but also

^»^

a re'Qudation of

nalisr:; unfufilled

;as under liberal

/44^i^

Ai

banne r that these peo

les had had their brief day in the sunT^Italy s

un

stand under the banner of Kazzini*s idea of freedom

_. - - -• ■ ' ^1 III I ""^ -»-4" '•

ttmmm

and not under that of violent nationalisi:i a la G-err.:any >

However In Check, ^. Hun^^ar^ -pan Glav ideas now which are linked with

cultural nationalism.

4.

Scale , Louis- niQne"-^-SRK) irjagg ififtr-q vaans^gri -iri t,he rjg£Lr"-.anl-

^ sation -of -©oo^?K>fi*i.o life in the--ff!rtti?Trai • ft^^ Yet here

^'y?P --

;^'^ ^ t,he Revolution for all the fervour, reoalling I789, n.oved

slowl^r to the rl-:ht, The ^^ational Cruard did not desert to
to the Revolution: here too the troups did not ir:ake corriiion

tmnBig^iwifwm.i inujt

cause with the rcob. Yet the Parliament was elected bv uni-

«•-^V-^Pf-i**-*!'. ■' »^-'-l—J

'■''•'l*?«

Versal suf frage - but this did not n.ean radicalisn]: on the
contraryjeflected the conservatisni of the French CountrysidVl
The^lection of a President- also by universal suf frage, brou^^ht
out a factor already note in vler^any: the n:ovement towards

■<M*iMiMk<

authoritarianism tov/ards the stron^ man as a way out of the
Chaos of ^ revolution, Frenchnien rejeoted the Revolutionary

leaders and truned to a man with a great narr.e : Bonaparte.

Louis -apoleon was elected ^resident. By I85I he had made

hiniself rlictator.

3«4r-i^SpoT

not come to p/)wer as a Conser-

/

his rule op- "Libertj»-" and t)n
that he yas "intuitivly'** the

^'>«MiMae*i

"7

erre) . # ^eyhas ^oe^n
first he i/ld trv^^social
revoZlitionary Ljifi^etus tfirough his
eep it on«/^ventualäy he did

becoiLe opre^sive and rea^io^nary. S^ecially ^cause of his
allianceyivith the clai^gy which >äs opposed to ythinr to
do witjrf hated revgju^onary^e forma, ( Jo^ephine).

Wrij« for 22 years.

I have treated the ^ern:an and French^Revolutions . ^fho others

vQu^lli -r^.r^d .qhnnt in F,^..n. _.a^^ what I have said leads
US to certain important conolusions about the importance

of the Revolutions of 1848.

! !• It did iTiean a^defeat for LiberalisiEo It had shov/n in ^ermany

\

that it, by itself , was not able to solve the ircportant

Problems of the day, The saue holds true of the ^ustrian

EiEpire. That does not rcean that it will fade allto^ether.

3ut it had lost r:;uch of it's impetus. England- which st^iod

apart fror, the Revolutions really { Chartists) - reiiained

-lP------~~^ the great outpost of Liberälisn: in Europe • The US was also

f& f iCot uA^ t'^^^ -) ----vr.---.«.««^ *^.««*«^ ^^j.^ ^^

/ Ji /f ^y^ ^^^y^ ? regarded as such. Indeed at -^'rankfurt it's example oonstantly
^ */]/^ i^Jf>) ^,^^ — o^ "^^'ö lips of the representatives •

2. It rneant for the first tirr.e the apoearance of Socialisra on the

'N^. •'■

— .- i~ y iKirMniiriifii r --■"'—

political stage - the '^left" was be Coming a power to be re-

coned with. even if immediatly discredited (■F.J.J.)
(3. It meant with it*s failure the move towards autnroritarianismf

aHc

■»«■

H^^

Je -^^e

In ^erniany the iniddle classes now feared the "masses" and thus
. nJi^ 1^ loved 'orderX'|.iri'*^Pränoe it led towards a kind of dictatorship
f^^J^t'^i^^^W ^"^'^^^ ^^apoleon III. But here Revolutionary tradition too streng
ifJtUM^'^.. y^ >>» t,o lead, as with 3-errnany, to long; ränge Submission to streng

:-f^^:

mwi' ifj ^-

government. IS70 will see another Revolution.
/4. This turning to streng government was accompanied by a wave
of ^^ationalisra. In x^ranoe K. III. vainly attempted to imi-
täte the "glory" of his forebear. He did this because he
had to - not because he wanted to ^do this. In orerm.any the
issue of -ational unity was alive : the failure at -t^rank-
fürt had only intensified this lon--^ing, now free from
:^ Liberal influences^ Thus -^ationalism is the next "ism"

to v;hich we must turn.

w

IlS ^^0P£ AND ma MOt>£RW aX>ALb-SOVI£r fi£V0LUTIOM N.b

.^vÄEÄ:-

Russian Revolution
Maroh 3f I9I7 inarks the outbreack of the first phase of the revolutlon»
Bread riots in St» Petersburg, followed by a strlke of workers«
Now all thls could have been brought under controll if the army

had been loyal as It was in 1905» But the disorganisation of the

■••'■■•'■ ' ■ ' ■ ■ ■' ■'•

war had sapped that loyalty, and the army iiiade common cause with

w;«,9><* ,w*~«M#*Mrv<»'<^AAai

the workers* Zsar abdlcated. The Opposition was divided, and it

was the leader of the social democratic deputies: the lawyer
Kerensky who gave a semblance of unitj^ to the divergent groupa.

Mach revolution was without much bloodshed. Power was trana-
fered from the autocratic Zsar to a middle class #»»liamentary
governmient« There was no immediate proraise of any great social
change and, above all, no hope of fered to the soldiers that the

*w»il »ii-» -n man ■ — " — ;

war ffiight end.

Again the great question which we have had in all previous revo- .

lutions we have studied: would the mass of the population, af ter *'

centuries of opression be satisfied with a transfer of power which

did not bode sp^dy socjfal change?

And, once more, as with the other Revolutions there was by now an
CJ/^rO/Hj " '

active minority, organised, with did want such a fundamental social
change • The struggles between this minority and the government took
place in the Council of Workers and Soldiers deputiea, which had
been reformed now as it had existed in 1905» This was the organi-
sation of the Socialists« Here now repeajLjgifl t.hftt struggle ^w^b-toin

S^

• partlaa -^M-ftJo-ynu havft all nvfty-gtrrope > On the one hand those

who were pro Kerensky: who wanted

iw - tha sn. galled

leviks; on the other those who wanted no compromise with

the existing Order J tVie Du
\/ loot

Now in the Soviets the

■oot Qut: and th« Bolshevlks came to dominate the Soviet«

fuj

Now here the radicals had an Organisation at their disposal, and
thus Lenin' s Slogan V* all power to the Soviet'T)

/

2a,

The essential ideaS; of Lenins were a revisionism of I>Iarx as Ihrx

had evolv_ed hin thought. lenin went_back to the K^vx ofjhe ß^nmx-

nist I.iÄfeifIst^elescoping_of the hourgois_controll and the

proletarian revol^;tion. Denied „Iferx ' ^ 1«^^°^ from, IS.4S-: that

the bouxsols^"'class must B;et controll _f irst and then only can

you have the proletariaii revolution. This hefirmed through

his belief that Imperialism was dying Capitalism: Monopoly

Camtalism inthe West was dying of ifs own internal contradictions.

Thus Western power had little reality f or him.

Moreover in ano_ther hasic revisionism Lenin saw the agrarian

elements doing what the ' proleta^ite ( urban) was to do for I^laxx.

Practically, however this led to sorething 1-Iarx, with his
faith in the raasses, had never really done: Identification of

• - '

the Glass conscious element of the working class with the
.rofessioB^n^^utionaries - who must be placed in undisputed
controll oveT^i^^T^vement'U. Russian fact that the intellect^ls
had led-'the 'socialist movem^t from the ^oeginnin|^-^^ the populists ■
that in the wen^tTefined and smallish ^oup theVbattles_ had been

>F

f^ *?

fought oirE^

i

This

n

revLsionism" led to several resuts:

{h^^^^)

Fall time payd party worker# Moreover movement: spilt^ split and split
fffi^y^*^ uötil faction winnowed out which would follow his views, Manipulative

t.'/^^

^7^^^

and organisational emphasis»

;^i'v^^'^'"^

».

A

«^

^ü^

(Flrstly, W have worked out a new approach to the tactlcB o:

I'Jarxlsm an

secondly, to have a;

'-v<.

ifeä;iE^5:n C^^'^•*•^^''^

:i

M^i

(Se-''

pfl

Lenin toook as his ^Int of departure the period of the "Dlctatorshlp
^ Of the -^roletarlate") and stressed its neocesslty a« gver -a^g^nst
' thfl sraduallsro of the PlncLftl £>oinooratfl^ He blamed the failure of

the •''arls Commune on the fact that it had not crushed the middle

»«MWMMMPftW

•'(/<t^

classes, "but compromlsed with them, This Dlctatorshlp was the
^ "Organisation of the vanguard of the opresaed ( -^roletariate) ''
for the purpose of crushing the opressor"^ After that only true
equality could irake its appearance. So far he merely underlines
ideas of the Communis t ^'^anifesto of 1847,

But he went on to reallse that as F:arxed used the terms "-^roletariate
and "Gommunist" they were not precice enough spelled out for the
purpose soTVfevolutionary action* He therefore conceived of the
Communist pa^f^y as a body of class conscious and selected workers
and peasants. Fror, this two propositions follow: !• not all can
he adroltted to the party> There must be a s tri et probationary
i/period. 2. Communist patry so made up led: its decisions must be
final on all points - from foreign policy to art and music«

fi

Thus a pattern established itself which was to hold sway in the
Soviet Union« ■'■ssues and events may be critices freely - until
the jafry has spoken« Then all criticism must end. and all disou-j^//
ssion.. ^j o^ Ü^ ^T"^ ^4M:^^f< ^-tiLÄt4ru/ii ^.^ ^^ HjJuj C^)

By thus revital ialng the Communist idea of leadership ( dictatorship)

Lenin translated ^'^rxist theory into revolutioaary fact^Crhis
practical bent of Lenin s mind^shows itself agaln after the battle
was won. Then once irore adaptation of Marxlsm to the realities
^^ the Situation ! to practical purposes, The permitting of small
ownership biT merchants and by peasants - so as not to disrupt

2.

Now It was Lenin who came to dominate the Bolshevlks and thus

to spearhead the attack agalnst «^erensky.

Lenin, like i^erensky, came from middle class stook - Indeed Lenin
came from the aaall hereditary nobility, His parents were what me
mißht call "parlor pinks", but the sons were raen of actione Lenin' s
brother was executed for conspiracy against the Zcar.
Karl Marx had diää in 1883, >^hen the young Lenin was only 13 years
of afte* But Marxes works had been translated into %ssian, before
they had been translated into any other^language and Lenin steeped

mm\%*imt^;%mi'm ' iiaihai

himself in Marxist thought« Soon he too became emeshed in» that

revolutionary agitation which never slumbered in the Russia of the

Zcars, This meant exile, and a return in 1905 where he became

— /(^ 4- i^^hi<iii^\^if^ - -~

acquainted with Trtoxky who^then led the revolutionary wing of

■■MH— ■ I iii^«»*iy»i

the socialists«

Then exile again, and not retum until the ^mrch revolution had been
five weeks old. But these periods of exile prooved all important to
Lenins life, On the shores of lake ^eneva he read and became acquainted
with the politics and Standards of life in the_^est> It was he who vi^'H
to encourage later the influx of bestem experts tojDuild up Russian
Industrel and to construct Russian Cities. There was with neither
^enin and Trtttxki any idea of the iron curtain -^^ on the contrary«
Lenin wanted to use the ^est to build up the new Soviet Union, and
wanted in turn her example to lead to world revolution in the West«

The isolationaism does not come until the Stalin period: who
thought in Russian terms only« Lenin thought in the more interna-
tional terms of a truer ^'^arxism. But exile not only widened the

1

X^/ horiion: ex^le ulso led to study'a

,to a working out

of the revolutionary strategy and tactics of Communiam; something

which. in tum. was to have momentous consequences for Russia and •
^_— — — — — — ^__ ^ - ^

5«.

\

But dictatorship of Proletariat« led rtally to a still aor«
fundamantal point« lania in I919J prolatariat« oust orarthrow
tha dictatorahip of tha boiirgaoiaia. To do thi« it auat «aiza tha
atata - raault a prolatarian atata with hiararehy, cantraliaad

and with all tha attributas of a atatat poliea, amy ata. Thia
he «tili eallad " prcTiaional" - but it did raia« th« qu««tion
of th« with«riag away of tha «täte in whioh Marx had balierad,
The prorisional, a« a fact, ramainad tha permanent.

3^).

There was nothing " neccessary** or inevitable about the

Bolsheviks seizure of power - is their was about the fall of the

Monschy - nothing in Russias internal sitiiation which demanded it»

This was " coupd' etat" along the lines of professional revolutionäre

■ ■■ .11 m ' "I II ■III "■ nwii II I

conspiraoy. It could not have been orought off in the V/est any more /
for those coimtries were t^ highly organised for such a take over«

But Russia was not. Moreover the peasantry had to be revolutionary

f orce to back up the proletarian take over - that it was not in the

West any more either»

This then led to idea of the " revolu.tion from above": both in

iij.de ology and in Organisation. G-reat constrast in the V/est not
only with social deraocracy out also with left wing intellectuals
who believed in the masses and democracy based upon them ( i.e.

Rosa Luxemburg). Cominimism in V/est became Leninism - in a 3 way

split of socialism.

/ li^'i^^i^ ifif^4\y-^^ '^ T^^'*^ ^^ « ^ >^^^*>^^ l/-^»^^^: r^^xZc

the economy. The Idea of ^^ o«e stepj^forwards, -bw« steppt« backwards";
Thus we can say that ^enln had a certain flexiblllty of thought
which did not Eiean es sential comproislses > All thls a matter of

"tactios" and it Is In the working out of these "tactlcs" and ^ K
In ImplyAnentlng them that his sucoess lay. (^^V^^'^^f^ 5 /-^tiK/^'--^^''^'^ J
In I^iach, I917 thls meant "all power to the Soviets" by now Bolsh.

Ml^aMMMMMMMMaHaMaMM*

doffiinated; it meant puttlng forward the prograinii: ojK*' bread, land,
peace*' "^ which offered to each class of the workers and peasants

what they had longed for. ^^^ ZI 77TN

Kerensky in power could not compete. He was coEmitteci to tne warW
Moreover Lenin' s attack upon hia came simultaneously with the
attack from the adherents of the Zsar, which took the form of a
military revolt under Kornilov» Cuaght in this manner between two^
fires ^erensky could do little; he was papralysed»
Now Lenin Struck. October, I9I7 issues in the final act - again
without much bloodshed. The Soviet simply declared the government
of Kerensky at an end« And Iterensky un^ale to get soldiers from
the front to supress the Soviet ( Communications again) had to
surrender. These are the<^"'-^en days that shook the worid" (John

■ >

Reed^ V or better that were to lead to it*s shaking.

. ' ™

.^ Immediatly they settled little. Only Petersburg and some of the

^j.\^^o jniajor Gities in Bolshevik hands. Russia now plunged into a

^ ^^^^ Iconfused civil war. There were the "Whites" in alliance with

f^ .jrr,J.*^\vcie allles who landed at C-dessa to establlsh a "second front".

^^ f^jT,.^^--^

aj^ d ^ There were the "greens** - the peasants, confused, like the

^^ .b^ /"^reat fear*' in the French Revolution .^It was Trotaky who

Q^>''^ h jf] won the Civil wat for the Bolshevik ( French fleet and red f lag) •

using all sorts of techniquee.

^ * Ry the time Lenin died fI924) all power was in the hands of the

jr ^-^-^ — ^ -^ •

Soviets. The revolution had been successful«

^mmmmm

'^What was the effect of this Revolution on the rest of Europe?

0\t

^

(^

5.

There are tHOca immediate «ffectal: ('*■" ^^

?

(l. foundlng of Communlst parties, held together In the thfttd

/

International. In other words it encouraged the revolutiona
wln^ to split from the 3T). parties ( l-,e> Roaa LuAuiiiljur^) ♦

S imultAnenuflly att.arnpt •*•-" t.fl-ke power: thua-^^volutions in

Hunsary X^ela^ Kim) 1n Bayarla ( Comimynlat Republici in
Pruaaia__(Spartacists) and in Poland» The Russian example t*ru]S
from the very beginning raised the spectre of world revolution
in which Lenin and Trotsky believed» Result "red scares" in
irost other countries,- including the USA.(Paliiier raids).

f2t The attempt at ersailles to block Hussia off from, Europe,
about which I have talked already^ ^^^^^^^"^^ Sa^'^Wj
Now that second attempt could not really in the long run be
successful. Indeed the breaok of the isolation of Russia

came as early as 1922 in the treaty of ^apallo. Here ^ermany
and Russia made an agreement which covered not only trade, but .
also the Beeret training of ^erman troups in Russia. Thus the
the Chief defeated nation and the nation which lost most at
Versailles got together. Shows you again how Versailles could
not reestablish a balance in Europe itself . In the end Russia
Joined the I>feg4ue of NationB»(I934)

Rut these events also had repercussions within Russia itself.
It was clear by I92g that world revolution had not happened,
and that Russia ir.ust once more become a ^^ation among others.
This the more with the rise of N.S. in G-ermany and it's con-
Btant threat to to the Soviet union. Here alliances with the
Kapitalist powers made for more security then reliance on the
T^ird International 's Communis t parties which had, so far
failed in the »^est to get to power* ^^

y

5ä.

^88u«s of Western Commimlsn ts« '^•aint m« deaoeraty ( L\ix#mb\irg|
70/71) b« BAtioaalism ( ^•x«an CommtLnist partyt ^adak, eumann)
But HussiAA eontroll ostablishod tkrough piirgos throughout tho
I920tios«

6..

Such reallaatlons läy behlnd Stalin* a ascendancy In the

government and his viotory over Trotaky: the old llne Rev.
Stalins Idea to bulld Coimiiunlsin first in Russla was almost

mmu>i^im0ammtmm

•mnt

one of neccesalty» For Trotxky It was the betrayal of the
'/^ Revolution as he and Lenin had seen it« For Stalin it meant

:'/

A. ,.*>-.^.'*,v*«in.V.-iW-V

(e^r^'J

two things:/encourasing of populär fronte* in Western I^ations
Just as Russia was collaborating with Kapitalist nations.

r
^. f*i^i/*^%t meanV^Pisolation of Russia as a "Soviet Island** in

i*>>.

a Capitalist sea - but this not really until the inurder of
Kirov in 1934 and the resultant purges. ^ Gollaboratlon with
Kapitalist ^^ations in International afaairs, seeiped for Stalin

— *" fk^^ff^f^r^At — ~^ ^^^^^^ ^ ^ TA/^ ^^ — ^"^"^ —

^ mean tho dangor of— Subversion äTT höine, -^o thi-f»--waÄ_..a^

the growing fear of N.S. until 1939*
But here again a problem; rest of the world was not willing to

accept withoutreservation this chan^e of line. Sn^lAad's
^vllle ChaiiüberJrJrn draamt of a war het.we^n N'gji_5I?_^ Russia

■kM««Mk«H

Now it is obvious that tha^ the Russian rev. cast a deep shadow

. ■ — - - - ^

urfimn— rti

over Europe.j^hat shadow was deepened by the disoriaientatlon of
the intellectuals as a result of the war^fTo them I9I8 was the

«"««MMMMWi

end of an era - and what was to come next? (Vers, disull« if

yr»0tmmmm

tinieK To the cultural consequences of the war we Eust come

next - to the generation which called itself the "lost generation" •

(^ ^^-Jf>j2.J^

*•> '■«■»••••«•i^i«"

t<^t^^ V

q^y.^1^,uC'uu^ '. ^^U?^

0 /l/A.M_ ßutU*rA^ ^^'/^

K,^^

^ussian Revolution

. March Revolution Kererißky

2. Lenin

3# October Revolution
4, Effect of the Revolution on International relatlons

j<0 (^^^^jJzJ^

Rfitpa^Llo

Aid«d by a chang. in tha athmoaphara batvaan ItW^m Oetobar
1917. At firat no doubt idaaa htatanity, p«rl. deaocracy and
uniTaraality dominant. Togathar, aa ti.a want on, with tha
raal appaal of anarchist idaaa. Aftar auah a aomplata opraaaion
( stata and Chu»kh) workara and paaaanta in a parmanant stata of
mobiliaatian and sami ohaoa, Oppoaition to eantr^iaatian.
Than: Komilor pntak of whita Russiana, Taranaky govarnaaB*
got tha powar» but unabla to asareisa it proparly -^abora all
no conclusion of war. Most important: bacausa of f^lanaaa of
cantral gorarnmant, locally prolatariata had alraady bagun ita
dictatorahipt sokiata locally diridad land, saiaad ahapa and
thamaalras aold agricultural produca. Bolahariks only onaa
now whose actiona had baan conaiatantly diractad against tha
iiquidation of tha old ordar. without coalitiana and compromiae:
towarda thia all ravolutionary forcas in country wara tending
already. Thua dafanaa of rarolution äallad around bolshavika.

/

:\i

aw Marxist theory, But workers also organised in practiöe,
äs wecsaw on Priday. But important: part of a government?
Unheard of, and yet now also a fact: ^aris Commune, connected
with events in France: defeat of 1870 and the founding of the
Third Republic afterwards

Section this week
no lecture Wedensday
6 weeks Friday

/^

^4^; ^ww/ ^ /^--'^'^

(/.^/i^ f^^

'^^f'-z.e^

J

Foundlng of tha nilrd Republio>

The oollaEse of the second Empire at Sedan lad to the foundlng of the

Thlrd Frenoh Republlc whloh was to last until 1940«

No one. In the days of the collapse, could have foressen what was going

to happen to France • Only one thing was clear: the Emperor was a

prisoner of Prussla and the Empire was past.

In that Situation those who had opposed Napoleon came to the fore«

Here, again, bound up with France's recent past. There were those

who wanted a Monarchy back on the throne, a Bourbon Monarchy: who

I Wim ■■WM

wanted to go back of the,revolution of 1830. Then there were those,

less numerous, who wanted a restauration of the ^rleanist line: a

going back to the days of Louis Philipe 's Monarch: finally, there

were the outright Republioans - who upheld the tradition of 1848

and of the Revolution.

The one man who could, at that crucial moment, reconcile these divergent

interestß was an aged politician whose lige had spanned much of French

history of the 19, Century: Adolphe Thiers^.

At seventy Theirs had made a come back. He had been a minister in the

reign of Louis Philipe, were he had alientated vast sections of th#

Population: financiers by his tariff policies, Indus trialists by bis

ridicule of railwyas - and finally, the workingJtn classes by his part

in dymami ting the social experiments of 1848.

But under i^'apoleon III. this Orleanist minister had found his way back

to a kind of mild republicanism. He had increasingly become the spokes-

man for the permitted Opposition under the Empire. But this ancient

and wieo polititian had never oppoed the legitimists either. So he

was safe and it was he who now proceeded to negotiate an armistice

with Bismarok.

i.

2.

In thse neffotlatlone Blsmarck got 3/l.^„Al8ace Loraine and an

Indemlnty of 5 blllions.

ThU8 the foundatlons of a unlted aermany were to be l»lliJ£l.only
upon a war agalnet France, but also upon her partltlon. ThtTTüTO^tlon
o^^-ar^ilted Gerimny -iwrsnt not only--fehat ftflnnany lierBelfL-aw*-fe«^W"
tl4A<me<ib-aV-bh»-Iffl^r^ tliat France auül be pux 111.1 nnan nt tho VHiBf^es»

If thls settlement was hardly in tune wlth the conclllation of
peopler, the revolutlon In Paria whlch followea^^id not help the
conclllation of social classer.

That revolutlon had two thlngs as a background«
6. the flve iBonths siege of Paris by the Prussians, in the hardest
Winter of France. Only outside conanunlcatlon was the balloon.

rats and mlce. Result: great upsugge of fatrlotism cojnblned wlth
Republlcanlsm, always strong In Parl8y( 1792, I848U Working man:
^"they won't dare to come now that we have her".. Thls contrasted
wlth the actlons of the newly aeeeabled elected ^^ational assembly.

Vfhy?
2. Thls assembly was overwhelmlngly Monarchist. Why? Because the
Konarchlsts had presented thecselves to the countryside as the

party'of peace.' The Republicans seeiLed_the Parlslan party of war.
r^'^.''t,.^Th^ the assembly acoepted the armlstice - but went even further.
'^'^V^ passed lawB which were antl ^ariilsn. Made Versallle Its HQ.
'^iß'^ ' enabled landlords who had feld during the sige to collect rente,

ended moratorlum on debts. Flnally. Thelrs declded to dlsarm
Paria by dlsarming the National guard (•:-^^Jfc»cann9au s lnao«hiaU

Thls fallure meant civil war: and thus Starts the episo^of the
Paris nommmie ( I870/I871i It was to be something new in way of govt.

"what was new was not that here a "commune" ( City ^^^'^^^
absolutely: but its oomgosltlon. RepubllcanlBm now meant agiin aocial
reforms, as it had in 1848. Hut we go a atep further: for thejirat

\

3.

tliie members of the workinp claseea actually were part of tbm
government« The Commune was governed by an assortment of people:

fc . .■*«-:•-*■ ■

there were IT. aemberiröf the flrst international, there were
anarchistlc soclallete (

mmmmm

LouIä Blantrt, there were even
80»e who called themselves' '•^arlbaldlan". However, there were Juat
as many white collar workers, intellectualß in the govemment«
Nevetheless it was something new« Karl Imrx hailed It " as a great

deed for our people •> Indeed official pronouncements did sound

the knell of the olass struggleu" It is the end of the old govern-
mental and clerical world, of militarism, officialism, exploitation,
stock Jobbing, monopolies and priveleges, to which the ^jJbletarlate
owes its servitude and the fatherland its misfortunes and disasters.^J

: 8 tr ong

Reality was dif f erent ♦ The Gommime d

unions took over the factories and industrles\ On the other band, the
fortress of capitalistic flnance: the Bank of France, was left undis-

«

turbed» But then the seiaure of power never oomplete: always Opposition
(ie. Clemenceau)» 01:d radiealA--aike-Xauie Blaiiü^-were on^^^t^

mg l*^

ocna^rvative of today.

But tlme was running out. The forces of Th^if and the assembly invaded

• — ^^^^

^^r'^^ the City. Fighting of unparalleled savagry. Royal palce of the Tülle ries

^/^burned the ground, 20,000 Parisians perished, The Oommune had lasted
1^ {^ tW0 monthß. The class bltterness was to last longer*
.(c*^ Once again Republicanism was an issue in France: and this time onoe
') j^^^^ more^ connected with the quest for social Justice ( as 1848) • But
^t^ immediatly discredited, and it looked as if France would get a

Monarch once more, The Count of Chambord was waiting, and he had made

a deal with bis ^rleanist rival. The Royali st s, apparently, stoo# united.

It is at this point that '^Therirs rises frpm the mediocrity^ which
seems to have enveloped hlm most of bis life« He realised that a

iV'

mt^i^UfUki^^^tmm

5B.

It is true tliat as Marx said in a prolamation to the Intern,

Workingmens association: the Commune abolished standini; army ant
police» He thought these the two chief propos of the ancien

iMi*nw"

^regime, ^riests were " sent "back t© private life" and education
was opened to all free of cha^ge. Unions took over factories:

emancipation of lahour. All this Iferx saw uprootong of modern state
power and bourgeois das s rule, But there is another reality: that
of ineStectiveness ags.inst

^ C^tyvu^^

^H^

/H^i t'^ C^^-^ ^Kn^ ^fPt^f.^

T

A4e^ S^^ ^^ ^r

^yyio C^v^^H/^cr^ ^ "U^Kk i<^'x^H . ^•**^ a44i^ /yf ^«^

4..

Monarchy nov would dlvide Paris f rom JP^rayDoe , Instead of healing
the wound»; He took advantage of Bounrbon prlde ( Chambord ref used
the trlcolor^ to pospone the Issue. ResultJ he hlmself was elected
provlsional President by the Assembly« Not untll 1875 was the
delloate task of meOcing a Constitution attempted: and then it was
a Constitution whioh would allow the substituting of a King for a
President. ^^^ ^ ^^ z^W^/fW

Basically this beginning of the Third French RepublicVtook into
account, tacidly, to be eure one great fact of French experience.
That the only feasibly government in a country so split as to the

^ 'AVtV^f^ 6r~

nature of the executive was byVSlrecC democracy« That Is to say,

III— ■iw«|iiiii»»T'T' I »Ä ,i. • , ■■•■-..., ,s, . "

by a representative assembly with a tenderly balanced executive

with minimum powers« It was the application of the thought of

the Philosophes of the 18. Century, broadened through revolutionary

experience«

This is the basic reason for the balancing of the executive, which
has Eeant frequent changes of governemt in the 3» and in the h.
Republic, As The8.rs relised this kind of direct democracy was the
\ "govemment which divides us least"« ^ Inspite of the superficial
aspect of instability: this was successful« If there was no real
focusing of responsibllity ( Pres, 7 years, elected by Chamber &
Senate; Senate indirect, Chamber direct« Problems here ) there was
also great feeling of Opposition to dictatorship ( shadow of N.III.)

Well ilstrated b^Maj^hsall K^cmahon, President ( I873-I887).
A Royali st who want^dr t)» do what Louis ^^apoleon had done and deicanded
the power to d>«rmis8 miniVbers. Dissolyed the Chaaber without its
own consent. Suffered efeatV defeat and had toresign. The presidency
was iiöt to be the stepplng sto^e to a restauration, as it had been in

WW IIIM

I85I« The power of the representatives had been vindicated*

5. C//l/fV^^ ^^^f^

The Problem obvious: iinspectaculaXp bogged down din Pari manoevree»

Discontent became general: Boulanger episode. 1887 -1889. Here

a charisrnatic G-eneral» A stalemated Parliament. Resiilt an Opposition

.j^^aiOL

which was " against" Pari« the politicians rather then " for"

««»a^i.

anything« A longing for a firmer nile« Became a mass movement:
cross class: bo-ur.":eoisie and socialists looked to th.e ^eneraJ."

..t».«. * ■^»•-^ ^t^t

and his platform: stron^executive and plebescites« Bat platform"

., -. .<* * f i^*MA-y^\-*m .

really eecond» Most euocesEsful hie nationalistic appealf --^^ — eneral^

revanche" •

Dangerous to Republic because mass movement, Now intense propanda,

-:-7-j.-ir.«.',

from match books to songs, to demonstrations» General as Christ,

V ■ 1^ *'"' — — ■ • — ' • ' ■ —

cricified by the polititians« Yet, nothing came of it: Boulanger

no dictatorial ambitions really: hesitated the one raoment he could
have seised power« i^e attempted Organisation: but only for his

.^«•«y:*

elections in different parts of Prance« D^ifted to the Right, to
royalism eventually - finally^tried to save movement through

injeoting antisemitism« But it was no good«

XX

Reason^ ass movement not organised stringly enough, no explicit

ideology again exept " revenge*^"^ a long ränge goal only« But

building in Pari« impotence Boulangism first real cross class

mass movement« Points to the future - In G-ermany but not in

France« ^wallowed up greatest crisis the Dreyfus affair« (1894 -

I90Ä)« This tirae the mob organised by both sides: terror was

pärtTy successf "ul« esuits organised anti DreyfüsaTds , others
for Dreyfus« But anti Drojrfusards tried strenger methods of -

Organisation this time: cadres and absolute leadership« Their —
ideolo^ not only nationalism but a specific antisemitism given

v

■,*»»

.->■

9^

(•

strength. not only be vague ideology tut ^7 the evrish Gaptain

and the collapse of the Panama Canal co, in which Jews were

r)

. f,m,a.

proniinently involved, Moreover intellectuals attenpted to

\mder Boiilanger). Barres, I^laurras •

Out of it came a strong Gatholic and Rightist Organisation: th^

Action Francaise» It v/ill last and influenae especially, again^

Student youth. ( Oaused first University riots in I3_00„vs.^^ P^
who had slurred Joan of Are - shut it dQwn)>

Yet the Ilepublio triuinph^dj^njbheen^ rionarohims and Gatholicism

suffered. Separation of Church and State in France (1904) the

outcome. Thus stronger Republic but also an Opposition on the
Right: Action Francaise: monarchist, Gatholic, Änti semitic arid
a mass movement - or at least attempted to be. Here something nev

äs irellv

The battled were, once again, fought out outside Parliament* But

•>■»«';•«« V

it was Par iiament whrch , ' in""the ' end , chääpiöned Dreyrüs"änd~ it" was ,
once again Parl.^which won. The arny could have nade a coup, But
it did not now, as it had stood aside during the Goup pf ilapoleon I
Unlike the öerman army, the French never playd a dedicive role in
French politicsa

msäjmii

7.

We must conclude tliat the Tiiird ßepublic had real strength iDuilt

~~ ' ■ w^ _^ ^^-^Kmmmjm/^r^ — — — ■

*««'.«. ».'V^ .-^'4 •--

in - because of it's wealmessa Por one thing: always good

administration through the building of an elite, through an

jl^»>»^iMtm *^ *«f ■, «R. «. j

eilte System of education^w Thus tur$ over of governments did not

matter so much and gave füll play ot individualism, to that
-factor so strong in¥rance. ^-^t^ ^^^'^^^^--^-^^'^''*^'^~

-The vforkers had joined in with Boulanger bu-t had, for the nost part^
-stood aside-fi»om the^ aceyfus affair* Jihgb:t-%hen about their growingL_

ri.

F, • ij*» i^ *>"^

con^iousness vrhich we"saw in IO40 and in the Commune?

/^x>c ly^ 4^*4^j^

/U-U/t U U^ ^''^y^..^^^^ e~^ '?Myn ^ w^ v/^ .

tkm a«tml e^TwniMmt um baäly dlTid^A uA that ms irhr to llttl« nu
aetmaLly «•co^^llsh«4t tto M«t um to trlgjxUn tk« b#tirc«L«i« all •rw
^txrof. IÖ48 kad «•m la IVaaM a »ocialiat •XFttdMat ( national Workihopa)
aad 1870 wir oIms aoMeloua prelaiiariaaa at tha halM af a corarnMat -
•Taa if it UM Jaat aonflaad to Paria« CIms ooMcioM tkoao aon mro^ tkornfk ^

7

1^,

^^^ »•■• ™3^ orthodox Marxiat» • Tko aajority nore a «ixtaro of JmoMa rorolationary
f orroar mA doTotioa to tho OTorthroir of oxLatiiif aooioty. Rrfolwtioaaiy

raäitioa atill aliw. 17 noro Mabora ©f tko I^^ntoraational norki»« mm
aaaooiatiom aad som jMt oallod tkoHolTos " C^arikaldlaM* • Ikito oollar

{^'^ norkori and intollootaalf loro alao jart of tko coTomMnt« Howofor amak ia
diaarray - a aow dojMürturo um oTidoat«

Social Democray.

l^Iarx had ended Gorani-unist llanifesto " V/orkers of all lands imite"

How did they go ab out it?

^•^arx founded in 1864 the " First international"* But here the

clash between I-Iarxists and the followers ^pf^who derived from

-'■"ro-udhon: controversy about centralisation» Anarchists: no need

for centralised Coinicil - all power in local federations. Ilas *<,

tt

eneral Ooimcil" ever cond-acted a class war? Split - end of

, ^^1» vtmmr .

International ( H.Q. transfered to N«Y. and died). 1872

But another try was made: Second International (1889) Here

only Ilarxists but also not quite true: split again on much the

same issues«. Por: working class movements contructed differently^

above all in France and G-erriianyx

Pcf^.'sT^/?

France: roudhonist influence# Idea: workers in Workshops themselves
would take over, without need f orVpolitical institutions» Thus

' ^ er

no collaboration: oyndicalism» \7orkers will settle direct with

J.X

bourgoisie, outside the state^ eant direct industrial action:
"le. strikes and especially the " " G-eneral strike% ITo wainttog for
CapitaJLism to develope to its^ füllest extent, no " Inevitablisity".
1894 the socialist followers of Marx walked out of T»U* Gongress —

and for 50 years the T.U. independent of any political party*'

Ideal of these Unions: democraoy based on small groups ( factory
workers): temporary officers, raembers free to leave» Minumum —

<f^

of discipltoe* . -,

But in (xeiinanytv^f irst foundation ( 1863) by Lasalle: also indep«

fSRO^f^f^Nto

_0f liarX but ClOOO to hl^JldeaC» Yo±„Ja^T>^,^;i.o;^f[ (JT^r^-ipl -irift^ ainr\

emphasis on political mea3afl.._( like

he ü tatet -iüi

OM

r(yf

J^

X

Su^Tf'cN\ \/Hiysfi^4^ iorFR/(/<. A-l^^^ ^

^J^^HPHJt^n^ Sl.

f^ipr <:L4^it

^salle a remakable man. Influenced ströngest by rev. of 1848.

Really at first ( like Ilarx) a democrat. Bat he also believed

that the state was the framework within which the new society

I ■■■IM

muvst realise itself and which mast help. workers associations

^i"th credit from the" s^ate "fb täEe over tlie" means of production7

This basic difference with Marx: workers should fight for

controll of the state not as a class but for a general^democracyV

— SäCL

How this scheine will last - and Grerman Social Democracy is
always more Lasslaean then Marxist. Foimding of the " Allgemeine

Deutsclie Arbeiterverien" (I863) also something new: disctatorial

Organisation were all other officers really fimctionaries.

-^asalle died in duell a few years later. But he had trans=
f ormed a ^ vrorkers clubs^' into a workers movementV

Inspite of obvious difierencejr: he always kept connections with

^•^arx's iiondon group ajid vice versa. Yet it vras he and not I-Iarx who
foiinded G-erman vrorkers movement.

Vs. Prench T.U. always flirted with state, even with Bismarck as

as " peoples chancellor" who might bring about Universal suf frage.

^£> pÄ.

3.

eanwhile under ^ebel and Lieblcnecht the

'♦ f^

ocial Democratic

Workers Prty" foxmded ( I8©9) which was Ilarxist« In France also

G-uesde fo-uuided a I'Iarxist party, 3ut while in France the I^Iarxist

party of Guesde was closely linked to ^'^rx himself it never

was able to imite with the Syndicats« In G-ermany matt er s T-mnt

"diJTferently and from this emerged the stron^est Hocialist party
"in the West^jFor in 1875 at G-otha the Lasalleans joined the

I^Iarxists led by -^ebel and Lieblaiecht

.M^

/ Uw'^fV*«-^

1'^

^ i/u>-'cfi*^J-

llarx sharply criticicsed the platf orm - and from his point of view

Si ^ IL\ ^i"^"tly ^'s* 1"^ stressed the " free state", the " ethical state"
^ which would realise cornmimism and even help in its Liquidation

of capitalisn. Indeed while labour was emphasised as the

force vfhich woiild bring about a clasnless society as vs»

" reactionary laass" of everyone eise ( La^salle) : the democratic

cöntroll öf the toiling people** was not connected to the

linuidations of the present politioal system.

-From the be^innin{;^ Social Denocracy here departed from Ilarx, and

with his death En£;els with his determinismy his belief in

«

scientific evolution, encoijiraged a {^gradualist approach everyifere«
His oi-m ideasv closefL then to Gotha programm:

4.

Gerraaji f social Deraocracy_ had more Lasallean then Marxist conponen^ts,
but neajat two soul« in one breast: ~Iferxist lan^uage of class

\L

and revolution kept by Liebknecht ('"no"'TQ"mch~by Bebel) who

.Bined le^'3^^giiP_at once. liut gradualism also kept - a Pari. partyT

This strengthened by Bismarcks ante socialist l^ws.' When repealed —

^HO Hl^' i^PD suddenly found itself the strengest Single political party in
Gerraany - as a roass party it vras bound to the electorate,

But another^factor: Ilere, unlikePrance, T.U. part of the party
and a restraining elenent frora the first.

Ä*/W,

But v;hat happened in Gemany had deep repercussions on another
^ >ocialist party of great importance: that of Austria -Ilungöxy,
Hot really organised vmtil IG38 ( Viktor Adler) it presented the
Germn model ot -psTty and T.Ul. unlted - and here also froin thef^'!\
beginnine the idea of universal suf i:rage presented a rallying cry^"
-<\' / ti\ """'^^^ strilce for that vfhich led iMeed to electiral refom in 1907,

^ "^ .\ ] ^ - ^^^ dCifi

/ ^^ / ''^^^ ^^QQ ^ alr,q:e and iraportant political partyj ti3ut here^ ; If the

^UirA*Jt^j

victory of the proletariate was '» inevitable", it's rights ( inclu-

ding miiversal suf frage) nust be given right novr. Thus the imrnediate

^

always hecome of great, perhaps the greatest iraportanceV^^

r

rx.

Ifeipire

,^^. ,^y wMch .ept the vooa-ouln^ aad the final outco^-of LSSIi^-

^ ideal. But which was a political pajTty an Tfell, oii^ a T.ü. organi^^

tion. Oradualism, the state, all important - Adler: men's minds

must Le changed first. But did nean strikes, "pri^ns rmd a d:/naniQ

^'^.^^ -^^g.'L-^QAJ^Q ^^^^ ^^"^Y from'^^EEeygarixt orthodoxy^

Into this burst the first ^eat controversys revisionism associated

with iJduard Bernstein»

5

t.

t;?s?s^

fact

-^^as4~4mpooo 0ooj,allüm>''Evüii ualled lii Llila :for
^■3^^^^^:«^^ii2lLJdJil^^ But Marxe ' s'' f ollowers also enterec

foundedikydial DemoQparßic partv^J- — 586q). JLn struggle that

c'o^ap2i--iJä;si

€tarby1üi

A 'Jt^rpgrejnm that was centralist; !• bases upon working
ison other classes are a recationary mass;(2^ Por
i/orking xithin i^amework of present State - echoes of Lasalleans

to capture the stat^ ( not " withering away). Idea of a democratic
State \Th±Qh woiild enfWce socialism» S Ct*^4^^'-xA^ i<^^^uuh^^^ •

But from this basia the problems beganr to appear. \7hat were

P~- they:? Mi ^pn/^ u4f^ önir ^i^^t ^^hb^h *'l^^^4^^ i/tjüJ^

1. revisionism» Discardlng of revolution for Gapitalism was still
developing: marxe's breack off stage seemed far away. Thtis

Bernstein: 1. einpricism: vrork for betterment according to
opportunities open , not theory. '2. meant primacy to Trade
Unions. In Germany xmlike Prance a part of the 3PD^ und this
meant a different mentality: ^ad\ialism, icniiediate issues before
long ränge one's. 3« Idea that Oapitalist concentration a good _

rather then evil - for big corporations could be more easilly

socialised. Reuslt : ^ movement every-thing, goal nothing" « ^^

Danger obvious: loss of revolutionär^ elan> acceptance of

present Institut ions provided they were flexibly enough to give

--^^ ■ ' ■ p^' — —
workers benef ita ♦ vPemocraQy beoame more important then socialisiji.

This was the case in Britain: Pabiana." Influenced Bernstein;

These not even I-Iarxist: but liill and Bethaa " Greatest haplness of

i

r.

}^^^

■^ ^ V«7*</^

T.^'u^'f^'^i'

1^

greatest number»** Exprpimentation -v/ithin sociaty as it existed,

i .^ _ 1 1 . II ■ _

/

not revolution» Here also strong moral base: the socialist society

- *■=■ • - - -- - -* - --..-. - =■=- -=— ; ' — !i_

is the morstl sooiety» present society is iimnoral# Fabians strong

Christian componenet: goes into Labo-ur party ( 1300)/ Pihrst leader

MGDonald a Presbjrterian minister» Thus " Moral imperative": no
revolution needed« Strong belief in rationalism, including moral

rationalism, goes hand in hand "with empiricism»

TMo» thon oontraoto with Pi^b/ncli B^iliciaLes» ByJ^-^-Piiiiar..-.« pQ-no+yg^ired
and into ooiibiu^uj.;:jyv"Sv6Titüälly üPD» idear"iröir "otdr everyverey but

only becausQ opponenets found a homp aftA-r IQIR ^r^ n.r.rr^m^^yyi^\
Typical: Rosa Luxemburg : T^U» work is the work of syBiph-us. Rev# '

and general strike neccessary ( vs. SPD: " general strike is general
nonesense) - for with her belief in masses, belief that rev. woiild

lestd to freedom»^To unlimited democracy - open endedv She was
defeated by SPD leadership - but also from another side. She is

close to Marx, and her defeat shows really the liquidation of
original MaiTxism - by SPD and by I/enin#

For Luxemburg attacked Lenin ajod the Bolshevikrev: here no belief
— in the masses, thus dictatorship and controll before and sifter
. revolution - idea of a rev« elite lewads to sterility^^JL elimina-
tion of democracy is worse then disease it is supposed to cure"#
^enln won out in Coramunism after I9l8 - she was mxjrdered
_in I9I9 by a revolution in G-ermany she had'only reluctantly joined
be cause the niasses seemed to want it« Bu-t-?^PD by th;

-had

also shQiyp, tbe -rpsiilta of gprarJAnl i^m!

6a«

It is clear that gradualisn a strong trend, in fact that

of the leadership. Bat the OT)-t)osite trend was there also: those

who were closer to idea of violent revolution and, syiriptomatic,

the idea of a general strike. But this direction also opposed

iDy the nature of it s deniands to the ^rowing party and T,U.
beaiirocracy, to the -^^arlaimentary laadership»

. .„..-^Miß^y.i^-MKtUaatV II ipi. IKJ

'«n^xi^vmnvvii^iw

j^S^TZH^

1.

This kind of dipute in other socialist parties also

as the new Century opened« in Italy: Mussolini lead the

radical wing of that socialist party. Mussolini adhered

to ideal of the general sttike as v;ell ( the inost beautiful,
the most intuitive, thejigst terrible manifestation of the
workers will), Revolution was a neccessity. Lüxerübürg had

"a great influence at that period upon the future fascist-
dictator, But he lacked really any sound theoretioal

-f oundations : his ,xev^- was idealism,„,a matMr__of_ intujjbipn, __

-. ^^^^

And _he__ad vo cated the ijetry of Italy into the ^^ar^ecause it

might bring about revolution at home«

I^Iussolini was expelled from the party be cause of his advocacy

of war and revolution«

But to theese trends of revisionism and revolutionary nilitance

we^must mention the constafn problern of the ** intellectuals**^.

"As party becajie nore of a partyi streng Organisation everywera
-this also became-ar Problem o Deviation, unorthodoxy had to_ be —

avoided. It was Kautsky who succedded EniT^els as the guardian
of this. Intellectuals tended towards idealism, towards

absolutes and towards ideal of eternal values, ^-^arx had already

been suspicious of them, This now continued.

iwIflF'

i^<^

* * yn-jr-V^ *WgJV<r»*<c<**»cniy>.w^

Uiiions greatly strengthened as res-alt of war - conoessions had to
be made« Before war: I^Iinority ofworkers, after war : ma j or i t y #

I9I4 "broke up the Internationale Socialist parties joine)
the national war effort with their opressors, voted war creditfe.

fm^^mmmmsK^^ßm

I^ationalised: in (xermany, Austria vs« Russia - the greatest

opressor of the working class* In Prance vs^ the Kaiser, the

great opressor» In reality - gradualism oame home to roost#

SPD had "become pj

Society it was supposed to

be fighting» Kemarkable thing is that all over socialist
parties were working class parties^ in Germany leadership

-^sf^^fi^e^ < A^r<^

also oame from the working class« Berstein at first joined

in voting war credits ( vs» Russia)» But I9I5 manifesto: war
now an Imperial ventiire» But too late to do any good» Luxemburg

opposed from the first and in prison - again closer to Marx

Büt even for Bemtein ( who lef t oPD out of protest) after war
"joined again: for now menace from Commimlsml^kid this drove ^

socialist parties ever more into democratic Channels: ballot
not revolution» Became indeed in France and Germany ( until
1933) the real supporters of the state - the'^Republicsr

Summary; SPD had been tamed into Society» Syndicalists

defeated ( exept in Prance were imions carried on tradition

until late 30ties - then collaoorated with Gomiaunists rather

then socialists)» " Socialism" both thought at first inevi-i

-table ( Engels) and then even " not inevitable but desirable"
streng moral rather then economic concentration, and democracy
rather then revolution# On other side: Lenin* s emmendation

towards a totalitarian System of controll#

«^f'WWI

8a.

ru^t so sivple: 19I8 2. International - war or revolution?

Idea: not ripe for revolution, working classes willdesert
US if we do not vote war credits. Mussolini: war and revolu=

tion an especially left wing deviation. But also in Lenin* s mind

^ - ^^... ^--^^-^

1914. Jares more correct ( Haupt p. 222.

But here also problem of safeguarding Organisation: crucial and

greatest dead weight for the future. Argument same towards war

in 191^ and towards ^"^azis and fascists later: Haupt 241

But then in practice how to hinder war: ge eral strike? But that

rejected long ago.

Thus nationalism triumphed as it had all along. Socialism perhaps

a means to intigrate workers into the state? Lasallian Impetus

vs. ^'arxisn triump ed again and again, not just in Germany.

While the problem of ;abouJ7 movements and socialism
came to a climax, noew ideas quite different were making onroads:

_. ^k#M^

rediscobvery of the unconscious, ideas which öocialists opposed
in common with Liberais but to whom much of the future belonged.

l

->^>-.

9

1

rV^/

^
^

Result: SPD beoame demooratio parties not rev« though they
kept the vooabulary - and this continued to soare the boorrö-oisie.
Entered govemments in Prance ( as early as I890ties) and in

G-ermajoy after I9I8; Labonr in England also after I9I8. of coiurse.

"*- — — — -— ^=?-^ - ^ _^_^^ i^Hiii*i^»^-%W

V/hile Commxmists, ever more dominated by Leninism. vfrerod in
a>-drii"ecLluii ö± tJae use of force*

The heritage of I-Iarx was broken up^ But the pieces as such
continued to show much vitality^ I>W^äb n i o T>r"^^^"^^^t^

fc.'ii^?*^*^'**?»'

^■<i»>.:^i I 'mumn i— »'iw

itsolfi eapitallsl biucluL^, a dev^lopm^nt wlLh IiiL'Lher^ that
" riadle^of pr^Qrity""whi(iLi Iiad uau^isd- Lornotoin guoh oonoomt

:-A^J.^U r/^' /.^-^^

— Banwhile the niiddle class and capit aus t _s o ciety^j^self

- was imdergoing ohange: and another kind of reaction against
the ideals of progress, seif confidence and optiinisra was taking

place - to this next time^

^yn^ ßf7

..^^^^iaA-^

/

^ L'^-l^^

I'Wxism

■*^aris öonmune liad, for the first tiiae, raised the spectre of a
governinent and a revolution in which the working classes playd

eaninß-ful part« i'ianifesto ( ötu'une iir^^evare^ : everone has

the rieht to unfold his capacities as man, Citizen and worker#

:3'

But the threat of a seif conscious working class and of one which /

will a«drjQaite for Boniiion ends (^\y^n bauk Ijuiujikl Hjhe Fyeiich Itevoluiion»
""^ Dioring theNfievolution this prohlem had been dealt with by ruthless
supression« in En£^land the seif activating and seif organising
activities of a part of the wotking class had led toMneasiires as —
the centiiry opens and after» Liberalism had attempted to hamess —
tiiik€ feeling to it's ovm banner# But the French Revolution of 1830 and

the Snglish Keform Bill had used and then disoarded working class

Support • The vocabulary of class was used by many of middle and

— working classes in the first decades of the Century«

But the I830ties are the real decade of the birth of socialism. That
is defined in broadest terms: Impetus towards association and

theories of association so that the producers night controll the ^

fruits of their own labour» "■'^a-^n^-'ig ^^ni bP'='-^'> 097^+ +r^ +V|r. r^^ijU-^tTno ^
for hio " conopipipoy of ei^iiuilü" — tnrt in the IBJOties Liberal regimes
esp^iciall3'' that of Louis Phillipe in Prance showed a wider tolerance
at least on the levell of intellectual speculation, To be sure

^

Robert Owen \;rote and worked in an ec[ually tolerant English athnosphere -
but Prance became the laboratory \öid it is here that Harx\fcot part ^^

of his most important esocialist education*

The basis of this socialisnl was a belief in hiunan virtue which derived

f^Oi/'S^S'Ai^)

from tlie Enlight enment » A{^ain a Preiich experience and an En{;;li8h

one» Owen believed that association would brinp' out " virtue" Lipon
which Society riust 'oe built and ymi iriH, fjoe- the sane in -^roudhon»
Marx will presuppose the inherent rationality of raan» Horeover

the stress upon social experimentation with it's corollary that ;
environinent can be changed so as the actualise this virtue ( Rousseau)

also becones inportant *• ar^ain a logaoy fyom thi? >1-n1 ight^mn^yvt»

Socialisn was " rational System of society" - for Robert
Owen and for l>t« Liimon and for Iiarx#^ £ut could this be built in a ^

/ , rs Kapitalist sea or did you. need Rous{:^üaLLS complete liquidation of the
present? Ovren and PourrfeJv^atteinpted to found socia.list coi!iriunities_

apaprt from the mainstream» This entailed a fair amovmt of roi-ianticism
though Owen later changed his i.iind and tried to foimd a workers movement
in En^^'land« TÖds romanticism meant, for Pourrier and others a
going back to the land, but for owen and for bt. bimon an acceptance of
the industrial revolution» St# Simon indeed based his ne\j society
upon the managerial classes: social ovmervship makes possible a pjanned

economy which will produce equality and harmony,

But even ot. üiraonism became romanticised: a Ghiirch in thee»e€t«end«

V/hat is essential: changing the lojevironment since evil is not
inhereirEV^Dut the product of the social System* Then the goodness of

man would malce compulsion unnecceSwsary ( Pourrier: passions would
be dir-ee^ed to voluntary collaboration) and this the more so a

,s

these early socialsts believed in natural lawswhich, if allowed to
v7ork freely,' would regulato the economy and distribution» Por man

f 't U

/^

(TV

51^

'^'he influenoe of Feu^bach apparent in your reading. Fem-bach

That religion is

had positedjbhat man pa^eated religion according to bis needs.

^BXLrtugate which alienates inan from himself •

ISü^fc "he was an^pfealis^ In this: tlie seif ieialienated is ^

"the

\
conce^ of man" - pan as an abrstaction7-anärl1r'i-g~this—

-^fhiefe-Mjpj^x criticises in yoin* readin^# Feuerbaeh was-a-diseiple

of ^Hegel^ -Th§±_J.a.,ai;ain^ w^^^

^^egel is undoubtedly the most important thinlcer since Aristotel.

.0

,Z

jt^tJ s \ ^^ discussing him in connection with I-iarx we do him an injustice -

:^' .^^

\^^ -rj^s^( i^ö changed the vrhole thrust of Western thought towards thinking

both dialectically and in a historical dimension;

Hegel believedT in an ideal: the spirit, fi»ee^m^b«rfe-«aal5ry the

conscioasne-ss of one's own seif ( origin uf the strests— on consciousness

7 ' ' -—71 6F $SLF

iÄ^your Feuerback- -r-eading A Brtt-%tes consciousnessVmust relate /-«^
itself^ to jfehe world as it exists« It does so in progressive sj^ges

^ througi^Jidstoiyg J^^s ^ becomes important how history worksJ^t

E^^ works dialectically: that is to say the higher stage of yo"ur

contained in any stage of history - like a plant it pushed ^head
into a new stage which again contains innatly a higher conscipusness

of^elf and of society, This is -fiegel^'^dialectic* But his y^ung

' ^/^^^^ disciples in the I840ties and among them i'iarx sharpened this^V '■^ ^

^%'^^ rJ^ — ^^"^^ dialectic works through defeat and victory: the old goes down'^f^'*^

the new wins and a new synthesis is reached* Even a final sythesis
( the rule of the proletariate) , But f or Hegel there was no end#

" Ilappiness is not to be exepcted"* For his young disciples it wa

ifc-g-^ ■ - ^i^f^

5C.

^

•^ >• >t

But what kind of seif? üegel believ^^d in a imiverse which was
rational ( the rationality of the//hole)# I%ns seif realisation -
the growth of his own cbnsciousness of his freedom, takes place
witll/the development of history» Unlike the Enlightenment from
which Hegel took his stress on reason, he added the new consciisness
of history which we have seen in romanticism, in the new nationalism«

But f or ^ egel history is a factoa?ywhich develops^ outside
mans own consciousness, in and through the world as it exists outside
yourself • This development has a ratio^lism, a rationality of its
own. But it is one with which your consciousness has to make contact«

Por " World history is the progress of consciousness of freedom" -

and to realise this for yourself you must become conscious of the •

" whole" - that is your seif and society.
-^ /

Sjmimarises: the " Idea" - i.e. seif corfsciousness of freedom is

always there - it is immanent in the/ Universe» But through the
rationality of history is is brought/ ever more into reality - and

>Aj* it is brought ever more into realiter by the progress of history

•■

ü

which means the ever /-reater TDOssibility of fusion between this
seif consciousness and society a^d politics»"^^"^^^^ ^^^^^^^^rj?

C^^^<^^

'v<4L.^nt^^

c

1

Essential ^^arx read now. ^xellent elucidation, originally written for
Austrian workingmens association s adult education. ^t^^ylJL ^

M

^l^y^iJC^^J^'-':^

\/^py^ ^-vyp^'^r^^

is ^ " nat-urally" free and good# St. Simon, it is olear had

his doubts and his Gh^urch was the instnunent to instill such

goodness ( New Ghristianity) and "unlike most of the others he

believed that an elite must exercise compiilsionto get man on the

way to his Utopia#

^cR VH^ füTt/Pc:

Of these early socialist Proudhon was the most important: he also

believed that moral reform was esvsetial for socialism, and that

such moral reform v^ill lead to voluntary association. Obtacle was

not nerely the '* aristocratic pride of the ricö." but also the
" ubdisciplined e£;oism of the poor^*. The familly was the basic

Unit of association: then other /p^oups like Workshops etc» Thus

emphasis on decetralisation ( vs, Marx) but also typical* No state
needed and property is thefv because it is the crux of compulsion^
represöion« -{

Q /lyJ^j .

^^4^fc^

TT tWrU— I— <— MMI^—l «M

flB6t<

t

But this needs explanation# ^roiidhon thought almost exclusivly al^out

- — — —

pr operty in land ( aßTarian background vs • I^iarx ) • rqperty is

theft meant Opposition to all apropriation, all taking over: from
anothers persons love-to property* What ^fas needed was to abolish

appropriation

stage of history to th

: collective

Gonsciouscness» This neant decentralisation - but möre conce±et^
network of^ersonaJL agreenents and relationships whloh would take
the place of irnposed ones» This was the coro of Proudhon's plan#—

Based upon an Enlightenment theory of huiaan nat-ure and a rather
siraple agrarian Vision of society» You can see why this v/ould _

rival and for a time siirpass the attraction of Marx: indeed

pr operty not abolished as sncli hut a part of agreerient njnong rien,

volinitary netvxork of recirpoQal_relatipnsliipst -^.^tLrchism not

Chaos ( which Proudhon hated) hut this kind p± volimtary association

and denial of compulsion»

ft ^TiZ/c U^ Ji^ic^'^

'}Hu4^4Ji.^

Ct/^f^^^ ^jt^y^c^^r^y^cc^ "ht^pi^^P^, ^W}^ ///^ 'U>\> p,^ ^

?^

) c

liast- timei

^egel ( give datec: 1770 - I83I)

reaaon and hl.tiXQiPf^

Hlstory is the developnent of human freedom. What is the humsn freedom?
It is man« seif consciousness of himself : the awareness that as an

individual he can appropriate the things that are his, History derelope»

according to the rationality of the " Idea« - thi» freedom of man Is for
^gel closely bound ip with reason and the workLng of reason« History

'ds the IdealLs reason striving towards Itt ever more closely"

to the Union of youAOim seif consciousness and the world and scoiety-

through the mechanism of History^ Fat it anotoer jtgiyi jegel f Irst uses a

a famoue tennx " alienation*' » To end it you have to reappropriate your

labouA^ everything that is yours - but that can only come about and you

be a nhole person if you have taken society into your cum consciousness -

made the fusion«

D%elöpneHt~of husman seif consciousness in history is what eounts. History

-is always fuJU-of-tbe- ^tmealieed possibility of the » Xdea"» ^ J^)
How does history work ( Mareimpi P'tf^)^

^TrS}.

"f^-^^^^**-"^^

*, \.4*ÄiU»C

i.) ,

s-//if>

~ow to bring ab out such revolution? For it wo\t/.cI ( l-t^ ^ -^::X **

4Hb y^fJJ-A'J*!^

Anarchism, then, thou^h it was far from coherent: condemm^'^//^ —

L^lQSding to discovery»of man 's " virtue"»

ceOTralisation, based itself on an idea of mans virtue^ rjected

present society alltogether including the State and property.

It was to rival I^larxism in importance - espeoially in . . .^
Prance were the trade imion movement came under its swayX^^But
eventually Maa^xism was, of course, more important. It did not
depent sq-uarely upon individiial moral reform alone. Thou^ here
also streng moral Impetus: belief in the spontaneoiis actionT^ö?

c

the " massea" once conditions were ripe for them.' In the ideal

of virtue which emerge when existing System had fallen» But

W:inß^ ***** ■■^' -*-*«• 4HSt^ VM^ —

i— - - •■■;..-.4«1,*.-'*«»*

the " Science^ not " nat-ural^law" whichM^-ould ^'f reely by itself
but instead the " science" defined as the way history worked

to bring about the revoltition» ^ 5X/

Let US see how Itorx built his theory. V/M3^ IL aeflii^;^ scIence

e-ntly,

individual man in the pre seilt society. Hot moral reform must stand
first, however, but man's consciousness of his own Situation: that

^^

jU/^

r_ is his realisation of the bind he is in; Once he has realised this
he will also realise the truth of Marxens analysis of what must

I

lA,^^^' ^® äione and why: he can the:'i lead to the future»

What does a man with such " consciousness'^realise ? That life
_consists out of- social relationships and that these must be basi-

..a%J

cally changed« Whyi*

I

U^-i6^

ß

/^

^

pv.u4<^ y^-^

,y^>^/-

i^

u/f'

74f

^

^ . Jf^

IVu/'

<-4A^

<y

O

li

tMe^ifw

History Department

FROM

TO

RE

Bob N.
George Hosse

DATE 9/24

O.K. for Truman to have a six section TA. That Covers 126 and I didn't count
the ^rad students — subtract them, t>at is.

Itold Mar^ery P. to go ahead and increase Tnunan^s appointraent.

5B. I

Moreover, for Hegel » the highest possible stageVwas the nation

Tv~4fh "^l/^Xjri

State, the Prussia of his time. This many of his followers,
including Marx also rejected#

Hegel then has an ideal which is eternal: your seif consciousness

of freedom and here he also rejects the enforced division of labour

as restrictiveo This ideal works its way in relationship to present

reality : to ^is^ory ' as it evolves •

"Marx now critic^ues this attitude in your reading as well and mainly—

-for its leads

to abstractions glag ohgrod by Fo\iorbo.gh: to

*'iMM

eternal principles of an abstract " freedom" or " seif consciousness"»

The tie with reality was not streng enough/v;!^et us see what he says: /f.

Ä/. ^ ~^^ — [

pp. 1^/19 1 — 55 - there can ho " essence" p. 34 ^

I%rx then vrorks out a different scheine of history based on the

i£7 ^^

materl neans of production which determine consciousness. But in

this he also refines the dialectic: opposites confront each other -
thus the neccesGity of revolution (( p. 69? rather then the " energence"
-e#-the -^^gelina argusient'«^ —

"^^egel had weloomes the French revolution - but his theory of

immqnftnt development does not really allow for a revolution, The

" rationality of history" takes care of that - f or it always strives

to thefusion. ['^7j^''-^

^«*.1»*l ^> » ■<— ^ -4

" '. ~ !-^-- rr^. ■,•%■• ■•'1H.«'^'''.<^ .'■^y**

la^

For if ^larx learnt much in his Paris exile and was well read

in the Enlichtenraent, he vras vitally influejoed also hm, G-erman
idealism - iiegelT~Tiiis kept iiis theory'from depending so rauch on
abstraction of h-uman nature and kept is fron sliding off into
0 ^ ^ roraanticismj FAy-4?frf^^hi rrh n-ry wn£i -r^nln-hj nr>fl y^pt ^^ r^^^.■Y^c. m-a n.-^
I ^ L h-^uevor h« nelipvfifl in ci.ilt\iro rathcr thon in tho iiiiportanoo of
— «.J^ ?^nr>ini„ pyntftp«, I^c L Litj put iis thio wayV^IIarx took from i^egel the

conception of history as a seif activating totality but he rejected
^ egel s spiritualism and anchored his history in empirical facts as
Y he saw them« Empirical historical fac^s^^as externa! rnanifestations
^\ y^ of a logical process© History for Harx^ and Hegel is a process

^ r\h y ^^^ '^^^'^ kept I^iarx from the concetrating upon an ahstract " virtue"

^jl, * -, present in man at all times - though he rpesupposed ans rationality

^ j/ ^^^ this is not static but imf olds through history as well»

^Ka/' "^T

^v/''^ Not '* human jiatin'e" but ^ Qi'Aii'iaoi) it is essential to conceive of ^

man as a series of activeVrelationships - as a process in interrela=
tionship with social and historical reality, But there is presupposition

here, not only about possibility of change in hiunan nature but also

that in the end human rationality can express itself in judging the

objective conditions for change» A^ually what has happened

is this: Marx rejects i^egelian idealism, nM_,Fcuorbacha , But he

keeps a deep belief in the rationalim of the Enlightenment in

which he had been brought up ( expl.) His theory would not make

sense without this belief: that man is innatly capable of rational

judgement once he knows the facts of history as 2^ analysed them»

zm ~7^ 5^77

5a I

Fqrthe van^-ccrd, the leadership of proletariate raust rise above

its class and does so through a rational consciousness, that is a

historical conscioiisness in that definition* Therefore this

presoppusition underlies l'hxx and all later socialism. Ifekes it

•masr

difficult to deal withmass movements and with nationalism.

/,-

t^.

^Z^^<C^-if^ ,

ba«

The alienation is seen in concrete not at«4ra6t terms: Marx

.«■W«i*M*i*M4

Starts out from the society vrhich existed - bourgeois* society»

This included not only alienated laborir but the whole network

4 ffC*<tU^-

of^ relationships« It led to alienation from mans own nat-ure -

«maMCMiHH

his rational seif in which I^Iarx believed* As it includes
« ■ '■' ■ ■ '■

everything, it also is a perversion of all values - this is what

he means by the " fetechism of goods": not Jixst that economic
valtie determines all but als"ö"~tliat this turns men away" fi^öm "the ~
" higher" thin^^s like litortaure and art. Hwjrtas, nftt Ihnünl Pf ^as

irr-sc'hbusehold sat-urated vrith these values, Völtair#]jfflt4 Röusc^eau —

we9?e early reading ( ^ewish bü'iffJ5;ei5iöi«i WWe TMfe lasted)«

Also 'CÄternrtTTtrrse-tc. Hethodi

V

/'^4v\ IdUMX /- "U£4*^!

1=

!• Aim: to free man, end his alienation from hms society,

This alienation thought of as alienated labour: no longer

"belonged to individual but to the people he worked for,

If man recapture^ his labour then he vrill recapture his own '

Personality» Alienation of labour means alienation of man

from hiself. ^{'-^-^-' ^'^ f i-U.^^^ i^-J L^^-^ H't^'

2. cause: class boimd society» ünce this is detroyd then mans
individuality can onfmld. Thus what becomes important is

the analysis of this class bound society and what can be done
to change it;

3. Analysis in terms of economics: means of production and their

'i}hi^_creatjsd-^.l a .s n^s . But though the System had now

( his iife time) gotten stuck, it had been fluid andgfowing
before/. For class change must be seen in terms of history -
the evpution from the past. Here the dialectic: history
worked kn certain wav ( struggle of classes for controll of the
means oi production).

But this determines in a general way the specific social
relationships of man and his ideas. Thus classes a:re not only
economic but include the whole ränge of human life and endeavour^

1-

'- v^.--^^

>««^

"^ . dft^"^ ^ f*'**'^

/'^ ^'

l$6.t^'*^-

7^^

^-■•^^

^^

The class struggle works within a historioal dialeotic, a struggjLe
of the new against the old« Thus the new class, the l)Ourgoisie

replaoed feudalism in a great series of straggles and revolutions

( English and French) and_by winning created new conditions whid
produced the rise^^ a new class: the Proletariates Bat the
victory of the bourgoisie changed the direction of class struggl«
asjrfell» Marx had a great respect for Capitalism: it would
expajid and grow - out as it exj>8^ded and ^ew it would concen-

trate its benefits intq ever smaller hands: more and more people

^^^^HE^Lf^ii "^^^^^ ^® depres^ed into^^lT^-TaS^^

proletariate really becaiae not a class but the najority of men»

^entually Capitalism T^ould btirst its övm. fetters because

«WMh**

the " people" themselves would be led to revolt against an ever

/4^^

II,

more stringenf^onopoXy.

Ov.

P

^

revolution when Capitalism had reached the furthest extent of

■ - * - *— A -

U-^'

JI^H^>^

its expansion.vBears on theory of revolution:

!♦ In Communist I4anifesto Marx so inspired by 1848 that he forgo"
his wfon theory, for first the bourgois must take over and the
proper oapitalist conditions for revolution created/ Cannot
telescope history - he realised this after 1848 failure.( i'^lfi)
i 2m i'^anwhile orgaTvi.sation of working class: mobilisation of

forces* But thoiigh Commmiist party: this is not elite

r

group but those who have become " conscious"^aware# Marx

J^^y^-

5

9»

-A

k^'

'iAi

French Rev^ ( storming of Bstille). It was Lenin who will

for a part of I-iarxism liquidate this idea ( %chine gun etc.)

kjij^"»-'»'

and stress a professional rev. elite which must lead and oontroll

_.. _ _ _ . _ _ .,'!*'.■_" -■_--• •■■-,-^>- ■»>»£i«. •--■-.-»■-.>»«-_^« ^ ..— .^W^

even after revolution»

-^ riarx was not totalitarian in this way. Not even so deterministic -
this worl« more jDf Engels Mfho accepted Darwin and this view of
scienoe: •' inevitability" of revolution, *" Historical materialism"
Engels not Marxe's term» Por Fiarx always importance hoth of

SS es and belief in their vi:rttc^C'"a5arTEEe

dy

subtelty of social interrelationships ♦

\/hat is at end^ after revolution? Marx never spelled it out. But
when mans laborir^reapprorpiated he will become " whole" once
more* Basic viötue will then come out: for it is based on the

^M>y^

belief in asans rationality which has been obscured by the
fragmented society of capitalism and which in classless society

^-will ooly<

will emergei

^Ives: for belief that

all propblems also present their Solution* Thus no need to

spell things out in classless society: classless because Capitalism

m >i<i» 1»

through its ever smaller based Ilonopoly destroys all classes:

alienates everyones labour. Revolt against it, is everyones

_ revolt ♦

Clear that groimd lajfe for later splits: Engels " inevatability"

means whynot wait and act within society to iLiprove things?

Social DemocracyV liarx^s belief that rational man, however

alienated, will fight rather then submitt. Revolution is neccessarv.
But above all: leadership rpoblem* Spontaniety sind then " leap into

5a*

It is here that wo raust come to some considerations usually
for.^otten: Pfcj:'x's theory was supposed to oe a theory of action
for iisiial as well as for revolutionary times.; Build a novei^ent.

Theory a bridge üetween the actiial Situation' and acting» The
Goririimist party those who had achieved '* co|(sciousness" of what
had to 1;e done* Marxism is not only tied to history but also
to Hiilosophy, A theory of historical progression, to be sure,-

but also the presupposition of rationalißm ( the essence of a

^ ■iaw<^'r^i*w

/

s

cience for hin), the possibility of a procression of h-uunan

consciousness ( -^egel);' The close interrelationship between

theory and practice: you cannot have one without the other»

iiut the laok of olarity/in the Utopia hads also a
reason: the belief that

vs. " soontanity of passions" of Foiirrier or the instant revolution
of i:'roudhon. lle attempted to liuild of movement, they did not
their actions vrere ad hoc for the most part, if at all«

f

-&^-

J p^|ft€ ^

freedom" or controll "befoj^ and after^ tiarx waslla democrat

JLn this regard (belief in masses) his successors found this more

difficultj^ and Lenin impossible»

"P-^^-^h""-!"! i'l " V 1 11 üprnrntin -^oy-h -^^^4;^,

Hl /^n ^':j

ie« Dictatorship of proletariate: flarx all man really; Lenin:

a small rev« elite#

i^iorx ended the Manifeste witlx " Workers of the World Unite'!_r!i

noifew "we must see the effects of liis ideas»

/

H/3fc EURo^ AMD THe MOl>eAJ^ U)Of^i-b-S^LLAß'X 19SS'1^7S

fii

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1974-75

History 120

Mr. Mosse

Instructions for Paper:
Due: Week of March 26. NO late papers will be accepted under any circumstances.

Length ; Not more than 6 double spaced typewritten pages for 3 credits.
Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages for 4 credits.

Form: Carefully footnoted to the sources.

Topic: Taking at least TWO of the books assigned for the course (3 credit) .
THREE books for 4 credits write a comparison of the authors on ONE
of the topics listed below and teil why they differed and what the
consequences of this difference were:

1. the nature of human reason

2. view of human nature

3. view of the ideal Community

4. concept of the passions

5. the idea of justice

6. view of nature itself

7. attitude towards contemporary personal morality

8. human free will and providence

9. attitudes toward toleratlon

10. attitudes toward political power

11. attitudes towards the "common people"

12. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

13. concept of human freedom

Honors students talk to Mr. Gordy or Mr. Mosse about topics.

History 120

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Semester I, 1974-75

Europe and the Modern World, 1815 to the Present

Mr . Payne

Descrlptlon; This is a survey course in the history of Europe since 1815.
As such it will not attempt to provide minute descriptions of any Single aspect
of that period, but will focus on certain major developments and problems.
Themes emphasized are indicated by the titles of the lecture topics below,
and will deal more with political and social history than with economic history
or art. Developments in the larger countries will inevitably be stressed more
than the experiences of smaller countries, but the latter will not be ignored.
The twentieth Century will receive somewhat more intensive study than the nine-
teenth Century, and the last four topics will deal with Europe since 1945.

Lectures: There will be three brief lectures each week, punctuated or
followed by questions and general discussions as time permits. A number of
historical and/or documentary films will be shown. In addition, all students
are required to attend a supplementary 50 minute discussion group directed
by the teaching assistant.

Exams and Assignments: There will be three 50-minute exams, each dealing with
approximately one-third of the semester's work. All exams will be composed
of essay and short Identification questions, plus a brief map quiz. In addition,
each Student will be required to submit an essay of 5 pages or more analyzing
some aspect of his reading.

Three Credit Registrantst Students who register for only three units of credit
will be expected to attend all regulär lectures and discussion sections. They
will not be required to submit an essay nor to study the last item on the
reading list (Ulam) . Their final examination will thereby by somewhat
abbreviated.

Grading; The final grade will be weighted approximately as follows: 25%
for each of the three exams, essay and discussion group participation 25%.
(The grade of three-credit students will be determined primarily by the
exams alone.)

Text; Clough, Pflanze, Payne, Modern Times (Heath paperback, 2nd edition)

Required Reading (all paperbacks) :

Sidney Pollard, European Economic Integration (Harcourt, Brace)

M. N. Drachkovitch, The Revolutionary Internat ionals (Stanford)

Robert Conquest, Lenin (Viking)

Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism (Van Nostrand/Anvil)

Adam Ulam, The Rivals (Viking/ Compass)

History 120

-2-

Mr . Pajme

SCHEDULE OF LECTURE TOPICS

(Underlined titles denote films)

READINGS

August

26
28
30

Background: Introduction of Major Themes
Demography and Society: Some Vital Statistics
Revolts and Reforms in Europe, 1815-1848

September

2 1848

4 Religion in 19th Century Europe: Catholicism

6 Religion in 19th Century Europe:

Protestantism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Judaism
9 Nationalism and the Unification of Italy
11 Germany, Feudal Statas to Unification
13 Background of East European History
16 The Problem of 19th Century Russia
18 Industrialization

20 Marxism

23 XIX Century English Reforms

25 FIRST EXAMINATION: EUROPE, 1815-1870

27 Growth of Liberal Democracy in Western Europe

30 Social Democracy and Anarchosyndicalism

No assignment

No assignment

Text, 895-920, 941-57,

961-69, 995-1002

Text, 978-94
No assignment

No assignment

Text, 957-60, 1034-40

Text, 1040-48

No assignment

Text, 969-77, 1107-19

Text, 921-34, 1002-04,

1053-67

Pollard, 7-97

Text, 934-40, 1005-06,

1067-68

Drachkovitch, 3-56

Text, 1013-33

Text, 1087-1106
Text, 1068-70
Drachkovitch, 57-141

October

2 Cultural Fragmentation

4 Nationalism and Imperialism

7 The German Problem

9 Austria-Hungary

11 Pre-Revolutionary Russia: I

14 Pre-Revolutionary Russia: II

16 World War I: Background

18 World War I: War Years

21 The Russian Revolution

23 World War I; Building the Peace

25 SECOND EXAMINATION: EUROPE, 1870-1919

28 The Postwar Crisis (Czechoslovakia)

30 Mussolini

Text, 1071-86
Text, 1149-69
Pollard, 99-129
Text, 1129-37
Text, 1048-52, 1137-48
Text, 1119-28
Conquest, 1-65
Text, 1170-82
Text, 1182-1200
Text, 1223-36
Conquest, 67-143
Text, 1206-13

Text, 1213-22
Pollard, 131-53
Drachkovitch, 141-55
Text, 1247-51
Weber, 1-77, 145-52

History 120

-3-

Mr. Payne

SCHEDULE OF LECTURE TOPICS

READINGS

November

1
4
6

8

11
13
15
18
20

22

25

27

Fasclsm

The Twisted Gross

Nazlsm

Stalinist Russia:

Stalinist Russia:

Spanish Republic &

I

II

Givil War

2nd World War: Prelude to Gonflict
2nd World War: Triumph of the Axis
2nd World War: The Allied Triumph

From World War to Gold War

The Soviet Union since 1945

Weber, 1-77, 145-52
Text, 1251-64;
Weber, 78-143, 153-86
Text, 1236-45
Drachkovitch, 159-222
Text, 1265-87
Text, 1287-93
Text, 1293-1311
Text, 1311-21;
Ulam, 1-101
Text, 1323-31;
Ulam, 102-340
Text, 1345-66;
Ulam, 341-95

Open

December

2
4
6

The "Peoples* Republics"

Western Europe since 1945

THIRD EXAMINATION: EUROPE, 1919 TO THE PRESENT

Text, 1345-66
Text, 1331-44, 1367-82
Pollard, 155-70

UriiVER:nTY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
SGHiester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

Instructions for Paper:

Due: Week of April 2. NO late papers will be accepted undar aay circumstances.

Length: Not more than 6 dovible spaced typewritten pages.

Form: Carefully footaoted to the sources.

Topic: Takinj^; at least Xl/O of the books assigned for the course (Palmer
excepted) write a coraparison of the authors on ONE of the topics
listed below and teil why they differed and what the consequences
of this difference were :

1. the nature of human reason

2. view of huitian iiature

3. view of the ideal cormnunity

4. concept of thü pnssions

5. the idea of justice

6. view of iidture itself

7. attitude towards contemporary personal morality

8. huinan free will and provldence

9. attituJt!s towards toleratlon

10. attit-Aües tüwards political pov/er

11. attitudes towards the "coimaon people"

12. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

13. concepL of liuuam freedom

/

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The folloving books will be read:

R. R. Palmer 6e Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.

Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.

Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart, (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

15 Introduction

17 Industrial Revolution

22 Roman ticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Comraunist World
7 Gonclusion

nasx

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

llistory 120

Mr. Mosse

The following books will be read;

R. R. Palmer & Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. Thls should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.

Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.

Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart, (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

15 Introduction

17 Industrial Revolution

22 Roman ticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

Ger man Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Comraunist World
7 Gonclusion

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The following books will be read;

R. R. Palmer 6e Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.

Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4,

Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart^ (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

15 Introduction

17 Indus trial Revolution

22 Romanticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

Ger man Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Gommunist World
7 Conclusion

^^^mmimm

UNIVSRSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Seniester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

Instructions for Paper:

Due: Week of April 2. NO late papers will be accepted undar any circumstances

Length: Not more than 6 double spaced typewritten pages.

Form: Carefully footnoted to the sources.

Topic: Taking at least Xl-TO of the books assigned for the course (Palmer
excepted) write a comparison of the authors on ONE of the topics
listed below and teil why they differed and what the consequences
of this difference were :

1. the nature of human reason

2. view of human nature

3. view of the ideal conununity

4. concept of the passions

5. the idea of justice

6. view of nature itself

7. attitude towards contemporary personal morality

8. human free will and providence

9. attitudes towards toleration

10. attitudes towards political pov/er

11. attitudes towards the "common people"

12. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

13. concept of human freedom

urriVER:UTY of Wisconsin

Departiiient of History
;eniest:er II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr, Messe

Instructions for Paper:

Due: Week of April 2. NO late papers will be accepted undar any circumstances

Length: Not more than 6 double spaced typewritten pages.

Form: Carefully footrioted to the soiirces,

Topic : Takirifi; at least Tv/O of the books assigned for the course (Palmer
excepted) write a comparison of the authors on ONE of the topics
listed below and teil why they differed and what the consequences
of this differencö x^^ere :

1. the na eure of human reason

2. view of huiYian nature

3. view of the ideal couuiiunity

4. concept of the passions

5. the idea of justice

6. view of udture itself

7. attitude towards contemporary personal morality

8. human free will and providence

9. attituJes towards toleration

10. attitudes towards political pov/er

11. attitiides towards the "coimaon people"

12. definition of inLellectual excellence and leadership

13. concepL of hunian freedom

^naKm5ai^iar:jmK\

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The followlng books will be read:

R. R. Palmer 6e Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.
Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.
Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.
Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart, (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January 15
17
22
24
29
31

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Introduction

Industrial Revolution

Roman ticism

Romanticism

Liberalism

Modern Nationalism

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

Ger man Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Communist World
7 Conclusion

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The following books will be read;

R. R. Palmer 6« Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed, This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.
Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.
Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.
Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart. (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January 15
17
22
24
29
31

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Introduction

Industrial Revolution

Roman ticism

Romanticism

Liberalism

Modern Nationalism

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Coraraunist World
7 Conclusion

BSS^^r \sViSS

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The followlng books will be read;

R. R. Paliaer & Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents» (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.
Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.
Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.
Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart. (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

15 Introduction

17 Indus trial Revolution

22 Roman ticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Comraunist World
7 Gonclusion

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The following books will be read;

R. R. Palmer & Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx> ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.

Gustav Le Bon, The Crovd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.

Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.

Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart> (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

15 Introduction

17 Industrial Revolution

22 Roman ticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

February

March

5 Bismarck

7 Unification of Italy

12 Napoleon III

14 Third French Republic

19 HOUR EXAMINATION

21 Marxism

26 Marxism

28 Social Democracy

5 Rediscovery of the unconscious

7 The Displaced Revolution

12 Balance of Power 1870-1914

14 Peace at Versailles

19 Soviet Revolution

21 Failure of Revolution in the West

26 German Republic

28 Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Coramunist World
7 Conclusion

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The followlng books will be read;

R. R. Palmer 6e Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by Janaary 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.

Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.

Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart^ (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

15 Introduction

17 Industrial Revolution

22 Roman ticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Coramunist World
7 Conclusion

UNIVERSITY OF WOSGONSIN
Department of Htstory
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The following books will be read;

R. R. Palmer 6e Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.

Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.

Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart^ (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

15 Introduction

17 Industrial Revolution

22 Roman ticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

February

March

5 Bismarck

7 Unification of Italy

12 Napoleon III

14 Third French Republic

19 HOUR EXAMINATION

21 Marxism

26 Marxism

28 Social Democracy

5 Rediscovery of the unconscious

7 The Displaced Revolution

12 Balance of Power 1870-1914

14 Peace at Versailles

19 Soviet Revolution

21 Failure of Revolution in the West

26 German Republic

28 Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Comraunist World
7 Conclusion

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The following books will be read;

R. R. Palmer & Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.
Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.
Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.
Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart. (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January 15
17
22
24
29
31

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Introduction

Industrial Revolution

Roman ticism

Roman ticism

Liberalism

Modern Nationalism

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOÜR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

Ger man Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Communist World
7 Conclusion

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr« Mosse

The following books will be read:

R. R. Palmer 6e Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents. (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.

Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.

Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart^ (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

15 Introduction

17 Indus trial Revolution

22 Roman ticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Coraraunist World
7 Gonclusion

mm

•^m

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The following books will be read:

R. R. Palroer & Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.
Gustav Le Bon, The Grovd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.
Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.
Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart> (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January 15
17
22
24
29
31

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Introduction

Industrial Revolution

Roman ticism

Romanticism

Liberalism

Modern Nationalism

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Goramunist World
7 Gonclusion

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The following boolcK, will be read;

R. R. Paliaer 6e Joel C<
read as soon as possib
to be read by 12 weeks
XIX, XX, XXI.

ilton, A History of/^e Modern World, 4 ed. This should be

To be read
larch 28):

6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:

y

Goethe, The Sorrows of the yWk Werther, (Holt) to be read by Januar y 22

The Essential Karl Marx>y^. E^st Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Ciy^ization and Its\)iscontents. (Doubleday) to be read by March 5
Gustav Le Bot><^The Crovd, (Viking) to Öe read by March 28. ( ^y
Joachim Ä^k, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.

BiyHü BäCLylhcim,

January

iimü Ueai-t, </\vnn) f^^frfi rp^d, hv April

L

April

Introduction '^
Industrial Revolution /£^
Roman ticism J^^.
Romanticism «^ Ju
Liberalism cZ«^
Modern Nationalism c^^-

Bismarck 3*

Unification of Italy i^-
Napoleon III i^-
Third French Republic 12,.

HOUR exam];nation /?.

Marxism 19^
Marxism 2^
Social Democracy »^ ,

Re^4:SC0V6ry \j£ Lhü uueoiiaclüns" ^^ ^^

The-«i*pl«ced RcvoinrtDn fiSf/^^^^^^

Balance of Power 1870-1914 Z^.

Peace at Versailles IX-

Soviet Revolution if •

Failure of Revolution in the West /^

German Republic ^^'

Politics of Mass Movements J-C .

Italian Fascism *r

National Socialism f. ^W^ <Tr^l\)Iioh

4,e^4^-«iul-Äight -> ^ * ^y^ ^ ^ nn^/<.

France Between the Wars 16*
Britain Between the Wars ^^
Appeasement and Agressionj^,

The Era of the Gold War ^ 6f
f^/-<y|7 Conclusion 4e^' r^ .

\

H

t^Mi

[f.
]

UNIVERSITY OF WOSGONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The following books will be read;

R. R. Paliaer 6e Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.
Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.
Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.
Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart. (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January 15
17
22
24
29
31

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Introduction

Indus trial Revolution

Roman ticism

Romanticism

Liberalism

Modern Nationalism

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Comraunist World
7 Conclusion

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The folloving books will be read;

R. R. Palmer 6e Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.
Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.
Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.
Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart. (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

15 Introduction

17 Indus trial Revolution

22 Roman ticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Coraraunist World
7 Conclusion

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The followlng books will be read;

R. R. Palmer 6e Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx> ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.
Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.
Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.
Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart^ (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

February

March

15 Introduction

17 Indus trial Revolution

22 Roman ticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

5 Bismarck

7 Unification of Italy

12 Napoleon III

14 Third French Republic

19 HOUR EXAMINATION

21 Marxism

26 Marxism

28 Social Democracy

5 Rediscovery of the unconscious

7 The Displaced Revolution

12 Balance of Power 1870-1914

14 Peace at Versailles

19 Soviet Revolution

21 Failure of Revolution in the West

26 German Republic

28 Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Coramunist World
7 Conclusion

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The following books will be read;

R. R. Palmer & Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrovs of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5
Gustav Le Bon, The Crovd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.
Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.
Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart. (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January 15
17
22
24
29
31

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Introduction

Industrial Revolution

Roman ticism

Romanticism

Liberalism

Modern Nationalism

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Coramunist World
7 Conclusion

■H^HBT

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

I

History 120

Mr. Mosse

The following books will be read;

R. R. Palmer 6e Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.

Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.

Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart^ (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

15 Introduction

17 Industrial Revolution

22 Roman ticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Comraunist World
7 Conclusion

tmam

UNIVERSITY OF WOSCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1972-73

listory 120

Mr. Mosse

The followlng books will be read;

R. R. Palraer & Joel Coulton, A History of the Modern World, 4 ed. This should be
read as soon as possible. To be read by 6 weeks (February 19): XI, XII, XIII;
to be read by 12 weeks (March 28): XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII; to be read by final:
XIX, XX, XXI.

Goethe, The Sorrows of the Young Werther, (Holt) to be read by January 22.

The Essential Karl Marx, ed. Ernst Fischer (Herder and Herder) to be read
by February 21.

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, (Doubleday) to be read by March 5.

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, (Viking) to be read by March 28.

.-^"■

Joachim Remak, The Nazi Years, (Spectrum) to be read by April 4.
Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart. (Avon) to be read by April 9.

January

15 Introduction

17 Indus trial Revolution

22 Roman ticism

24 Romanticism

29 Liberalism

31 Modern Nationalism

February 5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

March

5
7
12
14
19
21
26
28

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMINATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy

Rediscovery of the unconscious

The Displaced Revolution

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

Ger man Republic

Polltics of Mass Movements

April

May

2 Italian Fascism

4 National Socialism

9 Left and Right

11 France Between the Wars

25 Britain Between the Wars

30 Appeasement and Agression

1 The Era of the Gold War

3 The Comraunist World
7 Conclusion

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History
Second Semester, 1970-71

History 120 (Europe and the Modern World) - Mr. Mosse

The text will be Clough, Pflanze and Payne, Modern Times (Heath &
Co.) In addition you will be responsible for the books listed
in I. below and according to T.A. for those in II. below. There
will be a six weeks, a final and a short paper for the 12 weeks.
Details will be announced. There will be two lectures a week, a
discussion section for each member of the c'ourse. In addition
there will be a general discussion on Fridays, it will be announced
when this will start. .

I. These must be read:

J. L. Talmon, Romanticism and Revolt, Harcourt Brace $2.95
Karl Marx, Communist Manifesto and Principles of Communism,

Monthly Review Press
Karl Marx, "Feuerbach" in German Ideology, International

Publishers, $1.95 but also on reserve.
Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, Norton
Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism, Anvil

II. These must be read also - according to the Teaching Assistant
you have. In sectioning you can put down three choices in
the Order you may want them and according to the books to be
read:

Eugene Newman :

Fritz Stern. Politics of Cultural Despair

(Anchor)
Hitler, Main Kampf, Houghton Mifflin

Paperback
Bullock, Hitler (selected chapters) ,

Bantam

Marc Lagana:

John Lampe:

Steve Werner:

Reed, Ten Days that Shook the World,

Mentor
Trotzki, Russian Revolution, Anchor edition.
Lenin, State and Revolution

Golwitzer, Europe in the Age of Imperialism,

Harcourt Brace
Jaszi, Dissolution of the Habsburg

Monarchy Chicago (parts to be assigned) .
Stavrianos, The Balkans, Holt

E. M. Fester. Howards End, Vintage
John Harrison, The Reactionaries , Shoken
Julian Benda, Treason of the Intellectuals,
Norton

Timothy Nugent

European Fascism

Rogge and Weber, The European Right,

California, (parts to be assigned) .
International Fascism, ed. Lagueur

& Mosse, Harpers
Nathaniel Greene, Fascism: an Anthology,

Crowell.

Februarv

8 Introduction

10 Industrial Revolution

15 Romanticism

17 Liberalism

22 Revolutions of 1848

24 Modern Nationalism

Clouqh Text
XIII (1)
XIII (2)
XIII (3-4, 6)
XIII (7)
XIII (5)

March

1 Bismarck

3 Unification of Italy

8 Napoleon III

10 Third French Republic

15 HOUR EXAMI NATION

17 Marxism

22 Marxism

24 Social Democracy

29 Rediscovery of the unconscious

31 Balance of Power 1870-1914

XIII (8)

XIV (5)

XIV (3)

XIV (1)
XIV (6)

XIV (2)
XIV (7)

April

5

7
19
21
26
28

Peace at Versailles

Russia in 19 Century

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

Italian Fascism

German Republic

May

3 National Socialism

5 Politics of Mass Movemonts

10 France between the warß

12 Britain between tho wars

17 Appeasement and Agqresfsion

19 The Grand Alliance. 1941-46

24 The Era of the Gold War

26 The Coiranunist World

XV (1)

XIV (4)

XV (2)

XV(3)

XV (4)

XV (5)
XV (6)
XVI

June

Conclusion

I

♦ »

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History • ,
Second Semester, 1970-71

History 120 (Europe and the Modern World) - Mr. Mosse

The text will be Clough, Pflanze and Payne, Modern Times (Heath &
Co.) In addition you will be responsible for the books listed
in I. below and according to T.A. for those in II. below. There
will be a six weeks, a final and a short paper for the 12 weeks.
Details will be announced. There will be two lectures a week, a
discussion section for each member of the cburse. In addition
there will be a general discussion on Fridays, it will be announced
when this will start.

I. These must be read:

II.

J. L. Talmon, Romanticism and Revolt, Harcourt Brace $2.95
Karl Marx, Communist Manifeste and Principles of Communism,

Monthly Review Press
Karl Marx, "Feuerbach" in German Ideology, International

Publishers, $1.95 but also on reserve.
Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents, Norton
Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism, Anvil

These must be read also - according to the Teaching Assistant
you have. In sectioning you can put down three choices in
the Order you may want them and according to the books to be
read:

Eugene Newman :

Fritz Stern. Politics of Cultural Despair

(Anchor)
Hitler, Main Kampf, Houghton Mifflin

Paperback
Bullock, Hitler (selected chapters) ,

Bantam

Marc Lagana

John Lampe:

Steve Werner:

Timothy Nugent

Reed, Ten Days that Shook the World,

Mentor
Trotzki, Russian Revolution, Anchor edition.
Lenin, State and Revolution

Golwitzer, Europe in the Age of Imperialism,

Harcourt Brace
Jaszi, Dissolution of the Habsburg

Monarchy Chicago (parts to be assigned) .
Stavrianos, The Balkans, Holt

E. M. Fester. Howards End, Vintage
John Harrison, The Reactionaries, Shoken
Julian Benda, Treason of the Intellectuals,
Norton

European Fascism

Rogge and Weber, The European Right,

California, (parts to be assigned) .
International Fascism, ed. Laqueur

& Mosse, Harpers
Nathaniel Greene, Fascism: an Anthology,

Crowell.

■ ■». J->!— H.:-._f- .. .

«">

Februarv

8 Introduction

10 Industrial Revolution

15 Romanticism

17 Liberalism

22 Revolutions of 1848

24 Modern Nationalism

Clouqh Text
XIII (1)
XIII (2)
XIII (3-4, 6)
XIII (7)
XIII (5)

y^A^/v.

March

1

3

8

10

1-5 —
17
22
24
\/ 29
^31

April
1^ 5
f "^

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

HOUR EXAMI NATION

Marxism

Marxism

Social Democracy -p

Rediscovery of the unconscious -^

Balance of Power 1870-1914 /^rv 21

Peace at Versailles ^''^--^ ^ ^'^
Russia in 19 ceriLuiy L m^^ ^

U^** V4^^ Soviet Revolution -^

^y^ 2\ Failure of Revolution

26 Italian Fascism

28 German Republic

in the West

May

3 National Socialism

5 Politics of Mass Movements

10 France between the warß

12 Britain between tho wars

17 Appeasement and Agqression

19 The Grand Alliance. 1941-46

24 The Era of the Gold War

26 The Communist World

XIII (8)

XIV (5)

XIV (3)

XIV (1)
XIV (6)

XIV (2) *"•

XIV (7) l\ V^U^i^^^^^^ iU

XV (1) ^ • '^ ,

XIV (4) 7' ^^^'^

XV (2) ;^. \ie^$AUClS^^

x^^Tir^"/

V

XV (4)

XV (5)
XV (6)
XVI

June

Conclusion

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History «,
Second Semester, 1970-71

History 120 (Europe and the Modern World) - Mr. Mosse

The text will be Clough, Pflanze and Payne, Modern Times (Heath &
Co.) In addition you will be responsible for the books listed
in I. below and according to T.A. for those in II. below. There
will be a six weeks, a final and a short paper for the 12 weeks.
Details will be announced. There will be two lectures a week, a
discussion section for each member of the cburse. In addition
there will be a general discussion on Fridays, it will be announced
when this will start.

I. These must be read:

J. L. Talmon, Romanticism and Revolt, Harcourt Brace $2.95
Karl Marx, Communist Manifeste and Principles of Communism,

Monthly Review Press
Karl Marx, "Feuerbach" in German Ideology, International

Publishers, $1.95 but also on reserve.
Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, Norton
Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism, Anvil

II. These must be read also - according to the Teaching Assistant
you have. In sectioning you can put down three choices in
the Order you may want them and according to the books to be
read:

Eugene Newman :

Fritz Stern. Politics of Cultural Despair

(Anchor)
Hitler, Main Kampf, Houghton Mifflin

Paperback
Bullock, Hitler (selected chapters) ,

Bantam

Marc Lagana:

John Lampe:

Steve Werner:

Timothy Nugent

Reed, Ten Days that Shook the World,

Mentor
Trotzki, Russian Revolution, Anchor edition.
Lenin, State and Revolution

Golwitzer, Europe in the Age of Imperialism,

Harcourt Brace
Jaszi, Dissolution of the Habsburg

Monarchy Chicago (parts to be assigned) .
Stavrianos, The Balkans, Holt

E. M. Fester. Howards End, Vintage
John Harrison, The Reactionaries, Shoken
Julian Benda, Treason of the Intellectuals,
Norton

European Fascism

Rogge and Weber, The European Right,

California, (parts to be assigned) .
International Fascism, ed. Laqueur

& Mosse, Harpers
Nathaniel Greene, Fascism: an Anthology,

Crowell.

Februarv

8 Introduction

10 Industrial Revolution

15 Romanticism

17 Liberalism

22 Revolutions of 1848

24 Modern Nationalism

Clouqh Text
XIII (1)
XIII (2)
XIII (3-4, 6)
XIII (7)
XIII (5)

March

1 Bismarck

3 Unification of Italy

8 Napoleon III

10 Third French Republic

15 HOUR EXAMI NATION

17 Marxism 1^

22 Marxism //. •

24 Social Democracy-^i'** '^^

29 Rediscovery of the unconscious

31 Balance of Power 1870-1914

XIII (8)

XIV (5)

XIV (3)

XIV (1)
XIV (6)

XIV (2)
XIV (7)

^/

April

5

7
19
21
26
2B-

?

^ir

May

5
10
12
17
19
24
26

Peace at Versailles

Russia in 19 Century

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolutj nn Jn the West

Italian Fascism

German Republic

National Socialism
Politics of Mass Movemonts
France between the wars
Britain between thn wars
Appeasement and Aggression
The Grand Alliance, 1941-46
The Era of the Gold War
The Coramunist World

XV (1)

XIV (4)

XV (2)

XV(3)

XV (4)

XV (5)
XV (6)
XVI

June

Conclusion

THE UNIVERS.ITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History •
Second Semester^ 1970-71

History 120 (Europe and the Modern World) - Mr. Mosse

The text will be Clough, Pflanze and Payne, Modern Times (Heath &
Co.) In addition you will be responsible for the books listed
in I. below and according to T.A. for those, in II. below. There
will be a six weeks, a final and a short paper for the 12 weeks.
Details will be announced. There will be two lectures a week, a
discussion section for each member of the course. In addition
there will be a general discussion on Fridays, it will be announced
when this will start.

I. These must be read:

II

J. L. Talmon, Romanticism and Revolt, Harcourt Brace $2.95
Karl Marx, Communist Manifeste and Principles of Communism,

Monthly Review Press
Karl Marx, "Feuerbach" in German Ideology, International

Publishers, $1.95 but also on reserve.
Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, Norton
Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism, Anvil

These must be read also - according to the Teaching Assistant
you have. In sectioning you can put down three choices in
the Order you may want them and according to the books to be
read:

Eugene Newman :

Fritz Stern. Politics of Cultural Despair

(Anchor)
Hitler, Main Kampf, Houghton Mifflin

Paperback
Bullock, Hitler (selected chapters) ,

Bantam

Marc Lagana

John Lampe:

Steve Werner:

Timothy Nugent

Reed, Ten Days that Shook the World,

Mentor
Trotzki, Russian Revolution, Anchor edition.
Lenin, State and Revolution

Golwitzer, Europe in the Age of Imperialism,

Harcourt Brace
Jaszi, Dissolution of the Habsburg

Monarchy Chicago (parts to be assigned) .
Stavrianos, The Balkans, Holt

E. M. Fester. Howards End, Vintage
John Harrison, The Reactionaries, Shoken
Julian Benda, Treason of the Intellectuals,
Norton

European Fascism

Rogge and Weber, The European Right,

California, (parts to be assigned) .
International Fascism, ed. Lagueur

& Mosse, Harpers
Nathaniel Greene, Fascism: an Anthology,

Crowell.

Februarv

8 Introduction

10 Industrial Revolution

15 Roman ticism

17 Liberalism

22 Revolutions of 1848

24 Modern Nationalism

Clouqh Text
XIII (1)
XIII (2)
XIII (3-4, 6)
XIII (7)
XIII (5)

March

1 Bismarck

3 ünification of Italy

8 Napoleon III

10 Third French Republic

15 HOUR EXAMI NATION

17 Marxism

22 Marxism

24 Social Democracy

29 Rediscovery of the unconscious

31 Balance of Power 1870-1914

April

5 Peace at Versailles

7 Russia in 19 Century

19 Soviet Revolution

21 Failure of Revolution

26 Italian Fascism

28 German Republic

jn the West

May

3 National Socialism

5 Politics of Mass Movemonts

10 France between the warß

12 Britain between tho wars

17 Appeasement and Aggression

19 The Grand Alliance, 1941-46

24 The Era of the Gold War

26 The Communist World

XIII (8)

XIV (5)

XIV (3)

XIV (1)
XIV (6)

XIV (2)
XIV (7)

XV (1)

XIV (4)

XV (2)

XV(3)

XV (4)

XV (5)
XV (6)
XVI

June

Conclusion

THE UNIVERS.ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History •,
Second Semester, 1970-71

History 120 (Europe and the Modern World) - Mr. Mosse

The text will be Clough, Pflanze and Payne, Modern Times (Heath &
Co,) In addition you will be responsible for the books listed
in I. below and according to T.A. for those in II. below. There
will be a six weeks, a final and a short paper for the 12 weeks.
Details will be announced. There will be two lectures a week, a
discussion section for each member of the cburse. In addition
there will be a general discussion on Fridays, it will be announced
when this will start.

I. These must be read:

J. L. Talmon, Romanticism and Revolt, Harcourt Brace $2.95
Karl Marx, Communist Manifeste and Principles of Communism,
Monthly Review Press
2 Karl Marx, "Feuerbach" in German Ideology, International
Publishers, $1.95 but also on reserve.
Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, Norton
Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism, Anvil

II. These must be read also - according to the Teaching Assistant
you have. In sectioning you can put down three choices in
the Order you may want them and according to the books to be
read:

Eugene Newman

Fritz Stern. Politics of Cultural Despair

(Anchor)
Hitler, Main Kampf, Houghton Mifflin

Paperback
Bullock, Hitler (selected chapters) ,

Bantam

Marc Lagana:

John Lampe

Steve Werner:

Timothy Nugent

Reed, Ten Days that Shook the World,

Mentor
Trotzki, Russian Revolution, Anchor edition.
Lenin, State and Revolution

Golwitzer, Europe in the Age of Imperialism,

Harcourt Brace
Jaszi, Dissolution of the Habsburg

Monarchy Chicago (parts to be assigned) .
Stavrianos, The Balkans, Holt

E. M. Fester. Howards End, Vintage
John Harrison, The Reactionaries, Shoken
Julian Benda, Treason of the Intellectuals,
Norton

European Fascism

Rogge and Weber, The European Right,

California, (parts to be assigned) .
International Fascism, ed. Lagueur

& Mosse, Harpers
Nathaniel Greene, Fascism: an Anthology,

Crowell.

(

Februarv

8 Introduction

10 Industrial Revolution

15 Romanticism

17 Liberalism

22 Revolutions of 1848

24 Modern Nationalism

Clouqh Text
XIII (1)
XIII (2)
XIII (3-4, 6)
XIII (7)
XIII (5)

March

1 Bismarck

3 Unification of Italy

8 Napoleon III

10 Third French Republic

15 HOUR EXAMI NATION

17 Marxism

22 Marxism

24 Social Democracy

29 Rediscovery of the unconscious

31 Balance of Power 1870-1914

April

5 Peace at Versailles

7 Russia in 19 Century

19 Soviet Revolution

21 Failure of Revolutjrui

26 Italian Fascism

28 German Republic

in the West

May

3 National Socialism

5 Politics of Mass Movements

10 France between the wars

12 Er itain between tho wars

17 Appeasement and Aggression

19 The Grand Alliance, 1941-46

24 The Era of the Coia War

26 The Coiranunist World

XIII (8)

XIV (5)

XIV (3)

XIV (1)
XIV (6)

XIV (2)
XIV (7)

XV (1)

XIV (4)

XV (2)

XV(3)

XV (4)

XV (5)
XV (6)
XVI

June

Conclusion

^ I*'

^\ ^

^%}^'^.-

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Second Semester, 1968-69

HISTORY 120 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOS SB

You have a choice between two texts: Blum, Caraeron, Barnes, The European World
(Little, Brown & Co.) or Clough, Pflanze and Payne, A History of the Western
World: Modern Times (Heath Paperback). Also: Mosse et al., Europe in Review
(Rand McNally).

In addition you will be responsible for the books listed below. The books will be
due at the date given, but we will announce later Just how this will be done:
whether in sections, through small papers or (for some books) in connection with
the paper which will replace the 12 weeks. They necessarily bunch together according
to the topic and you should Start in reading them straight away and not wait until
shortly before the date given.

John Stuart Mill, Autobiography (The New American Librnry, Inc.), Feb. 17
E. J. Hobsbawn, The Age of Revolution 1789-1849 (Mentor), Parts to

be assigned March 10. (Six Weeks).
David Caute, The Left in Europe since 1789 (World University Library),

March 19.
Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism (Anvil), April 21.
William S. Allen, The Nazi Seizure of Power (Quadrangle) , April 30.
Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem (Viking) , May 14.

February

3 Introduction

5 Industrial Revolution

10 Romanticism

12 Liberalism

17 Revolutions of 1848

19 Modern National ism

24 Bismarck

26 Unification of Italy

Clough

XIII (1)

XIII (2)

XIII (3-4,

XIII (7)

XIII (5)

XIII (8)

XIV (5)

6)

Cameron

pp. 1-8
Chapt. 3
Chapt. 1
Chapt. 2
Chapt. 4
Chapt. 5

Chapt. 6

Europe in
Review

XVII

XVIII

XIX

XXII

XX

xxvn

XXVIII

March

3 Napoleon III

5 Third French Republic

10 HOUR EXAMINATION

12 Marxism

17 Marxism

19 Social Democracy

24 Rediscovery of the unconscious

26 Balance of Power 1870-1914

31 Peace at Versailles

XIV (3)

XIV (1)
XIV (6)

XIV (2)

XIV (7)

XV (1)

Chapt. 8

Chapt. 7

Chapt. 11

Chapt. 10

Chapt. 9, 12

Chapt. 13

XXIII
XXIV

XXV
XXX

XXVI
XXXI
XXXII

April

2 Russia in 19 Century
14 Soviet Revolution
16 Failure of Revolution in

the West
21 Italian Fascism
23 German Republic
28 National Socialism
30 Folitics of Mass Movements

XIV (4)

XV (2)

XIV (8)

XV (3)

Chapt. 15
Chapt. 14

XXIX
XXXIII

XXXV

XXXVI

XXXVII

•*s^ ^

«s-J-

HI STORY 120

•2-

Mr. Mosse

5 France between the wars

7 Br itain between the wars

12 Appeasement and Aggression

14 The Grand Alliance, 1941-46

19 The Era of the Cold War

21 The Coimnunist World

26 Conclusion

XV (4)

XV (5)
XV (6)
XVI

XXXIX

XXXVIII

Chapt,

16

XL
XLI

Chapt.

17, 19

XLII
XLIII

^le»^

^'v. ^

HI STORY 120

•2-

Mr. Mosse

Max

5 France between the wars

7 Br itain between the wars

12 Appeasement and Aggression

14 The Grand Alliance, 1941-46

19 The Era of the Gold War

21 The Communist World

26 Conclusion

XV (4)

XV (5)
XV (6)
XVI

Chapt, 16
Chapt. 17, 19

XXXIX

XXXVIII

XL

XLI

XLII

XLIII

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Second Semester, 1966-67

HISTORY 120 (3) (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOSSE

The texte for this course are:

R. R. Palmer, History of the Modern World (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L. Mosse et. al., Europe in Review (Rand McNally) paperback edition

In addition you will read the books listed below and should buy them. They
Will be tested in the sectlon meeting of the week whose date is given with
r.^H^n! 11^°""^ f ""^^"^ necessarily come closer together so you must do the
reading well m advance of the teat and better Start in on those books at
the beginning of the terra.

^°^^^^' Sorrows of the Young Werther (Rhinehart Editions)
G. Bullock, Adolf Hitler (Bantam editions - abridged)
Lewis Namier, Vanished Supremacies (Harper Torchbook)
Alfred G. Meyer, Marxism (Ann Arbor Paperback)
NletÄSche, Beyond Good and Evil (Gayeway)

All Office hours are posted at 197 Bascom Hall.

January

30 Introduction
February

1 Industrial Revolution

Romanticism and Conservatism

Liberalism

Revolutions of 1848

Palmer

6

8

13

15
20
22
27

March

422-430

430-432; 443-453

432-433; 454-463; 607-612

469-495

DUE: Goethe, Sorrows of the Youn^ Werther and Namier (1
Modern NaMrtn^ii -i cm t '^r i t ^ -^^ •.,- ^

Modern Nationalism

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

DÜE: Namier (54-64)

436-443; 509-511
518-534; 585-588
511-518
502-507

-54)

Sources

XVII
XVIII
XIX
XXII

XX

XXVII
XXVIII
XXIII

1

6
8
13
15
20
22

577-582

433-436; 464-468; 495-502

589-596

567-577; 613-627; 635-659

561-564; 596-607

627-635; 660-687

Third French Republic

Marxism

HOUR EXAMINATION

Social Democracy

Imperial ism

Change in European Opinion

Balance of Power 1870-1914

DUE: Alfred Meyer, Marxism (Entire)
April

5 Peace at Versailles 687-704

Russia in the 19th Century 453-454; 530-539
Soviet Revolution XVII

HOUR EXAMINATION (Also Namier, 77-165)
End of an Era

Italian Facism 800-805

German Republic 762-765

10
12
17
19
24
26

XXIV

XXV (I, II, III)

XXV (IV, V)
XXX
XXVI
XXXI

XXXII

XXIX

XXXIII

XXXV
XXXVI

HISTORY 120

-2-

Mr. Mosee

Max.
1

3
8
10
15
17
22
24

805-816

National Socialism

DUE: Bullock, Adolf Hitler

The Fascist Revolution

Britain Between the Wars

France Between the Wars

Appeasement and Aggression

The Grand Alliance, 1941-46

The Era of the Gold War

The Communist World and the Problems of Modern Europe

FINAL and DUE: Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil

777-785
582-584; 791-800

816-827
XX

XXXVII

XXXVIII

XXXIX

XL

XLI; XLII (I)

XLII (II)

The

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Second Semester, 1965-66

HISTORY 120 (3) (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOSSE

texts for this course are:

R. R, Palmer, History of the Modern World (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L. Mosse et al., Europe in Review (Rand McNally) paperback edition

In addition you will read the books listed below and should buy them.
They will be tested in the section meeting of the week whose date is given
with the books. Some of them necessarily come closer together so you must
do the reading well in advance of the test and better Start in on those books
at the beginning of the term.

T. S. Ashton, Industrial Revolution (Galaxy) due vreek of February 14.
R. N. Carew-Kunt, The Thegry and Practica of Communism (Pelican)

due week of March 21.
A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler (Bantam) due week of April 25.
Crossman, The God that Failej (Pocketbook) due week of May 9.

All Office hours are posted at 197 Bascom Hall.

y

p^ß 3 ' %^ Introduction
February
0 ' ir- Industrial Revolution «^
/^- -f- Romanticism and Conservatism
'l'-e- Liberalism •
<7-^ Revolutions of 1848

/

u^

469-495
DUE: Ashton, Industrial Revolution

Palmer

422-430

430-432; 443-453
432-433; 454-463; 607-612

'^*<

lf\(r Modern Nationalism _

•i^^ Bismarck */

Unification of Italy
Napoleon III u^

3 -^
March

Af'i^ ^ ao

ix^

April

Third French Republic

Marxlsm ^

HOUR EXAMI NATION

Social Democracy/^

Imperialism y ß ^^^ V

Change in European Opinion;/

Balance of Power 1870-1914 ^

DUE: Carew-Hunt, Theory and Practice of Communism

Peace at Versailles vx* 687-704

Russia in the 19th Century u^ 453-454; 530-539

436-443; 509-511
518-534; 585-588
511-518
502-507

577-582 M

433-436; 464-468; 495-502

589-596

567-577; 613-627; 635-659

561-564; 596-607

627-635; 660-687

l>V 4- Soviet Revolution ^/^
,ii -6 HOUn BXA^lINATKJN

4«

End of an Era ' ^JyA^

Italian Facism y

German Republic i/

National Socialism

DUE: Bullock, Adolf Hitler

XVII

800-805
762-765
805-816

6. t^^^^ **^v

l/

Sources

XVII
XVIII
XIX
XXII

XX

XXVII

XXVIII

XXIII

XXIV

XXV (I, II, III)

XXV (IV, V)

XXX

XXVI

XXXI

XXXII
XXIX

XXXIII

XXXV

XXXVI

XXXVII

History 120

-2-

Mr. Mosse

Palmer
777-785
582-584; 791-800

•w

46

2i.

Thq Fascist Revolution ^

Britain Between the Wars ^

France Between the Wars </

Appeaseraent and Aggression 816-827*^

DUE: Crossman, The God that Failed

The Grand Alliance, 1941-46 XX

The Era of the Gold Warj^

The Communist World

-Er4>JxVeHis-e^ -Modern Europe

i^

Sources

XXXVIII

XXXIX

XL

XLI: XLII (I)
XLII (II)

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Second Semester, 1965-66

HISTORY 120 (3) (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOSSE

The texts for this course are:

R. R. Palmer, History of the Modern World (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L, Mosse et al., Europe in Review (Rand McNally) paperback edition

In addition you will read the books listed below and should buy them.
They V7ill be tested in the section meeting of the vzeek whose date is given
with the books. Seme of them necessarily come closer together so you must
do the reading well in advance of the test and better start in on those books
at the beginning of the term.

T. S. Ashton, Industrial Revolution (Galaxy) due week of February 14.
R. N. Carew-Hunt, The Theory and Practice of Communism (Pelican)

due week of March 21.
A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler (Bantam) due week of April 25.

Crossman, The God that Failed (Pocke tbook) due week of May

9.

All Office hours are posted at 197 Bascom Hall.

January

31 Introduction
February

7
c

14

16
l\
23

28
March
2
7
9

14
16
21
23

28
30
April
4
6

18
20
25
27

Industrial Revolution
Romanticism and Conservatism
Liberalism
Revolutions of 1848

Palmer

422-430

430-432; 443-453
432-433; 454-463; 607-C12
469-495

DUE: Ashton, Industrial Revolution

Modern Nationalism
Bismarok

Unification of Italy
Napoleon III

Third French Republic

Marxism

HOUR EXAMI NATION

Social Democracy

Imperialism

Change in European Opinion

Balance of Power 1870-1914

436-443; 509-511
518-534; 585-588
511-518

502-507

577-582

433-436; 46A-4C8; 495-502

589-596

567-577; 613-627; 635-659

561-564; 596-607

627-035; 660-687

DUE: Carew-Hunt, Theory and Practice of Communism

Peace at Versailles
Russia in the 19th Century

Soviet Revolution

HOUR EXAMINATION

End of an Era

Italian Facism

Germen Republic

National Socialism

DUE: Bullock, AHplf Hitler

687-704
453-454; 530-539

XVII

800-805
762-765
805-81C

Sources

XVII
XVIII
XIX
XXII

XX

XXVII
XXVIII
XXIII

XXIV

XXV (I, II, IIi:

XXV (IV, V)

XXX

XXVI

XXXI

XXXII
XXIX

XXXIII

XXXV

XXXVI

XXXVII

•«?■— finTW-»,H>»^f J^y.,^r<»#; *>^f — ^^

History 120

-2-

Mr. Mosse

May

2

4

9

11

16
18

23
25

Palmer

The Fascist Revolution

Britain Between the Wars

France Betneen the Wars

Appeasement and Aggression 816-827

DUE: Crossman, The God that Failed

777-785
582-584; 791-800

The Grand Alliance, 1941-46
The Era of the Gold War
The Communist l^orld
Problems of Modern Eurooe

XX

Sources

XXXVIII

XXXIX

XL

XLI: XLII (I)
XLII (II)

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of Hlstory
Second Semester, 1964-65

HISTORY 1?0 (3) (EÜROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOSSE

The texts for this course are:

R. R, Palmer, History of the Modern World (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L. Mosse et al. Europe in Review (Rand McNally) paperback edltlon.

In additlon you will read the books listed below and should buy them. They will
be tested in the section meeting of the week whosc date is given with the booka.
Some of them necessarily come closer together so you must do the reading well in
advance of the text and better start in on those books at the beginning of the
term.

Theodore Hamerow, Bismarck (Heath Problems) week of March 1
M. Kranzberg, 1848 (Heath Problems) week of February 15
Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (Galaxy) week of March 15
A* Bullock, Adolf Hitler, (Bantam) week of April 12
Crossman, The God that Failed (Pocketbook) week of April 26.

All Office hours are posted at 19? Bascom Hall.

February

1 Introduction
3 Industrial Revolution
8 Romanticism and Conservatism
10 Liberalism
15 Revolutions of 1848

DUE: Kranzberg, 1848
17 Modern Nationalism
22 Bismarck

24 Unification of Italy
March

1 Napoleon III

DUE: Hamerow, Bismarck
3 Third French Republic
8 Marxism
10 HOUR EXAMINATION
15 Social Denocracy

DUE: Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx
17 Imperialism

22 Change in European Opinion
24 Balance of Power 1870-1914
29 Peace at Versailles
31 Russia in the 19th Century
April

5 Soviet Revolution
7 HOUR EXAMINATION
12 End of an Era

DUE: A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler
14 Italian Facism
26 German Republic
28 National Socialism

DUE: The God That Failed

Palmer

422-430
430-432;
432-433;
469-495

436-443;
518-534;
511-518

502-507

577-582
433-436;

589-596
(entire)

567-577;

561-564;

627-635;

687-704

453-454;

XVII

443-453
454-463; 607-612

509-511
585-588

464-468; 495-502

613-627; 635-659

596-607

660-687

530-539

(Entire)
800-805

762-765
805-816

Sources

XVII
XVIII
XIX
XXII

XX

XXVII
XXVIII

XXIII

XXIV

XXV (I, II, III)

XXV (IV, V)

XXX

XXVI

XXXI

XXXII

XXIX

XXXIII

XXXV

XXXVI
XXXVII

History 120

- 2 -

Mr. Mosse

3
5

10
12

17
19

24

26

The Fascist Revolution
Britain Between the Wars
France Between the Wars
Appeasement and Aggression
The Grand Alliance, 1941-46
The Era of the Cold War
The Coiranunist World
Problems of Modern Europe

Palmer
777-785
582-584; 791-800

816-827
XX

Sources

XXXVIII

XXXIX

XL

XLI: XLII (I)

XLII (II)

h

RMwnNi Ugtm iw i»oofwI S«n»8t«r i960

Hl»tory 3

f^UL

^4

//

$01 thoce büoka on xmmrm tor th« coui-m for the oiintnt

■ !

laUhBmCln»
Alm Bul^iook^ IL

AU th« ooplMiAiich the Llbxvuy
«M lOso out 9ß pcU]k»t books*

Ü^W

(^^^C^ariL

City of RLzhUenth Ccntigy PhlloBOT^ra

^ « /^/F^^i '^/v/

Clo80d rtMr^i
Clowd

w-I* CM«inr» ffliSbiiSi l^tonl#ia ^

*^A Oimmrd» lOf o tod iWth of an Ideal
-^F^L* NimabauBu ^rtLumh of Scienoe anj Iteaacn
^Voltaire. ^aK'^nlAuvi«»

•^Thanai! Hobba«, I^fiathan

/i| alraady on renf^rw fr>r I45äJ
Wr&t Tou fdJlJ 1 Mt itfraid hav» to cet anothar ookjt of the Knox book and.

olosad

CloMd MMnr«
Closad

Cloaed

Cloaed v%

I

•nroUjwm

1

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0« KLtMD OImIc, Quid» Jbt l^w—rch Stodwita ffortcin£ on HietoriLo«! Sta>j»ct«ii

I «>\jld llke MB to haw at leaat 3 to 4 ooplM of thia littla pluaqaat awilabla<
( oo8ta $X»25)

V

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY

THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN
MADISON 6

BA8COM HALL

J

//

I

NoTdnbiir 23, 1959

y

H

/

tmspxüvM.

iCi^y;

Crane IMntan, Th» Amtoy of R»volutlcm« ( Vintagt)
Ikmm «t «1« Euppps in «^rUfir ( Rand ^^cWally)
RJi* PWät, HjgtCTy of tiha ModUiwi World ( Knopf)

Ti'lui'qfili mß

•xf

Higtflfey

FJ.,

optional
«ra ( ^ala ix>oke1^ book)

Thonaa liobbaaTlS^pdaihan flbdoni Llbr
B. Plaaoal, ?fummMm TTfedem Llbraiy)

anroUnent oa« 150 • Not all st^idants idll buy, aa a fmr oopiaa ax^ on librasy
reaaxTNij but I idU anoommge Uma to bu^ theae booka«

V

mSTORT 3 - MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORr - MR* MOSSE

Seoond Semester
1959-1960

RBADINOLIST

The texte for thie oouree sopBt

R. R« Palmer - Hlstory of t3
Q« L* Mosse« etal» m. Europe

In addltlx>n you will read the follcwing books whloh you sho\ald owna

leaiah Berlin - Karl Marx (Galaxy book)
A. Bullock • HlUer CBantam book)

Grane Brinton ^ Anatgrgr of ROTolutlon (Vintage)

lorl - Töe Rise of Modem Communifl

MasslmD Salvador

Comnmnlsm (Berkshire Studty^ Holt)

These books are dw as given on the assignment sheet, As they are made d\je
at the appropriate tlme in the oourse, two of them fall due close together,
You must, therefore, do your reading well in advance. The difference
between 3 and 4 oredits in the cotirse consists in the writing of a term
paper. You wüst notiiy your section instruotor of your desire to write
such a paper not later then March 2. The offioe hours of the staff are
posted on the door of 197 Bascom«

Hiatory 3 <* Page 2

Fobruaxy

1

3
8

10

15
17
22
2tf

29

Maroh
2

7
9

14
16
21

23
28

30
i^ril

6

11
13
25

27
May 2

9
U

16
18

23
25

Palnor

Sotireea

Introduotlon
Industrial Rsvolution
Ronantiolam and Conasrvatiani
Llbaraliam
Revolutiona of 1848
Modem Natlonaliom
Blimarok

Unifikation of Italy
Napoleon HI«

if22J^30 XVU

430Jf32, kkyJk53 XVXEI
^32J^33f 45Wf63, 607-ÄL2 XIX

'»69-495 yyjT

^36-443, 509-5U XX

518-534f 5Ö5-588 XXVU
5IU518
502.507

BOÖR EXAMBUTIOll
Third Frenoh Rapubllc
Marxlsm

577-582 XXIV

^33-436, 464-468, 495-502; Isaiah Berlin,
Karl. i^arx^'.vXZy ÖJ^IJwIII)

Social D»ian.^raQy 589=595 — ^XV (IV, V)

Iinpörlali«r 567-577, 6I3-627, 635-659 XXX

Reorientatlon of Buropaan Thought 561-564, 596-607 XXVI

The Balance of Power 1870*1914 627-635, 66O-687 XXXI

Ftace at VersalljLes 687-704 rip^TT

Russia in the 19th Oentuxy 453J^54, 530-539

The Soviat .ievol\ ':;ion
HOÜR SXAMTiaTIOH
Snd of an Era
Faeciem in Italy
Qerman Republio
National Socialiea

Slsretene of Dictatorship
Britain Between the Ware
Franoe Betueen the Ware
Appeaeenent and Aggreaelon
The Qrand AUianoe, 1941-1946
The Era of the Gold War
The Comuniet World

xvn

xxxin

Grane Brlnton, Anatonqr of Revolution

800.805 mV

752.765 XXXVI

8O5-8I61 A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler, XXXVII

777-785
582.584, 791-800

xxxvin

XXXIX

XL

XU, XLII (I)
XLII (II)
MaeeiJBo Salyadori, The Riee of Modem

CooBBunieB

816.827
XX

Summasyt ProbGLene of Hoden) fiurope

mSTORT 3 - MQDEFW EUROPEAN ffESTORT - MR. MOSSB

Seoond Semester
1959-1960

HEADINQLIST

The ttxts for thie oouree aret

mstory of tJ
^al» » Europe

In addition you will read the followlng boote idilch you should owna

/'Isaiah Berlin - Karl Marx (Galaxy book)
v-A. Bullook • Hitler (Bantam book)
J p>^ ^^ B'^^^Pton » AnatoBcr of Revolution (Vlntage)

&88liSD SalvadorTT*

Tti Communism (Berkshire Studty^ Holt)

These books are due as given on the assignment sheet« As they are made due
at the appropriate time In the oourse, two of them fall dw cloee together,
Tou must, therefojTo, do your reading well in advanee. The dlfferenoe
betMeen 3 and h oredits in the oourse consists in the writing of a term
paper« Tou must notüy your seotlon instruotor of your deslre to write
suoh a paper not later then March 2. The offioe hours of the staff are
posted on thti door of 197 Baaoom«

Hlstory 3 - Page 2

February

1

3
8

10

15
17
22
7k
29

March
2

7

9

l<f
16

21

23

28
30

'^

6
11
13
25
27

May 2

9

11
16
18
23

25

Palmer

Introduotlon

Industrial Revolution/ /UrZZJ^y^^ //

Romanticism and Conservatia« ^y^J^J^JUl^yA^y/ !

T 4v^««i 4 ««. X 432 Jf33; 455-i*63, 607-6IJ2

Liberalisni/
Revolutions of lÖWX^
Modem Nationallsm /^
Blsmarck y

Unification of Italy
Napoleon HI» X

t^

^9-^5^
436-W^3i 509-511
518-53'+, 585-588
511-518
502-507

Sourees

xvn
xvm

XIX'

xxn

XX

xxvn

xxvin

xxrn

HOUR EXAMINATION
Third Frepdh Repviblic ^
MarylsittN/

Soc: ; L De
Impo^ialio

^•■--'"j./ac.

X

X

577-582 XXIV

433-^36, '4^-468, k95'502; Isaiah Berlin,

^^^arl i^&rxr,'..jCZy 4lV-!^5>^3Jl)

585C555 '~ — ^ "

567-577, 61; .627, 635-659 XXX
Reorf antation of European Tho\ighik/^56l-564, 596-607
The Balance of Power 1870-1914 ^ 627-635, 66O-687
Peac^ at ^^:^r8an»*r^ ^ 687-704

Russ 1 a in ^ho Ipro. Century-^ ^5y^5^$ 53C -^39

XXV (IV, V)

XXVI
XXXI
XXXII
XXI7.

-on^

The i. ovie-« iövc!
HOUR j;XAM^ VVIO.

End of an Lra

National Socialism y

FascisxD in Italy v^
Qerman Republic

XVII U^=^^Lj:^Zil XXXIII /

Grane Brinton, Anatoay of Revolution
800-805 nXT

752-765 XXXVI

805-816; A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler, XXXVII

y

Systems of Dictatorahip
Britain Between the Ware
Franoe Between the Wars^
Appeasement and Aggression ^ 816-827
The Grand Alliance, 1941-1946*^ XX
The Era of the Gold War
The Gommunist World

777-785
582-584, 791-800

/

xxxnn

XXXIX
XL

XLIc XLH
XLII (II)

(I)

Masslmo Salvadori, The Rise of Ködern

CoBnnunisni
Sxjnmaryi Problems of Modem Europe

-f.

N

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND TUE MODERN WORLD, l8l5 TO THE PRESENT) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester, 1958-59

You are expected to own the following books; R. R. Palmer, A History of the Mod-
ern World ; Mosse et al, Europe in Review; Abridged Historical Atlas (Rand McNallv)
package of outline maps of Eixrope. '

Outside reading is assigned on a separate sheet.

You will be assigned to a section which you will attend as well as the two weekly
lectures. You must make sure that you are in a section, otherwise we will not be
able to count you as taking the course,

The difference between three and four credits is a term paper. If you decide to
write such a paper, please teil your section instructor about this as soon as pos-
sible . ^

Palmer

Sources

Feb. 2

Feb. 1^
Feb. 9

Feb. 11

Introduction

Industrial Revolution
Romanticism and Conservatism

Liberalism

Feb. 16 Revolutions of 18U8
Feb. 18 Modern Nationalism

Feb. 23 Bismarck

Feb. 25 Unification of Italy

March 2 HOUR EX AMINATION

March U Napoleon III

March 9 Third French Republic

March 11 Marxism

Ii22-U30

XVII

(Ii30-l432
(UU3-W3

XVIII

(132-133
(U5U-U63
(607-612

XIX, XXI

It69-h95

XXII

(It36-Ui3
(509-511

XX

( 518-531
(585-588

XXVII

511-518

502-507

577-582

(U33-U36
( a6U-lj68
(U95-502

XXVIII

Maps
29
32, 33

31

30

XXIII

XXIV

XXV (I, II, III)

March 16 Social Democracy

589-596 XXV (IV, V)

- 2 .

March 18 Imperialism

March 23 Society and Thought at the

End of the Century

March 25 The Balance of Power, 1870-

191U

April 6 Peace of Versailles

April 8 Russia in the 19th Century-

April 13 Russian Revolution

April 15 HOÜR EXAMIN.ATION

April 20 End of an Era

April 22 Fascism in Italy

April 27 German Republic

April 29 National Socialism

May h Systems of Dictatorship

May 6

May 11
May 13
May 18
May 20

May 25

May 27

Britain between the Mars

France between the Wars

Appeasement and Aggression

The Grand Alliance, 19Ul-19li6

The Breakup of the Grand Alli-
ance

The Comiminist V/orld

Summary: Problems of Modern
Europe

Palmer

(567-577
(613-627
(635-659

(56l-561i
(596-607

(627-635
(660-687

687-70li

(U53-li5U
(530-539

XVII

Sources

XXX

XXVII

XXXI

XXXII
XXIX

XXXIII

800-805

XXXV

752-765

XXXVI

805-816

XXXVII

777-785

(582-58U
( 791-800

XXXVIII

XXXIX

816-827

XL

XX

XLI, XLII (I)

XLII (II)

XXXIV

Maps
39, UO

37

U3
3U, 36

hh, U5

/

»''

HISTORY 3 (EÜROPE AND IHE MODERN HIDRLD, I8l5 TO THE PRESENT) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester, 19^S~$9

\

I^!J S^n!^»®*®^ *? °"" ^^^ following books. R. R. Palmer, A Hlstory of the Mod-

Outside reading is assigned on a separate sheet.

w+n^= be assigned to a section i»hich you rtll attend as well as the two weekly
leotures. You imist make sure that you are in a section, othenüse we will not be
able to ceunt yeu as taking the course,

The difference between three and four credits is a terra paper. If you decide to
wrlte such a paper, please teil yovr section instruotor about this as soon as pos-

Palmer

Sources

Feb. 2 Introduction

Feb. h Industrial Revolution

Feb. 9 Romanticism and Conservatism

Feb, 11 Llberalism

Feb. 16 Revolutions of 181;8
Feb, 16 Modern Nationalism

Feb. 23 Biamarck

Feb. 25 ünif ication of Italy

March 2 HOÜR EXAMNATION

March k Napoleao III

March 9 Third French Republic

March 11 Marxism

March 16 Social Oemocracy

I*22-li30

XVII

(U30-l*32
(U13-1j53

Will

(U32-U33
(l*5U-h63
(607-612

XIX, XXI

1*69-1*95

XXII

(1*36-U*3
(509-511

XX

(518-53U
(585-588

XXVII

511-518 XXVIII

502-507
577-582

(1*33-1*36
(1*61-1*68
(1*95-502

_^is

29

32, 33

31

3©

XIIII

XXIV

XXV (I,II, III)

589-596 XXV (XV, V)

- 2 -

March 18 Imperialism

March 23 Society and Thought at the
End of the Century

March 25 The Balance of Poiwer, 1870-
I91I4

April 6 Peace of Versailles

April 8 Russia in the 19th Century

April 13 Russian Revolution

April 15 HOUR EXA^-^INATION

April 20 End of an Era

April 22 Fascism in ItäLy

April 27 German Republic

April 29 National Socialism

Palmer

Souraes

Uaps

(567-577
(613-627
(635-659

XXX

39, UO

(561-56U
(596-607

XX7II

(627-635
(660-687

XXXi

37

687-70lt

XXXII

1.3

(U53-U5U
(530-539

XXIX

3U, 36

XVII

XXXIII

800-805

XXXV

752-765

XXXVI

x8c5-ei6

XXXVII

Ifiay U

lÄay 6

May 11

May 13

May 18

My 20

May 25

May 27

Systems of Dictatorship
Britain betiween the Ylars

France betvieen the V/ars

Appeasement and Aggression

777-785

(582-58U
(791-600

816-827

The Grand Alliance, 19U1-19U6 XX

The Breakup of the Grand Alli-
ance

The Communis t World

Suramary: Problems of Modern
Eurcpe

XXXVIII

XXXIX

XL

XLI, XLII (1} hh,hS
XLII (II)

XXXIV

.>'

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD, l8l5 TO THE PRESENT) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester, 1958-59

You are expected to own the following books: R. R. Palmar, A History of the Mod-
ern World; Mosse et al, Europe in Review; Abridged Historical Atlas (Rand McNallvV
package of outline maps of Europe.

Outside reading is assigned on a separate sheet.

You will be assigned to a section i^ich you will attend as well as the two weekly
lectures, You must make sure that you are in a section, otherwise we will not be
able to count you as taking the course.

The difference between three and four credits is a term paper. If you decide to
write such a paper, please teil your section instructor about this as soon as pos-
sible • ^

*'^Feb. 2
^Feb. h
y?eb. 9

Palmer

Sources

»^Feb. 16
y?eb. 18

i Feb. 25

March 2

y/March U

l/^ March 9

V/^ March 11

Introduction

y

Industrial Revolution

y

Roman ticism and Conservatism ^

1/ Feb. 11 Liberalism 1/^

y

Revolutions of I8li8
Modern Nationalism ^^

{/ Feb. 23 Bismarck

ünification of Italy ..^

HOUR EX AMINATION
Napoleon III

Third French Republic

Marxism

^y^March 16 Social Democracy i/

U22-U30

XVII

(U30-it32
(UU3-U53

XVIII

( U32-l<33
(U5U-li63
( 607-612

XIX, XXI

U69-l»95

xxn

(U36-Mi3
(509-511

XX

( 518-53U
(585-588

XXVII

511-518

502-507

577-582

(U33-U36
(h6U-li68
(Ii95-502

XXVIII

Maps
29
32, 33

31

30

xxin

XXIV

XXV (I, II, III)

539-596 XXV (IV, V)

- 2 -

vXMarch 18 In^eriali

sm

^^larch 23 Society aiid Tliuuglit al Ihe
^ Efid-of tho Century

wX March 25 The Balance of Power, I87O1

191U

VX'April 6 Peace of Versailles

( "^pril 8 Russia in the 19 th Century

iXpril 13

April 15

l/i^T±l 20

l/^ril 22

U^pril 27

M^ ^i^^ril 29
tx-if ay ii

U^ay 6

M^y 11

^J-^y 13

U-^ay 18

Russian Revolutiont/^
HOUR EXAMTNATIOr

End of an Era<>
Fascism in Italy
German Republic
National Socialism^
Systems of Dictatorship J^
Britain between the Wars

Palmer

Soiirces
XXX

Maps

(567-577
(613-627
(635-659

39, UO

(561-5611
(596-607

XXVI^

(627-635
(660-687

XXXI

37

687-70U

XXXII

li3

(W3-U51i
(530-539

XXIX

3U, 36

XVII

XXXIII

800-80$ XXXV
752-76$ XXXVI
805-816 XXXVII

France between the Wars

lon/^

(582-58U
( 791-800

XXXVIII

XXXIX

Appeasement and Aggression
The Grand Alliance, 19U1-19U6

816-827

XX

XL

I^^Jfey 20 The Breakup of the Grand Alli-
ance

XLI, XLII (I)
XLII (II)

u^ay 25

May 27

The Communist V>/orld

XXXIV

Summary: Problems of Modern hj^^^4<^ y ß^o^^^
Europe -^^^t^-,— . — ^

Uli, U5

T

HISTORY 3 (Europe and the Modern V/orld: I8l5 to the present)- MR. MOSSE
MR. WILLE

Second Semester, 1956-I957

Eurcpe After the Congress of Vienna, I8l5

Due in Quiz Sections the weck of March 4.

Restorations: the boundaries of France, Spain, the Kingd-jm of the Two
Sicilies, Lodena, Tuscany, and the Papal States.

Buffer areas: Kingdom of the Netherlands, Rhenish Prussia, the Swiss
Confederation, Kingdom of Sardinia (include Savoy)

Territorial ccmpensations: Austrian Lombardy and Venetia, the Kingdom of
Poland, Helgoland, vSaxony,

Boundaries of the Germania Confederation.

Locations! Vienna, Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), Troppau (Cpava), Laibach
(Ljubljana), Verona, Waterloo, Paris, Adrianople, Leipzig. Berlin,
Carlsbad, Elba

States: Hapsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary), Ottoman Empire, Prussia, Denmark.

References (Reference Desk, Library) — For Information not in your Hamncnd
Historical Atlas. Keep this list for future use,

Philip 's Historical Atlas, tedieval and Modem (1927),F.6m69 •

Breasted, Huth & Harding European History Atlas^ F.6B7U (19$1)

Shepherd, William R., Historical Atlas (19rli)

Atlas of Medieval and Modern Eurcpe (1932),

Muir, Ramsay, Hammond's New Historical Atlas for Students (1911), F. 0^89

Robertson (C. Grant) and Barthol omew. An Historical Atlas of Modern
Europe, F.6R5U ' — ""^

/

'1'

y

HISTORY 3 (Europe and the Modern World: I8l5 to the present)- MR. MOSSE
MR. WILLE

Second Semester, 1956-I957

Eurcpe After the Congress of Vienna, I8l5

Due in Quiz Sections the w«ek of March 4.

Restoratiqns: the boundaries of France, Spain, the Kingd^^m of the Two
Sicilies, liodena, Tuscany, and the Papal States.

Buffer areas: Kingdom of the Netherlands, Rhenish Prussia, the Swiss
Confederation, Kingdom of Sardinia (include Savoy)

Territorial compensations: Austrian Lombardy and Venetia, the Kingdom of
Pol and, Helgoland, Saxony«

Boundaries of the Germanic Confederation.

Locations: Vienna, Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), Troppau (Cpava), Laibach
(Ljubljana), Verona, Waterloo, Paris, Adrianople, Leipzig, Berlin,
Carlsbad, Elba

States: Hapsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary), Ottoman Empire, Prussia, Denmark.

References (Reference Desk, Library) — For Information not in your Rammend
Historical Atlas. Keep this list for future use.

Philip 's Historical Atlas, hedieval and Modem (1927),F.6m89 -

Breasted, Huth & Harding European History Atlas, F.6B7ii (1951)

Shepherd, William R., Historical Atlas {V)2\x)

Atlas of Medieval and Modern Eurrpe (1932),

Muir, Ramsay, Hammond's New Historical Atlas for Students (1911), F.6K89

Robertson (C. Grant) and Bartholomew, An Historical Atlas of Modern
Europe, F.6r5U

WISTORY 3 (rUROP^ AMD THE MODERN WORID, 1Ö15 TO THT PRESEMT) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester, 1956-1957

GENERAL. INFORMATION

I. Materials to be owned by each Student:

1.
2.

3.
4.

Robert Ergang. Europe since Waterloo (D.O. Heath) , 1954

Mosse and Taylor, Outline and Sources for a History of Western

Civilization: Europe and the U.S. from the Congress of Vienna

to the Present Time (1951)
Haramond Historical Atlas
Outline maps of Europe (Available at the University Co-Op and

Brownes Book Store. Ask for "Map Packet for History 3").

II. Course Procedure:

!• Lectures . There will be two lectures each week. As a rule, the
material covered in the lectures will not be identical with
that in the readin^ assignment. Careful and complete notes on
the lectures will be of assistance. As a rule, you shoiild plan
to read the week's reading before the lectures.

2. Discussion Groups. These meet once each week, normally after the

second 3.ecture.

3. Outside Work. You will read three books for your outside reading.

The books listed on the attached sheet are on open shelf reserve.
If you have any books you vrould rather read than those that are
listed, olease consult with your section instructor about this.
Notice the times of the examinations over books on attached
Sheet. These will be written examinations in the section meet-
ings. Office of the course is 191 Bascom Hall.

4* Map Assignments. These will be assigned from time to time as needed.

5. Examinations. There will be two one-hour exams and a two-hour final ©cam.

III. Course Requirements for FOUR credit s:

Students who wish to eam a fourth credit (third credit for upperclass-
men) vdll be required to write a term paper of not less than 15 double-
spaced typewritten pages. At least ei^ht books, exclusive of texts and
general reference work raust be utilized and evidence of this offered in
the footnotes and bibliography. The papers vdll be written under the
supervision of the section instnictor of the Student. This will require
Conferences with him at stated intervals.

IT ')fILL NCT PE POSSIBIE TO MA^ ANY CHANG^;S OF CREDIT FOR THIS COURSE

AFTER TI^ FICHTH WEEK OF THE SEMEST^H.

HISTORy 3 *- Mr. Mosse

Second Semester, 1956-57

MTE

ERGANO aJTr.BlE ÄND

3

3

^

Feb,

11

Febt

13

Feb,

18

Feb.

20

Feb,

25

Feb»

27

March U

March 6

Mar.

11

Mar.

13

Mar«

18

Mar»

20

Mar»

25

Mar»

27

Apr.

1

Apr.

3

Apr.

8

Apr»

10

Apr»

15

Apr.

17

Apr»

29

May

1

May

6

May

8

May

13

May

15

May

20

May

22

May

27

May

29

June

3

Jtme

5

SOURCF^

Introduction

Indus tri al Revolution

Romantlcism and Conservatism

Classical Liberalism 3

Revolutions of 18U8 3

Modem Nationalism

Rlf^^rok 8 (158-170), 10 (

1,2

u

6

(U9-56)
(56-67)

8 (Ili9-158)', 12

7

i.

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Founding of the Third

Republic

HOUR EXAMBTATION

Marxism

Social Democracy

Imperiali sm

Fin de siecle: Society and

thought at the end of the Century

Balance of Power, l870-19lli

Peace of Versailles

AUSFia in the 19th Century

Russian Revolution

End of an Era

HOUR EXAMINATION

Fascism in Italy

German Republic

National Secialism

Sy^^em3 of Dictatorship

Britain between the V/ars

France between the Vars

Appeasement and Aggression

The Grand Alliance, 19U1-U6

The Political Structiire of the

West

The Political Structure of

the Communist VJorld
Summary: Problems of Modem
Europe

II, III
IV
V

191- 207
• • VI

VII
VIII

5
11

13

10 (207-
211)

17

15,

18,

lU

21

16

19

25
20
26
2li,27
22

23
28

29,30,31
33, 3U

36

32,35

X

XI, XII
XV

XVI

XVIII

XX

XXI

XIX

XXII

XXIII

XXIV

XXV
XXVII

XXVIII

XXIX

XXX

KAM»

H30

H27

H29
H28

H31

H33
H32

H3U

H35
H36

H37, H38
H39

/

{

y

HISTORY 3 (EUROPA AND THE MODERN WORID, 1815 TO THF. PRESEIT) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester, 1956-1957

Cne Quiz Section, April 29

^p_4^ ! j.g-^^rJ^-JII

1. Unification of Italy . n i -. 4.

Indicate the Kiii'Mjm cf Italy as ±t /ra?.- In 1^60 Loccte and label terrx-
tories added to Tcaly m 1866 and 1871. Lo-.c.t.o oad l.A.tl ikil^v^^^Irjiedenba
after 1871. Show territories gained frcri Italy by Wapoloon i.CI-

2. The Balkans, 1914 . i, ^,.x ^ v. ^v, ^^

a) Use light contrastin^^ colors to indicate the area mhabited by each o.
tbese peoples: Germans, Magyars, Slovenes, Groats, Serbs, Roumanians,
Bulgars, Albanians, Greeks, Turks.

b) Use Solidlines to indicate the boundaries of Turkey in Europe in 1914,
and those of each of the Balkan states which at this time were indepsnd-
ent of the Ottoman Empire.

c) On the back of the map, teil very briefly how each independent state
emerged from Turkish control during the period 1815-1877.

3. Bomdaries, by using lines of different colors and types:

a. Germanic Confederation, 1815

b. North German Confederation, 1866

c. Zollverein (Customs Union) in 1866 and in 1872

d. German Empire in 1870

U. Political subdivisions, using light solid colors, indicating for each the
date when it was absorbed.

Schleswig Hesse-Cassel Alsace

Holstein Nassau Lorraine

Hanover Frankfort -am-Main

5. Cities

Schonhausen

Göttingen

Biarritz

TOrth

Gast ein

Sadowa ( Königrät z)

Rns

Mars-la-TouT

Versailles

Gravelotte
Metz
Sedan
Strasbourg

MTSTORY 3 (ruROPifc ^m the modern worid, 1015 to tht prti^smt) - m. mosse.

Second Semester, 1956-1957

GENERAL INFORMATION

I. Materials to be owied by each Student:

1.
2.

3.
4.

Robert Ergang. Europe since Waterloo (D.O. Heath) , 1954

Mosse and Taylor, Outline and Sources for a History of Western

Civilization: Europe and the U.S. from the Congress of Vienna

to the Present Time (1951)
Hammond Historical Atlas
Outline maps of Europe (Available at the University Co-Op and

Brownes Book Store. Ask for "Map Packet for History 3").

II. Course Procedure:

^* I^ectures. There Thrill be two lectures each week. As a rule, the
material covered in the lectures will not be identical vdth
that in the reading assignment. Careful and complete notes on
the lectures will be of assistance. As a rule, you should plan
to read the week^s reading before the lectures.

2. Discussion Groups. These meet once each week, normally after the

second 3.ecture.

3. Outside Work. You will read three books for your outside reading.

The books listed on the attached sheet are on open shelf reserve.
If you have any books you vrauld rather read than those that are *
listed, olease consult with your section instructor about this.
Notice the times of the examinations over books on attached
sheet. These will be written examinations in the section meet-
ings. Office of the course is 191 Bascom Hall.

4. Map Assignments. These will be assigned from time to time as needed.

5. Examinations. There will be two one-hour exams and a two-hour final ecam.
III. Course Requirements for FOUR credit s:

Students who wish to eam a fourth credit (third credit for upperclass-
men) vrill be required to write a term paper of not less than 15 double-
spaced typewritten pages. At least eight books , exclusive of texts and
general reference work must be utilized and evidence of this offered in
the footnotes and bibliography. The papers vall be written under the
supervision of the section instructor of the Student. This will require
Conferences with him at stated intervals.

IT OTLL NCT PE POSSIPIE TO KAr^ ANY CHANGi^S OF CREDIT FOR THIS COURSE

AFTER THE ^ICHTH l^fEEK OF THE SEMEST^Il.

HISTORY 3 - Mr* Mosse

Second Semester, 1956-57

n/iTE

EROANO

0lJTr.INE AND
SOURCES

HAM.

Feb, 11

Introduction

1,2

Feb, 13

Indus tri al Revolution

1^

I

H30

Feb, 18

Romanb:ü.üism and Conservatism

6

Feb« 20

Classical Liberalism

3 (U9-56)

II, III

Feb, 25

Revolutions of I81i8

3 (56-67)

IV

Feb. 27

Modem Natlonalism

V

H27

March k

fitj^T^rok 8 (158-170), 10 (191-207

#

•

•

• ■ VI

H29

March 6

Unification of Italy 8 (lh9-l58), 12

VII

H28

Mar, 11

Napoleon III

7

Mar, 13

Founding of the Third
Republic

9

VIII

Mar, 18

HOUR EXAMBTATION

Mar. 20

Marxism

5

X

Mar, 25

Social Hemocracy

11

XI, XII

Mar, 27

Imperiali sm

13

XV

Apr, 1

Fin de siecle: Society and

10 (207

-

thought at the end of the Century 211)

Apr, 3

Balance of Power, 1870-191U

15, 17

XVI

H31

Apr, 8

Peace of Versailles

18, 19

XVIII

H33

Apr 8 10

ausFia in the 19 th Century

lU

XX

H32

Apr, 15

Russian Revolution

21

XXI

Apr, 17

End of an Era

16

xn

Apr, 29

HOUR EXAMINATION

May 1

Fascism in Italy

25

XXII

H3U

May 6

German Republic

20

XXIII

May 8

National Secialism

26

XXIV

H35

May 13

Sy^^em•s of Dictatorship

2U,27

May 15

Britain between the V/ars

22

Iö6

May 20

France between the Wars

23

XXV

May 22

Appeasement and Aggression

28

XXVII

May 27

The tJrand Alliance, 19U1-U6

29,30,31

May 29

The Political Structure of the 33i3li

XXVIII

H37, H38

West

June 3

The Political Structure of
the Communist VJorld

36

XXIX

H39

June 5

Summary: Problems of Modern
Europe

32,35

XXX

</

. /\

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN VJORLD; 1Ä15 W THE PRESENT)- MR. MOSSE

MR. WILEE

Second Semester, 1955-54

MAP ASSIGNMENT IH

1. ünification of Italy (Use map No. 17025)

Indicate the Kingdom of Italy as it was in 1865. Locate and
label territories added tg Italy in 1866 and 1871, Locate
and label Italia Irredenta after 1871. Show territories
gained from Italy by Napoleon III*

2. The Balkans, 1815-1877 (Use map Nö. 18063}

a. ) Use light contrastin^ colors to indicate the area inhabited
by each of these pe^ples: Germans, Magyars, Slovenes, Cr^tc,
Serbe, Roumanians, Bulgare, Albanians, Greeks, Turks.

b . ) Use solid lines to indicate the boundaries of Turkey in

Europe in 1877, and those of each of the Balkan states yhich
at this time were independent of the Ottoman Empire.

c.) On the back of the map, teil very briefly how each independent
State emerged from Turkish control during the period, 1815-1877,

\r

I**-* •

/ t

I,'

^

V

}

HISTORY 3 (Europe and the Modern World: l8l5 to the present)

- MRo MOSSE

-Mr. V/ilde

Second Semester, 1955-56

Map Assignment II

I. European Geographie Features

Use map l8002a in yoxir map packet and show the following:

a. Rivers: Rhine, Elbe, Oder, Vistula, Seine, Thames, Loire, Rhone,
Po, Danube, Dniester, Dnieper, Der, Volga.

b. Mountains : Pyrenees, Alps, Balkans, Carpathians, Transylvanian
Alps, Erzgeberge, Sudeten Mountains, Appenines.

c. Seas: North, Baltic, Black, Caspian, Adriatic, lonian, Aegean
^* Cities: London, Madrid, St. Petersburg

®' 2i!l£E' Cyprus, the Crimea, the Dardanelles, the Bosporus.

II. Revolutionary Europe, I8l5-l850.

Use map 18028 in your map packet and show the following:

( Indicate
with cclors)

b.

Nationali ties; French, Vvaloons, Flemings, Dutch, Germans, Poles,
Lithuanians, V/hite Russians, Ukrainians (Little Russians), Czechs,
Slovaks, Magyars ( Hungarians ) , Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Italians.

States: (Indicate by outlining the boundaries clearly) The Haps-
burg Empire, the North German Confederation, Prussia, Piedmont,
Parma, Kodena, Baden, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Switzerland.

c. Cities: Paris, Brüssels, Berlin, Frankfort, Prague, Budapest,
Vienna, Turin, Milan, Venice.

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE IIODERN WORLD, 1815 TO THE PRESENT) - MR. MOSSE

MR. WILDE

Second Semester, 1955-56

I.

II.

GENERAL INFORMATION

Materials to be ovned by each Student.

1. Robert Ergang, Europe since Waterloo (D. C. Heath and Co., 1954)

2. Mosse and Taylor, Outline and Sources for a History of Western
Civilization; Europe and the United States from the Congress of
Vienna to the Present Time. (1951)

3. Hammond Historical Atlas

4. Outline maps of Europe, (Available at the üniversity Co-op and
Browi's Book Store. Ask for "Map Packet for History 3")

Course Procedure

1. Lectures . There will be two lectures each week. As a rule, the
material covered in the lectures will not be identical with that in
the reading assignment. Careful and complete notes on the lectures
will be of assistance. As a rule, you should plan to read the
week 's reading before the lectures.

2. Discussion Groups. These meet once each week, normally after the
second lecture. At these meetings, students are expected to

a) be prepared for a brief written or oral quiz on the assigned
reading for the weslc;

b) participate in the discussion of assigned topics. From time
to time, there will be assigned special readings which may be
obtained on two-hour reserve in the Memorial Library.

3. Outside Work. You will read three books for your outside reading.
The books listed on the attached sheet are on open shelf reserve.
If you have any books you would ratlier read than those which are
lisoed, please consult with your Sektion instractor about this.
Notice the times of the examin ations over books on attached sheet.
These will be written examinations in the section meetings.

Of Cice of the course is 1Ö3 Bascom Hall.

4. Map Assignments. These will be assigned from ti^ie to time as
needed. Maps should be executed with neatness and precision in
accord-^nce with the accompanying sheet of directions. An assort-
ment of colored pencils will be helpful in this connection.

5. Examinations. IViere will be two one-hour examinations and a two-
hour final examination. Each examination wi-1 include both
Identification questions and essiys.

- 2 ^

HISTORY 3

III. Course Requirements for FOUR Credits:

Students who wish to eam a fourth credit (third credit for
upperclassmen) will be required to write a term paper of not
less than 15 double -spaced typewritten pages. At least
®ight books, exclusive of texts and general reference work
must be utilized and evidence of this offered in the footnotes
and bibliography. The papers will be written under the
superVision of the section instructor of the Student. This
will require Conferences with him at stated intervals.

IT V/ILL NOT BE PCSSIBLE TO MAKE ANY CHANGES OF CREDIT FOR THIS COURSE
AFTER THE EIGHTH WEEK OF THE SEKESTER.

N

■■^z

«J

h

s

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN TORLD, 1815 TO THE PRESENT) - MR. WILDE

Seccnd Semester, 1955-56

VJEEK

I

II

III

IV

V

DATE

LECTURES

Feb. 6-10 Introduction

TEXTS, P.EADINGS, ATLAS

ER 1, 2. 4; M&T, I; H 27, 30,

Feb. 13-17 Industrial Revolution ER 3 (pp. 49-56), 6; M&T, II, III,

MAP ASSIGNMENT I V, H. Front and back Covers.

Feb. 20-24 Revolutions of 1Ö48

Socialism

ER 3 (56-67), 55 M&T IV, X.

Feb.27-Mar. Napoleon III ER 7, Ö (pp. 149-15Ö), 12; M&T VI:

2 Unification of Italy H.2Ö

MAP ASSIGNMENT III

March 5-9 Bismarck

MAP ASSIGfJMENT IV
SIX VIEEKS EXAM

ER a (15Ö-170); M&T VI; H.29

VI

VII

VIII

March 12-16 Third Republic ER 9, 10; M&T VIII, XI.

PateiT?.alism and Social
Deraocracy

March 19-23 Britain

Imperialism

MAP ASSIGNMENT V

March 26-28 Balance of Power

SPRING RECESS
MAP ASSIGNliPJ^T VI

ER 11, 13; M&T XV.

ER 15, 17; M&T XVI; H 29, 31, 33

IX

April 9-13 Peace of Versailles ER 14, 18, 19; M&T XVIII, XX;

Rusüia - 19th Century H 32-35
MAP ASSIGNMENT VII

April 16-20 Russian Revolution ER 16, 21; M&T XIX, XXI.

Ehd of an Era

XI

XII

April 23-27 12 WEEK EX AMINATION

Fascism in Italy

April 30-
May 4

XIII May 7-11

XIV May 14-18

Republic to Hitler
Systems of Dictator«
ship

Britain Between the

Wars
Frar.ce Between the

Wars

Appeasement and

Aggression
Th« Grand Alliance

1941-46
MAP ASSIGNMENT VIII

ER 25; M&T XXII.

ER 20, 24, 26; M&T XXIII, XXIV

ER 22, 23; M&T, XXV

ER 28-31; M&T, XXVII; H 36, 38-39

/

/

tt

iy

XV

XVI

May 21-25

- 2 -

HISTCRY 3

The Uiiitod Nations
Irperialism

May 2Ö-June 1 Western European

Problems
Behjjid the Iron
Curtdin

ER 27, 32, 35; M&T XXVIII ;

K 36, 3Ö-39

ER 33-34, 36. MM XXIX; H 37.

».N"^

HISTORY 3 (EÜROPE AND THE MODBFtN WORLD, I8l5 TO THE PRESEDIT'

MR. MOSSE
MR. WILDE

Second Semester^ 1955-56

MLP ASSIG;^J:MENT ?0R TM, SEv7iNTH WEEK

Using Maps noa I8O8O and IßOOhp show the folloiang:

ls> The possessions of the major ^opean powers (France^^ Germanyo
Italy, Great Britain^ Austria-Hungary, Russia) in (a) Africa
and (b) the Far East in 191h. Put the name of earli possession
in the appropi'iate place«

2.

The "sphere of interest» of the Great Powers (including Japan) in
China, Manchuria, and Korea in 1903 and the changes caused by the
Russo- Japanese war«

3. The dates, written on the appropriate placeö, when the following
territories became European possessions:

Tunisia

The Boer Republics (Transvaal, Orange Free State)

Morocco

the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

Libya

h^ The following öities:

Hong Kong

Singapore

Kiaochow

Wei Hai Wei

Port Arthur

Batavia (D Jakarta)

Cairo

Johannesburg

Capetown

Casablanca

Algiers

HISTORT 3 (EÜROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD, I8l5 TG THE PRESET^IT} « MR. MOSSE

MR. WIU^,E

Second Semester, 1955-56

M/i ? A3SIGv€€3JT FOR YdE, SEvaNTH WERK

Using Maps no. 18080 and iSOOij.,., show the following:

1^ The possessions of the major %ropean powers (France^ Germanyj>
Italy, Great BritaiH;, Austria-Hungary, Russia) in i'a) Africa

^ and (b) the Far East in 19li;« Put the name of eacxi possessio:!
in the appropriate place«

2« The "sphere of interest" of the Great Powers (including Japan) in
China, Manchuria, and Korea in 1903 and the changes caused by the
Rus so- Japanese war»

3# The dates, written on the appropriate placeö, when the following
territories became European possessions:

Tunisia

The Boer Republics (Transvaal, Orange Free State)

Morocco

the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

Libya

U. The following bities:

Hong Kong
Singapore
Kiaochow
Wei Hai Wei
Port Arthur
Batavia (D Jakarta)
Cairo
, Johannesburg
Capetown
Casablanca
Algiers

//

;

^o

.y

J^

X-

7 .^ y

y^

HISTORY 3 (Europe and the Modern V/orld: I8l5 to the present)- MR. MOßSE

Second Semester, 1955-56

Europe After the Congress of Vienna, I8l5

Due in Quiz Sections the
map packet*

Unr nntlino mr^p Nfn l0OO2a in ye^y—

Restorations: the boundaries of France, Spain, the Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies, kodena, Tuscany, and the Papal States*

Buffer areasj Kingdom of the Netherlands, Rhenish Prussia, the Swiss
Confederation, Kingdom of Sardinia (include Savoy)

Territorial compensations: Austrian Lombardy and Venetia, the Kingdom of
Pol and, Helgoland, Saxony,

Boundaries of the Germanic Confederation.

Locations: Vienna, Aix^-la-Chapelle (Aachen), Troppau (Opava), Laibach
(Ljubljana), Verona, Waterloo, Paris, Adrianople, Leipzig, Berlin,
Carlsbad, Elba

States: Hapsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary), Ottoman Empire, Prussia, Denmark«

References (Reference Desk, Library) — For Information not in your Hammond
Historical Atlas. Keep this list for future use,

Philipps Historical Atlas, Medieval and Modem (1927),F.6m89 •

Breasted, Huth k Harding European History Atlas, F.6B7U (1951)

Shepherd, William R., Historical Atlas (192U)

Atlas of Medieval and Modern Europe (1932),

Muir, Ramsay, Hammond^s New Historical Atlas for Students (1911), F. 6^89

Robertson (C. Grant) and Bartholomew, An Historical Atlas of Modem
Europe, F.6r5U

\

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Madison 6, Wisconsin

Departraen!: o'* Ilistory

HISTORY 120 (3) (EÜROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester

The texts for this course are:

R. R. Palmer, History of the Modern World (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L. Mosse et al. Europe in Review (Rand McNally)

In addition you will read the books listed below and should buy them. They will
be üested in the section meeting of the week whose date is given with the books.
Some of them necessarily come closer together so you must do the reading well in
advance of the text and better start in on those books at the beginning of the term.

Peter Viereck. Conservatism (Anvil) week of February I9.
Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (Galaxy) week of March 11.
A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler > (Bantam) week of April 20
Crossman, The God that Failed (Pocketbook) week of April I9

All Office hours are posted at I97 Bascom Hall.

February

3 Introduction

5 Industrial Revolution
10 Romanticism and Conservatism
12 Liberalism
17 Revolutions of 1848
19 Modern Nationalism

DUE: Peter Viereck, Conservati
2k Bismarck
26 ünification of Italy

Palmer

2f22-if30
430-432;

432-433;
469-495

436.443;
sm

March

2 Napoleon III

4 HOÜR EXAMINATION

9 Third French Republic
11 Marxism

DUE: Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (
16 Social Demoer acy
18 Imperialism

23 Change in European Opinion
25 Balance of Power I87O-I914
April

b Peace At Versailles

8 Russia in the 19th Century

13 Soviet Revolution

15 HOUR EXAMINATION

20 End of an Era

DUE: A, Bullock, Adolf Hitler

22 Italian Facism

27 German Republic

29 National Socialism

DUE : The God that Failed

518-534;
511-518

502-507

577-582
433-436;
entire)
589-596

567-577;
561-564;

627-635;

687-704

453-454;

XVII

(Entire)
800-805
762-765
805-816

443-453
I154-463; 607-612

509-511

585-588

464-468; 495-502

613-627; 635-659

596-607

660-687

530-539

Sources

XVII

XVIII

XIX

XXII

XX

XXVII
XXVIII

XXIII

XXIV

XXV (I, II, III)

XXV (IV, v)

XXX

XXVI

XXXI

XXXII

XXIX

XXXIII

XXXV

XXXVI

XXXVII

- 2 -

May

h The Fascist Revolution

6 Br itain Between the Wars

11 France Between the Wars

13 Appeasement and Aggression

18 The Grand Alliance, 1941-46

20 The Era of the Cold War

25 The Conmunist World

27 Problems of Modern Europe

Palmar

777-785
582-5^4; 791-800

816-827

XX

Sources

XXXVIII

XXXIX

XL

XLI: XLII

XLII (II)

(I)

I-.

•»

MOSSE

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Madison 6, Uisconsin
Department of History

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN \^OVJJD) - MR.

Second Semester
The te:cts for this course are:

R. R. Palmer, History of the Modern Uorld (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L. Mosse et al. Europe in Review (Rand McNally)

In addition you uill read the books listed below and should buy them. Tney
will be tested in the section meeting of the weelc whose date is given T-rith
the books. Some of them necessarily come closer together so you must do
the reading uell in advance of the text and better start in on those books
at the beginning of the term.

H. Nicolson, Good Behavior (Beacon) week of February 20.

Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (Galaxy) week of March 13

A, Bullock, Adolf Hitler. (Bantam) week of April 22

E. Kogon, Theorv and Practice of Hell. (Berkeley) week of Key 1*

The difference between 3 or 4 credits for the course consists
term paper. You must notify your section instructor of your
such a paper no later than Februarv 20, All Office hours are
Bascom Hall.

February

4 Iuttod:jctioj.\

Indus trial Revolution

Romanticism and Conservatism

Liberalism

Revolutions of 1848

Modern Nationalism

DUE: H. Nicolson, Good Behavior (Entire)

Bismarck 518-534; 585-538

Unification of Italy 511-518

March
4 Napoleon III

HOUR EXAMINATION

Third French Republic 577-582

^^^^^«"^ 433-436; 464-468; 495-502

DUE: Isiah Berlin, ICarl Marx (entire)

6

11
13
18
20

25
27

6

11
13

Palmer

422-430

430-432; 443-453
432-433; 454-463; 607-612
469-495
436-443; 509-511

of writing a

desire to write

pcsted at 197

Sources

502-507

XVII

XVIII

XIX

x:cii

XX

XXVII
XXVIII

XXIII

18
20
25
27

Social Democracy
Imperial ism
Change in European Opinion
Balance of Power 1870-1914

April

589-596

567-577; 613-627; 635-659

561-564; 596-607

627-635; 660-687

l
3
8

10
22

24
29

Peace At Versailles

Russia in the 19th Century

Soviet Revolution

HOUR EXAMINATION

End of an Era

DUE: A, Bullock, Adolf Hitler (Entire)

Facism 800-805

German Republic 762-765

687-704

453-454; 530-539
XVII

XXIV

XXV (I, II, III)

XXV (IV, V)

xx::

XXVI
XIQCI

XXXII

XXIX

XXXIII

^

xx^rv

XXXVI

•»

2-
HISTORY 3

Max Palmer

1 National Socialism 805-816

DUE: E. Kogon, Theory and Practice of Hell, (Entire)

6 Totalitarianism

8 Britain Between the Urrs

13 France Between the Uars

15 Appeasement and A£':;ti'.j.''l'j:i

20 The Grand Alliance",1941-46

22 The Era of the Cold Uar

27 The Coinmunist Uorld

29 Problems of Modern Europe

777-735
582-584; 791-800

816-827
XX

Sou^ces

XXXVII

x:ocviii

XL

XLI: XLII (I)

XLIJ (II)

The

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester

texts for thls course are:
R. R. Palmer, History of the Modern i^orld (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L. Mosse et al. Europe in Review (Rand McNally)

In addition you will read the books listed below and should buy them, They will be
tested in the section meeting of the week whose date is given with the books« Some
of them necessarily come c loser together so you must do the reading well in advance
of the test and better Start in on thase books at Che beginning of the term.

Isiah Berlin. Karl Marx (Galaxy Book). Week of March 6
John Reed. Ten Days that Shook the World (Vintage) . Week of March 29
Ignazio Silone. Bread and Wine (New American Library). Week of April IJ
Allan Bullock. Adolf Hitler (Bantam) , Week of April 26

The difference between 3 or if credits for the course consists of writing a term
paper. You must notify you section instructor of your desire to write such a paper
no later than February 20. All office hours are posted at 197 Bascom Hall.

Janu

ary

Palmer

Sources

30

Introduction

February

1

Industrial Revolution

422-^30

XVII

6

Romanticism and Conservatism

U30-i;32; kkS-k^S

XVIII

8

Liberalism

432-433; 454-463;

607-612

XIX

13

Revolutions of 1843

469-495

XXII

15

Modern Nationalism

436-443; 509-511

XX

20

Qiüm^jrck

518-534; 585-588

XXVII

22

Unification of Italy

511-5I8

XXVIII

27

Napoleon IXI

502-507

XXIII

March

1

HOUR EXAMINATION

6

Third French Republic

577-582

XXIV

8

Marxism

433-436; 464-468;

495-502

XXV (I, II, III)

fJUK: Islah Berlin, Karl Marx (entire)

13

Social Democracy

589-596

XXV (IV, V)

15

Imperialisra

567-577; 613-627;

635-659

XXX

20

Ch^nge In E-aropean Opinion

561-564; 596-607

XXVI

22

Balance of Power 1870-191^

627-635; 660-687

XXXI

27

Peace At Versailles

687-704

XXXII

29

Russia in the 19th Century

453-454; 530-539

XXIX

DUE: Ten Days that Shook the World (entire)

April

10

Soviet Revolution

X^/II

XXXIII

12

HOUR EXAMINATION

17

End of an Era

DUE: Ignazio Silone, Bread

and Wine (entire)

19

Fascism

800-805

XXXV

2i+

German Republic

762-765

XXXVI

26

National Socialism

DUE: A. Bullock, Adolf Hitl

805-816
er (entire)

XXXVII

May

•

1

Totalitarianism

777-785

3

Britain Between the Wars

582-584; 791-800

XXXVIII

8

France Between the Wars

XXXIX

10

Appeasement and Agression

816-827

XL

15

The Grand Alliance, I9kl'k6

XX

XLI; XLII (I)

17

The Era of the Cold War

XLII (II)

22

The Communis t World

2k

Problems of Modern Europe

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Madison 6, Wisconsin

Department of Kistory

HISTORY 120 (3) (EÜROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester

The texts for thls course are:

R. R. Palmer, History of the Modern World (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L. Mosse et al. Europe in Review (Rand McNally)

In addition you will read the books listed below and should buy them. They will
be tested in the section meeting of the week whose date is given with the books.
Some of them necessarily come closer together so you must do the reading well in
advance of the text and better Start in on those books at the beginning of the term,

Peter Viereck. Conservatism (Anvil) week of February I9.
Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (Galaxv) week of March 11.
A, Bullock, Adolf Hitler. (Bantam) week of April 20
Crossman, The God that Falled (Pocke tbook) week of April I9

All Office hours are posted at I97 Bascom Hall.

February
3 Introduction

Industrial Revolution

Romanticism and Conservatism

Liberalism

Revolutions of 1848

Modern Nationalism

DÜE: Peter Viereck, Conservati

Bismarck

ünification of Italy

5
10

12

17

19

2k
26

March
2 Napoleon III
h HOÜR EXAMINATION
9 Third French Republic
11 Marxism

DUE: Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (
Social Demoer acy
Imperialism

Change in European Opinion
Balance of Power I87O-I914
April

D Peace At Versailles

Russia in the 19th Century

Soviet Revolution

HOUR EXAMINATION

End of an Era

DUE: A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler

Itallan Facism

German Republic

National Socialism

DUE: The God that Failed

Palmer

422-430
430-432;

432-433;
469-495

436-443;

sm

518-534;

511-518

502-507

443-453
454-463; 607-612

509-511

585-588

16
18

23
25

8

13
15

20

22
27

29

577-582

433-436;
entire)

589-596

567-577;
561-564;

627-635;

687-704
453-454;

XVII

(Entire)
800-805

762-765
805-816

464-468; 495 -5 02

613-627; 635-659

596-607

660-687

530-539

Sources

XVII

XVIII

XIX

XXII

XX

XXVII
XXVIII

XXIII

XXIV

XXV (I, II, III)

XXV (IV, v)

XXX

XXVI

XXXI

XXXII

XXIX

XXXIII

XXXV

XXXVI

XXXVII

- 2 -

May
h^ The Fascist Revolution
6 Britain Between the Wars
11 France Between the Wars
13 Appeasement and Aggression
18 The Grand Alliance, l^kUkS
20 The Era of the Cold War
25 The Conimunlst World
27 Problems of Modern Europe

Palmer

777-785
582-584; 79I-80O

816-827

XX

Sources

XXXVIII

XXXIX

XL

XLI: XLII (l)

XLII (II)

History 120
Europe and the modern World

^he following books will be read:

Strayer, Gatzke, Harbison, The ^'^ainstream of Civilisation since
I282. This should be read as soon as possible. Chapter 24, 25,

26 until the Six weeks; 28 -53 until final. But it is best of you
read all of it as soon as possible in order to Orient yourself and
get an overview of the period.

The Gonfessions of Jean ''acques Rousseau (0^^ J^tHi^44^i ^^J
Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe ( D^'^ J/iU^Ui^r Si- )
E. lischdr and ?• ^arek, The Essential Marx (()l/£^ TtfiRi^/lflf 3.1 1

>Gustav Le Bon, The Ovo^^V'^T^Uc''Mrf^^;j-j^
^arl Kautzki, The Olass 8truF:gle Cd^^ fseH^^Y ^^ J
^igmund Freud, Civilisation and its Discontents /^ 0 ^^ I^MflcU ^ )
rascism, an Antholofgy, ed. ^athaniel Greene [Hi/B yf/A/^ '^ J
George L. Messe, Nazi Culture (l^^/lf A^Kl^ iiS )

Some topics on the outline will be extended to Tlectures. The Due
date of a book is important both for sections and for Fricfayv^meetind^
At such meetings (4. hour) I will either continue with our topic,

or concentrate on the Äevant book,%/hav^eneral discussion. J^

Please reaft^ahead. Some books come close together.which is

in the nature of the neccessary sequence of our analysis. /f?

(//'f ^fj-^

History 120

Europe and The Modern World

Mosse

The followinq books will be read;

Strayer, Gatzke, Harbison, The Mainstream of CivllizaMqn_fii nn^
1789« This should be read as soon as possible. Chapters~~24] 25
and 26 until the six weeks; 28-33 until final. But it is best
if you read all of it as soon as possible in order to Orient
yourself and get an overview of the period.

The Confessions of Jean Jacques Rousseau (due January 24)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (due January 31)

E. Fischer and F. Marek, Jhe Essential Marx (due February 21)

Karl Kautzki, The Class Strucrcrle (due February 28)

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents (due March 7)

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd (due March 28)

Fascism, an Anthology, ed. Nathaniel Greene (due April 11)

George L. Mosse, Nazi Culture (due April 18)

Some topics on the outline will be extended to 3 lectures. The
due date of a book is important both for sections and for Friday
class meetings. At such meetings (4. hour) I will either continue
with cur topic, or concentrate on the relevant book and have a
general discussion.

Please read ahead. Some books come close together, which is
in the nature of the necessary seguence of our analysis.

January

13 Introduction

15 Industrial Revolution

20 Romanticism

22 Romanticism

27 Liberalism

29 Modern Nationalism

24 Rousseau
31 Ivanhoe

-2-

February

3 Bismarck

5 Unification of Italy

10 Napoleon III

12 Third French Republic

17 HOUR EXAMI NATION

19 Marxism

24 Marxism

26 Social Democracy

21 Essential Marx
28 Kautzki

March

3 Change in Public Opinion

5 Rediscovery of the Unconscious

10 Balance of Power 1870-1914

12 Peace at Versailles

17 Soviet Revolution

19 Failure of Revolution in the West

24 German Republic

26 Politics of Mass Movements

7 Freud

28 LeBon

April

7 Italian Fascism

9 National Socialism

14 The Terror

16 France Between the Wars

21 Britain Between the Wars

23 Appeasement and Agression

11 Fascism

18 Nazi Culture

28 The Era of the Cold War
30 The Communist World

May

Conclusion

History 120

Europe and The Modern World

Mosse

The follovyinq books will be read:

Strayer, Gatzke, Harbison, The Mainstream of Civil izatlon since
1789« This should be read as soon as possible. Chapters 24, 25
and 26 until the six weeks; 28-33 until final. But it is best
if you read all of it as soon as possible in order to Orient
yourself and get an overview of the period.

The Confessions of Jean Jacques Rousseau (due January 24)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (due January 31)

E. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx (due February 21)

Karl Kautzki, The Class Struqgle (due February 28)

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents (due March 7)

Gustav Le Bon, The Crov;d (due March 28)

Fascism, an Anthology, ed. Nathaniel Greene (due April 11)

George L. Mosse, Nazi Culture (due April 18)

Some topics on the outline will be extended to 3 lectures. The
due date of a book is important both for sections and for Friday
class meetings. At such meetings (4. hour) I will either continue
with cur topic, or concentrate on the relevant book and have a
general discussion.

Please read ahead. Some books come close together, which is
in the nature of the necessary secruence of our analysis.

January

13 Introduction

15 Industrial Revolution

20 Romanticism

22 Romanticism

27 Liberalism

29 Modern National ism

24 Rousseau

31 Ivanhoe

V

-2-

February

3 Bismarck

5 Unification of Italy

10 Napoleon III

12 Third French Republic

17 HOUR EXAMI NATION

19 Marxism

24 Marxism

26 Social Democracy

21 Essential Marx
28 Kautzki

March

3 Change in Public Opinion

5 . Rediscovery of the Unconscious

10 Balance of Power 1870-1914

12 Peace at Versailles

17 Soviet Revolution

19 Failure of Revolution in the West

24 German Republic

26 Politics of Mass Movements

7 Freud

28 LeBon

April

7 Italian Fascism

9 National Socialism

14 The Terror

16 France Between the Wars

21 Britain Between the Wars

23 Appeasement and Agression

11 Fascism

18 Nazi Culture

28 The Era of the Cold War
30 The Communist World

May

Conclusion

'■••

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

HISTORY 120

Six-weeks exam

19 February 1973

I. Select two of the figures from the list below and discuss how

well each fits into one of the following categories: a. Liberalism;
b. Conservatism; c. Roman ticism; d. Cultural national ism. Be
specific with regard to the reasons for identifying the person with
the selected category. (30 minutes)

A.

Guizot

B.

Jahn

C.

Bismarck

D.

Werther

E.

Napoleon III

II. Briefly mention the specific events and factors which made three
of the following possible: (20 minutes)

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

July Revolution of 1830

Reform Bill of 1832

The Dreyfus Affair

The Failure of the Frank fort Assembly

The Franco-Prussian War

/

History 120

THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN

Department of History

March 8, 1967

(Europa and Modern World)

Mr» Mosse

SIX WEEKS EXAMINATION

i

I. (30 minutes) Answer ONE of these:

a. Why was parliamentary government under attack in Western
Europe 1815-1870, and from what directions did this attack
come?

b. Analyze the political consequences of the following system
of ideas:

a. Darvlnism

b. romanticism

II. Why is it necessary that you can identify the following? Select
any four (20 minutes)

a. battle of Marengo

b. Zollverein

c. Dreyfus

d. Ems Dispatch

e. Guizot

f. Thiers

I

/'i

THE UNIVERSITS: OF WISCONSIlf
Department of Hlstory
Semester II 1971

HlBtory 120

8IX WEEKS EXAMINATION
26 March 1971
50 mlnutes

Mr. Messe

PART A: answer ene questlon, elther 1 er 2

(20 minutes)

How, In your oplnlon, a) dld Marx break wlth the
romanticlsm and Idealism of hls tlme?
Once you have establlshed thls explaln b) what
censequences Marx drew from thls break.

OH

DiscusB the attltudes toward revolutlons and the
reason for such attltudes by:

a) liberalism

b) nationalism

Illustrate by concrete exemples from the hlstory you
have studied.

^ART B: (30 minutes)

What trend ef thought or event are the followlng
concepts, Institut Ions, and persons associated wlth,
and what de they mean In that specific context?

CHOOSE THREE (3) and answer brlefly

1 "reactlonary soclallsts"

2 plebisclte

3 Holy Alllance

4 Sy Ilabus of Errora

5 Herder *s volkgelst

6 Louis KoBsuth

7 Chartlsts

X'

TUE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Second Semester, 1965-66

HISTORY 120 (3) (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOSSE

The texts for this course are:

R. R. Palmer, History of the Modern World (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L. Mosse et al., Europe in Review (Rand McNally) paperback edition

In addition you will read the books listed below and should buy them.
They vrill be tested in the section meeting of the week whose date is given
with the books. Some of them necessarily come closer together so you must
do the reading V7ell in advance of the test and better Start in on those books
at the beginning of the term.

T. S. Ashton, Industrial Revolution (Galaxy) due vreek of February 14.
R, N. Carevj-Hunt, The Theory and Practice of Communism (Pelican)

due week of March 21.
A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler (Bantam) due week of April 25.
Crossman, The God that Failed (Porkatbook) due week of May 9.

All Office hours are posted at 197 Bascom Hall.

Jgnuary

31 Introduction
February

7

9

14

16
21
23
28
March
2
7
9

14
16
21
23

28
30
April
4
6
18
20
25
27

Industrial Revolution

Romanticism and Conservatism

Liberalism

Revolutions of 1848

DUE: Ashton, Industrial Revolu

Modern Nationalisra

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

Msrxism

HOUR EXAMI NATION

Social Democracy

Imperialism

Change in European Opinion

Balance of Power 1870-1914

DUE: Carew-Hunt, Theory and Pr

Peace at Versailles

Russia in the 19th Century

Soviet Revolution

HOUR EXAMI NATION

End of an Era

Italian Facism

Germen Republic

National Socialism

DUE: Bullock, AHoif Hitler

Palmer

422-430

430-432; 443-453
432-433; 454-463; 607-612
469-495
tion

436-4^:3; 509-511
518-534; 585-588
511-518
502-507

577-582

433-436; 46^-4C8; 495-502

589-596

567-577; 613-627; 635-659
561-564; 596-607
627-635; 660-687
actice of Communism

687-704
453-454; 530-539

XVII

800-805
762-765
805-81C

Sources

XVII
XVIII
XIX
XXII

XX

XXVII
XXVIII
XXIII

XXIV

XXV (I, II. iii:

XXV (IV, V)

XXX

XXVI

XXXI

XXXII
XXIX

XXXIII

XXXV

XXXVI

XXXVII

History 120

-2-

Mr. Mosse

Palmer

Max

2 The Fascist Revolution

4 Britain Bet^veen the Wars

9 France BetT^een the Wars

11 Appeasement and Aggression 816-827

DUE: Crossman, The God that Failed
16 The Grand Alliance, 1941-46 XX
18 The Era of the Gold War
23 The Comraunist World
25 Problems of Modern Eurooe

777-785
582-584; 791-800

Sources

XXXVIII

XXXIX

XL

XLI: XLII (I)
XLII (II)

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Madison 5, TJisconsin
Department of History

HISTORY 3 (EUROPE AND THE MODERN !:OrJJ) ) - MR. LOSCE

Second Setnester
The texts for this course are:

R. R. Palraer, History of the Modern Uorld (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L. Mosse et al. Europe in Review (Rand McNally)

In addition you will read the books listed below and should buy them. They
h \ ^®®^^^ ^" ^^® section meeting of the week whose date is given with
the books. Some of them necessarily come closer together so you must do
the readins x?ell in advance of the text and better start in on those books
at the beginning of the term.

H. Nicolson, Good Behavior (Beacon) week of February 20.

Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (Galaxy) week of March 13

A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler. (Bantam) week of April 22

E. Kogon, Theorv and Practice of Hell. (Berkeley) week of May 1.

The difference between 3 or 4 credits for the course consists
term paper. You must notify your section instructor of your
such a paper no later than February 20. All office hours are
Bascom Hall.

February

4 luttoductio!.'.

Indus trial Revolution

Romanticism and Conservatism

Liberal ism

Revolutions of 1848

Modern Nationalism -r^v^-r-r-,,

DUE: H. Nicolson, Good Behavior (Entire)

Bismarck 518-534; 585-538

Unification of Italy 511-518

March
4 Napoleon III

HOUR EXAMINATION

Third French Republic 577-582

^J^^"^^^™ 433-436; 464-468; 495-502

DUE: Isiah Berlin, ICarl Marx (entire)

6

11
13
18
20

25
27

6

11
13

Palmer

422-430

430-432; 443-453
432-433; 454-463; 607-612
469-495
436-443; 509-511

of writing a
des Ire to write
posted at 197

Sources

502-507

XVII

XVIII

XIX

x:ai

XXVII
XXVIII

20(111

18
20
25
27

April

Social Democracy

Imperialism

Change in European Opinion

Balance of Povjer 1870-1914

589-596

567-577; 613-627; 635-659

561-564; 596-607

627-635; 660-687

1
3
8

10
22

24
29

Peace At Versailles

Russia in the 19th Century

Soviet Revolution

HOUR EXAMINATION

End of an Era

DUE: A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler (Entire)

Facism 800-805

German Republic 762-765

687-704

453-454; 530-539
XVII

XXIV

XXV (I, II, III)

XXV (IV, V)

XXVI
XXXI

XXXII

XXIX

KCXIII

xx>r7

XXXVI

2-
HISTORY 3

May

Palmer

6

8

13

15

20

22

27

29

National Socialism 805-816

DUE: E. Kogon, Theorv and Practice o£ Hell« (Entire)

Totalitarianism
Br itain Betxjeen the Uars
France Between the Uars
Appeasement and Ac-£;i -..•.t:' .j-^i
The Grand Alliance,1941-46
The Era of the Gold Uar
The Cotnmunist Uorld
Problems of Modern Europe

777-735
582-584; 791-800

816-827
XX

XXXVII

X20CVIII

x:(xix

XL

XLI: XLII (I)

XLII (II)

\/

History 120

Europe and The Modern World

Mosse

The followinq books will be read:

Strayer^ Gatzke, Harbison, The Mainstream of Civilizatlon since
1789« This should be read as soon as possible. Chapters 24, 25
and 26 until the six weeks; 28-33 until final. But it is best
if you read all of it as soon as possible in order to Orient
yourself and get an overview of the period.

The Confessions of Jean Jacques Rousseau (due January 24)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (due January 31)

E. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx (due February 21)

Karl Kautzki, The Class Struggle (due February 28)

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents (due March 7)

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd (due March 28)

Fascism, an Anthology, ed. Nathaniel Greene (due April 11)

George L. Mosse, Nazi Culture (due April 18)

Some topics on the outline will be extended to 3 lectures. The
due date of a book is important both for sections and for Friday
class meetings. At such meetings (4. hour) I will either continue
with cur topic, or concentrate on the relevant book and have a
general discussion.

Please read ahead. Some books come close together, which is
in the nature of the necessary secruence of our analysis.

January

13 Introduction

15 Industrial Revolution

20 Romanticism

22 Romanticism

27 Liberalism

29 Modern National ism

24 Rousseau
31 Ivanhoe

-2-

February

3 Bismarck

5 Unification of Italy

10 Napoleon III

12 Third French Republic

17 HOUR EXAMI NATION

19 Marxism

24 Marxism

26 Social Democracy

21 Essential Marx

28 Kautzki

March

3 Change in Public Opinion

5 Rediscovery of the Unconscious

10 Balance of Power 1870-1914

12 Peace at Versailles

17 Soviet Revolution

19 Failure of Revolution in the West

24 German Republic

26 Politics of Mass Movements

7 Freud

28 LeBon

April

7 Italian Fascism

9 National Socialism

14 The Terror

16 France Between the Wars

21 Britain Between the Wars

23 Appeasement and Agression

11 Fascism

18 Nazi Culture

28 The Era of the Cold War
30 The Communist World

May

Conclusion

History 120

Mosse

Europe and The Modern World

The follovyincr books will be read:

Strayer, Gatzke, Harbison, The Mainstream of Civilization since
1789. This should be read as soon as possible. Chapters 24, 25
and 26 until the six weeks; 28-33 until final. But it is best
if you read all of it as soon as possible in order to Orient
yourself and get an overview of the period.

The Confessions of Jean Jacques Rousseau (due January 24)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (due January 31)

E. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx (due February 21)

Karl Kautzki, The Class Struggle (due February 28)

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents (due March 7)

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd (due March 28)

Fascism, an Anthology, ed. Nathaniel Greene (due April 11)

George L. Mosse, Nazi Culture (due April 18)

Some topics on the outline will be extended to 3 lectures. The
due date of a book is important both for sections and for Friday
class meetings. At such meetings (4. hour) I will either continue
with cur topic, or concentrate on the relevant book and have a
general discussion.

Please read ahead. Some books come close together, which is
in the nature of the necessary seouence of our analysis.

January

13 Introduction

15 Industrial Revolution

20 Romanticism

22 Romanticism

27 Liberalism

29 Modern Nationalism

24 Rousseau

31 Ivanhoe

-2-

February

3 Bismarck

5 Unification of Italy

10 Napoleon III

12 Third French Republic

17 HOUR EXAMI NATION

19 Marxism

24 Marxism

26 Social Democracy

21 Essential Marx

28 Kautzki

March

3 Change in Public Opinion

5 Rediscovery of the Unconscious

10 Balance of Power 1870-1914

12 Peace at Versailles

17 Soviet Revolution

19 Failure of Revolution in the West

24 German Republic

26 Politics of Mass Movements

7 Freud

28 LeBon

April

7 Italian Fascism

9 National Socialism

14 The Terror

16 France Between the Wars

21 Britain Between the Wars

23 Appeasement and Agression

11 Fascism

18 Nazi Culture

28 The Era of the Cold War
30 The Communist World

May

Conclusion

History 120

Europe and The Modern World

Mosse

The follovyinq books will be read;

Strayer, Gatzke, Harbison, The Mainstream of Civil izatlonsi^nnA
1782. This should be read as soon as possible. Chapters 24, 25
and 26 until the six weeks; 28-33 until final. But it is best
if you read all of it as soon as possible in order to Orient
yourself and get an overview of the period.

The Confessions of Jean Jacques Rousseau (due January 24)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (due January 31)

E. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx (due February 21)

Karl Kautzki, The Class Strugcrle (due February 28)

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents (due March 7)

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd (due March 28)

Fascism, an Antholocrv, ed. Nathaniel Greene (due April 11)

George L. Mosse, Nazi Culture (due April 18)

Some topics on the outline will be extended to 3 lectures. The
due date of a book is important both for sections and for Friday
class meetings. At such meetings (4. hour) I will either continue
with cur topic, or concentrate on the relevant book and have a
general discussion.

Please read ahead. Some books come close together, which is
in the nature of the necessary secruence of our analysis.

January

13 Introduction

15 Industrial Revolution

20 Romanticism

22 Romanticism

27 Liberalism

29 Modern Nationalism

24 Rousseau
31 Ivanhoe

-2-

February

3 Bismarck

5 Unification of Italy

10 Napoleon III

12 Third French Republic

17 HOUR EXAMI NATION

19 Marxism

24 Marxism

26 Social Democracy

21 Essential Marx
28 Kautzki

March

3 Change in Public Opinion

5 Rediscovery of the Unconscious

10 Balance of Power 1870-1914

12 Peace at Versailles

17 Soviet Revolution

19 Failure of Revolution in the West

24 German Republic

26 Politics of Mass Movements

7 Freud

28 LeBon

April

7 Italian Fascism

9 National Socialism

14 The Terror

16 France Between the Wars

21 Britain Between the Wars

23 Appeasement and Agression

11 Fascism

18 Nazi Culture

28 The Era of the Cold War
30 The Communist World

May

Conclusion

History 120

Mosse

Europe and the Modern World

There will be 3 class meetings a week and 1 section meeting.

The follovyyjng books will be read;

They are due as marked, at the beginning of a week when thöy
v^ill also appear in this outline. Books v?ill be discussed both
in sections and in lecture where listed.

Peter N. Stearns. The European Experience since 1500

This is the text, and Chapters 1-6 must be read by 6 weeks, and

the rest by the 12 weeks.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile (September 12)

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther, (September 12)

R. Kipling, Stalkey & Co. (September 15)

E. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx (October 6)

Sigmund Freud, Outline of Psychoanalysis (October 20)

Wedekind, Springs Awakeninq (on reserve) (October 20)

Gustav Le Bon, The Crov;d (October 27)

Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich (November 10)

Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism (November 17)

Examinations : 6 v^eeks is on October 1 in class; 12 weeks is
a paper of 5 to 6 typed pages which uses the above reading.
You vill get a separate sheet for this. Due: November 21.
Final: v;ill be taken home.

September

3 Introduction

5 Nev; World of 1800

8 Romanticism

10 Romanticism

12 Emile and Werther

15 Liberalism

17 Modern Nationalism

19 Stalkey & Co.

-2-

October

1

6

8

10

13

22

24

26

29

November

3

5

15

17

20

22

24

27

29

31

Deceiaber

1

3

7

8

10

12

14

17

19

21

24

26

HOUR EXAMI NATION

Marxism

Marxism

The Essential Marx

Social Democracy

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Repiablic

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

Change in Public Opinion

Rediscovery of the Unconscious

Sigmund Freud and Wedekind

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

Le Bon, The Crowd

The Communist World

The West since 1945

Italian Fascism

Conclusion I

Conclusion II

National Socialism '

Speer, Inside the Third Reich

The Terror

France Between the Wars

Britain Between the Wars

Weber, Varieties of Fascism

Appeasement and Aggression

The Era of the Cold War

History 120

Europa and the Modern World

Mosse

There v?ill be 3 class meetings a week and 1 section meeting.

The follovyjnq books v?ill be read:

They are due as marked, at the beginning of a v;eek when they
will also appear in this outline. Books will be discussed both
in sections and in lecture where listed.

Peter N. Stearns. The European Experience since 1500

This is the text, and Chapters 1-6 must be read by 6 weeks, and

th^ rest by the 12 weeks.

'jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile (September 12)
^"coethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther, (September 12)
I^/r. Kipling, Stalkey & Co. (September 15)
f y^. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx (October 6)
/ Sigmund Freud, Outline of Psychoanalysis (October 20)
Wedekind, Springs Awakening (on reserve) (October 20)
^^^^ustav Le Bon, The Crowd (October 27)
\ y Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich (November 10)
\^ Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism (November 17)

Examinations : 6 weeks is on October 1 in class; 12 weeks is
a paper of 5 to 6 typed pages which uses the above reading.
You will get a separate sheet for this. Due: November 21.
Final: will be taken home.

September

3 introduction

5 New World of 1800

8 Romanticism

10 Romanticism

12 Emile and Werther

15 Liberalism

17 Modern Nationalism

19 Stalkey & Co.

-2-

October

1 HOUR EXAMI NATION

6 Marxism

8 Marxism

10 The Essential Marx

13 Social Democracy

22 Bismarck

24 Unification of Italy

26 Napoleon III

29 Third French Republic

November

3 German Republic

5 Politics of Mass Movements

15 Change in Public Opinion

17 Rediscovery of the Unconscious

20 Sigmund Freud and Wedekind

22 Balance of Power 1870-1914

24 Peace at Versailles

27 Soviet Revolution

29 Failure of Revolution in the West

31 Le Bon^ The Crowd

<.. -tr

December

i The Communist World

3 The West since 1945

7 Italian Fascism

8 Conclusion I
10 Conclusion II

National Socialism '

12 Speer, Inside the Third Reich

14 The Terror

17 France Between the Wars

19 Britain Between the Wars

21 Weber, Varieties of Fascism

24 Appeasement and Aggression

26 The Era of the Cold War

-2-

September

October

November

December

22
24
26
29

1
6
8
10
13
22
24
26
29

3
5

15
17
20
22
24
27
29
31

1
3
7

8
10
12
14

Marxlsm

Marxism

The Essential Marx

Social Democracy

Bismarck

ünlfication of Italy

HOUR EXAM

Third French Republic

German Republic

Politics of Mass Movements

Change in Public Opinion

Rediscovery of the Unconscious

Sigmund Freud and Wedekind

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

Le Bon, The Crowd

The Communist World

The West since 1945

Italian Fascism

Conclusion I

Conclusion II

National Socialism

Speer, Inside the Third Reich
The Terror

France Between the Wars
Brit 'in Between th<^ Wars
Weber, Varieties of Fascism
Appeasement and Aggression
The Era of the Cold War

«

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

History 120

Mr. Mosse

Additional Reading List

Just to stimulate,
not exhaustive.

Fin de Siecla

Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Society

has influenced many interpretations of this period

George Lichtheim, The Concept of Ideology

contains important essays, especially the first one

Walter H. Sokel, The Writer in Extremis

the best work on Expressionism in English

Irving Louis Horowitz, Radicalism and the Revolt Against Reason

about Georges Sorel, but in reality encompasses a good discussion
of irrationalism

Wallace Fowlie, Andre Gide: His Life and Art
good but centered on style, etc.

Raymond Williams, Culture and Society: 1780-1950

by a socialist trying to find new meanings; significant and
centered on England

Gerhard Masur, Prophets of Yesterday

an interesting chapter on the "self-enchanted"

Daniel Gasman, The Scientific Origins of National Socialism

in spite of its misleading title, excellent work on Darwinism and
Monism - in fact on positivism

Eugene Lumra, Prophet of Community

about Gustav Landauer, but also about whether a volkish socialism
is possible - a first-rate book

Psychoanalysis and the Problem of Culture

Emest Jones, Sigmund Freud, 3 vols.

this is essential and fascinating, don't be scared by its length

The War Generation > ed. Stephen Ward

Essays on Veterans movements between the war in England, France,
Italy, Germany and the USA

History 120

-2-

Mr. Mosse

Philip Rieff , Freud; the Mind of the Moralist
possibly the best Single introduction

Jolan Jacoby, The Psychology of Jung

a good secondary work by a pupil

Herbert Marcuse, Eros and Civilization
Interpretation of psychoanalysis

J.A.C. Brown, Freud and the Freudians
a brief and useful exposition

Russell Jacoby, Social Amnesia
restores Freud to revolt

Socialism

John Cammett, Antonio Gramsci and the Origins of Italian Communism
good for background on your reading

Martin Esslin, Brecht: The Man and His Work

this is the best in English, but to be used with some caution -
especially about Brecht' s theory of the drama

Peter Nettl, Rosa Luxemburg, 2 vols.

monumental and most important - if you are at all interested in
Problems of socialism you should look at this

Günther Roth, Social Democrats in Imperial Germany

one of the few works on the subject to touch on cultural matters

David Caute, Communism and the French Intellectuals 1914-1940
a solid work and important

George Lichtheim, Marxism on Modem France

highly abstract but on that level essential

F. L. Carsten, Revolution in Central Europe 1918-1919
excellent summary

Towards a New Marxism. Ed. Bart Grahl and Paul Piccone
good discussion

Between the Wars

Fritz Ringer, The Decline of the Mandarins

concems the German academic Community, but has good summaries of
most important writers in history, sociology and philosophy

Left Wing Intellectuals Between the Wars. ed. Laqueur & Mosse

has interesting articles about these writers, above all Short' s
discussion of the politics of the Surrealists

History 120

-3-

Mr. Mosse

Peter Stansky and William Abrahams, Journey to the Frontier

the most directly evocative book of the atmosphere surrounding the
Spanish Civil War: a double biography of Bell and Comford who went
and died there

H. Stuart Hughes, The Obstructed Path. French Social Thought in the Years
of Desperation 1930-1960

a very interesting discussion of the Isolation of French thought
from that of the rest of the west

Siegfried Kracuer, From Cali|5;ari to Hitler

a psychological history of the German film, but Laqueur on Weimar

is much sounder

William Barrett, Irrational Man

a good beginning for a study of Existentialism

S. Payne, The Spanish Revolution
Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War

two good studies ^

George L. Mosse, Germans and Jews

Istvan Deak, Weimars Left Wing Intellectuals

about one of their principal Journals, The Weltbuhne

The Heritage of German Refugee Intellectuals, ed. Boy er s

essays on Socialist Humanism and Coramunism (by Pachter)

Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School
and the Institute of Social Research 1923-1950
an essential work about some of the most important ideas to
come out of Weimar

Walter Laqueur, Young Germany

best and now Standard work on German youth movement

»

Germaine Bree, Camus and Sartre

Walter Laqueur, Weimar Culture

the best and sanest work on the subject

Fascism

Ernst Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism

important if highly controversial conceptualization

Francis Carsten, The Rise of Fascism

centered on politics, straightforward

Dietrich Bracher, The German Dictatorship
the best summary

History 120

-4-

Mr. Mosse

David Schoenbaum, Hitler' s Social Revolution

will answer many questions you may have about the actual changes in
class and Status

Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide

one of the most interesting books about anti-Semit ism: the history of
the myth of the Jewish world conspiracy

Weber and Rogge, The European Right
an excellent panorama

Rene Remond, The Right Wing in France from 1815 to De Gaulle
an excellent Standard work on the subject

Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism

an immensely important book which, however controversial, is
illuminating above all on the background to Nazism

George L. Mosse, The Cr Isis of German Ideology

an Interpretation of National Socialism

Laqueur and Mosse, ed». International Fascism

important essays, especially on Italy and France

Michael Ledeen, Universal Fascism

the best and most important contribution to history of Italian
Fascism in English in recent years

Germaine Bree and George Bernauer, Beyond Defeat

excellent extracts of collaborationist writers and those of
the French resistance

John Harrison, The Reactionaries

interesting analysis of Pound, Eliot, etc. who were rightists
as writers

Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart

controversial, but one best analysis of what happened to people
in a concentration camp

Jehuda Bauer, Bricha: Rescue

a corrective to Bettelheim, what those liberated from the camps
did to flee Germany

Henri Michel, The Shadow War: Resistance in Europe 1939-1945
best work on that subject

Robert Soucy, Barres

an excellent study on the French Right

Eugen Weber, The Action Francaise

a classic in the best sense of the term

History 120

-5-

Mr. Mosse

Adrian Lyttleton, The Seizure of Power, Fascism 1919-1929
is the best in English on cultural developments

Nichols M. Nagt, Talavera, The Green Shirts and the Others

screwball in some ways, but in other the best analysis of
Balkan fascism

S. Payne, The Falangae

excellent on fascism in Spain - fascism for poets

Robert L. Paxton, Vichv France

certainly the classic on that subject

National Socialism

Modesty compels me to list my Crisis of German Ideology and Nationalization
of the Masses

Alan Bullock, Hitler

has not yet been surpassed; Joachim Fest, Hitler is more complete

but adds nothing new in Interpretation

The Anatomy of the SS State

excellent essays on concentration camp, Organization, etc.

R. Hohne, The SS

is very good and the Standard work now

David Stuart Hüll, Film in the Third Reich
is not too good, but informative

Robert Isherwood, The Berlin Stories

I still think this gives the atmosphere best of any English source

William Sheridan Allen, The Nazi Seizure of Power

is good if you remember that this is only about one Hanoverian town;
compare it with the small town section in my Nazi Culture

Dietrich Orlow, The History of the Nazi Party (2 vols)

heavy going at times, but very illuminating for the rise to power

Max H. Kele, Nazis and Workers

well, you can judge the relevance of the title to the book

History 120

Mosse

Europe and the Modern World

There will be 3 class meetings a week and 1 section meeting.

The follovyjng books vyill be read;

They are due as marked, at the beginning of a week when they
will also appear in this outline. Books will be discussed both
in sections and in lecture where listed.

Peter N. Stearns. The European Experience since 1500

This is the text, and Chapters 1-6 must be read by 6 weeks, and

the rest by the 12 weeks.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile (September 12)

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther, (September 12)

R. Kipling, Stalkey & Co. (September 15)

E. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx (October 6)

Sigmund Freud, Outline of Psychoanalysis (October 20)

Wedekind, Springs Awakening (on reserve) (October 20)

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd (October 27)

Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich (November 10)

Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism (November 17)

Examinations : 6 weeks is on October 1 in class; 12 weeks is
a paper of 5 to 6 typed pages which uses the above reading.
You will get a separate sheet for this. Due: November 21.
Final: will be taken home.

September

3 Introduction

5 New World of 1800

8 Romanticism

10 Romanticism

12 Emile and Werther

15 Liberalism

17 Modern Nationalism

19 Stalkey & Co.

2-

October

1 HOUR EXAMI NATION

6 Marxism

8 Marxism

10 The Essential Marx

13 Social Democracy

22 Bismarck

24 Unification of Italy

26 Napoleon III

29 Third French Republic

November

3 Ger man Republic

5 Politics of Mass Movements

15 Change in Public Opinion

17 Rediscovery of the Unconscious

20 Sigmund Freud and Wedekind

22 Balance of Power 1870-1914

24 Peace at Versailles

27 Soviet Revolution

29 Failure of Revolution in the West

31 Le Bon^ The Crowd

December

1 The Communist World

3 The West since 1945

7 Italian Fascism

8 Conclusion I
10 Conclusion II

National Socialism '

12 Speer, Inside the Third Reich

14 The Terror

17 France Between the Wars

19 Br itain Between the Wars

21 Weber, Varieties of Fascism

24 Appeasement and Aggression

26 The Era of the Cold War

History 120

Mosse

Europe and the Modern World

There will be 3 class meetings a week and 1 section meeting*

The following books will be read;

They are due as marked, at the beginning of a week when they
will also appear in this outline. Books will be discussed both
in sections and in lecture where listed.

Peter N. Stearns. The European Experience since 1500

This is the text, and Chapters 1-6 must be read by 6 weeks, and

the rest by the 12 weeks.

Jean- Jacques Rousseau, Emile (September 12)

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther, (September 12)

R. Kipling, Stalkey & Co. (September 15)

E. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx (October 6)

Sigmund Freud, Outline of Psychoanalysis (October 20)

Wedekind, Springs Awakeninq (on reserve) (October 20)

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd (October 27)

Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich (November 10)

Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism (November 17)

Examinations : 6 weeks is on October 1 in class; 12 weeks is
a paper of 5 to 6 typed pages which uses the above reading.
You will get a separate sheet for this. Due: November 21.
Final: will be taken home.

September

3 Introduction

5 New World of 1800

8 Romanticism

10 Romanticism

12 Emile and Werther

15 Liberalism

17 Modern Nationalism

19 Stalkey & Co.

-2-

Oc tober

1 HOUR EXAMI NATION

6 Marxism

8 Marxism

10 The Essential Marx

13 Social Democracy

22 Bismarck

24 Unification of Italy

26 Napoleon III

29 Third French Republic

November

3 Ger man Republic

5 Politics of Mass Movements

15 Change in Public Opinion

17 Rediscovery of the Unconscious

20 Sigmund Freud and Wedekind

22 Balance of Pov;er 1870-1914

24 Peace at Versailles

27 Soviet Revolution

29 Failure of Revolution in the West

31 Le Bon^ The Crowd

December

1 The Communist World

3 The West since 1945

7 Italian Fascism

8 Conclusion I
10 Conclusion II

National Socialism '

12 Speer, Inside the Third Reich

14 The Terror

17 France Between the Wars

19 Britain Between the Wars

21 Weber, Varieties of Fascism

24 Appeasement and Aggression

26 The Era of the Cold War

History 120

Europe and the Modern World

Mosse

There will be 3 class meetings a week and 1 section meeting.

The follovyjnq books vyill be read;

They are due as marked, at the beginning of a week when they
will also appear in this outline. Books v;ill be discussed both
in sections and in lecture where listed.

Peter N. Stearns. The European Experience since 1500

This is the text, and Chapters 1-6 must be read by 6 weeks, and

the rest by the 12 v^eeks.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile (September 12)

Goethe, Sorrows of the Youncr Werther, (September 12)

R. Kipling, Stalkey & Co. (September 15)

E. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx (October 6)

Sigmund Freud, Outline of Psychoanalysis (October 20)

Wedekind, Springs Awakening (on reserve) (October 20)

Gustav Le Bon, The Crov;d (October 27)

Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich (November 10)

Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism (November 17)

Examinations : 6 v;eeks is on October 1 in class; 12 weeks is
a paper of 5 to 6 typed pages v/hich uses the above reading.
You vill get a separate sheet for this. Due: November 21.
Final: v;ill be taken home.

September

3 Introduction

5 Nev; World of 1800

8 Romanticism

10 Romanticism

12 Emile and Werther

15 Liberalism

17 Modern Nationalism

19 Stalkey & Co.

-2-

October

1 HOUR EXAMI NATION

6 Marxism

8 Marxism

10 The Essential Marx

13 Social Democracy

22 Bismarck

24 Unification of Italy

26 Napoleon III

29 Third French Republic

November

3 German Republic

5 Politics of Mass Movements

15 Change in Public Opinion

17 Rediscovery of the Unconscious

20 Sigmund Freud and Wedekind

22 Balance of Power 1870-1914

24 Peace at Versailles

27 Soviet Revolution

29 Failure of Revolution in the West

31 Le Bon^ The Crovyd

Deceitiber

1 The Communist World

3 The West since 1945

7 Italian Fascism

8 Conclusion I
10 Conclusion II

National Socialism '

12 Speer, Inside the Third Reich

14 The Terror

17 France Between the Wars

19 Britain Between the Wars

21 Weber, Varieties of Fascism

24 Appeasement and Aggression

26 The Era of the Cold War

^ k

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Madlson 6, Wisconsin

Department of Hlstory

HISTORY 120 (3) (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester

The texts for this course are:

R. R. Palmer, Hlstory of the Modern World (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L. Mosse et al. Europe in Review (Rand McNally)

In addition you will read the books listed below and should buy them. They will
be üested in the section meeting of the week whose date is given with the books.
Some of them necessarily come closer together so you must do the reading well in
advance of the text and better Start in on those books at the beginning of the term,

Peter Viereck. Conservatism (Anvil) week of February I9.
Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (Galaxy) week of March 11.
A, Bullock, Adolf Hitler, (Bantam) week of April 20
Crossman, The God that Failed (Pocketbook) week of April I9

All Office hours are posted at I97 Bascom Hall.

February
3 Introduction

Industrial Revolution

Romanticism and Conservatism

Liberalism

Revolutions of 1848

Modern National ism

DÜE: Peter Viereck, Conservati

Bismarck

ünification of Italy

5

10

12
17
19

2lf
26

Palmer

1^22-430
430-432;

432-433;
469-495
436.443;
sm

March

2 Napoleon III

4 HOUR EXAMINATION

9 Third French Republic
11 Marxism

DUE: Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (
16 Social Demoer acy
18 Imperialism

23 Change in European Opinion
25 Balance of Power I87O-I914

April

8

13

15

20

22
27

29

Peace At Versailles

Russia in the 19th Century

Soviet Revolution

HOUR EXAMINATION

End of an Era

DUE: A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler

Italian Facism

German Republic

National Social ism

DÜE: The God that Failed

518-534;
511-518

502-507

577-582

433-436;
entire)

589-596

567-577;
561-564;

627-635;

687-704

453-454;

XVII

(Entire)
800-805
762-765
805-816

443-453
454-463; 607-612

509-511

585-588

464-468; 495.502

613-627; 635-659

596-607

660-687

530-539

Sources

XVII

XVIII

XIX

XXII

XX

XXVII
XXVIII

XXIII

XXIV

XXV (I, II, III)

XXV (IV, v)

XXX

XXVI

XXXI

XXXII

XXIX

XXXIII

XXXV

XXXVI

XXXVII

- 2 -

h The Fascist Revolution

6 Britain Between the Wars

11 France Between the Wars

13 Appeasement and Aggression

18 The Grand Alliance, 1941-46

20 The Era of the Cold War

25 The Communis t World

27 Problems of Modern Europe

Palmer

777-785
582-584; 791-800

816-827

XX

Sources

XXXVIII

XXXIX

XL

XLI: XLII

XLII (II)

(I)

^.

^ «

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Kadison 6, Wisconsin

Departmen: of History

The

HISTORY 120 (3) (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester

texts for this course are:

R. R. Palmer, History of the Modern World (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L. Mosse et al. Europe in Review (Rand McNally)

In addition you will read the books listed below and should buy them. They will
be üested in the section meeting of the week whose date is given with the books.
Some of them necessarily come closer together so you must do the reading well in
advance of the text and better Start in on those books at the beginning of the term.

Peter Viereck. Conservatism (Anvil) week of February I9.
Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (Galaxv) week of March 11.
A, Bullock, Adolf Hitler. (Bantam) week of April 20
Crossman, The God that Failed (Pocketbook) week of April I9

All Office hours are posted at I97 Bascom Hall.

February
3 Introduction

Industrial Revolution

Romanticism and Conservatism

Liberalism

Revolutions of 1848

Modern Nationalism

DüE: Peter Viereck, Conservati

Bismarck

ünification of Italy

5
10

12

17

19

2k
26

March
2 Napoleon III
h HOUR EXAMINATION
9 Third French Republic
11 Marxism

DUE: Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (
Social Demoer acy
Imperialism

Change in European Opinion
Balance of Power 18T0-I911f
April

o Peace At Versailles

Russia in the 19th Century

Soviet Revolution

HOUR EXAMINATION

End of an Era

DÜE: A, Bullock, Adolf Hitler

Itallan Facism

German Republic

National Socialism

DUE: The God that Failed

Palmer

If22.if30
430-432;

432-433;
469-495

436-443;
sm

518-534;
511-518

502-507

443-453
454-463; 607-612

509-511
585-588

16

18
23
25

8

13
15

20

22

27

29

577-582

433-436;

entire)

589-596

567-577;
561-564;

627-635;

687-704

453-454;

XVII

(Entire)
800-805

762-765
805 -8 16

464-468; 495-502

613-627; 635-659
596-607

530-539

Sources

XVII

XVIII

XIX

XXII

XX

XXVII
XXVIII

XXIII

XXIV

XXV (I, II, III)

XXV (IV, V)

XXX

XXVI

XXXI

XXXII

XXIX

XXXIII

XXXV

XXXVI

XXXVII

- 2 -

May

h The Fascist Revolution

6 Britain Between the Wars

11 France Between the Wars

13 Appeasement and Aggression

18 The Grand Alliance, 1941-46

20 The Era of the Cold War

25 The Communist World

27 Problems of Modern Europe

Palmer

777^5
582-584; 791-800

816-827

XX

Sources

XXXVIII

XXXIX

XL

XLI: XLII

XLII (II)

(I)

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Madison 6» Wisconsin

Department of History

HISTORY 120 (3) (EUROPE AND THE MODERN WORLD) - MR. MOSSE

Second Semester

texts for thls course are:
R. R, Palmer, History of the Modern World (revised by Coulton) Knopf
G. L, Mosse et al, Europe in Review (Rand McNally)

The

In addition you will read the books listed below and should buy them, They will
be üested in the section meeting of the week whose date is given with the books.
Some of them necessarily come c loser together so you must do the reading well in
advance of the text and better start in on those books at the beginning of the term,

Peter Viereck. Conservatism (Anvil) week of February 19.
Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (Galaxy) week of March 11.
A, Bullock, Adolf Hitler, (Bantam) week of April 20
Crossman, The God that Failed (Pocketbook) week of April I9

All Office hours are posted at I97 Bascom Hall.

February
3 Introduction
5 Industrial Revolution

10 Romanticism and Conservatism

12 Liberalism

17 Revolutions of 1848
19 Modern Nationalism

DÜE: Peter Viereck, Conservati
2k Bismarck

26 ünification of Italy
March

2 Napoleon III

k HOUR EXAMINATION

9 Third French Republic

11 Marxism
DUE: Isiah Berlin, Karl Marx (

16 Social Demoer acy

18 Imperialism

23 Change in European Opinion
25 Balance of Power I87O-I914
April

D Peace At Versailles

8 Russia in the 19th Century

13 Soviet Revolution
15 HOUR EXAMINATION
20 End of an Era

DUE: A. Bullock, Adolf Hitler
22 Italian Facism

27 German Republic
29 National Socialism

DUE: The God that Failed

Palmer

Sources
XVII

If22-lf30

430-432;

443-453

XVIII

432-433;

454-463;

607-612

XIX

469-495

XXII

436.443;
.sm

509-511

585-588

XX

XXVII

518-534;

511-518

XXVIII

502-507

XXIII

577-582

XXIV

433-436;

464-468;

495-502

XXV (I, II,

III)

entire)

589-596

XXV (IV, V)

567-577;

613-627;

635-659

XXX

561-564;

596-607

XXVI

627-635;

660-687

XXXI

687-704

XXXII

453-454;

530-539

XXIX

XVII

XXXIII

(Entire)

800-805

XXXV

762-765

XXXVI

805-816

XXXVII

- 2 -

May

4 The Fascist Revolution

6 Br itain Between the Wars

11 France Between the Wars

13 Appeasement and Aggression

18 The Grand Alliance, 191^-1-1^6

20 The Era of the Gold War

25 The Gonraiunist World

27 Problems of Modern Europe

Palmer

777-785
582-584; 79I-800

816.827

XX

Sources

XXXVIII

XXXIX

XL

XLI: XLII

XLII (II)

(I)

History 120

Europe and The Modern World

Mosse

The follovyinq books will be read;

Strayer, Gatzke, Harbison, The Mainstream of Civilizat\qn_since
1789. This should be read as soon as possible. Chapters 24] 25
and 26 until the six weeks; 28-33 until final. But it is best
if you read all of it as soon as possible in order to Orient
yourself and get an overview of the period.

The Confessions of Jean Jacques Rousseau (due January 24)

Sir Walter Scotts Ivanhoe (due January 31)

E. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx (due February 21)

Karl Kautzki, The Class Struqqle (due February 28)

Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents (due March 7)

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd (due March 28) '

Fascism, an Anthology, ed. Nathaniel Greene (due April 11)

George L. Mosse, Nazi Culture (due April 18)

Some topics on the outline will be extended to 3 lectures. The
due date of a book is important both for sections and for Friday
class meetings. At such meetings (4. hour) I will either continue
with cur topic, or concentrate on the relevant book and have a
general discussion.

Please read ahead. Some books come close together, which is
in the nature of the necessary seguence of our analysis.

January

13 Introduction

15 Industrial Revolution

20 Romanticism

22 Romanticism

27 Liberalism

29 Modern National ism

24 Rousseau

31 Ivanhoe

t\e/(f:

-2-

February

3 Bismarck

5 Unification of Italy

10 * Napoleon III

12 Third French Republic

17 HOUR EXAMI NATION

19 Marxism

24 Marxism

26 Social Democracy

21 Essential Marx
28 Kautzki

March

0

3 Change in Public Opinion

5 Rediscovery of the Unconscious

r — lO Balance of Pover 1870-1914

/ 12 Peace at Versailles

L^ 17 Soviet Revolution

19 Failure of Revolution in the West

24 German Republic

26 Politics of Mass Movements

7 Freud

28 LeBon

April

7 Italian Fascism

9 National Socialism

14 The Terror

16 France Between the Wars

21 Britain Betveen the Wars

23 Appeasement and Agression

11 Fascism

18 Nazi Culture

28 The Era of the Cold War
30 The Communist World

May

Conclusion

History 120

Mosse

Europa and the Modern World

There v;ill be 3 class meetings a week and 1 section meeting.

The follovyjnq books vyill be read;

They are due as marked, at the beginning of a v;eek when they
will also appear in this outline. Books will be discussed both
in sections and in lecture where listed.

Peter N. Stearns. The European Experience since 1500

This is the text, and Chapters 1-6 must be read by 6 weeks, and

the rest by the 12 weeks.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile (September 12)

Goethe, Sorrows of the Younq Werther, (September 12) /}/ß]^^

R. Kipling, Stalkey & Co. (September 15) )/

E. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx (October 6)

Sigmund Freud, Outline of Psychoanalysis (October 20)

Wedekind, Springs Awakening (on reserve) (October 20)

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd (October 27)

Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich (November 10)

Eugen Weber, Varieties of Fascism (November 17)

Examinations : 6 weeks is on October 1 in class; 12 weeks is
a paper of 5 to 6 typed pages which uses the above reading.
You will get a separate sheet for this. Due: November 21.
Final: will be taken home.

September

1^

3
5
8

10

12

yr

Introduction

New World of 1800

Romanticism

Romanticism

Emile and Werther

Liberalism

Modern Nationalism

Stalkey & Co. r y-

fÄ/72(^

-2-

October

HOUR EXAMI NATION

Marxism

Marxism

The Essential Marx

Social Democracy

Bismarck

Unification of Italy

Napoleon III

Third French Republic

November

3 German Republic

5 Politics of Mass Movements

15 Change in Public Opinion

17 Rediscovery of the Unconscious

20 Sigmund Freud and Wedekind

22 Balance of Power 1870-1914

24 Peace at Versailles

27 Soviet Revolution

29 Failure of Revolution in the West

31 Le Bon, The Crowd

Öecember

1 The Communist World

3 The West since 1945

7 Italian Fascism

8 Conclusion I
10 Conclusion II

National Socialism '

12 Speer, Inside the Third Reich

14 The Terror

17 France Between the Wars

19 Britain Betv;een the Wars

21 Weber, Varieties of Fascism

24 Appeasement and Aggression

26 The Era of the Cold War

-2-

September

October

November

<h ':V/»«> '15''^-^

^rxlsm

Marxlsm

The Essentlal Marx

SociÄi Democracy^

8
10
13
22
24
26
29

3
5
15
17
20
22
24
27
29
31

ismarck
Unification of Italy.
HOUR EXAM

Third French Republic
German Republic
Politics of Mass Movements
Change in Public Opinion
Rediscovery of the Unconscious
Sigmund Freud and Wedekind

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

Le Bon, The Crowd

The Communist World

The West since 1945

Italian Fascism

Conclusion I

Conclusion II

National Socialism

December

1
3
7
8

10
12
14

Speer, Inside the Third Reich
The Terror

France Between the Wars
Brltnin Between the Wars
Weber, Varieties of Fascism
Appeasement and Aggression
The Era of the Cold War

-2-

September

October

November

December

22
24
26
29

1
6
8
10
13
22
24
26
29

3
5
15
17
20
22
24
27
29
31

1

3

7

8

10

12

14

Marxlsm

Marxlsm

The Essential Marx

Social Democracy

^^^^

Blsmarck

Unification of Italy

HOUE EXAM

Third French Republfc

Germftn Reprublte

Politics of Mass Movements

Change in Public Opinion

Rediscovery of the Unconscious

Sigmund Freud and Wedekind

Balance of Power 1870-1914

Peace at Versailles

Soviet Revolution

Failure of Revolution in the West

Le Bon, The Crowd

The Communist World

The West since 1945

Italian Fascism

Conclusion I

Conclusion II

National Socialism

Speer, Inside the Third Reich
The Terror

France Between the Wars
Br1t^>ln Between the Wars
Weber, Varieties of Fascism
Appeasement and Aggression
The Era of the Cold War

\

, ■- , ,

" jwrapyT^^y-gT^^'s

Por 1^0:

wStrayer, Gatzke, H?^rbison, «fhe Mainstr^^am of Civ? 1 i-^^^tlon since
1789, Harcourt, Brao^ Jov^novrch, 7S7 Th^*rr7, Ave. N.Y. 1 00T7

Karl Kautzki, The Class Struggle, The Norton Library, W. W. Norton Co

Pasclsm; An Anthology, er!. Nathanen Greene, Thomas Y. CrcwpT' & co.

George L. Messe, Na^l Culture, Gros«sett ^n*^ Dunlan.

514

Jacob Kat'?', Tradition and Crlsis (Shocken)

Alfred Rosenberg, Selected Wrltings, ed. Pols, H^rper

I. Deutscher, the Non-Jewish Jew, Hill ?^nd Want

Lessing Nathan the Wise, Barons Educational Service

George L. Mosse, Germans and Jev;s, Grossett ^nd Duribp

Isaac Bashevi Singer, The Family Moskat, Noonday

Zionist Tdea, ed. Arthur Ker7:berg, Antheneaum

also 120:

E. Fischer and F. Marek, The Essential Marx, Se?^bury or Herder & Herder

Gustav Le Bon, The Crowd, Viking

Sigmund Freud, CivilirrBtion "^nd Its Di«? content«:, Doub"» eday

The Confessions of Jean-Jacrrue«? Rousseau, Gateway
Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe, Washington Sauare Press edit^'on
515

R. Hoess, Commandant at Auschw^'t^, Populär Librarv

Raoul Hilberg, Documents of Destruction, Franklin Watts. S45
^ w r, ^ Third Aven. N.Y. i OTg?

GEORGE L. MOSSE 9^'t^-' '^^/^ '

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342 W. Doty St.
Madison, V/isoonsin
January 13, 1960

Mr. Greorge Mosse,
Professor of history
The University of Wisconsin
Madison, V/isoonsin

Dear Mr. Mosse:

Since there is no neutral tribunal to which to appeal, and
since an oral protest might not be taken seriously, I am submitting
a Protest in writing, i am protesting the evaluation of the term
paper returned to me this moming in nistory 145a beoause the basis
of the critical marks is invalid, and becauee the bulk of the orit-
icism conceming the mechanios is itself faulty.

The comment that I didn't put the paper together in a flowing
form is invalid beoause 1 deliberately chose to structuro the paper
as I did, letting the formal divisions into sections indicate, as
they do, the central theme around which in fact the paper does flow.
May I suggest that only hasty reading would prevent one from seeing
the neat transitions that i have built into the paper. The same Sug-
gestion is made regarding the number of sentences that you apparently
found awkward. They are gramnatically correct, despite the oorreotions
inserted; only hasty reading and a superficial view of what grammar
is and how it works could make the cumbersome sentences seem to be
incorrect. To illustrate, let me point out that your question on page
four, "is all this still the uictionarvY" is superfluous, because
after the quolration from the Diotionary I proceed thus: "Compare
these Statements Mth Eisler ^s comment that lycanthropy is," and
there follows a def inition. it should be clear that only the Quota-
tion is from the uictionarv. Also, the definition of lycanthropy at
this point indicates that the subsequent requests for a definition
on pages five and eight also point to a hasty, uncomprehending read-

it is customary not to repeat the title on the f irst page when
a separate title-sheet is used. The tense shifts you point out are
intentional and functional: I am sorry you do not see the delicacy
of the implications. The g»queats for tho antecedents of several
pronouns are clear: one may use pronouns you know, The so-o^lled
rhetorical outbursts are not excess baggage, they say in one or tv/o
words what might be said in a sentence or two in dull prose. The
comment of yours that all of the four thousand people executed by
L,ouis XI were not werewolves shows that the point of the rhetorical
outburst was missed: Louis XI himself belongs in the werewolf cate-
gory. öabbat is the form of the word often used when referring to
witches, and that, page six, is as good as who except to one that is
not concemed with the heard idiom. x can too make a general State-
ment, as on page seven, whenever i see that it corresponds to the
empirical Situation. The bibliography indicates how well,-^br how
poorly, qualif ied one is to generalize. Why not? The Statement cn
page nine that may appear confusing to one that does not give the
writer the benef it of the doubt is clarif ied ty the realization
that what the sermon refers to as werewolves were natural wolves
with a taste for human flesh, and that the preacher knew this:
werewolves, at one time and one place, were nothing supernatural.

Your Statement on page twelve.was antloipated by a footnote.
That is to say that 1 knew füll well the Problem of definition, and
1 feit that the words as l used them had enough usage to Warrant
exolusion of the explicit def inition from the text,

To sum up, then, the statemßnts to the effeot that some Qf^the
sentences are awkward seems to me to be invalid. Try reading »'^out
loud, The other granmatioal corrections resmt rrom the exter^ax
appxiua-cion 6f rulea, inappropriately applied. One place where you
tried to change the oommas, you also changed the sense« The intended
sense stand uncorreoted. The same is true in every unmentioned case
as well» ^-»(u

If I would have oentered it on jrrance as you suggest, i would
haye had to resort to a meaningless antiquarianism. i am not inteöd-
to be a professional historian, I am trying to know myself and those
about me. This is a legitimate end of aoademio workj denial of the
privilege to approach the problem as i see it has to be approaohed
is an infringement of academic freedom. This is the reason for the
protestation: I have tried to show that the corrections on the paper
are invalid, leaving only as a possible criticism the fact that 1
tried to give, or rather, to point out, the significance of a univer-
sal Problem, ohould you deny me the right to utilize what insight I
may have into epistemology and the psychology of leaming, you are
persecuting me on what fonaerly would have been considered religious
grounds.

i do not expect anjrthing to be done conceming this protest, as
there never is, I do wish to State formally that l do not accept
your criticisms of my paper nor the evaluation placed thereon. You
ask for intelleotual oommitment. i am oommitted to an existential
Viewpoint and worked within that viewpoint in formulating this paper.
The value of coramitment is demonstrated. You are rewarding confoxmity
as everyone eise does. *

Respectfully youys,
Donald Vandenberg

Dear Professor,

+. ^K^^r"^ sufficiently emerged from ny comatose condition. -which I «ttrihnt»

and arrivl^g at exan time wiL i^uffäiennateriS sto?fd Äa^S tS basil""^«'""

readine circuit so Si( S Sn be\'o^i,Lf of V'1n?^r^ ^^ ^°^ '" °" ''^^ ^^"^^"^
mentallv cvArtax(^d «.ti,Her,+o Zlt\° cognizant of an antidote to recommend for all

of Marxisma^dl^fetzschSn bu? als'o lltZ^ ^i^ti^ized not only througb the study
Company. Tlie pSiSric D^nt tili '^^^^'"' "°* '^^^^^^^ menticned in polite

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ÜNIVERSITY Or WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of Hlstory

Semester I» 1985-86

History 513

Mr« Mbsse

TAKE-HOME FINAL EXAMINATION

Due Pate; December 16th. No late pApers will be accepted.

Length: Not to exceed 9 double-spaced typewritten pages. üse proper
footnotes if neceesary.

Please answer all three queßtl.on8«

1. What seems to you the most Important new deflnitiona of polltlcs
in the period we have studied, aod why?

2. What role did History play in the theories of the first half of
the 19th Century? Why was History so Important in the ideas of
this period? Give at least three specific examples.

3, What were the basic assumptions about human natura in the ideas
of Hegel and Marx and how did these relate to the other ideas of
htunan natura which we have studiert in this course?

Histiory 513

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MÄDISON

Department of Hlstory

Semester I^ 1985-86

Mr. Hosse

TAKE -HOME FINAL EXAMIIJATION

ri>' mmiaimm

Due Pate: December 16th. No late papers will be accepted.

Length: Not to erceed 9 double-spaced typewritten pages. Use proper
footnotes If neceesary.

Please answer all three questicns.

1« Wbat seems to you tha most Importact aew definitions of politics
in the period we have etudied, and why?

2» What role did Hlstory play in the theories of the first half of
the 19th centuryt Why was Hlstory so important in the ideas of
this period? Give at least three specif^.c examples.

3. What were the baslc aasumptlons about hurian natura in the ideas
of Hegel and Marx and how did these relate to the othar ideas of
htimam natura which we have studlcA in this course?

Hlstory 513

ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-i>lADISO.Nf

Departme^it of Hlsto^cy

Semester I» 1985-36

Hr« Mosse

TAKE-HOME FINAI. EXAMINAnON

Due Pate; December 16th. No late papers will be acceptisd,

Length: Not to exceed 9 double-spaced typewrltten pages. Use proper
footnotes if necessary.

Please answer all three queßtions.

1. What seems to you the mo8t Importact new def Initlone of politics
in the period we have etudied^ and vrhy?

2* What role did Eistory play in the theorles of the first half of
the 19th Century? Why was Hlstory so important in the ideas of
this period? Glve at least three specific exanples.

3. What were the basic assumptions about hurian nature in the ideae
of Hegel and Marx and how did thase relate to the other ideas of
human nature which we have 8tudic4 in thio course?

Hlstory 513

UNIVERSUM OF WISCONSIN-MÄDISON

Department of Hlstory

Semester X, 1985-86

TAKE-HOME FIHAL EXAMIHATION

Hr« Mosse

DueJDate: December 16th. No late papers will be accepted,

Length: Not to ezceed 9 double-spaced typewritten pages» Use proper
footnotes If neceesary.

Please answer all three questlons.

1. What seeias to you the most Important new deflnitlone of politics
In the perlod we have studled, and why?

2.

What role dld Hlstory play In the theorles of the f irst half of
the 19th ccnturyt Why was Hlstory so Important in the Ideas of
thls perlod? Glve at least three specific examplea.

3. What vere the baslc assumptions about htinan natura In the ideas
of Hegel and Marx and how did theae relate to the other ideas of
human natura which we have studicÄ In this course?

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1985-86

History 513
October 11, 1985

Prof. Mosse

Six-Weeks Examination

I. Identification (15 min.)

How did the Enlightenment understand three (3) of the f ollowing

The Patriarch

Laocoon

The Great Chain of Being

The Encyclopedia
Deism

Winckelmann
"cause and effect"

II. Essay (30 min.)

Please answer one of the f ollowing questions:

a. How did the Enlightenment and Pietism illustrate the necessity of
self-control?

b. In his Piain Account of Christian Perfection, John Wesley writes:
"The bottom of the soul may be in repose even while we are in many
outward troubles; just as the bottom of the sea is calm, while the
surface is strongly agitated." Why would a Pietist and Winckelmann
use such similar metaphors? What do they mean by it? and why is this
idea important to Pietism and the Enlightenment?

History 513
October 11, 1985

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1985-86

Six-Weeks Examination

Prof. Mosse

Identification (15 min.)

How did the Enlightenment understand three (3) of the following:

The Patriarch

Laocoon

The Great Chain of Being

The Encyclopedia
Deism

Winckelmann
"cause and effect"

II. Essay (30 min.)

Please answer one of the following questions:

a. How did the Enlightenment and Pietism illustrate the necessity of
self-control?

b. In his Piain Account of Christian Perfection, John Wesley writes:
"The bottom of the soul may be in repose even while we are in many
outward troubles; Just as the bottom of the sea is calm, while the
surface is strongly agitated." Why would a Pietist and Winckelmann
use such similar metaphors? What do they mean by it? and why is this
idea important to Pietism and the Enlightenment?

UNIVERSXTY OF WISCONSIN-MADISOM

Department of Hlstory

Semester I, 1985-86

Hlstory 513

Mr. Mosse

TAKE-HQME FINAL EXAMIIUTION

Duejate: December 16th. No late papers will be accepted.

Lcngth: Not to exceed 9 double-spaced typewrltten pages- Use proper
footnotes If necefsnary.

Please answer all three questions«

1. What seems to you the most Impoitaat aew definitioas of politica
in the period we have studied, and whyY

2. What role did Hlstory play in che theorles of the flrst half of
the 19th centuryt Why wa« Hlstory so Importanc in the Ideas of
thls period^ Give ai Least tnree i*pccjlf5.c exainples.

3. What vere th« baslc i^^awin. wionti about hur,jaa aature in the Ideas
ot Hegel and Ilarx an^ how did chese letate to che ot her ideas of
htuaan nature whlch u^ iiÄvct Rt*idiei« in th>.ö coorse"

\'^

Hi Story 51 3
October 11, 1985

UNIVERSIIY OP WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1985-86

Six-Week3 Examin ation

Prof. Mosse

Identification (15 min.)

How did the Enlightenment understand ^ of the followingj

The Patriarch

LÄocoon

The Great Chain of Being

The Encyclopedia
Deism

Winckelmann
"cause and effect"

Essay (50 min.)

Please answer one of the following questiona?:
a. How did the Enlightemmont and Pietism illustrate the necessity of self-control?

b. In his Piain Account of Christian Perfection. John Wesley vn:T.tes: "The bottom of the
soul may be in repose even while we are in many outward troubles; just as the bottom of
the sea is calm, while the surface is strongly agitated." Why would a Pietist and
Winckelmann use such similar metaphors? What do they mean by it? and why is this
idea important to ?ietism and the Enlightenment?

History 51?
October 11, 19Ö5

WIVERSITY .OP WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department . of . History

3eme3ter I, 19B5-Ö6

Six-Weeks Examination

Prof, Mosse

Identifioations: Breifly discuss the significance of ^of the following terms.

The Patriarch Deism ^ / ^

LÄOCoon Winckelmann ^ ^

The Great Chain of Being "cause and effect"

The Encyclopedia r^lonp of faltig* —

yi^ cA^

Essay: Please answer one of the following questions: 'p ^

^^^^«Hiat did the Enlightenment^ and Pietism \anderstand by virtue, evil, and perfection?

b. In his Piain Account of Christian Perfection, John Wesley writes:" The bottom
of the soul may be in repose ■ even wliile we are in many outward troubles; just
as the bottom of the sea is calm, while the surface is strongly agitated".
Why do l^esley'^üid Winckelmann use such similar metaphors? What do they mean by it?
and wh^ is this idea important to Pietism and the Enlightenment?

<^ T^tf'-kr^- fi^ J^ ^-^

ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of Hlstory

Semester I» 1985-86

Hlstory 513

Hr. Mösse

TAKE-HOME FINAL EXAMINATION

Due Pate; December 16th. No late papers will be accepted.

Leugth: Not to exceed 9 double-spaced typewrrltten pages, Use proper
tootnotes if necessary.

Please answer all three questlons.

1. What seema to you the most Importaiit aew definitions of polltica
In the period we have atudied, axul why?

2. What role dld Hlstory play in the theories of the first half of
the 19th centuryt Why was Hlstory so important in the ideas of
thls period? Give at least three specific examples.

3. What were the basic assuaptions about human nature in the ideas
of Hegel and Marx and how did these relaue to the other ideas of
human natura vhich we have studled in thls course?

ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of Hlstory

Semester I, 1985-86

Hlstory 513

Hr. Mosse

TAKE-HOME FINAL EXAMIWATION

Due Pate; December 16th. No late papers will be accepted.

Length: Not to exceed 9 double-spaced typewrltten pages. üse proper
footnotes if necessary.

Please answer all three questlons.

1. What seems to you the most Importaiit aew definltlons of polltics
In the period ve have studled, and why?

2. What role dld Hlstory play in the theories of Che first half of
the 19th Century? Why was History so important in the ideas of
thls period? Give at least three specific examples.

3. What were the baslc aasumptions about human natura in the ideas
of Hegel and Marx and how did these relate to the other ideas of
human nature vhich we have Studie^ in thls course?

Hlstory 513

UNIVEKSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of Hlstory
Fall Semester 1985

Twelve-Weeks Ex am
Paper Top ins

Prof. Mosse

9

Due: November 18, 1985. No late papers will be accepted uader any circumstances •

Length; Not aore than nlne (9) doubla-^opaced typed pages.

The paper laust have the proper footnotlng of the sourcee. It will be graded on the
basls of quality of anslysis, preclsionj. forsky and clarity of style. Please reiuember
that a paper must have an Introduction explainijig the intent and a conclusion. It
must reflect your own thlnklng, documen^ad and footnoted by the sources.

Topic; Tal^ at least three of the authors asslgned on one of the topics listed
below and teil why they dlffer and what the consequences of thts difference was.

HONOP^ CANPIDATES AND GPAPUAT2 STUDENTS: Choose one of the toplcs enumerated below
and wrlte a paper up to - but not exceeding - twelve (12) pages In length using two
of the asslgned raadlngs PLUS Tl^O outslde (non-asslgned) prlmary sources. Please
conault Professor I^osse or the TA wlth regard to the selectlon of the additlonal
sources «

TOPICS

0

1. Attltudes towart^s contemporary personal morality

2. Human free will vs. provldence or destlny
3« Ideal of self-control

4. vlew of nature

5. vlew of herolsm

6. freedom and allenatlon

7. male vs. female roles

3. Reason and Hlstory

9. confllct and concensus

10« concept of hlstory

11. asthetlcs and polltlcs

12. the genuine vs. the artlfical

13. eilte vs. "the people"

14. Indlvldual vs. Community

15. frlendshlp and conmunlty

16. passlon vs. reason

17. role of wcmen ^

18. Outsiders and soclety

See Professor Hosse or the TA if you would prefer to do another toplc.

Rlstory 513

WIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-IIADISON
Department of History
Fall Semester 1985

Twelve-Weeks Exam
Paper Toplcs

Prof. Mosse

Due: November 18, 1985« No late papers will be accepted under any drcumstancea •

Length; Not more than nine (9) double-spaced typed pages.

The paper muat have the proper footnoting of the sources. It will be graded on the
basis of quallty of analysls, preclslon» form» and clarlty of style. Please remember
that a paper must have an Introductlon explainlng the Intent and a concluslon. It
must reflect your own thlnklng, documented and footnoted by the sources.

Topic ; Take at least three of the authors asslgned on one of the toplcs llsted
below and teil vhy they dlffer and what the consequences of thls difference was.

HONORS CANPIDATBS AND GRADUATE STÜDENTS; Choose one of the toplcs enumerated below
and wrlte a paper up to - but not exceedlng - twelve (12) pages In length uslng two
of the asslgned readlngs PLUS Tlffl outslde (non-assigned) primary sources. Please
consult Professor liosse or the TA wlth regard to the selection of the additional
sources.

TOPICS

1. Attitudes towards contemporary personal morallty

2. Human free will vs. providence or destlny
3« Ideal of self-control

4. vlew of natura

5. vlew of herolsm

6. freedom and allenatlon

7. male vs« female roles

8. Reason and History

9. confllct and concensus

10. concept of history

11. asthetlcs and politlcs -

12. the genuine vs. the artifical

13. eilte vs. "the people"

14. indlvldual vs. Community

15. friendship and Community

16. passion vs. reason

17. role of women

18. Outsiders and society

See Professor Mosse or the TA if you would prefer to do another topic.

Hlstory 513

ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of Hlstory
Fall Semester 1985

Twelve-Weeks Exaa
Paper Toplcs

Prof. Mosse

Due: November 18» 1985. No late papers will be accepted under any drcumstances»

Length; Not nore than nine (9) double-spaced typed pages«

The paper uust have the proper footnotlng of the sources. It will be graded on the
basls of quallty of analysls, preclslon» form» and clarlty of style. Please remember
that a paper must have an Introductlon explalnlng the Intent and a concluslon. It
must reflect your own thlnklng» documented and footnoted by the sources.

Toplct Take at least three of the authors assigned on one of the toplcs llsted
below and teil why they dlffer and what the consequences of thls dlfference was.

HONORS CANPIDATES ANP GRADUATE STÜDENTS: Choose one of the toplcs emimerated below
and wrlte a paper up to - but not exceedlng - twelve (12) pages In length uslng two
of the assigned readlngs PLUS WO outslde (non-asslgned) prlmary sources. Please
consult Professor liosse or the TA wlth regard to the selectlon of the addltlonal
sources .

TOPICS

1. Attltudes towards contemporary personal morallty

2. Human free will vs. providence or destiny
3« Ideal of aelf-control

4. vdLew of nature

5. View of heroism

6. freedom and alienation
7« male vs. female roles

8. Reason and Hlstory

9. confllct and concensus
10« concept of hlstory

11. asthetics and politics

12. the genuine vs. the artlflcal

13. eilte vs. "the people"

14. indlvldual vs. Community

15. friendship and conmtunity

16. passlon vs. reason

17. role of women

18. Outsiders and soclety

See Professor Mosse or the TA if you would prefer to do another topic.

History 513

UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester I, I985

Take-Home Final Examina tion

Mr. Mosse

Due Date; December I6. No late papers will be accepted,

Lenghti Not to exceed 9 double-spaced typewritten pages. Use proper footnotes
if necessary.

Please answer all three questiona,

1 • What seeras to you the most important new definitions of politics in the
period we have studied, and why?

2, What role did History play in the theories of the first half
of the 19th Century, Why was History so important in the ideas of this
period? Give at least three specific exainples.

3. What were the basic assumptions about human nature in the ideas of Hegel
and I^iarx and how did these relate to the other ideas of human nature
which we have studied in this ciurse?

History 513

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1985-86

Mr. Mbsse

TAKE-HOME FINAL EXAMINATION

Due Pate; December 16th. No late papers will be accepted.

Length: Not to exceed 9 double-spaced typewritten pages. Use proper
footnotes if necessary«

Please answer all three questions.

1. What seems to you the most important new definitions of politics
in the period we have studied, and why?

2. What role did History play in the theories of the first half of
the 19th Century? Why was History so important in the ideas of
this period? Give at least three specific examples.

3. What were the basic assumptions about human nature in the ideas
of Hegel and Marx and how did these relate to the other ideas of
human nature which we have studied in this course?

Hlstory 513

UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIII-MÄDISON
Department of Hlstory
Fall Semester 1985

Twelve-Weeks Exam
Paper Toplcs

Prof. Mosse

Bue: November 18, 1985« Ifo late papers will be accepted under any drcumstances.

Length; Not more than nlne (9) double-spacad typed pages.

The paper nust have the proper footnotlng of the sources. It will be graded on the
basls of quallty of analysls, preclslon» form, and clarity of style. Please remember
that a paper must have an Introductlon explalning the intent and a concluslon. It
nust reflect your own thinking, documented and footnoted by the sources.

Toplc: Take at least three of the authors assigned on one of the toplcs llsted
belov and teil why they dlffer and what the consequences of this dlfference was.

HONORS CANDIDATES ANP GRADUATE STÜDENTS; Choose one of the toplcs emimerated below
and wrlte a p^^er up to - but not exceedlng - twelve (12) pages In length uslng tw>
of the assigned readlngs PLUS TOP outslde (non-asslgned) prlmary sources. Please
consult Professor liosse or the TA wlth regard to the selectlon of the addltlonal
sources .

TOPICS

1. Attltudes towards contemporary personal morallty

2. Human free will vs. provldence or destlny
3* Ideal of aelf-control

4* View of natura

5. vlev of herolsm

6. freedom and allenatlon

7. male vs« female roles

8. Reason and Hlstory

9. confllct and concensus

10. concept of hlstory

11. asthetlcs and polltlcs

12. the genuine vs. the artlflcal

13. eilte vs. "the people*'

14. Indlvldual vs. Community

15. frlendshlp and Community

16. passlon vs. reason
17« role of vcmen

18. Outsiders and soclety

See Professor Mosse or the TA If you would prefer to do another toplc.

1. J.J. Rousseau, The Confessions (New York! Penäuin Books, 1984)
p. 405.

2. Ibid., p. 291.

3. Ibid., p. 457.

4. Ibid., p. 518.

5. J.W. von Goethe, The Sorrows of Youn^ Uorth^r (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1949), p. 75.

6. Ibid., p. 2.

7. Ibid., p. 36.

8. Ibid., p. 23.

9. Walter Scott, lyanhpe (Ne« York: Ne» Aiwrican Library, 1983), p. 463.

10. Ibid., p. 327.

Hi Story 51 3

Ur>IIVERSIIY OP WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of History
Fall Semester 1985

Twelve-Weeks Exam
Paper Topics

Prof, Mosse

Due: November 18, I985. No late papers will be accepted under any circumstamces,

Length: Not uore than 9 double-spaced typed pages,

The paper must heve the proper footnoting of the sources. It will be graded
on the basis of quality of analysis, precision, form, and clarity of style.
Please remember that a paper must have an introduction explaining the intent
and a conclusion. It imst reflect yo\ir own thinking, documented and footnoted
by the sources.

Topics Take at least three of the authois assigned on one of the topics
listed below and teil why they differ and what the consequences of this
difference was«

HQNORS CANDI PATE SAND GRADUATE STUDENTS; Choose one of the topics enumerated
below and write a paper up to - but not exceeding - twelve F>ages in length
using two of the assigned readings PLUS TV/Q outside (non-assigned) primary
sources. Please consult Professor Mosse or the TA with regard to the selection
of the additional sources.

TOPICS
1# Attitudes towards contemporary personal morality

2. Huraain free will vs. providence or destiny

3. Ideal of self-control

4. View of nature
5« View of heroism

6. freedom and alienation
7« male vs. female roles
8. Reason and History
9« conflict and concensus

10. concept of history

11. asthetics and politics

12. the genuine vs. the artifical
13« elite vs "the people"

14. individual vs. Community

15» friendship and Community

16. passion vs. reason

17* ^ole of v;omen

18. Outsiders and society

See Professor Mosse or the TA if you would to do another topic.

Hiatoxy S13

UNivmsm OF inscoHsiir

D«portiBcnt of Hictory
SaMttar I, I981-I982

Tftke-Hoae Final ExmiMtion

Kr. Mmm

All papars ar« to ba mimittad in das« on Friday. Dacaobar 11, Ko axt
loSJirWtl! ^""^^^^^ "^^ ^* J«»lttad «scept for «edical reaBona, varlflad ky

IXmstSL^ Hot to aseaad 8 doubla-apacad typairrictaa {»agea or <ma 16«paga blua btolu

quaatlm frott Part A aod CHE quetfclai from Part B.

!• Hov doaa MarxU tlwory of husan natura dlffar fro» Hagal'a aad that of ona othar
f Igura va harn attadlad? Account for and eaq^laln tha algnlficanc« of tluTdlffar^
Mdcaa«

2. Howr do liarx*t and Hagal*a daflaltlona of allanatlon diffar?
pltiiM ihm aisftlfleaaca of tba dlffarancaa«

Account for and

Part B

l.

Tha inroblaa of ovarconing laolatlon, of Incagratlng tha Indlvldual lato a largar.
caRS|>rahaiialva fraamork praoccuplad virtually all jl9th cantury thinkar«, Hhat
eoi^utiona «ara proiK>aad by TW of tha folloviogi

a« Tha Nair Kationallata
b* Tha Bonantlca
e« Tba Llbarala

!• tedairlyiAg avary phUoaophy ara cartaln praauppocitiona concamlng huam aatura*
HoviT dld tha follovlng daflna ■oralltyl Uhat rola did thay ascrlba to Iti (Do
DOtn^

i.

a. Rousaaau

b. Libaralia« ^

••Tha aaareh for indlvldual fraadoa vaa an intagral part of avary phlloaophy and
polltlcal craad of tha 19th cantury. At tha aaaa tlaa. tha autonow of tha in--
dividual «aa invariably liaitad in ac»a nay.'* Diacuaa thia atataaant with raaard
to TW of tha foUovingt ^^

a« Tha Mair Kktionalian

b» Bottanticlaa

c« Libaraliaa

d* Bwila and W^thar

History 513
October 12, 1981

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1981-82

Six-Weeks Examination

Mr. Mosse

DO ONE QUESTION FROM PART A AND ONE QUESTION FROM PART B. (25 minutes each)

A.

1. What were the respective bases of a harmonious universe in
Nathan, Emile, and Werther? Explain the differences and
similarities.

2. "Nature doesn't lie." How would Nathan, the tutor, and Werther
have interpreted this Statement?

3. Discuss the importance of self-control in Nathan and Emile.
How does it change in Werther?

B.

1. Does the vocabulary of faith in Zinzendorf disguise more
worldly concerns?

2.

What does Zinzendorf mean by "conversion," "sin," and
"election," and what is the importance of his definitions
for the appeal of Pietism?

History 513
October 12, 1981

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1981-82

Six-Weeks Examination

Mr. Mosse

DO ONE QUESTION FROM PART A AND ONE QUESTION FROM PART B. (25 minutes each)

A.

!• What were the respective bases of a harmonious universe in
Nathan, Emile, and Werther? Explain the differences and
similarities.

2. "Nature doesn't lie." How would Nathan, the tutor, and Werther
have interpreted this Statement?

3. Discuss the importance of self-control in Nathan and Emile.
How does it change in Wert her?

B.

!•

2.

Does the vocabulary of faith in Zinzendorf disguise more
worldly concems?

What does Zinzendorf mean by "conversion," "sin," and
"election," and what is the importance of his definitions
for the appeal of Pietism?

Hiatory 513

UHIYKRSITY OF WISCONSIN
D«p«rt9MQt of Hlstory
SoMster I, I961«*I982

Hr. IfoM«

Dm M3r]g| All pmpmn mtm to b« mümltfd In das» <m Frlday, Decuibm 11. Uo mxt
•lOM^f^Ät th« du« dmtm irlll b« p«x«itc«d «eept for medlcal rcuisons, viirlfl«4 by

UBWIHs Hoc t« aauiami S doubX«-ap«ca4 typMcltem pages or on« 16-p«g« bin« btok.
Annrar ^ «uMtioia froa P«rt A >ad (»g «uMClon fro« Part B.

1.

Vom doM lUrx*« fbaorr of huMa luicur« dlffar froa R«gal'« mi th«t of oa« othor
flguro wo hav« atudlod? Account for and ejq>laln the algolflcMico of clMdiffor-

2. Hm/ do Mtnc*« «ad H«««!*« d«flaltlon» of all«Mtl<m dlff«r7
plaia tiM miwBiltijammim of tbo dlffaroncoc.

Jyccou&t for aad «r-

l.

I.

largor»
HbAt

Äf» ^oblM of ovoreoMlog Isolation, of incogratlAg tho IjadlvldttAl into a
eenprohiMivo fraMwork prooccupled vlrtually all i9th Century thinkara.
aolutlma mra ]>roiK>aad by TW of fcha followiog:

a. Tba Hair Natlonaliata
b« Tha lUwantlc«
e« Tba Llbarala

tlkdarlyiag a^rary pblloaophy ara eartala praauppoaitlona concamlng buMn aatura*
■ow did tba foUoirlng dafina aoralltyr What rola did tbay aacrlba to Iti (Do
boc^b)

3.

a« Rouaaaau

b. Llbaraliaai ^

••Tba m%Mrch for Indivldual fraadoa «aa an intagral part of avary pblloaopby and

poXitlcal craad of tba 19th cantury. At tba aaaa tlma» tba autonow of tba ia-

dlvldual ma inirarlably llaltad in aoaa way.»* Dlacuaa tbla atat
to TW of tba follovlngt

a. Tba Vm Katlonalia«

b* Boaantlcla»

Co LlbaraliaM

4* iBila and Itertbar

**"a'aai^ ** *■■■■■■■■■■■■■•

t witb ragaxd

History 513
October 12, 1981

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1981-82

Six-Weeks Examination

Mr. Mosse

DO ONE QUESTION FROM PART A AND ONE QUESTION FROM PART B. (25 minutes each)

A.

y

1. What were the respective bases of a harmonious universe in
Nathan, Emile, and Werther? Explain the dif ferences and
similarities.

2. "Nature doesn't lie." How would Nathan, the tutor, and Werther
have interpreted this Statement?

3* Discuss the importance of self-control in Nathan and Emile.
How does it change in Werther?

C-

B.

1, Does the vocabulary of faith in Zinzendorf disguise more
worldly concerns?

2. What does Zinzendorf mean by "conversion," "sin," and
"election," and what is the importance of his definitions
for the appeal of Pietism?

\/

History 513
October 12, 1981

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1981-82

Six-Weeks Examination

Mr. Mosse

DO ONE QUESTION FROM PART A AND ONE QUESTION FROM PART B. (25 minutes each)

A.

1. What were the respective bases of a harmonious universe in
Nathan, Emile, and Werther? Explain the differences and
similarities.

2. "Nature doesn't lie." How would Nathan, the tutor, and Werther
have interpreted this Statement?

3. Discuss the importance of self-control in Nathan and Emile.
How does it change in Werther?

B.

1. Does the vocabulary of faith in Zinzendorf disguise more
worldly concerns?

2. What does Zinzendorf mean by "conversion," "sin," and
"election," and what is the importance of his definitions
for the appeal of Pietism?

Hiator/ 513

■ ■ I .»_— ^— ■ ., — -y , — m-mTm- 1- ■ ■ I I I «m

Mr« hörnern

-simi« paefc £'to d^® ^ifet^,«: \ädll !>« pdcvltted «scept for meaical raasociftt vmtttimd

*i^ l&Ot««

Aft«W92r OgX.^wwßtiotffi fron Part A «^_^|g <su(aiefci??a froa F«rt B.

1,

8öw dä»^ Kftirx^9 fe1!&.5or7 ef htuuu Ojitur« di£fer fro» H«göl*« and tlutt o£ opa otter
f lij^r© HP® fe»T« »tüsdi^d? Accoia^t fcr and G>q>lÄiu tha »Agtiif iCÄUc^ of tlui &tii&f^

i:^ü9.

Bo^ do Mtox*« «ad Hcgal-s ^«f iaiitiOM of allAaaclog^ dlff«r7
pXtiia tfiM 0i8ßlflj6afic« c^f th« dlffar«Kie«o«

Acccunt f or «Ad

tfiPt-B

ta«

t»

Ife« inroblsM of oveifcottiog l»ol«tiOtt, of iacagratlng th« i^lvldti«! lato 4& l«rg«r|
Cüi<yireli«gi«iv<i fraiMiiork preoceuplfid virtually all i9th centuify thiak«V0» IRk^t
•oi^iiätiofi« V83r« ptx^poamd by TWO of th« followla^s

«« Th« Ncir N«tic!<D«ll«t«
b. Th« lonantic«
s« *£h« Liboral«

Vlidtt#lsrüi§ «vttry phllosophy «r«» certaia& preauppocitlon« eoneamiog h

■01/ dtd th« fti^ll^ing dtÄfi»« ncjralltyl What rol« dld th«y aiicrlb« t^ it«

b©t.!b)

(^

«* Eous«««u

b« Libaralis» ^

3« ^Ttz «««reh for isidlvldu«! fr««dom v«« an intagral part of «v«ry phlloi>fliy aad
polltical cr««td ot th« 19th cantury« At th« ««n« tla«, th« autonom of th« i»- ^
divi4ttAi ««« ixivariably lljKLt«d In «om yrny."" Diacu«« thl» «t«t«a«nt with rf^sftxd
t<^ TM o£ th« folloirlng:

«• Th« H««r Kktlonall««

b. toMAticlSB

c. lLib«r«llni

d« Isil« cnd W«rth«r

i'

Umtarr 513

ONtVKRsnr or wiscoNsiK

Dep«: TMmnt ' ^t Hl^toty
S^bM4t%r I, 1981-1982

■MMW«« ««■

Ar. >^,

«•

*o?*='r«<.c*? P^rmltfd c^»pt foi E^dical r-^oa.. vrlfl«! ^ e

t

lÄCTH; ffo?: t*v ^c#«<i 8 ''oubI«~.p*c€a typwrlttcn ptga« or oa» lö-p^g* biuc tut.
^M^^ 3S %w<witlaa fro« Part A aad OKg qu««tloR fro« pArt B.

t

" ^.iri^^Si* t':*'!^ '^-'*'. '"*•" T'*'* """ ^'»" '^•«•^'« •««« '»«t of ou. «tb.r
Uj»r* *, H*v. «cudS«;? Ac«uat £-r aad ««,1.1« th* .l»uifi^c* cf chriiff,,..

pfiu ehe «Istuflcaoc« of t&a dlff«r«iics».

c j-

i.

X.

b. Th« i.oKz-'Xi.c»
e. Th* Llltirals

ÜBd«lyli:» «▼ery phUo.ophy «re cert*la pre.uppcalr.ion« cow:<.rTilMg huMa Mtur«.
jW-^id th. toUowlag aca..3 =»r^iiy7 Vh« rol« diu tU, a.crib* t^ ic: (to

3.

a. Itousseau

b. I.lb*««iiaa '

ü?*c^'^!!! ^'k^^L^'*^'* "*" •* ^"»"^ P*^' "f -^«y Phnosophy and
Jtli^/*^"!^ *'^*^f ^"•' ««»e-ry. At the si^ tlw. th^ ...t^-o«. «, th* tr

c«
d.

TK« H«i# NatloQAll«]

I^XWrtillgMi

SSilfi >nd WTtluir

»

_/

\

History 513
October 12, 1981

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1981-82

Six-Weeks Examination

Mr. Mosse

DO ONE QUESTION FROM PART A AND ONE QUESTION FROM PART B. (25 minutes each)

A.

1. What were the respective bases of a harmonious universe in
Nathan, Emile, and Werther? Explain the differences and
similarities.

2. "Nature doesn't lie." How would Nathan, the tutor, and Werther
have interpreted this Statement?

3. Discuss the importance of self-control in Nathan and Emile.
How does it change in Wert her?

B.

1. Does the vocabulary of faith in Zinzendorf disguise more
worldly concerns?

2. What does Zinzendorf mean by "conversion," "sin," and
"election," and what is the importance of his definitions
for the appeal of Pietism?

History 513

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester I, 1981-1982

Take-Home Final Examina tion

Mr. Mosse

DUE DATE: All papers are to be submitted in class on Friday, December 11. No exten-
sions past the due date will be permitted except for medical reasons, verified by a
doctor*8 note.

LENGTH: Not to exceed 8 double-spaced typewritten pages or one 16-page blue böok.
Answer ONE question from Part A and ONE question from Part B.
Part A;

1, How does Marx' 8 theory of human nature differ from Hegel 's and that of one other
figure we have studied? Account for and explain the significance of the differ-
ences.

2. How do Marx's and Hegel 's definitions of alienation differ?
piain the significance of the differences.

Part B:

Account for and ex-

l.

The Problem of overcoming Isolation, of integrating the individual into a larger,
comprehensive framework preoccupied virtually all 19th Century thinkers. What
Solutions were proposed by TWO of the following:

a. The New Nationalis ts

b. The Roman tics

c. The Liberais

2* Underlying every philosophy are certain presuppositions concerning human nature,
How did the following define morality? What role did they ascribe to it: (Do
both)

a. Rousseau

b. Liberalism /

3» "The search for individual freedom was an integral part of every philosophy and
political creed of the 19th Century. At the same time, the autonomy of the in-
dividual was invariably limited in some way." Discuss this Statement with regard
to TWO of the following:

a. The New National ism

b. Romanticism

c. Liberalism

d. Emile and Werther

History 513
October 12, 1981

TOIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I,. 1981-82

Six-Weeks Ex^minatioa

Mr. Mosse

DO ONE QUESTION FROM PART A AND ONE QUESTION FROM PART B. (25 minutes each)

A.

1. What were the respective bases of a harmonious universe in
Nathan, Emile, and Werther? Explain the dif f erences and
similarities.

2. "Nature doesn't lie." How would Nathan, the tutor, and Werther
have interpreted this Statement?

3. Discuss the importance of self-control in Nathan and Emile.
How does it change in Wert her?

B.

1. Does the vocabulary of faith in Zinzendorf disguise more
worldly concerns?

2. What does Zinzendorf mean by "conversion," "sin," and
"election," and what is the importance of his definitions
for the appeal of Pietism?

HISTORY 513

THE ülNflVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of History
Fall Semester 1981

TWELVE-WEEKS PAPER TOPICS

MR. MOSSE

55]1.* November 20, 1981. NO late papers will be accepted under any circumstances.
Length; NOT more than 8 double-spaced typed pages.

It must have the proper foothotlng of the sources. It will be graded on the basis
of quality of analysis, precision, form, and clarlty of style. Please remember
that a paper must have an introduction explalnlng the intent and a concluslon. It
must reflect your own thlnking, documented and footnoted by the sources.

of the authors asslgned, write a comparlson of the

Toplc: Taking at least TWO

authors on ONE of the topics listed below and teil why they dlf fered and what

the consequences of this dlfference were.

HONORS CANDIDATES AI^ GRADUATE STUDENTS; Choose one of the topics enumerated
below and write a paper up to - but not exceeding - twelve pages in length on
TWQ of the assigned readings PLUS TWO outside (i.e., non-assigned) primary
sources. Please consult Professor Mosse or the TA with regard to the selection
of the additional sources.

TOPICS

3.

4.

6.

^tH

ce^^

^ lö«^

^C»

.,Af*^ I

Li^e\J ^*^

hVj

.y

Attitudes towards contemporary personal morality

Kuman free will and providence ?-<:.^or^ , ^'<^- ^^^ , r«-^. o^^aO^» »^tadi

*»a^ Totster, CcA^ai-^ GtiJWe+

.^^

X

8.

1^

M

h^

9.
10.

n.

13.
14.
15.

18.

19.

20.

v/21.

Definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

"Reality'* vs. "Appearance"

Ideal of self-control

View of human nature

View of nature

Concept of History

Nature of human consciousness

Preconditions for the autonomy of the individual

Notion of totality

Esthetics and politics

Reasön vs. the emotions

Reason and freedom

Definition of freedom

Reasoa and gender

Importance of symbols

Absolute spiflT"

Manliness

Division of labor j^kAK^^'

Foundations of the liberal faith .. , ^

Marx and the Enlightenment or Romanticism

cu

<^ 7^^^i<-A_-t.

/

/»UruJUAj

\

,w^

22.

See Professor Mosse or the TA if you would like to do another topic.

HISTORY 513

THE raiVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of History
Fall Semester 1981

TWELVE-WEEKS PAPER TOPICS

HR. MOSSE

DÜE: November 20, 1981. NO late papers will be accepted under any circumstances .
Length: NOT more than 8 double-spaced typed pages.

It must have the proper footnotlng of the sources. It will be graded on the basis
of quality of analysis, precision, form, and clarity of style. Please remember
that a paper must have an introduction explaining the intent and a conclusion. It
must reflect your own thinking, documented and footnoted by the sources.

of the authors assigned, write a comparison of the

Topic: Taking at least TWO

authors on ONE of the topics listed below and teil why they dif fered and what

the consequences of this difference were.

HONORS CANDIDATES AI^ GRADUATE STUPENTS; Choose one of the topics enumerated
below and write a paper up to - but not exceeding - twelve pages in length on
™Q of the assigned readings PLUS TWO outside (i.e., non-assigned) primary
sources. Please consult Professor Mosse or the TA with regard to the selectlon
of the additional sources.

TOPICS

1. Attitudes towards contemporary personal morality

2. Kuman free will and providence

3. Definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

4. "Reality'* vs. "Appearance"

5. Ideal of self-control

6. View of human nature

7. View of nature

8. Concept of History

9. Nature of human consciousness

10. Preconditions for the autonomy of the individual

11. Notion of totality

12. Esthetics and politics

13. Reason vs. the emotions

14. Reason and freedom

15. Definition of freedom

16. Reason and gender

17. Importance of Symbols

18. Absolute spirit

19. Manliness

20. Division of labor

21. Foundations of the liberal faith

22. Marx and the Enlightenment or Romanticism

See Professor Mosse or the TA if you would like to do another topic.

HISTORY 513

THE Ul^IVERSITY OF WI5C0NSIN-MADIS0N
Department of History
Fall Semester 1981

TOELVE-WEEKS PAPER TOPICS

HR. MOSSE

DÜE: November 20, 1981. NO late papers will be accepted under any circumstances.
Length; NOT more than 8 double-spaced typed pages.

It must have the proper footnotlng of the sources. It will be graded on the basis
of quallty of analysls, precision, form, and clarity of style. Please remember
that a paper must have an introductlon explaining the latent and a conclusion. It
must reflect your own thinking, documented and footnoted by the sources.

of the authors asslgned, write a comparlson of the

Topic; Taking at least TWO

authors on ONE of the topics listed below and teil why they dlf fered and what

the consequences of this dlfference were.

HONORS CANDIDATES Al^ GRADUATE STUDENTS ; Choose one of the topics enumerated
below and write a paper up to - but not exceeding - twelve pages in length on
TWQ of the assigned readings PLUS TWO outside (i.e., non-assigned) primary
sources. Please consult Professor Mosse or the TA with regard to the selection
of the additional sources.

TOPICS

1. Attitudes towards contemporary personal morality

2. Euman free will and providence

3. Definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

4. "Reality*' vs. "Appearance"

5. Ideal of self-control

6. View of human nature

7. View of nature

8. Concept of History

9. Nature of human consciousness

10. Preconditions for the autonoray of the individual

11. Notion of totality

12. Esthetics and politics

13. Reason vs. the emotions

14. Reason and freedom

15. Definition of freedom

16. Reason and gender

17. Importance of symbols

18. Absolute spirit
19 • Manliness

20. Division of labor

21. Foundations of the liberal faith

22. Marx and the Enlightenment or Romanticism

See Professor Mosse or the TA if you would like to do another topic.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
First Semester 1978-79

History 512

Hr. Hosse

The followfng books should be bought:

Blaise Pascal, Pensee. Dutton Pocketbook

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan. abridged, Washington Square Press

Descartes, Phl losophlcal Wrltlngs. Penguln

The Portable Voltaire. VIkIng

J.J, Rousseau, Social Contract. Gateway

J.J. Rousseau, Emile. Barron* s Educatlonal Serles

Peter Gay, The Eni Iqhtenment: The Rise of Hodern Paganlsm. Norton

Goethet The Sorrows of the Young Werther. Rinehart Editlons

On Reserve

Gerrard WInstanley, "A Letter to Lord Fairfax»' and "The Leveller,«» from
Dunham and Pargellls, Reform and Complaint In England

George L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution. A History of European Racism

ZInzendorf, Nine Public Lectures on Important Subjects In Religion

George L. Mosse, "Changes In Rellglous Thought"

Introduction: The World PIcture of the 17th and l8th Centurles

The Barogue

Visual material to be assigned.

The Absolute State and Its Enemles

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

G. WInstanley, »'A Letter to Lord Fairfax*« and '»The Level 1er»'

Rellglous Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Pascal , Pensee

Mosse, '»Changes In Rellglous Thought»»

Hf Story 512 (Conti nued)

-2-

Mr. Mosse

The Beginn! nqs of Rational i sin and Eni iqhtenment

Descartest Discourse on Hethod and Meditation on First Philosophy

Eni iqhtenwent

•

J.J. Rousseau, Social Contract and Emi 1e

The Portable Voltaire (Candid» Manners and Spirits of Nations, The Lisbon
Earthqualce, Selections» pp« 166-183)

Peter Gay, The Eni ightenment (Chapters perhaps to be assigned, but you can
and should use the whole book as a kind of text for the course as it
goes back into the 17th Century)

G, L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution (Chapters I, II, III)

Pietism

ZInzendorf. Nine Lectures. Lecture 11 (Concern ing. «the Lord's Prayer)
Lecture VI (That it is blessedness to be a Human Soul)

Towards Romanticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther

There will be an In-class 6 weeks, an 8-page paper centered on the readings
for this course for the 12 weeks, and a take-home final. Course Office Is
4123 Human ities.

Mr. Mosae

UNI VERS ITY OP WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of History
Semester I, 1978-79

Hi/tory 512
Instructions for Paper;

~ «^Ucr^aL'.r^'^'"'""*''"^- 22 I-te paper. .in be accepfd under
Len&ths Not nore than 8 double spaced typewrltten pages,
Fora: Carefully footnoted to the sources.

Toplc

ITom of IhTL^ ''M'!'^^r!^' ^''i«^^^ ^'^'^ * ccmparlson of the authors
!L^ t .u ^ " ^^^^^^ ^*^* *^^ ^*^^ **y ^^*y differed one from another
and what the consequences of thls dtfference were: «tocner

l.
2.

3.

k.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9-

10.

11.

12.
13.
Ik.

15.
16.

17.
18.

19.
20.

the nature of evtl

view of human nature

relationshlp of God to politlcs

relationshlp of Scrlpture to politlcs

vlev of the Ideal coomunlty

the concept of vir tue

the concept of certalnty

man and infinlty

concept of the passlons

the tdea of Justice

attltude tovards war and polltlcal decelt

relationshlp betveen God and matter

vlew of nature Itself

attltude tovards cont«nporary personal morallty

attltude towards sceptlclsm ( flrst deflning It)

human free will and dlvlne provldence

attltudes towards toleratlon

attltudes towards polltlcal power

attltudes towards the "commoo people"

deflnltlon of Intellectual excellence and leadershlp

ijrM^.'^^.rorMcrst^rfirit!' '^'^ '^"^*"'' "-^'^ "-* ^^ «''^«*«' ^--^^

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1978-79

History 512: Cultural History, 1700-1815

Mr. Mosse

I. One of these (30 minutes) :

a« Is the Baroque a useful concept to characterise the
17th Century culture we have discussed?

b. Why do you think the Baroque liked the curve rather
than the straight line? What implications does this
have for religious, political, and artistic thought?

II. (20 minutes

How vital was Christianity for the thought of Hobbes,
Winstanley and the Leveller?

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1978-79

History 512: Cultural History, 1700-1815

Mr. Mosse

I. One of these (30 minutes) :

a« Is the Baroque a useful concept to characterise the
17th Century culture we have discussed?

b« Why do you think the Baroque liked the curve rather
than the straight line? What implications does this
have for religious, political, and artistic thought?

II. (20 minutes

How vital was Christianity for the thought of Hobbes,
Winstanley and the Leveller?

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1978-79

History 512: Cultural History, 1700-1815

Mr. Mosse

I. One of these (30 minutes) :

a. Is the Baroque a useful concept to characterise the
17th Century culture we have discussed?

b. Why do you think the Baroque liked the curve rather
than the straight line? What implications does this
have for religious, political, and artistic thought?

II. (20 minutes

How vital was Christianity for the thought of Hobbes,
Winstanley and the Leveller?

H

Mr. Hosae

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISOW
Department of History
Semester I, 1978-79

Hietory 512
Inetructlons for Paper;

Du«: Week of Bov. 16 and 17 (In 8«ctlon.). go late paper. will be «ccepted under
any circumstances.

Lea^^ Not more than 8 doable spaced typewrltten pages.
Form: Carefully footnoted to the sourcea.

Toplc

^*^^S! *r ^u***' — ""^ ^^ ^""^^ asslgned wrlte a comparlson of the author«
oo 0^ of the toplc» Itsted belo«r and teil why they differed one from another
and what the consequences of this difference were:

2,

3.

k.

5.

6.

7.

8-

9.

10.

11.

12.
13.
Ik.
15.
16.

17.
18.

19.

20.

the nature of evtl

viev of human nature

relationship of God to polltlcs

relationahlp of Scripture to politlc«

vlew of the Ideal cooomnlty

the concept of vir tue

the concept of certalnty

man and Infinlty

concept of the paaslons

the Idea of Justice

attitude towards war and political decelt

relationship between God and matter

View of nature itself

attitude towards contemporary personal morality

attitude towards sceptlclsm { flrst definlng it)

human free will and dlvlne providence

attitudes tovards toleration

attltudes towards political pover

attitudes towards the '*coinnoo people'*

defiaition of tntellectual excellence and leadership

«il'ri^t ^"^ *''*'*'*''nf !'^*"'^*- • 15 page research paper due 3) November. Consult
wlth Mr. M(^88e or Rick Stacy flrst. v.wH»uxt

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of History
Senester I, 1978-79

History 512

Instructions for Paper:

Djies Week of Nov. 16 and 17 (in sections)
any clrcunistances.

Mr. Messe

MO

late papers will be accepted under

Length g Not aore than 8 double spaced typewritten pages.
Fora: Carefully footnoted to the sources.

To£ics Taklng at least WO of the books asslgned wrlte a comparison of the authors

on gm of the toplcs llsted below and teil why they differed one from another
and what the consequences of thts dlfference were:

lo

2.

3-
k.

5.
6.

7.
8.

9.

10.

11.

12.
13.
Ik.

15.
16.

17.

18.

19.
20.

the natura of evtl

vlev of human natura

relatlonshlp of God to politics

relationshlp of Scripture to politics

View of the ideal coomunity

the concept of virtue

the concept of certalnty

man and infinity

concept of the passions

the idea of Justice

attitude tovards war and political deceit

relationshlp betveen God and matter

view of natura itself

attitude towards contemporary personal morallty

attitude towards scepticlsm (first deflning it)

human free will and divine provldence

attitudes towards toleratlon

attitudes towards political power

attitudes towards the "common people**

definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

Honours and graduate studentss a I5 page research paper due 3) November. Consult
with Kr. Mc^sse or Rick Stacy first.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1978-79

European Culture - #512

Mr. Mosse

FINAL EXAMINATION.

NO MORE THAN FIVE (5) TYPEWRITTEN PAGES.

DUE DECEMBER 16, 1978 in 4263 Humanities or Mr. Stacy's mall box if returned
earlier.

Answer ONE of these only:

1. Which of these do you think penetrated best to the essential
Problems of the Enlightenment? Choose three (3) .

Voltaire
Rousseau
Werther
Zinzendorf.

2. Discuss what is meant by the process of secularisation through
taking three of these as your example in order to show the
historical progression and the problems involved.

Hobbes

Pascal

Rousseau

Werther.

3. Why do you think nature played such a large role in the
Enlightenment and Romanticism? Be specific.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1978-79

European Culture - //512

Mr. Mosse

FINAL EXAMINATION.

NO MORE THAN FIVE (5) TYPEWRITTEN PAGES.

DUE DECEMBER 16, 1978 in 4263 Humanities or Mr. Stacy's mail box if returned
earlier.

Ansver ONE of these only;

1. Which of these do you think penetrated best to the essential
Problems of the Enlightenment? Choose three (3) .

Voltaire
Rousseau
Werther
Zinzendorf .

2. Discuss what is meant by the process of secularisation through
taking three of these as your example in order to show the
historical progression and the problems involved.

Hobbes

Pascal

Rousseau

Werther.

9

3. Why do you think nature played such a large role in the
Enlightenment and Romanticism? Be specific.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1978-79

European Culture - //512

Mr. Mosse

FINAL EXAMINATION.

NO MORE THAN FIVE (5) TYPEWRITTEN PAGES.

DUE DECEMBER 16, 1978 in 4263 Humanities or Mr. Stacy's mail box if returned
earlier.

Answer ONE of these only;

1.

Which of these do you think penetrated best to the essential
Problems of the Enlightenment? Choose three (3).

Voltaire
Rousseau
Werther
Zinzendorf .

2.

Discuss what is meant by the process of secularisation through
taking three of these as your example in order to show the
historical progression and the problems involved.

Hobbes

Pascal

Rousseau

Werther.

3. Why do you think nature played such a large role in the
Enlightenment and Romanticism? Be specific.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1978-79

European Culture - //512

Mr. Mosse

FINAL EXAMINATION.

NO MORE THAN FIVE (5) TYPEWRITTEN PAGES.

DUE DECEMBER 16, 1978 in 4263 Humanities or Mr. Stacy's mail box if returned
earlier.

Ansver ONE of these only;

1. Which of these do you think penetrated best to the essential
Problems of the Enlightenment? Choose three (3) .

Voltaire
Rousseau
Werther
Zinzendorf •

2. Discuss what is meant by the process of secularisation through
taking three of these as your example in order to show the
historical progression and the problems involved.

Hobbes

Pascal

Rousseau

Werther.

3. Why do you think nature played such a large role in the
Enlightenment and Romanticism? Be specific.

University of Wisconsin

Department of History

Semester I, 1977-78

History 5I3

Final Take -Home Exam

Mr. llosse

Pue Pate: December 22, I977. All papers are to be brought to Joel Truman's
Office, 5272 Humanities, between 11:00 A.M. and noon on Thursday, December 22.
Earlier papers are welcome and may be left in Room 5272 or in Joel*s mailbox
(Box 508i|-> fifth floor Humanities) at any time before this. However, no
extensions past the due date will be accepted under any conditions, and no
incompletes in the course will be permitted except for medical reasons , verified
by a doctor*s note.

Length ; Not to exceed 10 dcuble-spaced typewritten pages.

Choose ÖNE of the following questlons:

1.

In The Culture of Western Europe (p. 6), it is emphasized that the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries "were periods of rapid change as Europe was becoming
both urban and industrialized . In this period many people feit pushed to the
wall, while others beheld changes they could not understand and probleras
which defied Solution. Höre men were alienated from their society than ever
before in human history '*

ng

What Solution to the problem of human alienation did THP-EE of the followi
propose, and how do these Solutions relate to the question of social or
intellectual change?

a) The New Nationalists

b) Hegel

c) Marx

d) The proponents of liberal morality

Virtually all thinkers in nineteenth Century Europe were concerned with
the Problem of realizing huraan freedom, but not all defined freedom in the
same way. Compare and contrast the meaning of of freedom for each of the
following groupings. What implications do these definitionc have for the
question of social or intellectual change?

a) Hegel and Marx

b) New Nationalism and Liberalism

In what way did Liberalism divorce politics from the various and sundry
other concerns of the individual? How did V.'IO cf the following comprehend
all of human existence v/ithin the framework of a larger, all-embracing
principle of unity?

a) Hegel

b) Marx

c) The New Nationalists

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of Hlstory

Semester I, 1977-78

History 513

European Cultural Hlstory

1815-1870

Six Weeks Exam

Mr. Mosse
Oct. 14, 1977

Part I: Choose one of the following three questions (30 min.)«

«) One of the cornerstone beliefs of the Enlightenment was that
human reason could unlock the door to a better world and that
a better world was possible because men were educable to reason«

How would two of the following three men have reacted to this
Statement and why?

1) Lessing

2) Wesley

3) Rousseau.

b) When Lessing 's Nathan asked the Templar, "Are Jews and Christians
first Jews and Christians before they are men?," he made, in
effect, a classical Statement of the Enlightenment ' s faith in
universal human attributes. What aesthetic values in Enlightenment

' thought, however, undercut such a faith and fumished the basis
for a new kind of racial Stereotyping? üsing the examples of at
least two "pseudo-sciences" which developed in the late eighteenth
Century, illustrate how this was done.

c) Discuss the relationship between the Protestant and Catholic
religious revivals and Romanticism.

Part II; What was the attitude toward the passions for three of the following?
[20 min.)

a
b
c
d

e
f

The Templar
Madame de Stael
Wackenroder
Madame de Warens
Count Zinzendorf
Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl.

University of Wisconsin

Department of History

Semester I, I977-78

History 513

Final Take-Home Exam

Mr. liosse

Due Date: December 22, I977. All papers are to be brought to Joel Truman's
Office, 5272 Humanities, between 11:00 A.M. and noon on Thursday, December 22.
Earlier papers are welcome and may be left in Room 5272 or in Joel»s mailbox
(Box 508i+, fifth floor Humanities) at any time before this. However, no
extensions past the due date will be accepted under any conditions, and no
incompletes in the course will be permitted except for medical reasons , verified
by a doctor*s note.

Len^th; Not to exceed 10 dcuble-spaced typewritten page

Choose ONE of the following quest.'.ons:

1.

In Th£ Culture of Western Europe (p. 6), it is emphasized that the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries "were periods of rapid change as Europe was becoming
both urban and industrialized . In this period many people feit pushed to f:he
wall, while others beheld changes they could not understand and problems
which defied Solution. Höre men were alienated from their society than ever
before in human history."

What Solution to the problem of human alienation did THREE of the following
propose, and how do these Solutions relate to the question of social or
intellectual change?

a) The New Nationalists

b) Hegel

c) Marx

d) The proponents of liberal morality

Virtually all thinkers in nineteenth Century Europe were concerned with
the Problem of realizing huraan freedom, but not all defined freedom in the
same way. Compare and contrast the meaning of of freedom for each of the
following groupings. What implications do these definitions have for the
question of social or intellecüual change?

a) Hegel and Marx

b) New Nationalism and Liberalism

In what way did Liberalism divorce politics from the various and sundry
other concerns of the individual? How did TWO of the following comprehend
all of human existence within the framework of a larger, all-embracing
principle of unity?

a) Hegel

b) Marx

c) The New Nationalists

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1977-78

History 513

European Cultural History

1815-1870

Six Weeks Exam

Mr. Mosse
Oct. 14, 1977

Part I: Choose one of the following three questions (30 min.).

a) One of the cornerstone belief s of the Enlightenment was that
human reason could unlock the door to a better world and that

a better world was possible because men were educable to reason.

How would two of the following three men have reacted to this
Statement and why?

1) Lessing

2) Wesley

3) Rousseau.

b) When Lessing' s Nathan asked the Templar, "Are Jews and Christians
first Jews and Christians before they are men?," he made, in
effect, a classical Statement of the Enlightenment ' s faith in
universal human attributes. What aesthetic values in Enlightenment

' thought, however, undercut such a faith and furnished the basis
for a new kind of racial Stereotyping? Using the examples of at
least two "pseudo-sciences" which developed in the late eighteenth
Century, illustrate how this was done.

c) Discuss the relationship between the Protestant and Catholic
religious revivals and Romanticism.

Part II;

What was the attitude toward the passions for three of the following?
'20 min.)

a
b
c
d

e
f

The Templar
Madame de Stael
Wackenroder
Madame de Warens
Count Zinzendorf
Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1977-78

History 513

European Cultural History

1815-1870

Six Weeks Exam

Mr* Mosse
Oct. 14, 1977

Part I: Choose one of the following three questions (30 min.).

a) One of the cornerstone beliefs of the Enlightenment was that
human reason could unlock the door to a better world and that

a better world was possible because men were educable to reason.

How would two of the following three men have reacted to this
Statement and why?

1) Lessing

2) Wesley

3) Rousseau.

b) When Lessing' s Nathan asked the Templar, "Are Jews and Christians
first Jews and Christians before they are men?," he made, in
effect, a classical Statement of the Enlightenment ' s faith in
universal human attributes. What aesthetic values in Enlightenment
thought, however, undercut such a faith and furnished the basis
for a new kind of racial Stereotyping? üsing the examples of at
least two "pseudo-sciences" which developed in the late eighteenth
Century, illustrate how this was done.

c) Discuss the relationship between the Protestant and Catholic
religious revivals and Romanticism.

Part II; What was the attitude toward the passions for three of the following?
;20 min.)

a
b
c
d

e
f

The Templar
Madame de Stael
Wackenroder
Madame de Warens
Count Zinzendorf
Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl.

University of Wisconsin

Department of History

Semester I, 1977-78

History 5I3

Final Take -Home Exam

Hr. Mosse

Due Pate: December 22, 1977- AU papers are to be brought to Joel Truman*s
Office, 5272 Humanities, between 11:00 A.M. and noon on Thursday, December 22.
Earlier papers are welcome and may be left in Room 5272 or in Joel's raailbox
(Box 508i4-> fifth floor Humanities) at any time before this. However, no
extensions past the due date will be accepted under any conditions, and no
incompletes in the course will be permitted except for medical reasons , verified
by a doctor*s note.

Length: Not to exceed 10 dcuble-spaced typewritten pages.

Choose ONE of the following questlons:

1. In The Culture of Western Europe (p. 6), it is emphasized that the ei^hteenth
and nineteenth centuries "were periods of rapid change as Europe was becoming
both urban and industrialized , In this period many people feit pushed to the
wall, while others beheld changes they could not understand and problems
which defied Solution. Höre men were alienated from their society than ever
before in human history."

What Solution to the problem of human alienation did THPEE of the following
proposej and how do these Solutions relate to the question of social or
intellectual change?

a) The New Nationalists

b) Hegel

c) Marx

d) The proponents of liberal morality

2. Virtually all thinkers in nineteenth Century Europe were concerned with
the problem of realizing human freedom, but not all defined freedom in the
same way. Compare and contrast the meaning of of freedom for each of the
following groupings . What implications do these definitions have for the
question of social or intellectual change?

a) Hegel and Marx

b) New National ism and Liberal ism

3. In what way did Liberalism divorce politics from the various and sundry
other concerns of the individual? How did Tl'JO of the following comprehend
all of human existence within the framevjork of a larger, all-embracing
principle of unity?

a) Hegel

b) Marx

c) The New Nationalists

History 513

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Semester I, 1974-75

Six Weeks Examination
October 9, 19 74

Mr. Mosse

Answer TWO of the following (25 mins. each) . Make specific references to the
texts ve read.

A. What did the concept of nature or natural law mean to Lessing, Goethe and
Novalis, and why was it important for each? In writlng your answer draw
comparisons between the three authors.

B. What were the political consequences of Romanticism? Answer with specific
reference to DeMais tre, Novalis and any other relevant material from the
lectures or the text book.

C. Using Nathan the Wise and one or more of the other readings, compare the
Enlightenment and Romanticism with respect to religion.

/

^

History 513

UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Semester I, 1974-75

FINAL EXAM

Mr. Mosse

Answers should total In all no more than elght double-space typewrltten
pages or one slxteen page blue book.

Exams are due between 11 A.M. and noon on Monday, December 9 at
5265 Humanlties. (Exams have to be graded two days later, as
Professor Mosse is entering the hospital then. )

Answer TWO of the following:

I. We have dlscussed many Utopian vis Ions. Choose at least
three of these and discuss how close they came to the actual economic,
political and social realities. Can you draw any general conclusions
about the role of Utopias in Cultural History from your discussion?

II. What do Hegel, Liberalism and Marx all have in common? How
could this characteri e the culture of the first half of the nineteenth
Century?

III. "No! nature, noi thou art not false" (Nathan the Wise).
Discuss the way romantics, liberals and Engels looked at nature.
important do you thLnk this was for their view of man?

How

IV. Would it be true to call the age from the eighteenth Century to
1848 the age of rising individualism? Discuss.

Agaln, make specific references to the texts we read.

History 513

UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Semester I, 1974-75

FINAL EXAM

Mr. Mosse

Answers should total in all no more than eight double-space typewritten
pages or one sixteen page blue book.

Exams are due between 11 A.M. and noon on Monday, December 9 at
5265 Humanities. (Exams have to be graded two days later, as
Professor Mosse is entering the hospital then. )

Answer TWO of the following:

I. We have discussed many Utopian visions. Choose at least
three of these and discuss how close they came to the actual economic ,
political and social realities. Can you drav any general conclusions
about the role of Utopias in Cultural History from your discussion?

II. What do Hegel, Liberalism and Marx all have in common? Hcw
could this characteri e the culture of the first half of the nineteenth
Century?

III. "Noi nature, no! thou art not false" (Nathan the Wise).
Discuss the way romantics, liberals and Engels looked at nature.
important do you thlnk this was f or their view of man?

How

IV. Would it be true to call the age from the eighteenth Century to
1848 the age of rising individualism? Discuss.

Again, make specific references to the texts we read.

History 513

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Semester I, 1974-75

Six Weeks Examination
October 9, 19 74

Mr. Mosse

Answer TWO of the followlng (25 mins. each) . Make specific references to the
texts we read.

A. What did the concept of nature or natural law mean to Lessing, Goethe and
Novalis, and why was it important for each? In writing your answer draw
comparisons between the three authors.

B. What were the political consequences of Romanticism? Answer with specific
reference to DeMais tre, Novalis and any other relevant material from the
lectures or the text book.

C. Using Nathan the Wise and one or more of the other readings, compare the
Enlightenment and Romanticism with respect to religion.

l

J

v5-

L

JV

^

^ ^ ^ CPistory 513

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester I, 1974

Mr. Mosse

I

Paper Toplcs

Due: November 18, 1974. NO late papers will be accepted under any circumstances

\

k):

^ Length: Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages.

It must have the proper footnoting of the sources. It will be graded upon
quality of analysis, form, and clarity of style. You can, of course, use
outside sources to Supplement the assigned reading, but is preferable that
you do not. Please remember that a paper must have an introduction explaining
Q the intent and a conclusion. It must reflect your own thinking, documented
and footnoted by the sources.

Topic: Taking at least TWO of the authors assigned write a comparison of
the authors on ONE of the topics listed below and teil why they
differed and what the consequences of this difference were.

1. the nature of human reason

2. relationship of God to politics
Jr'S. view of the ideal Community or ufcopic

-rt«

^

4. the concept of vircue

5. the concept of certainty

6. man and infinity

7. concept of the passions

8. the idea of justice

9. attitude towards contemporary personal morality
10. human free will and providence

\M}A ^ "^

11. attitudes towards political power
i(12. attitudes towards the "common people"
13. concept of law

icJli^

JUk t Ue ^^^-^

14^ definition of intellectual excellence and leadership
See Mr. Mosse or the TA if you would like to do another topic

k

HISTORY 513
CULTURAL HISTORY

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Semester I, 1972-73

FINAL TAKE -HOME %
November 27, 1972

Mr. Mosse

Due: 8 December, no delay will be accepted under any conditions,

Not to exceed 10 double spaced typewrltten pages or one 16 page bluebook.

FOOTNOTE YOUR ANSWER.

Choose ONE:

a«

^-

VThat did Marx mean by "human title" (Marx and Engels on Religion,
p. 56) and how does this relate to the meaning given such a concept
by Engels, Smith and Nietzsche? What conclusions about political
action can be drawn from these views o£ human nature?

One of the great problems of the 19th Century was how the intellectual
or the Creative person should relate himself to his human consciousness

What Solution did three of the following propose? Brief ly indicate
the importance of that Solution for the Century.

Nietzsche

A non -Marxist social ist

The romantics (German idealism)

John Stuart Mill

Marx

History 513

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Semester I, 1972-73

European Culture
6 Weeks Exam

Mr . Mos s e

These papers are due October 23 In lecture. No late papers will be accepted
under any circumstances .

You may write NOT MORE than 12 pages in blue book or 6 typewritten pages; what
is beyond that will not be read. - ^^ f 5 ,

CHOOSE ONE:

Of the men we have analyzed some believed in the State and some in the
people and some in a mixture of both:

1. Analyze your readings on Goethe, Novalis, Hegel, De Maistre, Fichte
and Jahn in this regard.

2.

OR

Why was it of consequence that so many of those we have analyzed came
from Lutheran Pietism? (A) Illustrate specifically not only from lec-
ture, but from your roading in Novalis, Hegel, Fichte and Jahn. (B) Is
it significant or not that Goethe and De Maistre did not have such a
background?

HISTORY 313
CULTURAL HISTORY

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Semester I, 1972-73

FINAL TAKE -HOME
November 27, 1972

Mr. Mosse

Due: 8 December, no delay will be accepted under any condltlons.

Not to exceed 10 double spaced typewritten pages or one 16 page bluebook.

FOOTNOTE YOUR ANSWER.

Choose ONE:

a. What did Marx mean by '"human title" (Marx and Engels on Religion,
p. 56) and how does this relate to the meaning given such a concept
by Engels, Smith and Nietzsche? What conclusions about political
action can be drawn from these views o£ human nature?

b. One of the great problems of the 19th Century was how the intellectual
or the Creative person should relate himself to his human consciousness,

What Solution did three of the following propose? Brief ly indicate
the importance of that Solution for the Century.

Nietzsche

A non -Marxist social ist

The romantics (German idealism)

John Stuart Mill

Marx

.j ■ 1 ■ iftmm'' I tiit-nfn •f-^-*' -■'•«^'^«

The ühlverslty of Wisconsin
Department of History

Hletory 513 * Final Bxamination

January 1971

Due TaesdayV ^nuary 19f between 5«00-6iOO p.m. (5268 Humanities)
NO LäTE PAPER3 ACCEPTED. Not to exceed eight double-spaced type-
wrltlti^n pages or ori? sixteen page blue book.

IHECtIONS t Write on one question from Part A and on one question
rom PÄrt B.

?

Ai^

1. Dlscuss the Hegellan basls of Marxisra. How long did this basis
surrlve? Is it a persistent element throughoiat the writings of
both Marx and Engels? Explain. Why is this an important issue?

OR

2. ••State is the name of the coldest of all cold monsters. Coldly
it teils lies toof and this lie crawls out of its mouthi 'I the
State, am the people.'r Explain this quotation from Nietzsche 's
Thua Spoke Zarathustra by setting it into the context of his thought.
äow would bi90 of the f ollowing (Marx, Hegel, Mill) respond to this
assessmettt o7 the State?

^

I

2jl

l. flitt meaning would Nietzsche and two of the f ollowing (Marx,
Peuerbach, one of the non-Marxian socialists) attach to the State-
ment ••God is dead**? How would each of the three react to Ivan
Kajramazov's assertion, "If God is dead, then everything is permit«
ted."

OR

2* Otxe of the great problems of the 19th Century was how the
Intellectual or the creative person should relate himself to the

nasses of people.

a. What Solution for this did two of the following

propose?

b. Briefly Indicate the importance of that Solution

for the Century.
Nietzsche

A non-Marxian socialist
The Romantics
John Stuart Mill

If you are unable to bring your exam paper to the T.A. Office,
you may leave it in yöur seotion instructor's mailbox.

,laJIU-><^:

y:

>.•■•

'>*ki-

k«Ui*i''«^

•»*-

jSli

.«

The ünlverslty of Wisconsin
Department of Hlstory

Hlstory 513 - Final Examlnatlon

January 1971

Due Tuesday. January 19, between 52OO-61OO p.m. (5268 Humanltles)
KO lATE PAPERS ACCEPTED. Not to exceed elght double-spaced type-
written pages or one slxteen page blue book.

DtHECTIONS I Wrlte on one questlon from Part A and on one questlon
f rom Part B.

1. Dlscuss the Hegelian basls of Marxlsm. How long dld thls basls
eurvive? Is It a persistent element throughout the wrltlngs of
both Marx and Engels? Explaln. Why is thls an Important Issue?

OR

2. -State Is the name of the coldest of all cold monsters. Coldly
It teils lies toot and thls lle crawls out of Its raouth: I the
State, am the people.'" Explaln thls quotatlon from Nietzsche s
Thus Spoke Zarathustra by settlng It Into the context of hls thought.
kow wouid two of theTollowlng (Mrx. Hegel. Mlll) respond to thls
assessment of the state?

äs.

1. What meanlng would Nietzsche and two of the followlng (Marx,
Peuerbach, one of the non-Marxlan soclallsts) attach to the State-
ment "God Is dead"? How would each of the three react to Ivan
Karamazov's assertlon, "If God Is dead, then everythlng Is permlt-

ted."

OR

2t One of the great problems of the I9th Century was how the
mtellectual or the creatlve person should relate hlmself to the

masses of people. ^ -,,

a. What Solution for thls dld two of the followlng

propose?

b. Brlefly Indlcate the Importance of that Solution

for the Century.
Nietzsche

A non-Marxlan soclallst
The Romantlcs
John Stuart Mlll

•r.v

fr?-

^M-

l

>

If you are unable to bring your exam paper to the T.A. offlce,
you may leave It In yöur sectlon Instructor's mallbox.

The Unlverslty of Wisconsin
Department of History

Hlstory 513 - Final Examlnatlon

January 1971

S!i rT^^^^?^' January 19, between 5:00-6:00 p.m. (5268 Humanltles)
NO LATE PAPERS ACCEPTED. Not to exceed elght double-spaced type-
wrltten pages or one sixteen page blue book.

DIRECTIONS: Wrlte on one questlon from Part A and on one questlon
from Part B. ^

1. piscuss the Hegelian basls of Marxlsm. How long dld thls basls
survlve? Is It a persistent element throughout the wrltlngs of
both Marx and Engels? Explaln. Why Is thls an Important Issue?

OR

?Z ^ "State Is the name of the coldest of all cold monsters. Coldly
It teils lies tooj and thls lle crawls out of Its mouthi 'I the
State, am the people.*" Explaln thls quotatlon from Nletzsche's
Thus Spoke Zarathustra by settlng It Into the context of hls thought
How would two of the followlng (Marxr-üeseiT-ittll) respond to thls
assessment of the state? /,r/^^

1. What meaning would Nietzsche and two of the followlng (Marx.
Feuerbach, one of the non-Marxlan sociSTlsts) attach to the State-
ment God Is dead"? How would each of the three react to Ivan
Karamazov s assertlon, "If God Is dead, then everythlng Is permlt-

OR

2. One of the great Problems of the I9th Century was how the
intellectual or the creatlve person should relate hlmself to

a. What Solution for thls dld tJ^ of the followlng
propose? *^^

Brlefly Indlcate the Importance of that Solution
for the Century.

Nietzsche

A non-Marxlan soclallst

The Romantlcs ^^^^^v».-^ /*^^^'^ J

John Stuart Mlll

/L|(/i^/^N

b.

If you are unable to bring your exam paper to the T.A. Office
you may leave It In yöur sectlon Instructor's raallbox.

/

THE UNIVERS IT Y OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester I 1970-71

History 513

Mr. Mosse

Exam - November 6, 1970
50 minutes

We have dlscussed the quest toward totallty
(the new deflnltlon of polltlcs). How
would you deflne thls quest? Illustrate
from Novalis and from Hegel and glve at
least two other examples whlch would support
your deflnltlon.

¥

THE UNIVERS IT Y OF WISCONSIN
Department of Hlstory
Semester I 1970-71

Hlstory 513

Mr. Mosse

Exam - November 6, 1970
50 mlnutes

We have dlscussed the quest toward totallty
(the new definltlon of polltlcs). How
would you deflne thls quest? Illustrate
from Novalis and from Hegel and glve at
least two other examples whlch would support
your deflhltion.

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13, 1970

HISTORY S12

European Cultural Hi8tory(l6l0->1815)

Hr. Hosae

Six Weeks Examination

I.

A« The Leviathan represents an atteapt to overcome the fear and insecurity
of natural human behavior by prescribing a covenant in which everyone
mutually renounces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the resulting Commonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development of absolutism?

30 minutes

ÖR

B, Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following Statements:

1. Hobbes's religious arguments are extraneous to his central argunent,

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is»
therefore, a necessary component of his Commonwealth,

3. Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the
Leviathan.

30 minutes

H.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

a. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one man).

b. Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet» if you want one man).

c. Richelieu

d. Win Stanley

e . Millinar ians

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13, 1970

HISTORY S12

European Cultural History (1610-181 5)

Mr, Mosae

Six Weeks Examination

I.

A.

The Leviathan represents an attempt to overcome the fear and insecurity
of natural human behavior by prescribing a covenant in which everyone
mutually renounces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the resulting Commonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development of absolutism?

30 minutes

ÖR

B. Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following Statements:

1. Hobbes's religious arguments are extraneous to his central arguaent.

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is,
therefore, a necessary component of his Commonwealth.

3. Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the
Leviathan.

30 minutes

H.

How did their Christianity lirait the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

a. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Boter o, if you want one man).

b. Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet, if you want one man).
e. Richelieu

d, Win Stanley

e • Millinar ians

THE ÜNIVERSITT OF WISCONSIN
Departnent of History
March 13, 1970

HISTCÄY 512

Eoropean Cultural Hi8toryCl6lO-l8l5)

fri ^9ffff?

Slx Weeks Eranlnation

I.

The Laviathan represents an atteapt to orercome the fear and insecurity
of natural htunan behavior by prescribing a coTenant in which eyeryone
nratually renotinces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the reanilting coimonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the developaent of absolutisM?

30 Bdnutes

CR

B. Agree or disagree ifith C»IE(1) of the following Statements:

1. Hobbes's religious argunents are extraneous to his central argument.

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is,
therefore, a necessary component of his coamonwealth«

3. Hobbes saw the claias of the chnrch as the main challenge to the
Leriathan«

30 minutes

n.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

a. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one «an).

b. Divine Right of KingsCor Bossuet» if you want one man).
e. Riebe lieti

d, Win Stanley
e« Killinarians

THE UNIVroSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13, 1970

HISTOIY 512

European Cultural Hi8tory(l6lO-l8l5)

MTt Mog?e

Six Weeks Eacamination

I.

A« The Leviathan represents an atteapt to overcorae the fear and insecurity
of natural human behavior by prescribing a covenant in which everyone
mutually renounces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the resulting Commonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development of absolutism?

30 minutes

OR

B. Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following Statements:

\J 1. Hobbes*s religious arguments are extraneous to his central argument.

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is,
therefore, a necessary component of his Commonwealth,

3. Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the
Leviathan»

30 minutes

n.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

\ia. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one man).

b. Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet, if you want one man).

\1«. Richelieu

d. Win Stanley

e . Millinarians

(

Vs

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13, 1970

HISTORY 512

European Cxatural HistorvC 1610-181 S)

Mr« Mosae

Six Weeks Exandnatipn

I.

A« The Leviathan represents an attempt to overcome the fear and insecurity
of natural human behavior by prescribing a covenant in which evefyöne
mutually renounces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the resulting coramonwealth necessarily_represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development ofabsolutismT

30 Minute s

ÖR

B. Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following Statements:

1. Hobbes's religious argumenta are extraneous to his central argument,

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is,
therefore, a necessary component of his Commonwealth,

3. Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the

Leviathan,

.*'

30 minutes

II.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

a. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one man).

b. Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet, if you want one man).
e. Richelieu

d. Win Stanley

e. Millinarians -«««

THE UNIVBRSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13, 1970

HISTOIY 512

European Cultural Hi8tory(l6l0>l8l5)

Mr, Mosse

Six Weeks Examination

I.

A« The Leviathan represents an attempt to overcorae the fear and insecurity
of natural human behavior by prescribing a covenant in which everyone
mutually renounces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the resulting Commonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development of absolutism?

30 minutes

B. Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following Statements:

1. Hobbes*s religious arguments are extraneous to his central argumenta

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is,
therefore» a necessary component of his Commonwealth,

3. Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the
Leviathan.

30 minutes

\

n.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the follo%dng:

a. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one man),

b, Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet, if you want one man).
e. Richelieu

d. Win Stanley

e . Millinarians

i.R. um Ji .n

THE mWERSin OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13, 1970

HISTCmY 512

European Cultural Hi8tory(l6lO«18lS)

Mr, Mosae

Six Weeks Exandnation

I.

A«

The Leviathan represents an attempt to overcome the fear and insecurity
of natural human behavior by prescribing a covenant in which everyone
mutually renounces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the rearulting Commonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development of absolutism?

30 minutes

ÖR

B, Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following Statements:

1. Hobbes's religious arguments are extraneous to his central argumenta

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is,
therefore, a necessary component of his Commonwealth.

3. Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the
Leviathan.

30 minutes

n.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

a. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one man).

b. Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet» if you want one man).
e. Richelieu

d. Win Stanley

e. Millinarians

THE UNIVBRSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13, 1970

HISTORY 512

European Cultural History(l6l0-»1815)

Mr« Mosse

Six Weeks Examination

I.

A« The Leviathan represents an attempt to overcorae the fear and insecurity
of natural human behavior by prescribing a covenant in which everyone
mntually renounces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the resulting Commonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development of absolutism?

30 minutes

ÖR

B. Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following Statements:

1. Hobbes*s religious arguments are extraneous to his central argunent.

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is,
therefore» a necessary component of his Commonwealth.

3. Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the
Leviathan.

30 minutes

n.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

a. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one man).

b. Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet, if you want one man).

c. Richelieu

d. Win Stanley

e . Millinarians

THE UNIVBRSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13. 1970

HISTORY 512

European Cultural Hi8tory(l6l0-»181S)

Mr« Mosse

Six Weeks Examination

I.

A« The Leviathan represents an attempt to overcorae the fear and insecurity
of natural human behavior by prescribing a covenant in which everyone
rautually renounces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the resulting Commonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development of absolutism?

30 minutes

ÖR

B, Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following stateraents:

1. Hobbes's religious argumenta are extraneous to his central argument.

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is,
therefore, a necessary component of his Commonwealth.

3. Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the
Leviathan.

30 minutes

U.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

a. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one man),

b. Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet» if you want one man).

c. Richelieu

d. Win Stanley

e. Millinarians

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13. 1970

HISTORY S12

European Cultural Hi8torv(l6lO>l8lS)

Mr, Mosse

Six Weeks Examinati on

I.

A« The Leviathan represents an attempt to overcome the fear and insecurity
of natural human behavior by prescribing a covenant in which everyone
rautually renounces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the resulting Commonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development of absolutism?

30 minutes

B. Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following statements:

1. Hobbes's religious argumenta are extraneous to his central argument.

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is,
therefore, a necessary component of his Commonwealth.

3. Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the
Leviathan.

30 minutes

\

f n.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

a. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one man).

b. Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet, if you want one man).

c. Richelieu

d. Win Stanley

6 « Millinarians

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13. 1970

HISTORY 512

European Cultural Hi8tory(l6lO>l8lS)

Mr. Mosge

Six Weeks Examination

I.

A.

The Leviathan represents an attempt to overcome the fear and insecurity
of natural huinan behavior by prescribing a covenant in which everyone
mutually renounces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the resulting Commonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development of absolutism?

30 minutes

ÖR

B. Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following stateraents:

1. Hobbes's religious argumenta are extraneous to his central argunent.

2« Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and iSt
therefore, a necessary component of his Commonwealth.

3« Hobbes saw the claims of the church as the raain challenge to the
Leviathan.

30 minutes

n.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

a« Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one man).

b. Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet» if you want one man).

o« Richelieu

dm Win Stanley

•• Millinarians

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II I97O

History 512

Mr, Mosse

TWEI.VE WEEK PAPER
Diie: Week of APRIL 20-24. No late papers will be accepted.
Length; Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages.
Form: Carefully footnoted to the sources«

Topic: Taking at least TW0(2) of the books assigned( original sources) wite
a comparison of the authors on ONE(l) of the topics listed below and
teil why they differed and what the consequences of this difference were.

1. View of human nature

2. relationship of God and science to politics

3. view of the ideal Community

4. the idea of justice

5« attitude towards war and political deceit

6. attitude s towards political power

?• attitudes towards the "common people"

8. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

9. concepts of property rights
10. View of the state and morality

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II I97O

History 512

Mr, Mosse

TWEI.VE WEEK PAPER
Due: Week of APRIL 20-2^. No late papers will be accepted.
Length; Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages.
Form: Carefully footnoted to the sources.

To£ic: Taking at least TW0(2) of the books assigned( original soiirces) wite
a comparison of the authors on C»JE(1) of the topics listed below and
teil why they differed and what the consequences of this difference were.

1. View of human nature

2. relationship of God and science to politics

3. view of the ideal Community
^. the idea of justice

5« attitude towards war and political deceit

6. attitude s towards political power

?• attitude s towards the "common people"

8. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

9. concepts of property rights
10. View of the state and morality

THE UNIVBRSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13. 1970

HISTORY 512

European Cultural Hi8torv(l6l0-l8l5)

Mr« Mosae

Six Weeks Examination

I.

A. The Leviathan represents an atteapt to overcome the fear and insecurity
of natural hiiman behavior by prescribing a covenant in which everyone
mutually renotmces his political rights in retum for protection.

Does the resulting Commonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development of absolutism?

30 minutes

ÖR

B. Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following Statements:

1. Hobbes*s religious arguments are extraneous to his central argument.

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is,
therefore, a necessary component of his Commonwealth.

3. Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the
Leviathan.

30 minutes

H.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

ä. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one man).

b. Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet, if you want one man).

c. Richelieu

d. Win Stanley

e . Millinarians

THE ÜNIVBRSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
March 13, 1970

HISTORY 512

European Cultural History(l6lO>18l5)

Mr, Mosse

Six Weeks Exaraination

I.

A.

The Leviathan represents an attempt to overcorae the fear and insecurity
of natiiral hnman behavior by prescribing a covenant in which everyone
mutually renounces his political rights in retum for protection.
Does the resulting Commonwealth necessarily represent the kind of think-
ing which lay behind the development of absolutism?

30 minutes

B. Agree or disagree with ONE(l) of the following Statements:

1. Hobbes^s religious arguments are extraneous to his central argument.

2. Religion for Hobbes is a force to be used to control people and is,
therefore, a necessary component of his Commonwealth,

3. Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the
Leviathan.

30 minutes

H.

How did their Christianity limit the alternatives of political action
for TW0(2) of the following:

a. Casuistry of the Baroque(or Botero, if you want one man).

b. Divine Right of Kings(or Bossuet, if you want one man).

c. Richelieu

d. Win Stanley

e . Millinarians

;

-IT^

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II I97O

History 512

Mr. Mosse

TWEI.VE WEEK PAPER
Due: Week of APRIL 20-24. No late papers will be accepted.
Length: Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages.
Form: Carefully footnoted to the so\irces.

Topic: Taking at least TW0(2) of the books assigned( original soTirces) write
a comparison of the authors on (]NE(1) of the topics listed below and
teil why they differed and what the consequences of this difference were.

1. View of human nature

2. relationship of God and science to politics

«

3. View of the ideal comm\mity

4. the idea of justice

5« attitude towards war and political deceit

6. attitude s towards political power

7. attitudes towards the "common people"

8. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

9. concepts of property rights
10. View of the state and morality

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II I97O

History 512

Mr. Mosse

TWEI.VE WEEK PAPER
Duä: Week of APRIL 20-24. No late papers will be accepted.
Length: Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages.
Form: Carefully footnoted to the sources.

Topic: Taking at least TW0(2) of the books assigned( original soxirces) write
a comparison of the authors on ONE(l) of the topics listed below and
teil why they differed and what the consequences of this difference wer«.

1. View of human nature

2. relationship of God and science to politics

3. View of the ideal Community

4. the idea of justice

5« attitude towards war and political deceit

6. attitude s towards political power

?• attitudes towards the "common people"

8. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

9. concepts of property rights
10. View of the state and morality

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II 1970

History 512

Mr. Messe

TWEI.VE WEEK PAPER

Due: Week of APRIL 20-24. No late papers will be accepted.

Length; Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages.

Form: Carefully footnoted to the soiirces.

Topic: Taking at least TW0(2) of the books assigned( original sources) urite
a comparison of the authors on aJE(l) of the topics listed below and
teil why they differed and what the consequences of this difference wer#«

1. View of human nature

2. relationship of God and science to politics

3. View of the ideal Community

4. the idea of justice

5. attitude towards war and political deceit

6. attitudes towards political power

7« attitudes towards the "common people"

8. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

9. concepts of property rights
10. View of the state and morality

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II 1970

History 512

Mr. Mosse

TWEI.VE WEEK PAPER
Due: Week of APRIL 20-24, No late papers will be accepted.
Length: Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages.
Form: Carefully footnoted to the sources.

Topic; Taking at least TW0(2) of the books assigned( original soiirces) write
a comparison of the authors on CNE(l) of the topics listed below and
teil why they differed and what the consequences of this difference were.

!• View of human nature

2. relationship of God and science to politics

3. View of the ideal Community

4. the idea of justice

3. attitude towards war and political deceit

6. attitude s towards political power

7. attitude s towards the "common people"

8. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

9. concepts of property rights
10. View of the state and morality

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II 1970

History 512

Mr. Mosse

TWEI.VE WEEK PAPER
Due: Week of APRIL 20-2^. No late papers will be accepted.
Length: Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages.
Form: Carefully footnoted to the soiirces«

Topic; Taking at least TW0(2) of the books assigned( original sources) write
a comparison of the authors on ONE(l) of the topics listed below and
teil why they differed and what the consequences of this difference were.

1, View of hixman nature

2, relationship of God and science to politics

3, View of the ideal comm\mity
^. the idea of justice

5» attitude towards war and political deceit

6. attitudes towards political power

?• attitudes towards the "common people"

8. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

9. concepts of property rights
10. View of the state and morality

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II 1970

History 512

Mr. Mosse

TWET.VE WEEK PAPER

Due: Week of APRIL 20-2^, No late papers will be accepted.

Length: Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages.

Form: Carefully footnoted to the sources.

Topic: Taking at least TW0(2) of the books assigned( original soxirces) wite
a comparison of the authors on ONE(l) of the topics listed below and
teil why they differed and what the consequences of this difference were.

1. View of human nature

2. relationship of God and science to politics

3. View of the ideal commimity
^. the idea of justice

5« attitude towards war and political deceit

6. attitude s towards political power

?• attitudes towards the "common people"

8. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

9. concepts of property rights
10. View of the state and morality

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II 1970

History 512

Mr, Mosse

TWEI.VE WEEK PAPER
Due: Week of APRIL 20-24. No late papers will be accepted.
Length; Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pagea.
Form; Carefully footnoted to the sources.

Toplc: Taking at least TW0(2) of the books assigned( original sources) write
a comparison of the authors on ONE(l) of the topics listed below and
teil why they differed and what the consequences of this difference were.

1. View of human nature

2. relationship of God and science to politics

3. view of the ideal Community

4. the idea of Justice

5» attitude towards war and political deceit

6. attitude s towards political power

?• attitude s towards the "common people"

8. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

9. concepts of property rights
10. view of the state and morality

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History
Semester II 1970

History 512

Mr. Messe

TWEI.VE WEEK PAPER

Due; Week of APRIL 20-24, No late papers will be accepted.

Length; Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages«

Form: Carefully footnoted to the soiirces«

Topic: Taking at least TW0(2) of the books assigned( original sources) write
a comparison of the authors on ONE(l) of the topics listed below and
teil why they differed and what the consequences of this difference were.

1. View of human nature

2. relationship of God and science to politics

3. View of the ideal Community

4. the idea of justice

5« attitude towards war and political deceit

6. attitudes towards political power

?• attitudes towards the "common people"

8, definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

9. concepts of property rights
10, View of the state and morality

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History
Semester II 1970

History 512

Mr. Mosse

TWEI>VE WEEK PAPER

Due: Week of APRIL 20-24. No late papers will be accepted.

Length: Not more than 10 double spaced typewritten pages.

Form; Carefully footnoted to the sources.

Topic: Taking at least TW0(2) of the books assigned( original soiirces) vrite
a comparison of the authors on CNE(l) of the topics listed below and
teil why they differed and what the consequences of this difference were.

1. View of human nature

2. relationship of God and science to politics

3. view of the ideal Community

4. the idea of justice

5. attitude towards war and political deceit .

6. attitudes towards political power

7. attitudes towards the "common people"

8. definition of intellectual excellence and leadership

9. concepts of property rights
10. view of the state and morality

mimm

MMllMMfei

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Hlatory 513

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department o£ Hlatory
January 6, 1969

EUROPEAN CULTÜRE
Final Examlnatlon

Mr. Messe

DIRECTIONS :

1« Answer THREE questlons, one from each category.

2» If you wrote on any of these problems on your twelve weeks, you cannot

choose the same questlon £or the final.
3 • You muat not wrlte more than THREE (3) PAGES on each questlon. (The

T«A. 's have sald that they will not read addltlonal pages. Be concise

and, above all, be speclflcl)

FAPBRS MÜST BE HANDED INTO 197 BASCOM BEIVEEN 9 A.M. AND NOON ON THURSDAY,
JANUARY 16. PAPERS GAN BE HANDED IN EARLIER BUT UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES
WHATEVER WILL ANYONE CONNECTED WITH THE COURSE ACCEPT PAPERS LATER THAN NOON
TttöRSDAY THE 16th. REMEMBER: NO INCOMPLETES WILL BE GIVEN IN THE COURSE
EXCEPT FOR SEVERE AND CERTIFIABLE ILLNBSS.

PART A. Answer ONE of these:

AI. Compare the dlfferences In the Romantlc movement In France and Gennany

between 1815 and 1850. Dlscuss the impact that the movements had on the
polltlcal development of these countrles. Draw also on the pre-French
revolutlonary Intellectual currents that foreshadowed Romantlclsm.

A2.

Compare the dlfferent conceptlons of natlonallsm held In France and
Germany after the French Revolution. Take Into serlous conslderatlon
the dlfferlng experlences of the French Revolution and Napoleon In each
country.

f

■i

A3.

PART
El.

"Tom Brown 's School days Is an example of the last days of a dylng class:
the landed gentry. In Its attempt to Justlfy Its llberallsm to the "new
llberallsm*' of the Industrlal bourgeolsle." Do you agree or dlsagree
wlth thls analysls? Explaln fully what Is meant by llberallsm, landed
gentry, etc. Dld llberallsm undergo radlcal changes throughout the
nlneteenth Century and still malntaln an Internal conslstency?

B. Ansver ONE of these:

Answer X or Y. Marxlsm and Marxlan soclallst movements have dlatlngulshed
themselvea from other revolutlonary theorles and movements by character-
Izlng these latter "utoplan" and "unsclentlf Ic" as opposed to Marxlsm
whlch is "scientific."

(X) Uslng your readlngs In Hobsbawm explaln how the social movements of
the nlneteenth and twentleth centurles dlscussed In the book fit Into
the categorles dellneated above, or If they do not, what categorles
mlght be more usefui In understandlng the dlfferences between these
other movements and Marxlsm? Be sure to explaln fully what Is meant
by "scientific" or "utoplan."

(Y) From your other readlngs and th« lectures explaln the dlfferences

between Marxlan theory and the theoretlcal conceptlons of the social«
ists vho were consldered to be Utoplan, I.e. Proudhon, St. Simon,
Owen, and Fourler. You may dlscuss other soclallsts but In all cases
refer speclflcally to the Ideas of the men you are dlscusslng. Be
sure to explaln fully what Is meant by "scientific" or "utoplan."

|. <,.■*' '■'■•»• !■■- ',.. i-: «•

'ilMIlliilW'ii 1 1— lliiliiHi I !■

.. .ijaua(»:aA ..n^MA-r.^

y

Hlstory 513

-2-

tJ.tlM.ttU.

Mr. Mosse

* ■ ' * ■ 'i ' V

'Ü

M"^'

, /V; ■■; '. ■ ■ ■• ■

^ J

w

l

;4W ■ •

>>v

B2. «Mancl« l» c.rtainly more of « reactlon to th. l^^*""»",^* ^J* "
teenth Century than It is to conserv.tism." Dl-cu.« «^hts Statement
fuUy, indlcatlng «hether or not it la a vaUd Observation. Show In as
«any sreclf ic ways that you can how Manclsm related to and reacted agalnat
other Uutlcal and Intellectual movementa In the nlneteenth Century.

B3. "MhlU Marx Identlfled the motor In the movement of '^%j;*J*^"^j^^ ^^^
econoralc relatlon» o£ productlon. Hegel conceptu.llted '^edlalec tiefend
Bav;-«antl8m lt. hl.torlcal content." Dl.cus. the "1""°""^^^ ^''JY^*"
the rfclloeophles of Hegel and Marx u.lng thl. pa.sage a. a focal polnt.

Marxls«. as both a theory and a revolutlonary movement «" ^"^^^J" '^*
nlneteenth Century with the dllemma of reconclUng the i"«^"«"";^^^;
capltaliet coUap.e and soclallst revolutlon wlth «^^'^«'^^ «^"^'^ "''JJ,;^-
that goal. U.lng Llchthei«. your readlng. In Marx, "P«^;*"^ f Jj^^Jeenth
iccl 5ork. «brldged In the Feuer (Class Struggles In F"nce. the EJgteenth
Brmalre. and the Civil War In France) and the lecturea, dlscuss thl. l.sue

M. ' U ha. been argued that In Marx', early work. culmlnatlng In the ggä«
I.Teologv of 1847. he held certaln vlew. that he repudiated In ^Is Uter
woTkT^It ha. al.o been argued that although Marx and f 8«1« ^^/^J^^^
collaborators for 40 year., thelr concept. of hl.torlcal ««"^^f ^f ^""' .
Sterlall«n vere .ome^hat dlfferent. Dl.cus. ^ '^^^'^^H l^%:u"*:j
ist hl.torlography and explaln why you thlnk these argumenta are valld or

not valld.

B«. Fro« a Marxl.t polnt of vlew what 1. the relatlon.hlp "«^f" »^'"i^jy "**
Überall«.? How dld Überall«» become Important »»Istorlcally? How do
ipeclf ic «oral tenet. corre.pond to the development <>« «^°««»^" *"J^^;*
Satlon.hlp8 between social cla.ses? Use Tom Browns School days. your
SaSn^; on iarx and the lecture.. Indlcatlng whether or not you feel the
MarxLt under.tandlng of thl. prob lern 1. valld.

FAST C. AnOTier OSE of the.e: t4K«^»n«ti and

CU DI.CU«. the"7tollarltle. and dlfferences between Marxlsm, ^i*'*'^?^^!?' ^"^.
Po'ittvl«« m the nlneteenth Century, and explaln how Nletz.che s phllo.o-
phy corre.ponded to or dlffered from these Intellectual movement. 7

CX. «^e nlneteenth Century ha. been characterlzed a. the "hlstorlcal Century"
^' bec.u.e It began to concelve of mcn in the context of hl.tory and .oclety.
Wlth Hlett.che the hl.torlcal Century ends becau.e «"»«/» «°" »t!« J" *
fundamentally dlfferent way. a. an Indlvldual alone and «P^f^^.J^"'*"^
and «oclety." Dl.cu.. thl. pa.aage glvlng specific example. from the
JSurle an?from your readlng. In Nietzsche and Indlcate whether or not you
agree wlth the passage.

C3. Compare HleM.che'. Superman wlth Hegel'. World «t-torlcal Indlvldual.
In what way. do tha dlfference. reflect concem. of the two men and of
thelr epoch?

3.

ff

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h-

-v-^

f»

History 513

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
January 6, 1969

EUROPEAN CÜLTÜRE
Final Examlnation

Mr. Mosse

DIRECTIONS :

1. Answer THREE questions, one from each category.

If you wrote on any of these problems on your twelve weeks, you cannot

choose the same queation for the final.

You must not write more than THREE (3) PAOSS on each queation, (The

T.A.'s have aaid that they will not read additional pages. Be concise

and, above all, be specific I)

2.

3.

PAPERS MUST BE HANDED INTO 197 BASCM BETWEEN 9 A.M. AND NOON ON THÜRSDAY,
JANUARY 16. PAPERS GAN BE HANDED IN EARLIER BUT UNDER NO CIRCUMS TANGES
WHATEVER WILL ANYONE GONNEGTED WITH THE COURSE AGGEPT PAPERS LATER THAN NOON
THÜRSDAY THE 16th. REMEMBER: NO INGOMPLETES WILL BE GIVEN IN THE GOÜRSE
EXCEPT FOR SEVERE AND CERTIFIABLE ILLNESS.

PART A, Answer ONE of these:

AI. Gompare the differences in the Romantic movement in France and Germany

between 1815 and 1850. Discuss the impact that the movements had on the
political development of these countries, Draw also on the pre-French
revolutionary intellectual currents that foreshadowed Romanticism.

A2. Gompare the different conceptions of nationalism held in France and

Germany after the French Revolution. Take into serious consideration
the differing experiences of the French Revolution and Napoleon in each
country.

A3. "Tom Brownes School days is an example of the last days of a dying class:
the landed gentry, in its attempt to justify its liberalism to the "new
liberalism" of the industrial bourgeoisie." Do you agree or disagree
with this analysis? Explain fully what is meant by liberalism, landed
gentry, etc. Did liberalism undergo radical changes throughout the
nineteenth Century and still maintain an internal consistency?

PART B. Answer ONE of these:

Bl. Answer X or Y. Marxism and Marxian socialist movements have distinguished
themselves from other revolutionary theories and movements by character-
izing these latter "utopian'* and "unscientif ic" as opposed to Marxism
which is "scientific."

(X) Using your readings in Hobsbawm explain how the social movements of
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries discussed in the book fit into
the categories delineated above, or if they do not, what categories
might be more useful in understanding the differences between these
other movements and Marxism? Be sure to explain fully what is meant
by "scientific" or "utopian."

(Y) From your other readings and the lectures explain the differences

between Marxian theory and the theoretical conceptions of the social-
ist s who were considered to be Utopian, i.e. Proudhon, St. Simon,
Owen, and Fourier. You may discuss other socialists but in all cases
refer specifically to the ideas of the men you are discussing. Be
sure to explain fully what is meant by "scientific" or "utopian."

Hlstory 513

-2-

Hr« Hosse

B2, 'Marxism is certalnly more of a reaction to the liberalism of the nine-
teenth Century than it is to conservatism. " Dlscuss this Statement
fully, indicating whether or not it is a valid Observation. Show in as
many specific ways that you can how Marxism related to and reacted against
other political and intellectual movements in the nineteenth Century.

B3. *Vhile Karx identified the motor in the movement of the dialectic as the
economic relations of production, Hegel conceptualized the dialectic and
gave Marxism its historical content." Discuss the relationship between
the philosophies of Hegel and Marx using this passage as a focal point.

B4. Marxism, as both a theory and a revolutionary movement was faced in the
nineteenth Century with the dilemma of reconciling the inevitability of
capitallst collapse and socialist revolution with direct action towards
that go-il. Using Lichtheim, your readings in Marx, especially the histor-
ical works abridged in the Feuer (Class Struggles in France, the Eighteenth
Brumaire, and the Civil War in France) and the lectures, discuss this issue.

B5. It has been argued that in Marx's early works, culminating in the Gertnan
Ideology of 1847, he held certain views that he repudiated in his later
works. It has also been argued that although Marx and Engels were close
collaborators for 40 years, their concepts of historical and dialectical
materialism were somewhat different. Discuss both these problems of Marx-
ist historiography and explain why you think these arguments are valid or
not valid.

B6. From a Marxist point of view what is the relationship between morality and
liberalism? How did liberalism become important historically? How do
specific moral tenets correspond to the development of economics and the
relationships between social classes? Use Tom Browns School days, your
readings on Marx and the lectures, indicating whether or not you feel the
Marxist understanding of this problem is valid.

PART C. Answer ONE of these:

Gl. Discuss the similarities and differences between Marxism, Liberalism, and
Positivism in the nineteenth Century, and explain how Nietzsche *s philoso-
phy corresponded to or differed from these intellectual movements?

C2. '*rhe nineteenth Century has been characterized as the "historical Century"
because it began to conceive of men in the context of history and society.
With Nietzsche the historical Century ends because man is now seen in a
fundamentally different way, as an individual alone and apart from history
and society." Discuss this passage giving specific examples from the
course and from your readings in Nietzsche and indicate whether or not you
agree with the passage.

C3. Compare Nietzsche 's Superman with Hegel 's World Historical Individual.
In what ways do the differences reflect concems of the two men and of
their epoch?

L

HISTORY 513
CULTURAL HISTORY

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Seraester I, 1972-73

FINAL TAKE -HOME
November 27, 1972

Mr. Mosse

Due: 8 December, no delay will be accepted under any conditions.

Not to exceed 10 double spaced tjrpewritten pages or one 16 page bluebook,

FOOTNOTE YOUR ANSWER.

Choose ONE:

a«

b.

What did Marx mean by "human title" (Marx and Engels on Religion,
p. 56) and how does this relate to the meaning given such a concept
by Engels, Smith and Nietzsche? What conclusions about political
action can be drawn from these views of human nature?

One of the great problems of the 19th Century was how the intellectual
or the Creative person should relate himself to his human consciousness.

What Solution did three of the following propose? Brief ly indicate
the importance of that Solution for the Century.

Nietzsche

A non -Marxist socialist

The romantics (German idealism)

John Stuart Mi 11

Marx

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
MADISON, WISCONSIN 53706

Department of Hiatory

187 Bascom Hall

^^

HISTORY 513 - Euoopean Cultural Hiatory l8l3»l87e

Final Examination
Answer any three questions - time allowed: 2 hours

1. 'The kinga and priestö of the paat had to give way to the buainessmen and
steam-engines of the present.» (HOBSBAWM) How far does the hiatory of this period
bear out the validity of this aasertion ?

2. Analyae the contraat between the romantic and the democratic concept of
nationaliam«

3. What waa the connection between aecret aocietiea and revolution durinff the
period l8l5 to 18^8 ?

Jf. Discuas the phenomenon of revolutionary democracy, and account for ita succesaea
BM and failurea during thia period.

3. To what extent, if any, waa Marxiam lese utopian than other achools of
aocialism ?

6. Describe the main features of Bonapartiam, and explain Louia Napoleon'a
aucceas in deatroying the Second French Republic .

7.^^8688 the importance of the Firat International in the hiatory of the European
labour movement.

8. What dlfficulties did the Catholic Church face in Coming to terma with
liberaliam and democracy ?

9. Discusa the attitude of any one of the following to the problem of aocial
conflict :

a) i^ovalia

b) Charles Fourier

c) Honore de Balzac

d) Heinrich Heine

e) Honore Daumier

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
January 6, 1969

History 513

Mr, Mosse

EUROPEAN CULTURE
Final Examinatlon r)^
DIRECTIONS :

1. Answer THREE questions, one from each category,

If you wrote on any of these problems on your twelve weeks, you cannot
choose the same question for the final.

You must not write more than THREE (3) PAOSS on each question. (The
^•A. s have said that they will not read additional pages. Be concise
and, above all, be specific!)

2.

3.

PAPERS MUST BE HANDED INTO 197 BASCOM BETWEEN 9 A.M. AND NOON ON THÜRSDAY,
JANUARY 16. PAPERS GAN BE HANDED IN EARLIER BUT UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES
WHATEVER WILL ANYONE CONNECTED WITH THE COURSE ACCEPT PAPERS LATER THAN NOON
THÜRSDAY THE 16th. REMEMBER: NO INCOMPLETES WILL BE GIVEN IN THE COURSE
EXCEPT FOR SEVERE AND CERTIFL^BLE ILLNESS,

PART A. Answer ONE of these:

AI. Compare the differences in the Romantic movement in France and Germany

between 1815 and 1850. Discuss the impact that the movements had on the
political development of these countries, Draw also on the pre-French
revolutionary intellectual currents that foreshadowed Romanticism.

A2. Compare the different conceptions of nationalism held in France and

Germany after the French Revolution. Take into serious consideration
the differing experiences of the French Revolution and Napoleon in each
country.

A3. "Tom Brown *s School days is an example of the last days of a dying class:
the landed gentry, in its attempt to justify its liberalism to the "new
liberalism" of the industrial bourgeoisie." Do you agree or disagree
with this analysis? Explain fully what is meant by liberalism, landed
gentry, etc. Did liberalism undergo radical changes throughout the
nineteenth Century and still maintain an internal consistency?

PART B. Answer ONE of these:

Bl. Answer X or Y. Marxism and Marxian socialist movements have distinguished
themselves from other revolutionary theories and movements by character-
izing these latter "utopian" and "unscientif ic" as opposed to Marxism
which is "scientific."

(X) Using your readings in Hobsbawm explain how the social movements of
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries discussed in the book fit into
the categories delineated above, or if they do not, what categories
might be more useful in understanding the differences between these
other movements and Marxism? Be sure to explain fully what is meant
by "scientific" or "utopian."

(Y) From your other readings and the lectures explain the differences

between Marxian theory and the theoretical conceptions of the social-
ists who were considered to be Utopian, i.e. Proudhon, St. Simon,
Owen, and Fourier. You may discuss other socialists but in all cases
refer specifically to the ideas of the men you are discussing. Be
sure to explain fully what is meant by "scientific" or "utopian."

History 513

-2-

Mr, Mosse

B2, 'Marxism is certainly more of a reaction to the liberallsm of the nine-
teenth Century than it is to conservatism. " Discuss this Statement
fully, Indicating whether or not it is a valid Observation. Show in as
many sx'ecif ic ways that you can how Marxism related to and reacted against
other Dolitical and intellectual movements in the nineteenth Century.

B3. "While Marx identified the motor in the movement of the dialectic as the
econon.ic relations of production, Hegel conceptualized the dialectic and
gave Harxism its historical content," Discuss the relationship between
the p.iilosophies of Hegel and Marx using this passage as a focal point,

B4. Marx:lsm, as both a theory and a revolutionary movement was faced in the
nineteenth Century with the dilemma of reconciling the inevitability of
capi.talist collapse and socialist revolution with direct action towards
tha': goal. Using Lichtheim, your readings in Marx» especially the histor-
ical works abridged in the Feuer (Class Struggles in France, the Eighteenth
Brumaire, and the Civil War in France) and the lectures» discuss this issue

B5. It has been argued that in Marx 's early works, culminating in the Gertnan
Ideology of 1847, he held certain views that he repudiated in his later
works. It has also been argued that although Marx and Engels were close
collaborators for 40 years, their concepts of historical and dialectical
materialism were somewhat different. Discuss both these problems of Marx-
ist historiography and explain why you think these argumenta are valid or
not valid.

B6. From a Marxist point of view what is the relationship between morality and
liberalism? How did liberalism become important historically? How do
specific moral tenets correspond to the development of economics and the
relationships between social classes? Use Tom Browns School days, your
readings on Marx and the lectures, indicating whether or not you feel the
Marxist understanding of this problem is valid.

PART C. Answer ONE of these:

Gl. Discuss the similarities and differences between Marxism, Liberalism, and
Positivism in the nineteenth Century, and explain how Nietzsche *s philoso-
phy corresponded to or differed from these intellectual movements?

C2.

C3.

'*rhe nineteenth Century has been characterized as the "historical Century"
because it began to conceive of men in the context of history and society.
With Nietzsche the historical Century ends because man is now seen in a
fundamentally different way, as an individual alone and apart from history
and society." Discuss this passage giving specific examples from the
course and from your readings in Nietzsche and indicate whether or not you
agree with the passage.

Compare Nietzsche's Superman with Hegel's World Historical Individual.
In what ways do the differences reflect concems of the two men and of
their epoch?

/ !

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of Hlstory
January 6, 1969

History 513

Mr« Moase

EUROPEAN CULTURE \^
Final Examinatlon
DIRECTIONS :

1. Answer THREE questlons, one from each category.
2» If you wrote on any of these problems on your twelve weeks, you cannot

choose the same question for the final.
3 . You mu8t not wrlte more than THREE (3) PACSS on each question. (The
T.A, 8 have said that they will not read additional pages. Be concise
and, above all, be specific I)

PAPERS MUST BE HANDED INTO 197 BASCOM BETWEEN 9 A.M. AND NOON ON THURSDAY,
JANUARY 16. PAPERS GAN BE HANDED IN EARLIER BUT UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES
VmATEVER WILL ANYONE CONNECTED WITH THE COURSE ACCEPT PAPERS LATER THAN NOON
THURSDAY THE 16th. REMEMBER: NO INCOMPLETES WILL BE GIVEN IN THE COURSE
EXCEPT FOR SEVERE AND CERTIFIABLE ILLNESS.

PART A. Answer ONE of these:

AI. Compare the differences in the Romantic movement in France and Germany

between 1815 and 1850. Discuss the impact that the movements had on the
political development of these countries. Draw also on the pre-French
revolutionary intellectual currents that foreshadowed Romanticism.

A2.

Compare the different conceptions of nationalism held in France and
Germany after the French Revolution. Take into serious consideration
the differing experiences of the French Revolution and Napoleon in each
country.

A3.

"Tom Brown 's School days is an example of the last days of a dying class:
the landed gentry, in its attempt to justify its liberalism to the "new
liberalism" of the industrial bourgeoisie.'* Do you agree or disagree
with this analysis? Explain fully what is meant by liberalism, landed
gentry, etc. Did liberalism undergo radical changes throughout the
nineteenth Century and still maintain an internal consistency?

PART B. Answer ONE of these:

Bl. Answer X or Y. Marxism and Marxian socialist movements have distinguished
themselves from other revolutionary theories and movements by character-
izing these latter "utopian" and "unscientif ic" as opposed to Marxism
which is "scientific."

(X) Using your readings in Hobsbawm explain how the social movements of
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries discussed in the book fit into
the categories delineated above, or if they do not, what categories
might be more useful in understanding the differences between these
other movements and Marxism? Be sure to explain fully what is meant
by "scientific" or "utopian."

(Y) From your other readings and the lectures explain the differences

between Marxian theory and the theoretical conceptions of the social*
ists who were considered to be Utopian, i.e. Proudhon, St. Simon,
Owen, and Fourier. You may discuss other socialists but in all cases
refer specifically to the ideas of the men you are discussing. Be
sure to explain fully what is meant by "scientific" or "utopian."

# r

History 513

-2-

Mr. Mosse

\

B2. 'Vlarxism is certainly more of a reaction to the liberalism of the nine-
teenth Century than it is to conservatism. " Discuss this Statement
fully, indicating whether or not it is a valid Observation« Show in as
many specific ways that you can how Marxism related to and reacted against
other political and intellectual movements in the nineteenth Century«

B3. 'Vhilf^ Marx identified the motor in the movement of the dialectic as the
econofaic relations of production, Hegel conceptualized the dialectic and
gave 'jlarxism its historical content." Discuss the relationship between
the f'hilosophies of Hegel and Marx using this passage as a focal point,

B4. Marxism, as both a theory and a revolutionary movement was faced in the
ninc.teenth Century with the dilemma of reconciling the inevitability of
capltalist collapse and socialist revolution with direct action towards
that goal. Using Lichtheim, your readings in Marx, especially the histor-
icc*l works abridged in the Feuer (Class Struggles in France, the Eighteenth
Brjmaire, and the Civil War in France) and the lectures, discuss this issue

B5. It has been argued that in Marx 's early works, culminating in the German
Irjeology of 1847, he held certain views that he repudiated in his later
works. It has also been argued that although Marx and Engels were close
collaborators for 40 years, their concepts of historical and dialectical
materialism were somewhat different. Discuss both these problems of Marx-
ist historiography and explain why you think these argumenta are valid or
not valid.

B6. From a Marxist point of view what is the relationship between morality and
liberalism? How did liberalism become important historically? How do
specific moral tenets correspond to the development of economics and the
relationships between social classes? Use Tom Browns School days, your
readings on Marx and the lectures, indicating whether or not you feel the
Marxist understanding of this problem is valid.

PART C. Answer ONE of these:

Gl. Discuss the similarities and differences between Marxism, Liberalism, and
Positivism in the nineteenth Century, and explain how Nietzsche 's philoso-
phy corresponded to or differed from these intellectual movements?

C2» "The nineteenth Century has been characterized as the "historical Century"
because it began to conceive of men in the context of history and society«
With Nietzsche the historical Century ends because man is now seen in a
fundamentally different way, as an individual alone and apart from history
and Society." Discuss this passage giving specific examples from the
course and from your readings in Nietzsche and indicate whether or not you
agree with the passage.

C3. Compare Nietzsche 's Superman with Hegel 's World Historical Individual.
In what ways do the differences reflect concems of the two men and of
their epoch?

i:sS&J3tltt'Miiim:!»itu»kiiiaLiu^.

Ristory 513

THE ÜNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN
Department of History
January 6, 1969

EUROPEAN CULTÜRE
Final Examination

Mr. Mo««e

DIRECTIONS :

1. Answer THREE questions, one from each ''^''lll^'. ^^^^g you cannot

2. I£ you wrote on any of these problems on your twelve weeKS, y

choose the same questton for ^^J^^^J' .^g ^^ ^^^y, queation. (The

3. Tcni mu8t not write more than THREE (3) ^^^^.^^ ^^^''^^^, , , ße concise

T,A.'a have said that they will not reaa aaa^aonal pages.

and, above all, be specific!)
FAfERSMI^ST BE HAKDED I«TO 197 B^^^r.fJf/R^Sx'inoTlRcSsSS^S'' ^

Mcemm le. papers can be handed in earher bot under no ciKom

iStBVBR WILL ANTONE CONNECTED WITH T)« COÜRSE ACCEPT ^^J^ LATER THA^
TOmSDAY THE 16th. FEMEMBER: NO INCOMPLETES WILL BE GIVEN IN 11«.
EXCEPT FOR SEVERE AND CERTIFIABLE ILLNESS.

^>f.

PARI A. Answer ONE of these: _^^„^.- movement In France and Gertnany

the differlng expericnces of the Frencn rbvüxuw
countty«

^. .^o« Brown'. School day, Is an «^f ^„r,,?;,irilSrr:uL%o1h! "W ^
the landed gentry, In Its attempt to Justtfy ita ii jisagree
llberallsm" of the tndustrlal bourgeolale. Do you ^8"« ^^^^^

ilth thls analyalsT Explaln fully «^"diLrcSnaes thro^ou the
••«i-rv fttc Did liberalism undergo radical changes unruu^
ri«e«;nth ;entiry"and still «alntaln an Internal conslstency^

PAW B. Andrer Offi. <»« ^^^^^ ^^^ soclallst movements have distlngulshed
Bl. Answer X or Y. Marxlsm and "antian » movementa by character-

themselvea from other revolutlonary ^^eorlea ana m Marxlsm

Ulng these latter "utoplan" and "unsclentlf Ic as oppoae
whlch ts "sclenttftc."

the nlneteenth and twentleth centorles "scu a categorles

th. categorles «^^5^""-^J^,;:t;„5^^S^t£fer::ce: 'e^

«Ight be »ore "»««f „J" ""^*"" ^i^e to explaln fully what is «eant
other movements and Marxlsm .' ue sure tu ai^y

by "scientific" or "utopian."

>f— r«ef»9Bir^

• ^ ^" ••»*vir<^^v^*'v«

jK.

klstory 513

-2-

Mr. Mosse

%:y:

-.fit

tl 1

t

•2. '»larxtMi l8 certainly more o£ a reactlon to the llberallsm o£ the nlne-
teenth Century than It Is to conservatlsm." Discuas thia Statement
fully, Indlcating «hether or not It ta a valld Observation. Show In aa
many areclf ic way« that you can how Marxlsm related to and reacted againac
other iKJlltlcal and Intellectual movementa In the nineteenth Century.

B3. 'VhlU. Marx tdentlfted the motor in the movement o£ the dialectic as the
econoialc relatlona o£ production, Hegel conceptualized the dialectic ana
gavedarxlsm ita historical content." Diacusa the relatlonahip between
the rfciloaophies of Hegel and Marx uaing thia passage as a focal polnt.

J*. Marxlam, as both a theory and a revolutionary movement was f«ced in the
nineteenth century wlth the dllemma of reconclUng the tnevitability of
capltallat collapae and aociallst revolutlon wlth direct f «ton towarda
that goal. üalng Lichthelm, your readinga in Marx. e^P««^*^^^ '=>'^,"^'"'
t«.l worka abrldged In the Feuer (Class Strugglea In France, the Elghteenth
Branalre, and the Civil War In France) and the lectures, discuss thia iasue

B5. Ii; haa been argued that in Marx'a early worlcs. culmlnatlng In the ge^säS.
IdeoloRV of 1847 . he held certain views that he repudlated In hls later
Mork8.lt haa also been argued that although Marx and Engels were close
collaboratora for 40 years. their concepta of hlatorlcal and dlalectlcai
materlallsm were aomewhat different. Discuss both these problems o' "««"
lat hlatorlography and explaln why you thlnk these argumenta are valld or
not valld.

M. From a Marxist polnt of vlew what la the relatlonahip between mora 11 ty and
Itberalism? How dld llberallsm become Ijnportant hlstorlcally f n°" °°
specific moral teneta correspond to the development of economlca and the
relatlonahlps between social classes? Use Tom Browns School days, your
readinga on Marx and the lectures. Indlcating whether or not you feel the
Marxist underatanding of thia prob lern la valld.

PAKT C. Anawer ONE of these: .

Cl. Dlacuaa the almllarltlea and dlfferences between Marxlsm, Llberallsm, and
Poaltlvlam In the nineteenth Century, and explaln how Nietzsche s phlloso-
phy correaponded to or dlffered from these Intellectual movementa 7

k-

C2.

ff

C3.

•^e nineteenth Century has been characterized as the 'historical Century
becauee it began to conceive of men in the contcxt of history and society.
Wlth Nietzsche the historical century ends because man is now seen in a
fimdamentally different way, as an individual alone and apart from history
and society," Discuss this passage giving specific cxamples from the
course and from your readinga in Nietzsche and indicate whether or not you
«gree with the passage.

Compare Nietzsche 's Superman with Hegel» s World Historical Individual.
In what ways do the differences reflect concems of the two men and of
their epoch?

i

1*

r

r«.

K
■■*;

i
I

h
h

t
»

i

3F

History 513

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department o£ History
January 6, 1969

EUROPEAN CULTÜRE
Final Examination

Mr. Mosse

DIRECTIONS :

1. Answer THREE questions, one from each category.

If you wrote on any of these problems on your twelve weeks, you cannot

choose the same question for the final«

You must not vrite more than THREE (3) PAGES on each question, (The

T.A.'s have said that they will not read additional pages« Be concise

and, above all, be specific I)

2.

3.

PAPERS MUST BE HANDED INTO 197 BASCOM BETWEEN 9 A.M. AND NOON ON THURSDAY,
JANUARY 16. PAPERS CAN BE HANDED IN EARLIER BUT UNDER NO CIRCtMSTANCES
VmATEVER WILL ANYONE CONNECTED WITH THE COURSE ACCEPT PAPERS LATER THAN NOON
TriüRSDAY THE 16th. REMEMBER: NO INCOMPLETES WILL BE GIVEN IN THE COURSE
EXCEPT FOR SEVERE AND CERTIFIABLE ILLNESS.

v>

i;

PART A. Answer ONE of these:

AI. Compare the differences in the Romantic movement in France and Germany

between 1815 and 1850. Discuss the Impact that the movements had on the
political development of these countries. Draw also on the pre-French
revolutionary intellectual currents that foreshadowed Romanticism.

A2.

Compare the different conceptions of nationalism held in France and
Germany after the French Revolution. Take into serious cons iderat ion
the differing experiences of the French Revolution and Napoleon in each
country.

A3.

"Tom Brown *s School days is an example of the last days of a dying class:
the landed gentry, in its attempt to justify its liberalism to the "new
liberalism'* of the industrial bourgeoisie.'* Do you agree or disagree
with this analysis? Explain fully what is meant by liberalism, landed
gentry, etc. Did liberalism undergo radical changes throughout the
nineteenth Century and still maintain an internal consistency?

PART B. Answer ONE of these:

Bl. Answer X or Y. Marxism and Marxian socialist movements have distinguished
themselves from other revolutionary theories and movements by character-
izing these latter "utopian" and "unscientif ic" as opposed to Marxism
which is "scientific."

(X) Using your readings in Hobsbawm explain how the social movements of
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries discussed in the book fit into
the categories delineated above, or if they do not, what categories
might be more useful in understanding the differences between these
other movements and Marxism? Be sure to explain fully what is meant
by "scientific" or "utopian."

(Y) From your other readings and the lectures explain the differences

between Marxian theory and the theoretical conceptions of the social*
ists who were considered to be Utopian, i.e. Proudhon, St. Simon,
Owen, and Fourier. You may discuss other socialists but in all cases
refer specifically to the ideas of the men you are discussing. Be
sure to explain fully what is meant by "scientific" or "utopian."

!X

History 513

-2-

Mr« Mosse

B2.

B3.

B4.

B5.

'Marxism is certainly more of a reaction to the liberallsm of the nine-
teenth Century than it is to conservatism." Discuss thls Statement
fully, indicating whether or not it is a valid Observation, Show in as
many specific ways that you can how Marxism related to and reacted against
other political and intellectual movements in the nineteenth Century.

'Vhile Marx identified the motor in the movement of the dialectic as the
economic relations of production, Hegel conceptualized the dialectic and
gave Marxism its historical content." Discuss the relationship between
the philosophies of Hegel and Marx using this passage as a focal point.

Marxism, as both a theory and a revolutionary movement was faced in the
nineteenth Century with the dilemma of reconciling the inevitability of
capitalist collapse and socialist revolution with direct action towards
that goal, Using Lichtheim, your readings in Marx, especially the histor-
ical worka abridged in the Feuer (Class Struggles in France, the Eighteenth
Brumaire, and the Civil War in France) and the lectures, discuss this issue

It has been argued that in Marx 's early works, culminating in the German
Ideology of 1847, he held certain views that he repudiated in his later
works. It has also been argued that although Marx and Engels were close
collaborators for 40 years, their concepts of historical and dialectical
materialism were somewhat different. Discuss both these problems of Marx-
ist historiography and explain why you think these argumenta are valid or
not valid.

B6. From a Marxist point of view what is the relationship between morality and
liberalism? How did liberalism become important historically? How do
specific moral tenets correspond to the development of economics and the
relationships between social classes? Use Tom Browns School days, your
readings on Marx and the lectures, indicating whether or not you feel the
Marxist understanding of this problem is valid.

PART C. Answer ONE of these:

Cl. Discuss the similarities and differences between Marxism, Liberalism, and
Positivism in the nineteenth Century, and explain how Nietzsche 's philoso-
phy corresponded to or differed from these intellectual movements?

C2» '*rhe nineteenth Century has been characterized as the "historical Century"
because it began to conceive of men in the context of history and society*
With Nietzsche the historical Century ends because man is now seen in a
fundamentally different way, as an individual alone and apart from history
and Society." Discuss this passage giving specific examples from the
course and from your readings in Nietzsche and indicate whether or not you
agree with the passage.

C3. Compare Nietzsche 's Superman with Hegel 's World Historical Individual.
In what ways do the differences reflect concems of the two men and of
their epoch?

'.tnUiUTiHfiiiriiiii I I I i"i 1^-

..A.^4*.«'« -I- IJ,-.!.«

!»i:,v

■ ''f'Vi

513

EUl 19M

_ Miliwr» ,tk» 4iff«M(n««» in ktoa HoMutklo tt«fV*a«nt In frtmmt
>*ni «•twMy lM«wt«a 1800 aa« 1815* rimusa thc lapaot ihot ttwaa
/ mmtmmfm HmI en «ti» pollUMO. <l«Mle{ara»t oT thc«« eo«intri«a«
ft^ :M M «toa p9m»inNm»h vavolutloearjr IntallMtwa ocirraRtw

p»% tm—tmimmA fieaantiolaa.

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V&r"'

;<■' ■•t.

.(

8#lio<dL tmi% Xm «n ««Miij^t of tht l«8t tejr« of • djriag
#lMsi IMi Unfttd ctntvy« in i;tui iitttmut to JiMiUfjf X%m \ü\ffkx%XUm
,.,y;^.i.^^ «tei ^^Mm litNiiiaiatt^ of th* iniuatrial Wiir<8«oi«i«# » De

9W ACTf* or eiMMprM «ith thi« anMlXülot »piain fully «hftt ia
MM« l^f litanaiMM tentf«d g^ntry» «to« ten litenlira underso
«M&fMa «Jtanc»» througtumt tht nlntW«nth ainwn^tü Mntur^ «nd
•tlM^ iMLiitvan «n liittmia €ioMist;«Mjp?

hl. -.'>,'

»»■■ Anaayjf A- y jp^ Munlaa aatf Harxlan solealiat aevtacnta ha««
d|«un«tti«)iM tbnnaXvaa fron •%\mx rarolttUaimry thaorics mrA
mm^mmiAm ^ atiai»«t«nali« thaaa la««ar «t nttftpUn" and
*«mo&aaUria* •• oppoaad ta iianaaa «tuah ia «aaiaaUfle*«

■#.•

I)

\. ■ .Mi ',■>*• -1 v^~

Af Mi»S fiMk^r tmm.ntm in RoteteM wrUIo ho« th« «ooial aot#Miits
•r tte nimtttnth and tiNifiti#th «•ntorit« «iMuastd in ttm hodk
nt inik» Vtm mktmBnt^m (AmXlnmtma mboiNit er if thcjr do not^ whiit
MtegoriM «li^t bt mmrm «Mful in itiid^ntandinc th« tfiff«r«M««
Wtmmi thM« othtr »otm^nt» mnt Mancirai b* mr« to Mplain
fio»l9 J0m% M MMk to '*MiwUfld''<irnttooian''.

ju>-

♦v

•♦J'**" *•■» »tha» raaAinita «ntf tlia laatnr«« esplain Uta diff«rana«a
>it«iRan Banlan tlwaty aad tha thaoratloal aanaaptiona or tha
!iro»iall«to mio «ay« oanaUaya« t>o 1>a Utapian, i*a. firoudhan« St. Slaon.
pmn «n« Vanrlar« Zan aay dlaeaaa etaiav aoalaliata Irat ir all oaaaa
«afa» apaomaaUy to tha ttm» af tha aa« you ara «iaeuaaSn«. Ba
•wra •• acplain fuUf «tet ia Maat ter «aaiantifia* or*utoDian.«

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1?--?^^?* ^ •*»»**i?*' ■«• «^ • »••tt«» tc tha libanaiaa af tha
O^tMott) «MtUTf ttiaa it ia »a aoMarvatiaa*" Oimw thia atataaaat
miy« tnli«Rftias irtiatiMr «rnot it ia • mU« ataaiaiaUan« sha«

i^LfLS^^L*!^*!^*^ •*•• laa a«i ha» Maniaa vtlata« ta aa« vaaata«
•mm* 0ml pailUMl IM« iataUMtaal «ovaamta ia tha «'^«^

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Saö)^23il«R:.^'i^.fc^ ,±ÜÖldÄ3v..«-H.:.::«-^^.

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mrntmtt m fkmä^'^Mmrr^^ 1968

PME« t

tut

VelAtloMhip tetiie«ii th$ jMLlosophleii cTBtg«! and Haarx using thl»

■^^;^'*1;.

f ?.

^v.

7* ibunclMit ii« 1>oth n thtorjr atid • Mvblutlonary 0o?ftB#nt na«
fiufttd In tlui nlntteenth oentury vlth ttm &llmmam of r«oonallins
thm Xn^ltmhXXXtr of Kapitalist etiULap«« aod sMlallst mrolutlon
«Ith dlrant aotloA tOMaxda that goal« Vvlng IAath«lat jouv readlna«
In Harxt aapMlaUy thf hlttörloal worte abrldged In tht Ptuar (
Claaa Strugglsa In ftanott th« Elghtaanth Bnusalra» and th« Civil
\fmT Xn Frande) and tm laatttTta^ dlaenaa thla l««iia«

1 ■ ■ .. r-

i'V

9# Xt tea 1>e«n argned that in Hut^ early wirk«t eulalnatlns In th«
Oeraan Ideo;Lo«y of 1847» hm hald oartaln irlews that ho IMar
ropudlated in hlo lator «orka* It ha« also boon arauod that
althotigh Marx and Snsolo «aro oloao oolXaboxatora for 40 yoarot thalr
eoneopto of tt hlatorloal and dlalootloal aatorlallsa vora aoaoiihat
dlffaront« Dlaoima botl^ theaa problem« of Marxist hlotorlogxmphjr
and oxpliAii ^^ yoa IpSläk thooo arsiasanta ajpa iralld or not valld«

">-■; V

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f.

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9* Fsroa a Rarxlat polnt of tlow^nhat la tho ralatlonahlp botwotn
aoxmllty and llt)ozmllaa# flow dld llborallsa beoosa laportant
hlatorloally? fiow do epoolflo aoral toneta oorroopond to
the doTelopaont of oooaoaloa and tho ralatlonohlpa hotireen
acolal olasaeo«? Ose Xoa Brovna Sohoctdays« y<imt sraadlnsa on
Karx and the looturaot Indloatl^ whether or not jfoa faal tho
Harxlat undarataadlng of thl« probloa la Talld« '

^

/

10» Diaoula th« alallarltiaa anft tlfforanooo hotwoan ifarxloa«
UberaUoat and Fooltlvlaa In tho nlnataenth oonturyt and
axplaln ho« aiatrooo*a iM^looophy ooGrraapondod to or dlffarad
froa thaoa intallaotaal aoataontat

c

■■¥■

m

11» ^Zho nlnataonth oantary haa baan oharaotarlsod aa tha
'■hlatorloal oantury^ btoauao It hasan to aonoalva of min Xn tho
oontext of hlotory and 8ooloty# Vlth Klotaaoha th« hlatorloal
oontury anda baeaua« atot aan ia noa oaan In a fundaaentaUy dlff arant

i^^apirt fraa hlatory and aoolatj« y^99 attoh
>^ Dlaaitao thl« paaoaaa slvina apaolflo
•xamplaa froa tha ooaraa and froa yoar rsadlnga In isiotaaoha
and Indleata atatthar or not yaa agroa i^th tha paaaago*

aayt aa an IndlTld

lÄi''^'^ i-'^'^' •

HlBtory 513 Final Eram/FÄH 1968

page 2.

6. ""While Marx Identlfled th« »/s«.^. « *.w **»«

•• economic relatlons ef pr^Jc^fJ« i2 *?' »«'«««t of/dlaleotlo
dlaleetlc and save Srii.» ft« JJ-^ ?**?^ oonoeptualized the
relatlonshlp bftilen Se ShuLooSi?«^^'! content.» Dl.oua. the
Passage as a fooal point. ^ ' * Hegel and Karx u.ln« thl.

?äcrfi'?Ae^'lL1L;,f ,%-^^^^^ «ove^ent ^a

in Marx, especially tÄstSicfri^^w^'i^.^''****^'"» ^*>'^' readings
Class Struggles m Pi^nc?; tS^^Sgh?een?h B^^^f^ ^" *!?* ^•"«' <
war m France) and the leit«?Lf lisH^^^^Jj;; »«^ *^* Civil

A

(

^

c

dlfferent. Dlscuss Sth tSSe SiM^i *^*."^^"^*^^*"» ''«'« aoaewhat
and explam wh, ,ou Ä'?5i:e^Lli:rnt.^rjX^^\-i°SSf,^

hl.torically? Höh do a^ecinc iorii^I^pi^ ^**'°°'* l»portant
the development of econS^tcs anJ Se rlJatLn«^^'*'^!,*"
social classes.? üae Tom Browns s^^L^J ""^^P* between
Harx and the lectures. iSdlJ^L» wJfÄ'**^^* ^*"' readings on
«arxiat understandinJ*oJ"?iJf ^bL'ffrvSidf '°" '"' *^«

U^xin;Sf"aiS%SiSJ^ii^f; tS »f-f^x-^noe« between «arxiam.
explam how NietZMe'i DhfiiLoS! nlneteenth Century, and
irom these intSinju^l'^SÜS^SS?*'""'*^^'*"^** ^«^ ^ <iirterea

«ä

SC

11. "The nlneteenth oenturj haa b*«*. <.h<.^.*. . .

-hletorloal Century- becauaJ i? ba^« characterieed a« the

oontext of hlstory and so^JItv uf?h Jf f°"««l'« of «fn in the

Century ends becauaelta mn is n^ «•Ü'J''"^!: **"* hlJtorioal

«ay. as an individuaimSirt from M.f^^« L* ^^nd^^entally dlfferent

>-**w>t1.t» oertury Jh^T^ m^uS Jhf« "^ soclety^ v^9V~mioh

examples from the courae anrf r!^^ ^° Passage glvlng apeciflc

i'lnal i-j^m 5i3

r«ii Ji^63

A

l

i^evoxuwon and Napoleon In emch eountry«

sUll RÄintÄln an Internal oonalsteno»? "'"'—»-*■ oenwir* and
' ^r^lP^^f f ¥^1^* tterxian and harxlan soiealiat Bovcacrt« hM*
un«ol«ntlfio- a« oppoaed to hanla« whlch l8 -scientific».

B. Froo >our oth*r reodlns« and th« lecture« exolaln th» AM-r»*.^^^.
between '«rzlan theorv Anri «!>»» tK«^«««»^«--.^^ «-»pj-aan x,n«f dlffcren«««

THB UHIVBSin OP WISCONSIir
tefMurtawnt of Hlstory
Settiim 1968

HISTOW 513flhirop»«n Qiltwl Histimr 1S15>1870>

Final BxawiiMitloa

MH, WA'yWHAIW

towwir <ay tte— «ftiooa ^ tim» allcwa

t* *Tlie kings «od prUst« of tba i^st had to giv« «ay to tha tmalnaai

meA ataan^mgiiies of tha prasant.' (H0B8BAMH) How far doaa tlia hlatory
of cUa parlod baar oat tha validity of thla aaaartiont

2« Analysa tha contxaat batwaan tha ronaatie aad tha dawocratle concapt
of aatlonalla«.

3« Hhat waa tha eomiaetioiii batiiaaa
tha parlod 1815 to 1848?

aacrat aoeiatlaa and ravolution during

4» Diacaaa tha phanonanoii of ravolutlonary daaoeracy, aad accouat for
ita auccaaaaa 9!oA falluraa durlag thla parlod •

5« To irfiat axtantt ^ «ny» imui MarxiaBi laaa atoplan thaa othar achoola
of aiaclaliant

6. Daacrlha tha nala faaturas of Bonapartlam, mcA axplaia Umia Hapolaon*(
wnßtm%% In daatroying tha Saeond Frandi Rapublle«

7. kM9mM% tha importanea of tha Flrat Intaroational in tha hlatory of tha
loropaan labour «Myvaa»nt.

8. Hhat dlfflcultlaa dld tha Gathollc Ghnrch faca in caving to tarM vith
llbarali«a and daaoeracyt

9. Ditcttaa tha attitnda of anjr oqo of tha folloving to tha prohlaM of
aoeial confliett

a) Itovalla

h) Charlaa Fawriar

c) itonori da Balaac

d) üainrloh Haina
a) aoAord Owaalar

\

THB umvERsm ar Wisconsin

DepartflMnt of Hlstory
Semester I 1966*67

Hlttory 513

Mr. Moase

MAKB-ÜP riMAL BZAM

Antver one questlon tinder each Ronan mioiaral

y

I« (40 ninutes)

A.

C.

Ditcusa tha rola of che Indlvidual in Marx^a thought.
Coopare and contraat Niet zache in thla regard and
explaln» In tersa of the thought of aach, their
differencea on thia acore.

What were the vieva of Hegel and Man in regard to
the queatlon of free will and determlfilam? Are they
esaentially almilar, or dld Marx alter Hegel 'a vleva
in thla reapectT If ao, for vhat reaaona in terms
of the needa of hla ayaten?

Sxplaln carefully the dlalectlc in Hegel. How doea
Marx change the dlalectlc and to vhat enda? Doea
the dlalectlc acconpllah what Is Intended in Hegel
and Marx?

II« (30 minutea)

A.

Conpare Nlatsache'a Overman wlth Hegel *a World Hlatorlcal
Indlvidual. In what waya do the differencea reflect
concema of the two amn and of thalr apocha7

Dlacuaa the liberal vlew of awrality. How dld Marx
explaln and analyse the liberal viewT What waa Nietsache ^
attltude towarda ItT If theae two thlnkera denied the
baaea of liberal aorality, upon whac, if anythiog, dld
they baae their own noral vleva?

lU. (50 minutea)

••The cultural hiatory of 19th Century Burope may be explalned
aa the Interactlon between two atreama of thought, the one the
Inherltor of the Bnlightenment, the other — ita antitheala ••
that of tha Roaantica.*^

Do you agreeT If so, Juatlfy your vlew on the baaia of the
material atudiea in thla courae. If not, Juatlfy your vlew
either by diaproving thia one or by preaenting your o%m
alternative viev.

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

May 28, I966

History 512 - European Cultural History
FINAL EXAMINATION

Mr» Mosse

I» Choose One; (l hour)

a, "the next higher genus of the preceding species, is potentially,
but not yet actually present in the preceding one •...'*

Choose one example from the 17th and one frcm the l8th Century
to illus träte this dialectic.

b. All the works or movements we have analysed made an attempt
to redefine reality. Being very specific, in your examples,
discuss:

1) Are there some constants which run through all or
most of these redef inttions?

2) How are the redef initions related to a changing
view of human nature (including man's attitude
towards the world),

II • If you had lived at the time a movement we have analyzed flourished,
or a work you have read was published (the two are not mutually
exclusive), which of these woul,d have come dosest to giving you
satisfaction, and why? (30 minutes)

III, (20 minutes)

Briefly describe the limitis of religious toleration or toleration
of religious experience for TWO of the following:

Voltaire
John Wesley

(

Arminians or Socinians

\

/

TBE UNIVIBSITT OT WZSGCnilf
tapartBftnt of Rittory
Mareh 3I» 1966

Rltftory 512 • Oaltural Ristory
Make-Op Examina t Ion

Hr. Moaaa

!• Dlacuaa ehe dlffaranca ef tha eoncapt of
(20 Binutaa)

vaaacQ for Faaeal and Hobbaa

2.

Coapara and contraat tha Bacoqua and Claaaleiam uaing at laaat 3
concrete exaoplea apraad ovar two dlffatant araaa of hunan endaavor«
(30 mlnutaa)

\:

Hlstozy 513

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of Hlstory

Cultural Hlstory

Hr. Moose

SU WKEKS MAKE ÜP EXAM
Mondny^ Noveirf>er 7» 1966

Be sure to aDsver all parta of tha queation. Be apeciflc.

a.

Dlacuss the ralatlooahip of the Indlvldual to the atate In:

b.
c.

Hegel

Novalis

Jahn, Flehte or Herder (one of theae only).

b. Rov irould you conyare the concept of the relatlonahlp betveen

c.

tmiaaeau (atate «hieb boofc by Rousseau you read)
The Andaluaian Anarchlata
The pre Marxian aociallata

I*'" ^m t

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

May 28, I966

History 512 - European Cultural History
FINAL EXAMINATION

Mr. Mosse

I. Choose One; (l hour)

a. "the ncxt higher genus of the preceding species, is potentially,
but not yet actually present in the preceding one,..."

Choose one example from the 17th and one frcm the l8th Century
to illustrate this dialectic.

b. All the vjorks or movements we have analysed made an attempt
to redefine reality. Being very specific, in your cxamplcs,
discuss:

1) Are there some constants which run through all or
most of these redef initions?

2) How are the redef initions related to a changing
View of human nature (including man's attitude
towards the world).

II.

If you had lived at the time a movement we have analyzed flourished,
or a work you have read was published (the two are not mutually
exclusive), which of these would have come dosest to giving you
satisfaction, and why? (30 minutes)

III. (20 minutes)

Brieflv describe the limitis of religious tolcration or toleration
of religious experience for TWO of the following:

Voltaire

:>

John Wesley

Arminians or Socinians

rm wxvfnmr or nxiocMZM

Umm9tmt II 1965*66

Rifltory ;12 * lorap««! CMltoral Rlttovx

Mr, Mmm

1. HUcvM tlM followiiig« teiag •^•ciflcf

(60

)

«ist «orlui w «DVMMot« w Im«« •tadUd waM yoo «MlyM m
havlag wmim • teeislv« tun toimv^s «MülnlMi Mi «Iqrt tkU

Mau ilMUMUs MM «Otte Md MMMttf «hieh CMi bafoM

«ftar.

b. U thm mtd ^tmculnUmT nmllj a MaaUgful cam ia Chia cMtaxtt
ti M «917T Xf Mt» asplaia alM«

U. Im woM TM aMlyM aad dawrite cte 4iffa
af tha iatailaetMla aa4 po^lar cultttra ia
tratiaM« (30 alMtaa)

batMaa tha caltava
fariodf Um IIIm*

nx. Hm inpartMt Ma ratiMallM far tW ^ tha followiag» aad «hat
lladta 414 thay pat ü^m tha ua af maaMt

a» Valtaira
h* laaaaaa«

e. Maataalay

4» SMial

IHB UMXVBUXtT iM WItOCMXN

te^rtwnt ef autoxy

UmtMtmx XZ 196$*66

Hifltory 512 • K«rop««i teltural Hiatory

Mr, Mmm

X« MtfCMa th« followlag» teiag •paelflci (60 «imiu«)

b.

«hat mrk« or wvtMat« «t hm^ «CndUd «mU ymi «mI^m m
havlBS M^ • dMUlv« tat« toiMnrte MmlwiM Md «hyt Uli»
mmmm dUMuMljig «ow vock« m4 MVMnit« «liieh ewt b«foM

Xi tiM wtd **MailavlMi*' vtally m mnUigtul tmtm in thU coaUstT
Xf M frtiyr Xf Mt» MpUls «Im«

XX. Hm «Mia TM «aalyM and dtacrita tlM diUmnmom batWM tte c«lta«
•i tbm UtallMtMU Mi popoUr coltwa in mt pariodt Um 111m*
tratlMs« (30 AiMfeaa)

nx. Hm ispMtMt MS ratlMallM fer WO of tte follawiag»
llalt« ditf thay p«t «ipM tte ms of naMsT

and idiae

m. Valtalta

Cm Viaataalay
4» toeüiiaBa

»*

lÜfllinMKMiatlUtb

1 II ll [ llt .->-.■

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
First Semester 1964-5

»l^ v

r.

■■fW;'.

HISTORY 513 (European Cultural History 1815-1870)
Tvelve Weeks Examination

MR. MÜSSE
December 11^ 1964

v>

'^:^l';

.'j.

fj.

?-::

iM' < i . . 'S'

I, Briefly, teil how De Ruggiero distinguishes : (15 min,)

a, liberalism from democracy

b, English from French liberalism
c« liberalism from conservatism.

II.

III •

CR

Briefly, in a few sentences, what was the view of man^s capacities
(unlimited, Optimist, pessimist) of the following: characterize it
and then give one example as proof : (15 min.)

a« Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown

b* J. S, Hill OR Bethnamism

>
c. Social Darwinism

(answer ONEK20 min.)

a. What speclfically was the significance of 1848 and 1871 for Marx?

b. Gompare and Contrast Engels and Marx conceming:

1. nature of man^s freedom and determinism

2» theory of revolution
BE AS SPECIFIC AS YOU GAN

Note: This exam is supposed to test specific knowledge. The final will give
you more Space to express yourself •

k

U

• <

■O:
c

i

\f

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONIN

Department of History

First Semester, 1964-65

History 513

SIX WEEKS EXAM
October 26, 1964

Mr. Mosse

I.

(30 min.) Wliat are the chief "absolute values" which Kant, Novalis
and Goethe 's Werther proclaimed? How can they be related to the
growing ideal of the Volk or of the new nationalism?

II.

(20 min.) Very briefly (in a few sentences) 1) outline the definition
of freedom implicit or explicit in FOÜR of the following; 2) in a word
mention the movement this definition infLuenced.

a. Fichte

b. Schlegel *s Lucinde

c. Joseph de Maitre

d. Charles Fourier
ۥ St, Simon

f • Friedrich Max Mueller

g. Houston Stewart Chamberlain

I.

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
History 513

European Cultural History - Mr. Mosse

Final Examination
First Semester 196^^-65

You have had many different views of man and bis place in the i\rorld
presented to you in this course. IJhich one, in your opinion, is dosest
to the realities of the 19th Century, and which one, in your opinion,
is furthest removed from these realities? Always illustrate with
specific examples.

(60 min, )

II. What is the meaning of the folloving words for Nietzsche; and their
signif icance

(15 min.)

a. Appolonian and Dyonisian

b. the herd

c. fear

III. What is the meaning of *'morality" for the following; please give
specific examples:

(ea. 35 min.)
a. Liberalism

b. Marxi

sm

c. new nationalism (Volk)

>*AMIMtiflUMIlHCbMiMtciuft*M»a*«MMi*«

»t -itit**-'*

rf

'«.

:.M:

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
First Semester 1964-5

ji^jfi ^][ST0RY 513 (European Cultural History 1815-1870)

V*9i

■t,<>„t^''^

'.>.'•' 2s ■'

'vi?'^

^twelve Weeks Examination

MR. MOSSE
December 11^ 1964

■•^y-

^^^•r

,;^ •) f

:5";,

1^ Briefly, teil how De Ruggiero distinguishes : (15 min,)

a, liberalism from democracy

b, English from French liberalism

c, liberalism from conservatism.

11 •

III,

OR

Briefly, in a few sentences, what was the view of man 's capacities
(unlimited, optimist, pessimist) of the following: characterize it
and then give one example as proof : (15 min.)

a« Thomas Hughes , Tom Brovm

b, J, S, Mill OR Bethnamism

c. Social Darwinism

fansver ONE) (20 min.)

a. What specifically was the significance of 1848 and 1871 for Marx?

b. Compare and Contrast Engels and Marx conceming:

1, nature of man 's freedom and detenninism

2« theory of revolution
BE AS SPECIFIC AS YOU CAN

E-*

f

r,

. Note: Thls exam is supposed to test specific kno^.l«dge. The final will give
you more space to express yourself .

\

X

THE tJNIVEFBmf OP WISOONSXH
Deparcvent of Hlttory
History 513
December, I964

Kake-"Up

Mr. Moss«

1# V.liat wfts the role of Protestantlsm in DeRugjprlero^s definltlon
of liberalisni? (I5 minj

2. How did the French Revolution Influence Marx'a thoußht?
(20 minj

3« Hughes, in Tom B r ovm ^ ar>A Mill ernploy the Idea of com^titfon
How did they d"efine it and do they differ from Darwinism?
(15 minJ

I«p

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

Historv 512 (lif5b) - European Cultural History, l6XO-l8l5 - Mr> Mosse

Six Weeks Examination - March 9, 190^

I. The first three parts of the Leviathan are called "of man/' of a
Commonwealth,*' of a Christian Commonwealth.*' Why do you think
specifically the third part is important to his argument?

(20 Minutes)

II. Do you think two of the following can be related in a meaningful
fashion to what we call the *baroque,*' using Nussbaum's and my
definitions as far as you think them applicable:

(30 Minutes)

a. Casuistry

b. Lully

c • Bernini
d* Bossuet

e. capitalist development described in Nussbaum

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Second Setnester, 1963-6^+

History 512 - European Cultural History - Mr* Mosse

TWELVE WEEKS EXAMINATION - APRIL 20, I96U

I« VJhat were the most significant alternatives to absolutism put

forward in the 17th Century? Analyze at Icast two of them giving
the theorists with which they can be associated. (20 minutes)

II. Do you think that R. N. Knox is fair to Pascal and the Jansenists?
Be specific how your own reading of Pascal conflicts with or
bears out his strictures« (20 minutes)

III« Very briefly comment on what Pascal means by 2 of the following«
(10 minutes)

a« thought

b. diversion

c* miracles

d« the infinite

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Second Semester, I963-64

History 512 - European Cultural History - Mr. Mosse

TWELVE WEEKS EXAMINATION - APRIL 20, 1964

I.

II.

What were the most significant alternatives to absolutism put
forward in the lyth Century? Analyze at least two of them giving
the theorists with which they can be associated. (20 minutes)

Do you think that R. N. Knox is fair to Pascal and the Jansenists?
Be specific how your own reading of Pascal conflicts with or
bears out his strictures. (20 minutes)

III. Very briefly comment on what Pascal means by 2 of the followinfi,
VlO minutes)

a, thought

b. diversion
c* miracles

d. the infinite

5^, 19^

i3U (

OßMKtikL Ufranft ldt>l870) • Ifar. IMMMi

rtrtt taMMiMTf 196t '6}

I* BUeuM teywiiwidi WIIIIjm«* vi«v of igtet laetors scccMot tar
tlHi imml9^irmsLt of iritiidli 1 Brian ticii», Iflur 414 tlil4i 4#»

Mill«ct ItMlf Ia tte «ritlagi of Hwtemrtli» itelUy
Cmrlyl«« Iw did rii«M mm vi«v tte mU «f tte w «f
Uittitrs?

U.

£ttct:or«

tar tte lüdllttM 0f tte mil^li— it; M
Vf I91I1 eaoturyt Mmimm «fcelf icmlly utet
GmUmi Ute fBtetiii to «ithlsi tteir

k

f

/ /

/

)

/

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department o£ Hlstory

HISXORY 151a - EUROPEAN CULTURE

Slx Weeks Examlnatlon « October 19, I962

I. What Is the polnt Williams attempts to make in analycing
the romantic definition of art and it's relationship to
Society? How does this relate or differ from what has
been discussed in the lectures? (20 min« ca)

1(1 m "Burke was perhaps the last serious thinker who could
find the organic in existing society»*' Where did
Rousseau and Werther find it? And where did ONE of
the following find it:

Fichte

Chateaubriand
Madame de Stael

(30 min« ca«)

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
First Semester I962-63

HISTORY 151 (EUROPEAN CULTURAL HISTORY) - Mr. Mosse

Twelve Weeks Examination
November 30, I962

I. Answer ONE (I5 minutes)

a» In what manner can Williams* critique of Shaw be said to be a
Marxist critique?

b. Why and in what manner is William Morris so important for Williams
and the Interregnum he describes?

c. Is Williams' socialism showing when he calls the period you read
the "Interregnum"?

II. Comment briefly on what Marx or Engels meant by the following:
Answer TWQ onlyj,

"there is absolutely no room for a creator or a ruler" (Engels)

".all previous historical movements were movements of minorities

or in the interests of minorities" (Manifesto)

"Thus dialectics reduces itself to the science of the general

laws of motion" (Engels)

"Social life is essentially practical" (Marx)

The working class "have no ideals to realize but to set free

the elements of the new society" (Marx)

III. (20 minutes) ONE of these

«• Without going into the whole ramification of the dialectic discuss
the place of individualism in Marx contrasting it with the place
of individualism in de Toucquevilleo

b. Contrast and compare Marx and Engels view of politics and political
action with that held by de Toucqueville,

\

HISTORY I5la (EUROPEAN CULTÜRAL HISTORY, 1815-1670 ) - MR. MOSSE

First Semester, I96O-6I

Six Weeks Examination

11:00

October 18, i960

It What, in your opinion, did THREE of the followino' add to the growth
of a romantic ideology: (^5 minutes)

Ei Chateaubriand

b, Arndt

0« Novalis

d« Adam Mueller

6« Houston Stewart Chamberlain

i

II^How would you characterize the attitude of the men you have read about
^or which we have discussed towards IWO of the following and why did they
have this attitude: (25 minutes)

a« Science
b, Capitalism
c> The State

/

>

(

HISTORY 151a (EUROPEAN CÜLTURAL HISTORY) - MR. MOSSE

Twelve Weeks Examlnati9n

November 30^ I96O

I. (25 minutes) Answer TWO of these:

C.

In what way can Jeremy Bentham be called a Liberal?
Is John Stuart Hill in bis Autobiographv moving away
from Liberal ism? ^ ^

What is "National Liberalism" and why is it still
Liberal ism?

What does the "Socialism" in "Christian Socialism"
mean?

II. (25 minutes) You have read two criticisms about Hegel:

A.
B.

Engels held that the inner logic of his System led to
tarne political conclusions

Hans Kohn talks about Hegel 's sanctification of an
instinctive and naive Machiavellianiom,

Analyze ONE of these criticisms: what does the critic mean
and do you believe him to be cosrrect ot incortect, and if
so, why?

HISTORY 151a (EUROPEAN CULTÜRAL HISTORY) - MR. MOSSE

Twelve Weeks Examinat Ion

November 30, I96O

I« (25 mlnutes) Answer TWO of these:

A. In what way can Jeremy Bentham be called s. Liberal?

B. Is John Stuart Mill in Ms Autobiographv movlng away
from Liberal Ism?

C. What is "National Llberallsm" and wby is it still
Liberal ism?

D. What does the "Socialism" in "Christian Socialism"
mean?

II. (25 mlnutes) You have read two criticlsms about Hegel:

A. Engels held that the inner logic of bis System led to

tarne politlcal conclusions
B* Hans Kohn talks about Hegel 's sanctification of an

inst ine tive and naive Machiavellianlsm,

Analyze ONE of these criticlsms: what does the critic mean
and do you believe him to be ccjcrect or Incortect, and if
so, why?

/ /

HISTORY lU5b (EUROPEAN SOCIAL MD INTELLECTQ/^L HISTORY) - MR. M0S3E

Final Examination

June U, i960

!• Answer ONE (30 minutes)

a. Why could Thomas Hobbes not have Tfritten Rousseau'? Confessions and bis
Social Contract?

b, "^«^y could Voltaire not have written Rousseau? 3 Confessions and bis
Social Contract?

II. (50 minutes)

It has been said that Pcscal raised the most important problems of his age,
Do vou sgree and if so why? Do you disagree and if so whom wculd vou call
more important and "Mhy*^ Be specific and avoid hnzy generalizations»

III, (30 minutes)

^at did FOUR of the following contribute to the change from religious to
secular emphasis in European thought:

Henry More

d. Condorcet

b* Althusius

e. Jacob Boehme

c. Baron Holbach

f. Pierre Bayle

HISTORY lU$b (EUROPEAN SOCI''L ^ND INTELLECTUAL HISTORY) - MR, MOSSE

Twelve Weeks Examina tion

Uednesday, April 27, i960

Compare and contrest the ideas of Blaise Pascal and WO of the following:

a. escartes

b. Cambridge Pl-9tenists

c. Socinians and unbelievers

wlth reRcrd to:

8, the idea of reason

b. the idea of natiire

c, the limits of man 's knovrledg^

HISTORY lU5b (EUROPE.^N SOCJ'-L 4ND INTELLECTU/VL HISTORY) - MR. MOSSE

Twelve V^eeks Examina tion

Wednesday, April 27, i960

Compare and contrest the ideas of Blaise Pascal and WO of the following;

a. escartes

b. Ctambridge Plgtenists

c. Socinians and unbelievers

with recrard to:

a. the idea of reason

b, the idea of natura

<

I

c. the limits of man 's knovrledg^

Answer three of the following four questions

1

What is the natura and pur^g^se of government according to Hobbes and how
does scripture fit into this theory. ^

2

How does Hobbes differ in bis theory of goverment from the Continental

theories of absolutism set out by Richelieu and Bossuet?

3

Hobbes saw the Claims of the church as the main challenge to the Leviathan?

4

Explain casuistry and State what position Richelieu took with respect to it

or

Explain absolutism and State what position Botero and Bossuet took with
respect to it.

' '

/

HISTORT 151a (EUROPEAN CüLTüRAL HISTORT) - MR. MOSSE

First Semester, 1958-1959

FINAL EXAMINATION, 19 January 1959

!• Answer ONE

a

b.

You have read source materials and secondary interpretations of the
raovements listed below. Taklng ONE of these raovements, critlcize
on the basis of yovir reading and reflection, the approach taken to
it by the co\irse. 1. Romanticism; 2. Llberalisra; 3. Racism«
4. Science. 30 minutes.

You have spent the terra studying the intellectxial history of the
nineteenth centuiy. üsing specific examples, what seem to you the
llinits and Ijjiitations of such an apprcach to history? You will
he graded, in psirt, on the relevance of the examples you use to
make your points. 30 minutes.

II. Discuss how far Barzun is and is not right in linking together Darwin,
Marx, and Wagner. 30 minutes.

in. What does Nietsche mean by morals and how does that differ from the
kinds of morality we have discussed in this course? 30 minutes.

IV. What seems to you to be the link between intellectual movements and
social and political issues? Do you think it correct to see specific
relevance of one to the other or are thero exceptions to this? You
will be graded, in part, on how specific you are in your answer. 30
minutes.

HISTORY l5la (EUROPEAN CÜLTURAL HISTORY TO 1870) - MR. MOSSE

First Semester, 1958-59

Twelve Weeks Examination

December 3, 1958

PLEASE READ THE CÜESTIONS BEFORE YOÜ ANSWER THEM.

I* (10 min«) Outline John Stuart Mill's basic criticisms of Benthamism.

II. (20 min.) What do you think the ideal put forward by Thomas Hughes in
Tom Brown 's Schooldays has to do with the thought of Smiles AND what
do you think it may have in common with Christian socialists like
Kingsley?

III. (20 min.) Without describing the whole of dialectical materialism in
all its ramifications discuss the place of individualism in Marx and
Engles AND briefly compare it with ONE of the following: St. Simon,
Ludwig, Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, Robert Owen, Fourier.

/.

HISTORT 151a (EUROPEAN CÜLTÜRAL HISTORT) - MR. MOSSE

First Semester, 1958-1959

FINAL EXAMINATION, 19 January 1959

!• Answer ONE

a

You have read source materials and secondary interpretations of the
movements listed below, Taklng ONE of these movements, critlcize
on the basis of your readlng and refleotlon, the approach taken to
it by the coxarse. 1. Romantlcism; 2. Llberalism; 3, Racism.
^. Science. 30 minutes.

You have spent the term studying the intellectual history of the
nineteenth Century. Using specific examples, what seem to you the
limits and limitations of such an approach to history? You will
be graded, in pairt, on the relevance of the examples you use to
make your xx5ints. 30 minutes.

\

II. Discuss how far Barzun is and is not right in linking together Darwin,
Marx, and Wagner. 30 minutes.

m. What does Nietsche mean by morals and how does that differ from the
kinds of morality we have discussed in this coiarse? 30 minutes»

IV. What seems to you to be the link between intellectual movements and
social and political issues? Do you think it correct to see specific
relevance of one to the other or are thero exceptions to this? You
will be graded, in part, on how specific you are in your answer. 30
minutes.

HISTORT 151a (EUROPEAN CULTUHS TO 1870) . m. MOSSE

First Semester, 1956-1959

Six Weeks Exaaination, 2k October 195S

I# Ansuer ONE of these only (ca* 20 min.)

A« Briefly outline the importance of the conoept of histozy held by

THREE of the followingt

a. Madame de Stael

b. Savigny
c • Fichte
d« Constant

B« Briefly outline the importance of the conoept of nature held }a^ THHEB
of the following:

a* Madame de Stael

b* Gk>ethe

c« Chateaubriand

d. Alessandro Manzoni

C. What was the role of the human agency in the formation of politioal
institutions in the thought of THREE of the foUoiringt

a. De Maistre
h. Buz4ce
e« Hegel
d« Adam Mueller
e« von Humboldt

II« Taking the five components of the romantio movement whioh I listed» do you
See any of these specific components reflected in Newman^s Apoloffia?
(30 min.)

r

r"

j

HISTORT 151a (EUROPEAN CÜLTÜRE TO 1870) . MR, MOSSB

First Semester, 195Ö-1959

3ix Weeks Examination, 7k Oetober 1958

I« Answer ONE of these only (ca« 20 min.)

A. Brlefly outline the importance of the concept of history held by

THREE of the followingt
a« Madame de Stael
b* Savigny
e* Fichte
d« Constant

B» Briefly outline the importance of the concept of nature held by THREE
of the followingi

a* Madame de Stael

b* Goethe

c* Chateaubriand

d» Alessandro Manzoni

C. What was the role of the human agency in the fonnation of politioal
institutions in the thovight of THREE of the followingi

a« De I'laistre
b« Burke
c • Hegel

d. Adam Mueller

e. von Humboldt

II. Taking the five components of the romantic movement which I listed, do you
See any of these specific components reflected in Newman's Apologia?
(30 min.)

*n"rpf"';-iir\

HISTORT l5la (EUROPEAN CULTURAL HISTORY TO 1870) - MR. MOSSE

First Semester, 1958-59

Twelve Weeks Examinatlon

Deccmber 3, 1958

PLEASE READ THE CÜESTIONS BEFORE YOU ANSWER THEM

I. (10 min.) Outline John Stuart Mill's basic criticisms of Benthamism.

II,

(20 min.) V/hat do you think the ideal put forward by Thomas Hughes in
Tom Brown' sSchooldays has to do with the thought of Smiles AND what
do you think it may have in common with Christian socialistsTIke
Kingsley?

III.

(20 min.) Without describing the whole of dialectical materialism in
all its ramif ications discuss the place of individualism in Marx and
Engles AND briefly coii?)are it with ONE of the following: St. Simon,
Ludwig, Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, Robert Owen, Fourier.

HISTORT 151a (European Social and Ihtellectual)

12 weeks examinatic»!

December H, 1956

Answer ONE; (25 minutes)

A, "ftr the nineteenth Century some thinkers were convinced that some

form of populär government is inevitable in the V/est, and their
main concem seems to be that some kinds of exellence be made
available for the coming democratic society." How true is this
Statement about Guizot, liill, and Proudhon?

B, l'/hat are the similarities and differences between pre-Maradan
socialism and liberalism?

Answer OJE, according to the book you have read: (25 minutes)
A; Why did Barzun prefer Berlioz to EITHER "Wagner or Meyerbeer?

B. Discuss Nietzsche 's attitude EITHER to the State OR to the Jews

C. Discuss Mathew Amold's attitudes towards authority.

D. Ifhat was the jjifluence of the decline of the revolutionary tra-
dition on French thought?

E. V/hat was the attitude of the Oxford Apostles towards the State
Church? Was it similar to that of Schleierraacher?

HISTORT 151a (EtiroRoan Social and Ihtellectual)

12 weeks examination

December 14, 1956

Answer ONE; (25 minutes)

A. "ftr the nineteenth Century some thinkers were convinced that some

Xorm of populär govemment is inevitable in the V/est, and their
main concem seems to be that some kinds of exellence be made
available for the Coming democratic society." How true is this
Statement about Guizot, hill, and Proudhon?

B. What are the similarities and differences between pre-Marxian
socialism and liberalism?

Answer ÖHE, according to the book you have read: (25 minutes)
A; Why did Barzun prefer Berlioz to EITHER 'Wagner or Meyerbeer?

B. Discuss Nietzsche »3 attitude EITHER to the State OR to the Jews.

C. Discuss MathevT Arnold »s attitudes towards authority,

D. What was the jjifluence 6f the decline of the revolutionaiy tra-
dition on French thought?

^* !i.^^ "^^ ^^^ attitude of the Oxford Apostles towards the State
Church? Was it similar to that of Schleiemacher?

%^

^) What role did History play in the political theories of the

first half of the 19. Century and why? Give at least two specific
examples •

ij^tJan it be sai

nature in the ideas of the

first

renturyT^^^-^ftoo sentit least three specxific
exampl'es to illljstrate tue points you want to make.

^ ' How did three of the following attempt to solve the problem of

• alie^ation, and how sucessful was their Solution in

your opinion?

hegel

Marx

Roiussua

lessing

Scott

Wesley

What are the underlying pressises about human nature of

M Hegel and Marx and one other contrasting thinker yf your

»
choice, What can this teil us about the changes in such attitudes?

V

lo^hot— pcima;

ö What seera to you thcmost important ire- definitions of politics in the

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How can one arrive at freedom through beauty?

Does Reason transcend the empirical world or does it make us feil at home
in it according to the Deists? ( Anchor 42)
What did the Enlightenment under stand by:
evil ( Anchor 61)

^

phantasy

humanity

virtue
Jew

> How^äld the Enlightenment and Pietism understand by:

Virtue

evil

( perfection

•• The bottom of the soul may be in repose even while we are in many
outward troubles; just as the bottom of the sea is calm, while the
surface is strongly agitated" John Wesley

Why do Wesley and Wincklemann use such a sirailaR METHAPHOR? What do they
mean by it? What can it teil us about their success?

e.

to inspire future volunteers. Schill and Hof er were executed by the
French: the national awkening had its martyrs, though the King of
Prussia was afraid of any rebellion aginst authority and allowed no
real raonument put up

•is

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

HISTORY 513

EUROPEAN CULTÜRE

MR. MO SSE

Slx veeks examlnatlon - Due In lecture Oct. 30

It Is assumed that your answers will be based on a füll reading
of the relevant texts and not just the passages cited in the questions.
The examination should not be more than 10 typewritten pages in length.

Answer two (2) questions. AT LEAST ONE (1) of the questions must
be taken from Section A. The other may come either from Section A or
Section B.

SECTION A (answer at least one of these)

1. A great philosopher once seid:

"Age generally makes men more tolerant; youth is always discon-
tented. The tolerance of age is the result of indifference, is satisfied
even with what is inferior; but more deeply taught by the grave exper-
ience of life, (the tolerance of age) has been led to perceive the
substantial, solid worth of the object in question."

As young men living in the pre-French Revolutionary society, how
would Rousseau and Werther have responded to this passage? In what ways
did they accept or reject the society in which they lived? Why were
their pre-Revolutionary views seen as relevant by men in the post Revolu-
tionary age?

2. Ve have discussed two aspects of freedom, the objective and the
subjective, If freedom implies the consent of each individual, then of
course only the subjective aspect is meant. From this principle followa
as a matter of course that no law is valid except by agreement of all.
This implies that the majority decides; hence the minority must yield
to the majority. But already Rousseau has remarked that this means the
absence of freedom, for the will of the minority is disregarded. In the
Polish diet all decisions had to be unanimous, and it was from this kind
of freedom that the State perished. Moreover, it is a dangerous and
falsa presupposition that the people alone has reason and insight and

-2-

knows what is right; for each populär factlon can set Itself up as the
People. What constitutes the State Is a matter of trained intelUgence.
not a matter of *the people'.*'

G.W. F. Hegel

(Reason in Hlstory, pp. 56-57)

The ftrst and most important consequence of the principlea established
above is this: Only the general will can direct the energies of the State
in a manner appropriate to the end for which it was founded. I.e. the
common good.

, ^, "But someone will object. there is no good that is common to the
Individual members of society." ~~ "

"This I deny." (Italics Rousseau *s)

'•What made the establishment of societies necessary was, if you
like, the fact that the interests of individuals clashed. But what made
their establishment possible was the fact that those same interests also
coincided. In other words, it is the overlap among different intereitT
that creates the social bond, so that no society can possibly exist
save as there is some point at which all the interests concemed are in
hamaony. Now society should be governed exclusively in terms of the
common interest of its members."

Jean Jacques Rousseau

(The Social Contract, p. 33)

The two passages above deal with the same historical problem.
what is the Problem? In as many ways as you can, compare the two
approaches.

SECTION B

1. "For the True is the unity of the universal and particular will.

And the universal in the State is in its laws, its universal and rational

provisions. The State is the divine Idea as it exists on earth/'

"Thus the State is the definite object of world history proper.
In it freedom achieves its objectivity and lives in the enjoyment of
this objectivity. For Law is the objectivity of Spirit; it is will in
its true form. Only the will that obeys itself and, being in itself,
is free. In so far as the State, our country, constitutes a Community
of existence, and the subjective will of man subjects itself to the laws,
the antithesis of freedom and necessity disappears. The rational, like

T

-3-

the substantial, is necessary. We are free when we recognize it as law
and follow it as the substance of our own being. The objective and the
subjective will are then reconciled and form one and the same harmonious
whole. For the ethos of the State is not of the moral, the reflective
ktnd in which one 's own conviction rules supreme.

G.W.F, Hegel
(Reason in History, p. 53)

, ^^^^S Reason in History and focusing on this passage, analyze the
Hegelian view of the State in its relationship to God, history and the
individual. What relationship do laws have to man 's freedom?

2. ^y first writings led me by a new path into another intellectual
World, the simple and lofty economy of which I was unable to look upon
without enthusiasm. My continued attention to it soon convinced me,
that there was nothing but error and folly in the doctrine of our
philosophers, and misery and oppression in our social arrangements ,
Deluded by my foolish pride, I thought that I was bom to destroy all
these illusions, and, believing that, in order to gain a hearing, it was
necessary for my manner of life to harmonize with my principles, I adopted

the Singular course which I have not been pennitted to continue "

(Confessions, p, 213)

How does this passage reflect Rousseau 's predicament as a sensitive
artist in an insensitive society? What is the relationship between
Rousseau s criticism of society and his attitude towards personal rela-
tionships and the natural life?

/ yfCl^f'fKf^

i^t

I . two of these s

LJ.J L '^ r ^"-''^

a* Vlhat was the meaning of hapiness for Zarathustra, and
how would Rupert Brooke have responded to it?

b. What advice would Zarathustra give to young Toerless? How

might Toerless have replied, Why?

c. Coüld Wedekinffs Man in the mask have been Zarathustra?
if so, why, if not, why not.

d. comment on the Statement i '"^ Despite the fact that Zarathustra
claimed to shun any System of thought, in effect he

is von/s

creÄ-ted his

System".

.1

11. ccj Was there an effort to retain some rationality by those
who revolted against bouFgeis the bourgeois way of life?
How did this effect theirNBJ^6otiGrr effect i"veness ?

\)^ The intellectuals we have studieq wanted at one and the
same time^individualists and members of a cameraderie
or collective. How sucess ful were they? Which were
most successful and why? Use at least 4 examples.

.Ar^^

jL What advice wouLd Zarathustra give to Tc/rless? How might T6rless
^ reply? Why?

Comment on the Statement: "Despite the fact that Nietzsche claimed
'"^ to shun any System of thought, in effect he created his own System."

X

^

How might Freud describe the ideal ©in of the twentieth Century?
How might LeBon criticize this? Why?

^avid ^rein

513 ^9kB VBß.

Final«

revolutionary actian of the followingt

attitude toimrds^
TAKE 3 QNET) 30 min.

a« Friedrich ^gels
h. John Stuart Mm

e« De %Äre CR Novalis
Saint Simon

-??f Sone people would like to make aom sort of a connection between

Marx* ^ __ ^ _ _^^

or quite impossible? Be as speciTlc as you can in your answerl

l 30 inin.l

We have discussed inany Utopian visions« Choose at least 3 of ttiest
and discuss how close they came to the actual economic, political
or social realities« Can you draw any general ccnclusions about ^
the rolle of ütopias in Cultural Histoiy from your discussion?

(50 mhi.)

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Hlstory 513

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of Hlstory

FINAL EXAMINATION

Mr. Mosse

Please think before you wrlte. You have ample tlme for füll consideratlon
of all Problems ralsed by the questlons.

PART l. (50 minutes)

^V

"The attempt to transcend the dualism of facta [reallty] and Standards
[Ideals] leads to the Identification of Standards [ideals] either with
established might or with future might."

How true vould this be of Marx and Nietzche?

n

PART II. (40 minutes) Answer one question only of the following two:

A« You have heard lectures on Marx and Engels and have read some of

their works, On the basis of your Knowledge give a specific
critique of the Lichtheim book.

B« What is the specific meaning of "morality" for the following:
Nietzsche, Marx, and the Liberais? Do they share anything or
nothing in common?

PART III. (30 minutes) Answer one question only of the following two:

30

A. It is sometimes said that all movements of thought were influenced
by romanticism. How much of Rousseau and Novalis survives in the
subsequent movements we have studied?

B* What general conclusions can you draw from what we have studied
about the limits of rationality in the pursuit of freedom?
Base your answer squarely upon the material studied in this course,
but draw your own conclusions«

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of Hlstory

Hlstory 512: European Cultural History (1610-1815)

Final Exam

Due : Monday , May 25 at lecture . No special dispensations.

Length; No more than 5^ type-written pages.

Hr. Mosse

How vould four of the thinkers we have read, or who have been discussed in the lect-
ures, have responded to the kinds of phrases used to characterize the age in which they
lived? For example: "Age of the Barooue", "Age of Reason", "Age of Enlightenment",
"Rise of Secularism". Organize your answer by choosing thinkers who have convinced you
of the accuracy of these phrases, AND thinkers who lead you to question the value of
these phrases.

You may want to ask yourself as you work on this whether phrases to "classify" an
age really serve to give an understanding of the way intellectual thought changes, or
whether they are static characterisations of a more contradictory but evolving process.

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

Hlstory 512: European Cultural History (1610-1815)

Mr. Hosse

Final Exam

Due : Monda^, May 25 at lecture . No special dispensations,
LSnath : No more than 5 type-written pages.

0' <M

How would four of the thlnkers we have read, or who have been discussed In the lect-
ures, have responded to the klnds of phrases used to characterize the age In whlch they
lived? For ex«nple: "Age of the Barooue". "Age of Reason". "Age of Enllghtenment",
"Rise of Secularism". Organi.e your answer by chooatng thinkers who have convlnced you
of the accuracy of these phrases, AND thinkers who lead you to question the value of
these phrases.

You may want to ask yourself as you work on thla whether phrases to "classlfy" an
age really serve to gtve an understandlng of the way intellectual thought changea, or
whether they are statte characterlsatlons of a more contradictory bat evolvlng process.

i -m—*aiii T

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

Hlstory 512: European Cultural History (1610-1815)

Final Exam
Due : Mondav , May 25 at lecture . No special dispensations.
Length; No more than 5 type-written pages.

Hr. Mosse

How vould four of the thinkers we have read, or who have been discussed in the lect-
ures, have responded to the kinds of phrases used to characterize the age in which they
lived? For example: "Age of the Barooue", "Age of Reason", "Age of Enlightenment",
"Rise of Secularism". Organize your answer by choosing thinkers who have convinced you
of the accuracy of these phrases, AND thinkers who lead you to question the value of
these phrases.

You may want to ask yourself as you work on this whether phrases to "classify" an
age really serve to give an understanding of the way intellectual thought changes, or
whether they are static characterisations of a more contradictory but evolving process.

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

Hlstory 512: European Cultural Htstory (1610-1815)

Mr. Mosae

Final Exam

Due : Monday., May 25 at lecture . No special dlapenaatlona
Length ; No more than 5 type-wrltten pages.

How would four of the thlnkers we have read, or who have been discussed In the lect-
ure», have responded to the kinds of phrases used to characterlze the age In whlch they
Uved? For example: "Age of the Baroque". "Age of Reason", "Age of Enllghtenment",
"Rlse of Secularism". Organlze your answer by chooslng thlnkers who have convlnced you
of the accuracy of these phrases, AND thlnkers who lead you to question the value of
these phrases.

You may want to ask yourself as you work on thla whether phrases to "claaslfy" an
age really serve to glve an understanding of the way Intellectual thought changes, or
whether they are statte characterlsattons of a more contradictory but evolvlng process.

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of Hlstory

Hlstory 512: European Cultural History (1610-1815)

Mr. Mosse

Ftnal Exam

Due : Mondajr, May 25 at lecture. No special dlspenaattona.
Len^th; No more than 5 type-wrltten pagea.

How would four of the thinkers we have read, or who have been dtscussed In the lect-
ures, have responded to the kinds of phrases used to characterl«« the age In whlch they
Uved? For example: "Age of the Baroque". "Age of Reason". "Age of Enllghtenment",
"Rlse of Secularlsm". Organlze your answer by chooslng thinkers who have convlnced you
of the accuracy of these phrases, AND thinkers who lead you to question the value of
these phrases.

You may want to ask yourself as you work on thls whether phrases to "classlfy" an
age really serve to glve an understandlng of the way Intellectual thought changea, or
whether they are statte characterlsatlons of a more contradlctory but evolvlng procesa.

_)

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

Hlstory 512: European Cultural History (1610-1815)

Final Exam

Due : Monday . May 25 at lecture . No special dispensations.
Length : No more than 5^ type-written pages.

Mr. Mosse

How vould four of the thinkers we have read, or who have been discussed in the lect-
ures, have responded to the kinds of phrases used to characterize the age in which they
lived? For example: "Age of the Barooue", "Age of Reason", "Age of Enlightenment",
"Rise of Secularism". Organize your answer by choosing thinkers who have convinced you
of the accuracy of these phrases, AND thinkers who lead you to question the value of
these phrases.

You may want to ask yourself as you work on this whether phrases to "classify" an
age really serve to give an understanding of the way intellectual thought changes, or
whether they are static characterisattons of a more contradictory but evolving process.

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

Hlstory 512: European Cultural History (1610-1815)

Mr. Mosse

Final Exam

Due : Mondav . May 25 at lecture. No special dispensations.
Length: No more than 5 type-written pages.

How would four of thc thinkers we have read, or who have been discussed in the lect-
ures, have responded to the kinds of phrases used to characterize the age in which they
lived? For example: "Age of the Baroque", "Age of Reason", "Age of Enlightenment",
"Rise of Secularism". Organize your answer by choosing thinkers who have convinced you
of the accuracy of these phrases, AND thinkers who lead you to question the value of
these phrases.

You may want to ask yourself as you work on this whether phrases to "classify" an
age really serve to give an understanding of the way intellectual thought changes, or
whether they are static characterisations of a more contradictory but evolving process.

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

Hlstory 512: European Cultural History (1610-1815)

Mr. Mosse

Final Exam

Due : Monday, May 25 at lecture. No special dispensations.
Length: No more than 5 type-written pages.

How vould four of the thinkers we have read, or who have been discuased in the lect-
ures, have responded to the kinds of phrases used to characterize the age in vhich they
lived? For example: "Age of the Barooue", "Age of Reason", "Age of Enlightenment",
"Rise of Secularism". Organize your answer by choosing thinkers who have convinced you
of the accuracy of these phrases, AND thinkers who lead you to question the value of
these phrases.

You may want to ask yourself as you work on this whether phrases to "classify" an
age really serve to glve an understandtng of the way Intellectual thought changes, or
whether they are atatlc characterlsations of a more contradictory but evolvtng process.

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

Hlstory 512: European Cultural History (I6I0-I815)

Mr. Mosse

Final Exam

Due : Monday, May 25 at lecture . No special dispensations
Length; No more than ^ type^written pages.

How vould four of the thlnkers we have read, or who have been dlscuased In the lect-
ures. have responded to the klnds of phrasea used to characterlze the age in whlch they
Uved? For example: "Age of the Baroque", "Age of Reason", "Age of Enllghtenment",
"Rise of Secularlsm". Organlze your answer by chooslng thinkers who have convlnced you
of the accuracy of these phrases, AND thinkers who lead you to question the value of
these phrases.

You may want to ask yourself as you work on thls whether phrases to "claaslfy" an
age really serve to give an understanding of the way tntellectual thought changes, or
whether they are statte characterisatlons of a more contradictory but evolvlng process.

c

OPTIONAL QUESTI0N3.

I. Outline and discuas the major componenta of the "Calviniat way
of life.'*

II.

(

III.

IV.

V.

Compare and contrast the Calviniat System with the Catholic
(eipecially Jesuit) aolutions to similar problems — aeathetic
and religioua, political and social.

List, discuaa, and give specific examplea of the common trends
of the religioua radicala (sectarians) of the aixteenth Century.
Explain and illuatrate the pacifiat and the aocial revolutionary
elementa in each of theae trenda.

How doea Bainton treat the problema of religioua peraecution
anü religioua liberty? Compare and contraat the ideological
approach to toleration of any two figurea diacuaaed by Bainton.

What does Parker mean by, and how doea he explain, the following
atatement: "England ia one of the few countriea in which the
conflict of the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation haa never
yet been fought to a finiah."

How doea the Reformation in England reaemble Continental Reform
and how ia it unique?

(

/^/3^ EccÄopeAM cu^TuÄAL Hisro»?y Ot^«'- ;'«i5) - svLUAer i%3- n?^

>

History 513

UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Fall 1977

European Cultural History 1815-1870

Mr. Mosse

The following books are to be read;

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe, 2nd edition (on reserve)

(Chapter I-VIII by six weeks, Chapter VIII to XI by final. But
it will be helpful if you read all of these 200 pages as back-
ground as soon as possible.)

George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses (optional, on reserve).

John Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

Leming, Nathan the Wise

Hegel, Reason in History

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brownes Schooldays

Marx and Engels on Religion

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

There will be in class a 6 weeks, a short paper for the 12 weeks from a
list of Problems which will be provided, and a take-home final.

Enlightenment

Nathan the Wise ^J^"^^ . }^Tl?ie-^J

Pietism

Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

Romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions ]/j^^-^wy fi^^

Scott, Ivanhoe

The New Nationalism and Hegelianism
n/ Hegel, Reason in History 'f''^^^^^ / / /

Mosse, Nationalization of the Masses (on reserve) (Chapters 1, 2 and 4)

-2-

Llberallsm and Morality

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays ^ t^ C^ ' *^^ L y

Sociallsm and Marxlsm

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Marx and Engels on Religion (to be assigned)

Hlstory 513

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Fall 1977

European Cultural History 1815-1870

Mr. Mosse

The follovlng books are to be read;

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe, 2nd edition (on reserve)

(Chapter I-VIII by six weeks, Chapter VIII to XI by final. But
it will be helpful if you read all of these 200 pages as back-
ground as soon as possible.)

George L. Mosse, The National ization of the Masses (optional, on reserve).

John Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

Leming, Nathan the Wise

Hegel, Reason in History

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown* s Schooldays

Marx and Engels on Religion

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

There will be in class a 6 weeks, a short paper for the 12 weeks from a
list of Problems which will be provided, and a take-home final.

Enlightenment

Nathan the Wise

Pietism

Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

Romanticism

J, J. Rousseau, Confessions
Scott, Ivanhoe

The New Nationalism and Hegelianism

Hegel, Reason in History

Mosse, Nationalization of the Masses (on reserve) (Chapters 1, 2 and 4)

-2-

Llberalism and Moral Ity

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Soclallsm and Marxism

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Marx and Engels on Religion (to be assigned)

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Semester I, 1972-7 3

History 513 (European Culture, 1815-1870)

Mr. Mosse

You will need the folloving books :

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe (Rand McNally paperback)

Goethe, Sorrows of Young Werther (Rinehart paperback)

Novalis, Hymns to the Night (Library of Liberal Arts)

Hegel, Reason in History (Library of Liberal Arts)

George Lichtheim, Marxism (Praeger paperback)

George Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism (Praeger paperback)

Joseph De Maistre, On God and Scoiety, (Gateway - Henry Regnery & Co.)

Marx & Engels, German Ideology, etc. ed. C. J. Arthur, (New World

paperback - International Publishers)
Marx and Engels on Religion (Schocken paperback)
Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown ' s School Days (St. Martinas Press)
The Portable Nietzsche (Viking)
John Stuart Mill, Six Great Huruanistlc Essays (Washington Sguare)

1. Enlightenment to Romanticism

Goethe, Young Werther
Novalis, Hymns to the Night

2 . The New National ism and Hegel ianism
Hegel, Reason in History

3. Liberalism

Mill, Six Great Humanistic Essays
Hughes, Tom Brown 's School Days
Gideon, Mechanization Takes Command

4. Socialism and Marxism

Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism

Lichtheim, Marxism

Marx, German Ideology

Marx and Engels on Religion

5. Fin de siecle

The Portable Nietzsche

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Semester I, 1972-7 3

History 513 (European Culture, 1815-1870)

Mr. Mosse

You will need the folloving books:

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe (Rand McNally paperback)

Goethe, Sorrows of Young Werther (Rinehart paperback)

Novalis, Hymns to the Night (Library of Liberal Arts)

Hegel, Reason in History (Library of Liberal Arts)

George Lichtheim, Marxism (Praeger paperback)

George Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism (Praeger paperback)

Joseph De Maistre, On God and Scoiety, (Gateway - Henry Regnery & Co.)

Marx & Engels, German Ideology, etc. ed. C. J. Arthur, (New World

paperback - International Publishers)
Marx and Engels on Religion (Schocken paperback)
Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown ' s School Days (St. Martin 's Press)
The Portable Nietzsche (Viking)
John Stuart Mill, Six Great Huraanistlc Essays (Washington Sguare)

1. Enlightenment to Romanticism

Goethe, Young Werther
Novalis, Hymns to the Night

2. The New National ism and Hegel ianism
Hegel, Reason in History

3. Liberalism

Mill, Six Great Humanistic Essays
Hughes, Tom Brown 's School Days
Gideon, Mechanization Takes Command

4. Socialism and Marxism

Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism

Lichtheim, Marxism

Marx, German Ideology

Marx and Engels on Religion

5. Fin de siecle

The Portable Nietzsche

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Semester I, 1972-7 3

History 513 (European Culture, 1815-1870)

Mr, Mosse

You will need the folloving books:

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe (Rand McNally paperback)

Goethe, Sorrows of Young Werther (Rinehart paperback)

Novalis, Hymns to the Night (Library of Liberal Arts)

Hegel, Reason in History (Library of Liberal Arts)

George Lichtheim, Marxism (Praeger paperback)

George Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism (Praeger paperback)

Joseph De Maistre, On God and Scoiety, (Gateway - Henry Regnery & Co.)

Marx & Engels, German Ideology, etc. ed. C. J. Arthur, (New World

paperback - International Publishers)
Marx and Engels on Religion (Schocken paperback)
Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown ' s School Days (St. Martin 's Press)
The Portable Nietzsche (Viking)
John Stuart Mill, Six Great Hurudnistlc Essays (Washington Sguare)

Enlightenment to Romanticism

Goethe, Young Werther
Novalis, Hymns to the Night

The New Nationalism and Hegelianism

Hegel, Reason in History

Liberalism

Mill, Six Great Humanistic Essays
Hughes, Tom Brown 's School Days
Gideon, Mechanization Takes Command

Socialism and Marxism

Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism

Lichtheim, Marxism

Marx, German Ideology

Marx and Engels on Religion

Fin de siecle

The Portable Nietzsche

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester I, 1970-71

History 513 (European Culture, 1815-1870)

Mr. Mosse

You will need the f ollowing books :

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe (Rand McNally paperback)

Goethe, Sorrows of Young Werther (Rinehart paperback)

Novalis, Hvmns to the Night (Library of Liberal Arts)

Hegel, Reason in History (Library of Liberal Arts)

George Lichtheim, Marxism (Praeger paperback)

George Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism (Praeger paperback)

Karl Marx, F. Engels, German Ideology (International Publishers)

Marx and Engels on Religion (Schocken paperback)

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's School Davs (St. Martin' s Press)

The Portable Nietzsche (Viking)

Sigfried Gidion, Mechanization Takes Command (Norton paperback)

John Stuart Mill, Six Great Humanistic Essays (Washington Square)

1. Enlightenment to Romanticism

Goethe, Young Werthör
Novalis, Hymns to the Night

2 . The New Nationalism and Hegelianism
Hegel, Reason in History

3. Liberalism

Mill, Six Great Humanistic Essays
Hughes, Tom Brown 's School Days
Gideon, Mechanization Takes Command

4. Socialism and Marxism

Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism

Lichtheim, Marxism

Marx, German Ideology

Marx and Engels on Religion

5. Fin de siecle

The Portable Nietzsche

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester I, 1970-71

History 513 (European Culture, 1815-1870)

Mr. Mosse

You will need the following books:

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe (Rand McNally paperback)
v/^Goethe, Sorrows of Younq Werther (Rlnehart gfff^^rbackK l'^/Scx c/jUßT/aj^
Novalis, Hvmns to the Night (Library of Liberal Arts) -— ^/^^
y^'^AHegel, Reason in Historv (Library of Liberal Arts)
>^^^,,^eorge Lichtheim, Marxism (Praeger paperback) ^^'^^C

George Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism (Praeger paperback)
Karl Marx, F. Engels, German Ideology (International Publishers)
A Marx and Engels on Religion (Schocken paperback) J /ai^/^hi^

x^homas Hughes, Tom Brown 's School Davs (st. Martinas Pr^sJ^.^f
The Portable Nietzsche (Viking) '^

Sigfried Gidion, Mechanization Takes Command (Norton paperback)
John Stuart Mill, Six Great Humanistic Essavs (Washington Square)

1. Enlightenment to Romanticism

Goethe, Young Werthör
Novalis, Hymns to the Night

2. The New Nationalism and Hegelianism
Hegel, Reason in History

3. Liberalism

Mill, Six Great Humanistic Essays
Hughes, Tom Brownes School Days
Gideon, Mechanization Takes Command

4. Socialism and Marxism

Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism

Lichtheim, Marxism

Marx, German Ideology

Marx and Engels on Religion

\

Fin de siecle

The Portable Nietzsche

THE UNI VERS ITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

First Semester, 1964-65

HISTORY 513 (151a) - EUROPEAN CULTURE I8I5-I9OO

You will need the following books:

The Portable Nietzsche (Viking)

Thomas Hughes, Tom Broims School-days (St. Martins Press)
Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther (Rhinehart Editions)
J. S. Mill, Autobiography (Library of Liberal Arts)
George Lichtheim, Marxism (Praeger Paperback)

Loewenberg ed, Charles Darwin: evolution and natural selection (Beacon)
O^yr^^ rSuido de Ruggiero, History of European Liberalism (Beacon)

//f^ Novalis, . Hymn to the Night and other writings (Library of Liberal Arts)

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe (Rand McNally)

George L, Mosse, Culture of Western Europe:

Pp. 1-213 by October 15; pp. 213-231 by final

I.

.II.

Romanticism: man a»d nature^^kc ^ f-^*'^-

Cfi^tLhia^ gr>iryr^^^ff pf |-]^p Ynting Wcrthcr =r

NojialiÄirdisnmi XQ tne Night and Note ti öA fl Christian Europe H-<^^

Racism, Nationalism and Messianism

III. Liberalism

Guidp-^e Ruggiero ,^J«:stjcrf5^of.^J4>eralism Tocäu^^ll^.

J./S. Mill,^utol>iogr^h5r^^ ^

Thomas Hughes, Tom Browns Schooldays t/

,IV. Oarwinism

" Loeiijenberg ed., Charles Darwin
V. Problems in Marxism

George Lichtheim, Marxism
VI« the fin de siecle

The Portable Nietzsche /^

V ^u

—i^^^^pwpr-

History 513

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History

European Culture 1815-1900

^. Mosse

You will need the following books:

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe (Rand McNally)

Marx and Engels, Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy, ed. Feuer (Anchor)

George Lichtheim, Marxism, (Praeger Pocket Book)

E. J. Hobsbawn, Primitive Rebeis, (Norton Paperback)

The Portable Nietzsche (Viking)

Tocqueville, European Revolution and correBpondcnce with Gobinaeu (Anchor)

Hegel, Reason in History, (Library of Liberal Arts)

Hughes, Tom Browns Schooldays, (St. Martins Library)

Those who have had 413 (Culture in 17. and 18. centuries);

Rousseau, Social Contract, (Gateway edition)

Those who have not had the earlier Culture course;

Rousseau, Confessions, (Pocket Book Library)

You are advised to have read at least pages 1-153 of Mosse, Culture of Western

Europe, by the six weeks, the rest by the finals. Instead of the 12 weeks there

will be s Short paper centering upon the course reading about which you will be

given separate Information. Below are listed the units (not weeks) and the reading

to be done for them:

I. Romanticism: Man, nature and the people

Rousseau: either confessions of Social contract
Hegel, Reason in History
Hobsbawn, Primitive Rebeis

II. Liberalism

Hughes, Tom Browns Schooldays

Tocqueville, European Revolution and correspondence with Gobineau

III. Marxism

Marx and Engels, Basic Writings (entire)
George Lichtheim, Marxism

IV. Fin de siecle

Portable Nietzsche

J

\

HISTCRY 151a CimOPEVI SCCIAI AID IMTEILECWAL HISTORY, 1789-190G) - MR. MCoSE

^^'Dii

First Semester, 1956-57 ■:',i<'

.iX

' ntn^

•^'>

The folloxdng are the books frc»n vrf^ich the assignments listed belovr are made:
Franklin Bauner, Main Ourrents of Western Civilization; Introductjon to Con-
tenporary Civilization in the West. II (Listed as the Columbia SourceBonW^
Crane Erinton, Ideas and IJen; Ausuble ed., The Making of Modem Europe. II;
Schuyler and Ausuble ed., The Making of English History. These books are on
reserve. Students who plan to talce further courses in the European intellec-
tual history sequence are v^ell advised to buy the Baumer. The Brinton book
is available in a pocketbook edition. The assignments are listed by units,
vrhich do not necessarily correspond to weeks, Students idll be expected to ttjq
read the assignment while the units are under discussion. To fall behind
can be disastrous. - o.-^ -rrrwc.PIo') ©rf^ lo . . ,

i- ,^i, 37ß uov briB e-j^ood
I. The Religion of Liberty

Crane Brinton, Ideas and Men, II • -^j.-^,ct ^^.. .^ ^ ^^, , _\.|^

II. The Conservative Challenge ^ ,i 0

Columbia So'orce Book, 1-105 (De ilaistre)
Main Ourrents, 473-477 (Burke)
III. Romanticism \ . ■ . j

Columbia SojTce Book, 36-45 (Goethe); 354-36ß (Carlyle)
Jlain Currenoß, 46O-466 (liadame de Stael)
IV. Romanticism and Religion

Columbia Source Book, 46-54 (Chateaubriand)
Main Ourrents, 466-471 (Chateaubriand)
V, Romanticism and Politics

Columbia Source Book, 53-64 (Fichte)
Main C\irrents, 477-479 (Savigny)
VI. Nationalism

Columbia Source Book, 65-88 (Hegel)
Crane Brinton, Ideas and Men, 12

VII. Liberalism

Columbia Source Book, 320-349 (Guizot, Lamartine, Rights of

the CJerman People, Mazzini)
Main Ourrents, 485-491 (Mill, Comte) ; 495-500 (Smiles) ;

504-508 (Spencer, Manchester School)

VIII. Critics of Liberalism

Main Ourrents, 508-517 (Arnold, List, Kingsley)
Brinton, Ideas and Men, I3
IX, Social Oriticism and Reform

Columbia Source Book, 369-414 (Proudhon, Considerant, Oi^en)

901-920 (PoT3e Pius XI); 312-320 (Chartism)
Hain 0\irrents, 566-577 (Sorel)
X» Ärxism and Socialism

Columbia Source Book, 414-437 (Marx, Ehgels) ; 524-538 (Historical

Materialism) ; 855-860 (Bernstein); 860-900 (Lenin, Cole)
Main Ourrents, 517-525 (Marx); 562-566 (Engels)
Making of Modem Europe, II, 765-784 (Solomon F. Bloom)
Making of English Kistory, 580-588 (Margaret Cole) ;

541-560 (Spencer>, 561-578 (Bagehot)

/

(

r .r

Hikory 151a

h T^'^

XI. Survlvai of the Fittest'

Columbia Source Book, 485-597 (Comte)

Main Currents, 525-546 (Darwin, Wallace, Huxley, Stephen)
Making of Modern Europe, II, 742-765 (Karl Pearson)
.■f.>5sr; &ir. wo Making of English History, 522-527 (Julian S. HuxLey)..
-XII^; Races and States ,■• :•; 'J/

^y-iL- Main Currents, 546-558 (Treitschke, Chamberlain>•^^^'''^ ^"-- *
't^-r-r . Making of Modern Europe, II, 796-Ö10 (Raymond J„ Sontag)
^XIII, Heroes and Herp Worship ^.; -.. :;_, , /;

^^n. Columbia Source Book, 83Ö-Ö54 (Nietsche) . '''-■'"'' ^''^■''^''['■^■■■■

OUTSIüEREADINGj.' .-.j 11: Ar ' ,L^..: . • 1>oa-

ONE of the following to the tenth week of term. These books are all pocket tav^
books and you are advised to buy the book you have chosen to read.

Jacques Barzun, Berlioz and His Century (Meridian Books)

Geoffrey Faber. The Oxford Apostles (Pelican) ; an e^nalysis of the Oxford

riOV3m??nt
Walter KaufVnan. Nietsche (Meridian books) »o*
Lionel Trilling, Ma.thew Arnold (Meridian)
Edmund Wilson.. To the Finland Station (Anchor); essays on Socialism and Marxism

*j V

\

'^>/*>

■^ .V

V 'ci

^X

IC 3.'

t ;■

» X J

V

; ( et) l

^ r-'

. • 1 *..

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; 4

X (oIoO c

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vc-i.ü<- :

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X

HISTORT I5la (EUROPEAN SOCIAL AND INTELUECTÜAL HISTCRY, 1789-1900) MR. MOßSE

First Semester 1956-57

m

he following are the books frora which the assignments listed below are made;

0
3

- -- pj-r'.ii vo ivciK.t; x'ürcner ccT:.rses in

Ire European lüitellecli-jial histrry sequence are wll advised to buy the
Eaumer. The Bnnton book is available in a pccket bock editi-on. ' The \
a&signments ave listed by Units. whi.ch do noT. necessariiy correspond to
Ww^eksr Students w:l].l be expected -oo read the assigniPenx'while the units are
n:'der discussion» To fall behind can be disasjrrouso

!♦ The ITüeliglon of Lib'^^rtrr

Crane Brintor.,, Ideac and Men,-. II
II« The Conservative Challenge

Columbia Source Book,, 1-105 (De Maistre)
Main Ciirrents, 1;73-U77 (Burke)
I II • R Oman t Ic r-.sni

Coluinbia Soxirce Book^ 36-i;5 (Goethe); 35U-368 (Carlyle)
Main Currentj, 450-1-66 (Madame de Stael)

ColuiTibia Source Boo^j, hS^Sh (Chateaubriand)
Main Cui-rents, U66-I471 (Chateaubriand)

V. Romanticism p.nd PolitiTs

Columbia Source Bock.^ 53 -6!» (^ichte)
Main Curren'^c, hn-h79 (Savigny)

VI, Nationalisn

Columbia Source Book, 65-88 (Hegel)
Crane Brjjibon, Ideas and Men, 12

VII« Liberaliim

Columbia Source Book, 320-3li9 (Guizot, Lamartine, Rights of the
German people, Mazzini)

Main Cui^-ren«-.«.* U35-U91 (Mill, Cordte); i} 95-500 (Smiles)
50i*-5C'8 (Spencert Mancn.^s+<^ - '^'*h' 1)

./^

HISTORY 151a ( iiüROPiiAN CÜLIURAL HISTORY, 1Ö15 TO TH£ PRiüaiNT) - m. MOSSE

First Semester, 1958-1959

The foHowing books from which assignments are made, or which are assigned,
are on closed reservej Franklin Baumer, Main Curr^nts of V/estern Thought ;
Introduction to Contemporary Civilization in the V/est, II (Citad as
Columbia Source Book); Schiller & Ausuble ed. , The Kaking of Modem jguroEä» ^^
II; John Stuart Hill, Autobiography; John HenryTCardinal ) Newraan, Apolopi»
Pro Vita Sua (also available in üiveryman's Library).

You are £.lvised to buy the following books, available in cheap editionst
Jaoques Barr.un, Darwmi Marx. Wagnar (Anchor books); lidmund Wilson, To the
Finland Station (Anchor books); j^ric bentley, A Century of Hero- Worship
(Beacon); Nietsche, ''Birth of Tragedy" and "Genadlory of Horals" C Anchor
books); Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown * s Schooldays (Nelsons Glassics).

!• The Religion of Liberty

II. The Conservative Challenge

Columbia Source Book, 1-105 (DeMaistre)
Hain Currents, 473-477 (Burke)

III. Ronanticism

Eric Z^ntley, Century of Hero V/orship (chapter on Carlyle)
Columbia Source Book, 35-45 (Ck^ethe), 354-368 ( Carlyle)
Main Currents, 460-466 (Madame de Stael)

IV. The Religious Reyival

Main Currents, 466-471 (Chateaubriand)

Jchn Henry (Cardinal) Newman, Apolo;da (part called, »History of my
religious opinions», in Everyman edition Pp. 29-214)

Vt Romanticism and Politics

Columbia Source Book, 53-64 (Fichte)
Main Currents, 477-479 (Savigny)

VI. Mationalism

Columbia "Sour ce Book, 65-38 (Hegel)

VII, Liberalism

John Stuart iiilli Autobiography

Thomas Hughes, T^ Brovm's School Days

Main Currents, 488-491 (Comte, 495»500 (SmUes), 504-508 (Spencer)

Columbia Source Book, 320-349 (Guizot, Lamartine, kazzini)

VIII. Critics of Liberalism and £arly Socialists
V/ilson, To tha Finland Station, 69-95
Main Currents, 508-571 ( Arnold , List, Kingsley) /

IX. Marxiam

Wilson, To the Finland Station, 111-347

Columbia Source Book, 414-437 (Marx, i:iTigels), 524-538 (Historical

Haterialism), 855-860 (^^mstein)
Hain Currents, 517-525 (Harx), 562-566 (Engels)
Making of Modem Europe, II (Solc© F. Bloom)

♦,

l

-2-
HISTORY 151a

Xt Survival of the Fittest

Barzun, Darwin, uarx and Wagner

Main Currents, 525-54STDarwin, V/allace, Huxley, Stephen)

Making of Modem ßurope, II (Karl Poarson)

XI. Racist Thought

Main Currents, 546 -5 5Ö (Treitschke, Chambe riain)
Making of Modern Europe, 796-Ö10 (Raymond Sontag)

XII» Herpes and tfero Worship

£ric Bentley, Century of Hero Worship, (Chapters on Wagner and

Nietsche )
Nietsche , Birth of Trage d.v and Genealogy of Moral s

!B"w"!^p^^HH

v#

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Fall 1977

History 513 European Cultural History 1815-1870

Mr . Mosse

The follovlng books are to be read;

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe. 2nd edition (on reserve)

(Chapter I-VIII by six weeks, Chapter VIII to XI by final. But
it will be helpful if you read all of these 200 pages as back-
ground as soon as possible.)

George L. Mosse, The National ization of the Masses (optional, on reserve).

John Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

Leming, Nathan the Wise

Hegel, Reason in History

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Marx and Engels on Religion

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

There will be in class a 6 weeks, a short paper for the 12 weeks from a
list of Problems which will be provided, and a take-home final.

Enlightenment

Nathan the Wise

Pietism

Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

Romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions
Scott, Ivanhoe

The New Nationalism and Hegelianism

Hegel, Reason in History

Mosse, Nationalization of the Masses (on reserve) (Chapters 1, 2 and 4)

-2-

Liberallsm and Moral Ity

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Social Ism and Marxism

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Marx and Engels on Religion (to be assigned)

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of Hlstory
Fall 1985

Hlstory 513

EUROPEAN CULTURE 1815-1870

Prof. Mosse

You will need the following books:

Lesslng, Nathan the Wlse (Barrons)

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (California)

The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau CPenguin)

John Wesley, A Piain Account of Christian Perfection (Epworth)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (New American Library)

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther (Rinehart)

Hegel, Reason in History (Library of Liberal Arts)

David McLellan, Karl Marx (Penguin)

Kamenka, ed. , The Portable Marx (Viklng)

Reserve:

George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality
Libretto of Mozart, The Magic Flute

I. Enlip,htenment

Lessing, Nathan the Wise

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (to p

Mozart, The Magic Flute (on reserve)

117)

II. Pietism

John Wesley, Christian Perfection (to be assigned)
Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality (on reserve - pp. 1-33)

m. Romanticism

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (117-143)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Confessions
Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther
Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

IV. Rise of Modem Nationalism

Fichte, Speeches to the German nation (reserve, to be assigned)

V. Hegel 's Synthesis

Hegel, Reason in History

VI. Socialism and Karl Marx

David McLellan, Karl Marx

The Portable Marx (to be assigned)

THE UNI VERS ITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of Hi.story

Semester l, 1974-75

History 513 (European Culture 1815-1.870)
You will need the following books:

Goethe, Sorrows of thg^Voi-m^jyjoT-^hf^r

Lessing, Nathan the Wise

Novalis, Hymn to^he_Nj_ght

Hege 1 , Reason in History

George Lichtheim, Marxism

Joseph de Maistre, On_Gqd_and_Society

Marx and Engels, Germaii_Ideology ""

Marx and Engels, On_Religion

Thomas Hughes, Tom_Brqwns^_School _Days

=f.^f?!>.^ ^''^^^' £alture,j:i£^e'stern Europe (read chapters I
available on reserve and second hand copies are about)

- XI -

^ • Enlightenment and__Pi^T_gm
Lessing, Nathan the Wise

I I . Roma n t icism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther
Novalis, Hymns to the Night
De Maistre, God and Society

NgJiLJi^iQnalism and Hegel ianism
Hegel, Reason in History

III.

IV. Liberalism

Hughes, Tom Browns School Days

V. Marxism

Lichtheim, Marxism

Marx & Engels, German Ideologv

Marx & Engels on Religion

VI. Fin de Siecle

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of Hlstory

Semester I, 1974-75

History 513 (European Culture 1815-1870)
You will need the following books:

Goethe, Sorrqws_of_the Young Werther

Lessing, Nathan_th e _W is e

Novalis, Hzmn^q_the_Ni^jht

Hegel, Reason in History

George Lichtheim, Marxism

Joseph de Maistre, On_Gqd and Society

Marx and Engels, German läe6l^qy

Marx and Engels, On_R^^i^^ —

Thomas Hughes, Tom .Brown s_School Days

^f.^''?^^ Mosse, gulture of We^tVrn Europe (read chartere: t

avaxlable on reserve and secoi^dT^^id^^es arfabo^t K

- XI -

^ • SD.Iiglltenmen± _and__piet
Lessing, Nathan the Wise

II.

III.

IV.

Roma_ntijci^m

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther

Novalis, Hymns to the Night

De Maistre, God and Society

Nev^Na± i^qna TJ^m_a nd_Jie i sm

Hegel, Reason in History

Liberal ism

Hughes, Tom Browns School Days

V. Marxism

Lichtheim, Marxism

Marx & Engels, German Ideology

Marx & Engels on Religion

VI. Fin de Siecle

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of Hlstory

Semester I, 1974-75

History 513 (European Culture 1815-1870)
You will need the following books:

Goethe, Sorrows of t^hejvvying^jjor-^-h^r

Lessing, Nathan_the jwri s e

No va 1 i s , Hymn to^he_Nj^ght

Hegel , Reason in History

George Lichtheim, Marxism

Joseph de Maistre, Qn_Gqd_and_Sqciety

Marx and Engels, German^Ideologr^

Marx and Engels, On_Religion

Thomas Hughes, Tom_Brqwns__School Day:?.

George L. Mosse, guJLture,^ We'stern Europa (read chapters I

available on reserve and second hand copies are about)

- XI -

I . Eni ightenment and_^i_et j_fim
Lessing, Nathan the Wise

I I . Roman ticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther
Novalis, Hymns to the Night
De Maistre, God and Society

M§J!L-Na±jjon^alism and Hegel i an ism
Hegel, Reason in History

III.

IV. Liberal ism

Hughes, Tom Browns School Days

V. Marxism

Lichtheim, Marxism

Marx & Engels, German Ideologv

Marx & Engels on Religion

VI. Fin de Siecle

iV

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of Hlstory

Semester I, 1974-75

History 513 (European Culture 1815-1870)
You will need the following books:

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther

Lessing, Nathan theWise

Novalis, Hymn to_the_Ni(ght

Hege 1 , Reason in History

George Lichtheim, Marxism

Joseph de Maistre, On_Gqd_and_Sqciety

Marx and Engels, Germa_n_ldeology "

Marx and Engels, Qn_Religion

Thomas Hughes, Tom_Brqwns__School JDays

^w^f^fi.^ ^''^^^' g^^^^^^g^-^g^^LWe'stern Euroj^ (read chapters I
available on reserve and second hand copies are about)

- XI -

I • lD.1 ig^tenment _and_Pi et
Lessing, Nathan the Wise

I I . Romanticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther
Novalis, Hymns to the Night
De Maistre, God and Society

Nejf^Na± i on a IJ^m _ a nd Hege 1 i a n i sm
Hegel, Reason in History

III.

IV. Liberalism

Hughes, Tom Browns School Days

V. Marxism

Lichtheim, Marxism

Marx & Engels, German Ideologv

Marx & Engels on Religion

VI. Finde Siecle

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of Hlstory

Semester I, 1974-75

History 513 (European Culture 1815-1870)
You will need the following books:

Goethe, Sorrows of thg_Vo3jmiJ^^^^->^^r

Lessing, Na_than_th e _W i s e

No va 1 i s , Hymn to the Night

Hege 1 , Reason in History

George Lichtheim, Marxism

Joseph de Maistre, On_Gqd_and_Sqciety

Marx and Engels, German_IdeqlogY; "

Marx and Engels, On_Religiqn

Thomas Hughes, Tom_Brqwns^_School Days

George L. Mosse, £ulture_Q£ We'stern Europa (read chapters I

available on reserve and second hand copies are about)

- XI -

^ • Enlightenment and^ietT_fim
Lessing, Nathan the Wise

II. Romanticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther
Novalis, Hymns to the Night
De Maistre, God and Society

Nej^Nat ion^a Tj^m a nd Hege 1 i a n i sm
Hegel, Reason in History

III.

IV. Liberal ism

Hughes, Tom Browns School Days

V. Marxism

Lichtheim, Marxism

Marx & Engels, German Ideology

Marx & Engels on Religion

VI. Ein de Siecle

-" Tig

■.•.lt:r^r:.mtt^i»J^

History 513

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Fall 1977

European Cultural History 1815-1870

Mr. Mosse

The following books are to be read:

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe, 2nd edition (on reserve)

(Chapter I-VIII by six weeks, Chapter VIII to XI by final. But
it will be helpful if you read all of these 200 pages as back-
ground as soon as possible.)

George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses (optional, on reserve).

John Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

Leming, Nathan the Wise

Hegel, Reason in History

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown* s Schooldays

Marx and Engels on Religion

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

There will be in class a 6 weeks, a short paper for the 12 weeks from a
list of Problems which will be provided, and a take-home final.

Enlightenment
Nathan the Wise

Pietism

Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

Romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions
Scott, Ivanhoe

The New Nationalism and Hegelianism

Hegel, Reason in History

Mosse, Nationalization of the Masses (on reserve) (Chapters 1, 2 and 4)

-2-

Llberallsm and Morality

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Soclalism and Marxism

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Marx and Engels on Religion (to be assigned)

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of Hlstory
Fall 1985

History 513

EUROPEAN CULTURE 1815-1870

Prof. Mosse

You will need the follovlng books:

Lessing y Nathan the Wise (Barrons)

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (California)

The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Penguin)

John Wesley» A Piain Account of Christian Perfection (Epvorth)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (New American Library)

Goethe y Sorrows of the Young Werther (Rinehart)

Hegel, Reason in History (Library of Liberal Arts)

David McLellan, Karl Marx (Penguin)

Kamenka, ed., The Portable Marx (Viking)

Reserve:

George L. Mosse, Natlonalism and Sexuality
Libretto of Mozart, The Magic Flute

I. Enlightenment

Lessing, Nathan the Wise

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (to p. 117)

Mozart, The Magic Flute (on reserve)

II, Pietism

John Wesley, Christian Perfection (to be assigned)
Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality (on reserve - pp. 1-33)

III. Roman ticism

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (117-143)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Confessions
Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther
Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

IV. Rise of Modem Nationalism

Fichte, Speeches to the German nation (reserve, to be assigned)

V, Hegel* 3 Synthesis

Hegel, Reason in History

VI. Socialism and Karl Marx

David McLellan, Karl Marx

The Portable Marx (to be assigned)

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of Hlstory
Fall 1985

Hlstory 513

EUROPEAN CULTURE 1815-1870

Prof. Mosse

You vd.ll aeed the following books:

Lessing, Nathan the Wlse (Barrons)

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (California)

The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau CPenguin)

John Wesley, A Piain Account of Christian Perfection (Epworth)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (New American Library)

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther (Rinehart)

Hegel, Reason in History (Library of Liberal Arts)

David McLellan, Karl Marx (Penguin)

Kamenka, ed., The Portable Marx (Viking)

Reserve:

George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality
Libretto of Mozart, The Magic Flute

I. Enlightenment

Lessing, Nathan the Wise

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (to p. 117)

Mozart, The Magic Flute (on reserve)

II. Pietism

John Wesley, Christian Perfection (to be assigned)
Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality (on reserve - pp. 1-33)

III. Romanticism

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (117-143)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Confessions
Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther
Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

IV. Rise of Modem Nationalism

Fichte, Speeches to the German nation (reserve, to be assigned)

V. Hegel' s Synthesis

Hegel, Reason in History

VI. Socialism and Karl Marx

David McLellan, Karl Marx

The Portable Marx (to be assigned)

ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of Hlstory
Fall 1985

Hlstory 513

EUROPEAN CULTURE 1815-1870

Prof. Mosse

You will need the follovlng books:

Lessingy Nathan the Wise (Barrons)

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (California)

The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau CPenguin)

John Wesley, A Piain Account of Christian Perfection (Epvorth)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (New Ai^ierican Library)

Goethe» Sorrows of the Young Werther (Rinehart)

Hegel, Reason in History (Library of Liberal Arts)

David McLellan, Karl Marx (Penguin)

Kamenka, ed., The Portable Marx (Viking)

Reserve:

George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality
Libretto of Mozart, The Magic Flute

!• Enlightenment

Lessing, Nathan the Wise

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (to p. 117)

Mozart, The Magic Flute (on reserve)

II. Pietism

John Wesley, Christian Perfection (to be assigned)
Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality (on reserve - pp. 1-33)

III. Romanticism

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (117-143)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Confessions
Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther
Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

IV. Rise of Modem Nationalism

Fichte, Speeches to the German nation (reserve, to be assigned)
▼• Hegel* s Synthesis

Hegel, Reason in History
VI. Socialism and Karl Marx

David McLellan, Karl Marx

The Portable Marx (to be assigned)

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of Hlstory
Fall 1985

History 513

EUROPEAN CÜLTURE 1815-1870

Prof. Mosse

You will need the folloving books:

«

Lessing, Nathan the Wise (Barrons)

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (California)

The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Penguin)

John Wesley, A Piain Account of Christian Perfection (Epworth)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (New Aiiierican Library)

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther (Rinehart)

Hegel, Reason in History (Library of Liberal Arts)

David McLellan, Karl Marx (Penguin)

Kamenka, ed., The Portable Marx (Viking)

Reserve:

George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality
Libretto of Mozart, The Magic Flute

I. Enlightenment

Lessing, Nathan the Wise

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (to p. 117)

Mozart, The Magic Flute (on reserve)

II. Pietism

John Wesley, Christian Perfection (to be assigned)
Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality (on reserve - pp. 1-33)

III. Romanticism

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (117-143)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Confessions
Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther
Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

IV. Rise of Modem Nationalism

Fichte, Speeches to the German nation (reserve, to be assigned)

V. Hegel* s Synthesis

Hegel, Reason in History

VI. Socialism and Karl Marx

David McLellan, Karl Marx

The Portable Marx (to be assigned)

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of Hlstory
Fall 1985

History 513

EUROPEAN CULTURE 1815-1870

Prof. Mosse

You will need the following books:

Lessing, Nathan the Wise (Barrons)

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (California)

The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Penguin)

John Wesley, A Piain Account of Christian Perfection (Epworth)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (New American Library)

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther (Rinehart)

Hegel, Reason in History (Library of Liberal Arts)

David McLellan, Karl Marx (Penguin)

Kamenka, ed. , The Portable Marx (Viking)

Reserve:

George L, Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality
Libretto of Mozart, The Magic Flute

I. Enlightenment

Lessing, Nathan the Wise

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (to p. 117)

Mozart, The Magic Flute (on reserve)

II. Pietism

John Wesley, Christian Perfection (to be assigned)
Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality (on reserve - pp. 1-33)

III. Romanticism

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (117-143)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Confessions
Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther
Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

IV. Rise of Modem Nationalism

Fichte, Speeches to the German nation (reserve, to be assigned)

V, Hegel* s Synthesis

Hegel, Reason in History

VI. Socialism and Karl Marx

David McLellan, Karl Marx

The Portable Marx (to be assigned)

«MHMMMPWIi

<^mi

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester 1, 1981-82

History 513

European Culture

Mosse

Books which might be of interest:

Michael Foucault, The History of Sexuality*

L. B. Smith, The Peoples Health 1830-1910

Norbert Elias, The Process of Civilization

Harold Nicolson, Good Behaviour

Peter Gay, The Enlightenment* should be read with

Adorno and Horkheimer, The Dialectics of the Enlightenment

David Newsome, Godliness and Good Learnin^ (on English schools)

Jonathan Gathrone-Hardy, The Public School Phenomenon 597-1977*

George Lichtheim, Marxism (still the best one-volume work)

Paul P. Bernard, Rush to the Alps, the Evolution of Vacation-fna in

Switzerland "~~ -^

George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Svmbolism

and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars
through the Third Reich* "

Isiah Berlin, Vico and Herder

H% G. Schenk, The Mind of the European Romantics

Peter Demetz, Marx. Engels and the Poets

Vemon Venable, Human Nature; the Marxian View.

*Available in pocketbook

\

mmmm

History 513

European Cultural History 1815-1870

Mosse

The following books are to be read;

Lessing^ Nathan the Wise (Barrons)

Rousseau, Emile (Teachers College Edition)

Goethe , Sorrows of the Young Werther

Hegel, Reason in History (Bobbs Merrill)

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brov;n's Schooldays (Airmont)

^^^^' German Ideology, ed. L.J. Arthur (International Publishers)

John Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection (Epworth Press)
Also on reserve

Rousseau, Government of Pol and (Bobbs Merrill)

On reserve

G.L. Mosse, Tov?ards the Final Solution

G.L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe

W.E. Mosse, Liberal Europe, the Age of Bourcreois Realism

There will be a 6 vveeks in class, a short paper for 12 weeks from
a list of Problems which will be provided, and a take- home final.

^osse, Culture of Western Europe, Chapters I-IX to be read for back-
ground as soon as possible.

Eni iqht enment

Lessing, Nathan the wise? Mosse, Towards the Final Solution, Part I-
Rousseau, Emile, Books 1, 2, 5 '

Pietism

John Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection. 1-60

Romanticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther

The New Nationalism and Hegel
Rousseau, Government of Poland
Hege 1 , Reason in Historv

Liberalism and the New Morality

W.E. Mosse, Liberal Europe. Chapters III, iv, V, VI

Hughes , Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Socialism and Marxism

Marx, German Ideolocrv. Part I (entire) , pp. 121-151

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester 1, 1981-82

History 513

European Culture

Mosse

Books which might be of interest:

Michael Foucault, The History of Sexuality*

L. B. Smith, The Peoples Health 1830-1910

Norbert Elias, The Process of Civilization

Harold Nicolson, Good Behaviour

Peter Gay, The Enlightenment* should be read with

Adorno and Horkheimer, The Dialectics of the Enlip.htenment

David Newsome, Godliness and Good Learning (on English schools)

Jonathan Gathrone-Hardy, The Public School Phenomenon 597-1977*

George Lichtheim, Marxism (still the best one-volume work)

Paul P. Bernard, Rush to the Alps, the Evolution of Vacationing in

Switzerland

George L, Mosse, The National ization of the Masses: Political Symbolism

and Mass MovcmcnLs in Gcrmany from the Napoleonic Wars
through the Third Reich*

Isiah Berlin, Vico and Herder

iU G. Schenk, The Mind of the European Romantics

Peter Demetz, Marx, Engels and the Poets'

Vernon Venable, Human Nature; the Marxian View.

*Available in pocketbook

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
Department of Hlstory
Fall 1985

Hlstory 513

EUROPEAN CÜLTURE 1815-1870

Prof. Mosse

You will need the follovlng booka:

Lessing, Nathan the Wise (Barrons)

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (California)

The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau CPenguin)

John Wesley, A Piain Account of Christian Perfection (Epworth)

Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe (New American Library)

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther (Rinehart)

Hegel, Reason in History (Library of Liberal Arts)

David McLellan, Karl Marx (Penguin)

Kamenka, ed., The Portable Marx (Viklng)

Reserve:

George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality •[— *-
Libretto of Mozart, The Magic Flute -^^kA^

/ii4^^

$

I. Enlightenment

a-

u^

Lessing, Nathan the Wise ^ y^^

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Traditi'on (to p. 117)

Mozart, The Magic Flute (on reserve) i

II. Pietism

John Wesley, Christian Perfection (to be assigned)
Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality Con reserve - pp. 1-33)

III. Romanticism

Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (117-143)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Confessions
Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther
Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

IV. Rise of Modem Nationalism

Fichte, Speeches to the German nation (reserve, to be assigned)
V. Hegel* 8 Synthesis

Hegel, Reason in History

VI, Socialism and Karl Marx

David McLellan, Karl Marx

The Portable Marx (to be assigned)

1

HNH

MMMMMM

\

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester I, 1970-71

History 513 (European Culture, 1815-1870)

Mr. Mosse

You will need the following books:

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe (Rand McNally paperback)

Goethe, Sorrows of Younq Werther (Rinehart paperback)

Novalis, Hvmns to the Night (Library of Liberal Arts)

Hegel, Reason in Historv (Library of Liberal Arts)

George Lichtheim, Marxism (Praeger paperback)

George Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism (Praeger paperback)

Karl Marx, F. Engels, German Ideology (International Publishers)

Marx and Engels on Religion (Schocken paperback)

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's School Davs (St. Martin' s Press)

The Portable Nietzsche (Viking)

Sigfried Gidion, Mechanization Takes Command (Norton paperback)

John Stuart Mill, Six Great Humanistic Essavs (Washington Square)

1. Enlightenment to Romanticism

Goethe, Young Werthör
Novalis, Hymns to the Night

2. The New Nationalism and Hegelianism
Hegel, Reason in History

3. Liberalism

Mill, Six Great Humanistic Essays
Hughes, Tom Brown 's School Days
Gideon, Mechanization Takes Command

4. Socialism and Marxism

Lichtheim, Origins of Socialism

Lichtheim, Marxism

Marx, German Ideology

Marx and Engels on Religion

5. Fin de siecle

The Portable Nietzsche

»»•■

•^.

/

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Fall 1977

History 513

European Cultural History 1815-1870

Mr. Mosse

The following books are to be read:

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe, 2nd edition (on reserve)

(Chapter I-VIII by six weeks, Chapter VIII to XI by final. But
it will be helpful if you read all of these 200 pages as back-
ground as soon as possible.)

George L. Mosse, The National ization of the Masses (optional, on reserve).

John Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

Leming, Nathan the Wise

Hegel, Reason in History

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Marx and Engels on Religion

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

There will be in class a 6 weeks, a short paper for the 12 weeks from a
list of Problems which will be provided, and a take-home final.

Enlightenment
Nathan the Wise

Pietism

Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

Romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions
Scott, Ivanhoe

The New Nationallsm and Hegelianism

Hegel, Reason in History

Mosse, Nationalization of the Masses (on reserve) (Chapters 1, 2 and 4)

-2-

Liberallsm and Moral Ity

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Sociallsm and Marxism

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Marx and Engels on Religion (to be assigned)

1'.''

^- ii-

f^XA

^\

UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Fall 1977

History 513

European Cultural History 1815-1870

Mr. Mosse

The folloving books are to be read:

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe, 2nd edition (on reserve)

(Chapter I-VIII by six weeks, Chapter VIII to XI by final. But
it will be helpful if you read all of these 200 pages as back-
ground as soon as possible.)

George L. Mosse, The National ization of the Masses (optional, on reserve).

John Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

Leming, Nathan the Wise

Hegel, Reason in History

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Marx and Engels on Religion

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

There will be in class a 6 weeks, a short paper for the 12 weeks from a
list of Problems which will be provided, and a take-home final.

Enlightenment

Nathan the Wise

Pietism

Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

Romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions
Scott, Ivanhoe

The New Nationalism and Hegelianism

Hegel, Reason in History

Mosse, Nationalization of the Masses (on reserve) (Chapters 1, 2 and 4)

-2-

Liberallsm and Moral Ity

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Social Ism and Marxlsm

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Marx and Engels on Religion (to be assigned)

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Fall 1977

History 513

European Cultural History 1815-1870

Mr. Mosse

The folloving books are to be read:

George L, Mosse, Culture of Western Europe, 2nd edition (on reserve)

(Chapter I-VIII by six weeks, Chapter VIII to XI by final. But
it will be helpful if you read all of these 200 pages as back-
ground as soon as possible.)

George L, Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses (optional, on reserve)

John Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

Letning, Nathan the Wise

Hegel, Reason in History

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Marx and Engels on Religion

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

There will be in class a 6 weeks, a short paper for the 12 weeks from a
list of Problems which will be provided, and a take-home final.

Enlightenment

Nathan the Wise

Pietism

Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

Romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions
Scott, Ivanhoe

The New Nationalism and Hegelianism

Hegel, Reason in History

Mosse, Nationalization of the Masses (on reserve) (Chapters 1, 2 and 4)

-2-

Llberalism and Morallty

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Social Ism and Marxlsm

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Marx and Engels on Religion (to be asslgned)

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Fall 1977

History 513

European Cultural History 1815-1870

Mr. Mosse

The following books are to be read:

George L. Mosse, Culture of Western Europe, 2nd edition (on reserve)

(Chapter I-VIII by six weeks, Chapter VIII to XI by final. But
it will be helpful if you read all of these 200 pages as back-
ground as soon as possible.)

George L. Mosse, The National ization of the Masses (optional, on reserve).

John Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

Leming, Nathan the Wise

Hegel, Reason in History

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown' s Schooldays

Marx and Engels on Religion

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Walter Scott, Ivanhoe

There will be in class a 6 weeks, a short paper for the 12 weeks from a
list of Problems which will be provided, and a take-home final.

Enlightenment

Nathan the Wise

Pietism

Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

Romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions
Scott, Ivanhoe

The New Nationalism and Hegelianism

Hegel, Reason in History

Mosse, Nationalization of the Masses (on reserve) (Chapters 1, 2 and 4)

-2-

Llberalism and Moral Ity

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Sociallsm and Marxism

David McLellan, Karl Marx

Marx and Engels on Religion (to be asslgned)

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

Department of History

Fall 1977

History 513 European Cultural History 1815-1870

Mr. Mosse

The follovying books are to be read:

George L,

^^f s®' Culture of Western Europe. 2nd edition (on reserve)
(Chapter I-VIII by six weeks, Chapter VIII to XI by final
But it will be helpful if you read all of these 200 pages
as background as soon as possible.)

John Wesley, Piain Account of Christian Perfection

J.J« Rousseau, Confessions

Joseph De Maistre, On God and Society

Schopenhauer, Essays and Aphorisms

Hegel, Reason in History

Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown 's Schooldays

Marx and Engels on Religion

David McLellan, Karl Marx

^^^^.''J-^^^.^'' ""i?^^ ^ ^ ''^^^^' ^ ^^^^^ P^P^^ for the 12 weeks
fiSal Problems which will be provided, and a take-home

Enlightenment

Pietism

Wesley, Piain Account of Christian PerfentMnn

Romanticism

J.J, Rousseau, Confessions

Joseph De Maistre, On God and Society

Schopenhauer, Essays and Aphorisms (to be

assigned)

/

-2-

The K^ NT^^.^ ^

^^^®^' ^SSäsonJn^Histori;

? and 4) ^" "^^ tne Maaaoo

(on

reserve) (Chapters 1,

^'^^2ralJ^m_andjtoralit
Thomas Hughes, TonLBrown:

^SSiäiisiEL^nd^Marjasni
David McLellan, Karljja«

S— Schooldays

(to be assigned)

V--

MaaMita

ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCOHSIN-MADISON
DeparOBent of Hiatory
Senester I, 1978-79

Hiatory 512

Iggtructtons for Paper;

Due- Week of Nov. 16 and 17 (in sectioas) .
any circumstances.

Mr. Moaae

NO

late papers will be accepted under

Ltogti^s Not more than 8 double spaced typewritten pages.
Fora: Carefully footnoted to the sources.

^^^^' IfiS? «f ;r%' ^ '>1^\^<^Y *"'^«^*^ ^^^* * co«parison of the author«

Oll 0^ of the topics listed below and teil «hy they differed one fron another
and what the consequences of this difference were:

1.
2.

3.
k.
5.
6.

7.

So

10.

11.

12.
13.
14.

15-
16.

17.
18.
19.
20.

the nature of evil

viev of human nature

relationship of God to politics

relationahip of Scripture to politics

viev of the ideal coomunity

the cotscept of virtue

the coQcept of certainty

man and infinity

concept of the passions

the idea of Justice

attitude tovards war and political deceit

relationship between God and matter

view of mature itseif

attitude towards contemporary personal morality

attitude towards scepticism (first defining it)

human free will aod divine providence

attitudes towards toieration

attitudes towards political power

attitudes towards the "common people'*

definition of iotellectual axcellencc and leadcrship

withZ '^Mifr""''^? v'^^^^'n, ^ ^^ P*«^ ""^"^*" ^P*^ ^"^ 3^ November. Consult
wltn Mr. Mi^^sse or Rick Stacy first.

ÜWIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN-MADISON
Dep^rtmeat of History
S«M8ter I, 1978-79

Hlatory 512
Instructions for Paper;

Mr. Mosse

Due» Week of Nov. 16 and 17 (In sections) . NO late papers will be accepted under
any clrcumstances,

Length ?. Not more than 8 double spaced typewrittcn pages.
Fora: Carefully footnoted to the sources.

Topic

'^^i'^ *^ ^f*^^ 2i2 of th€ books asslgned wrlte a catparlson of the authors
on 01^ of the topics llsted belov and teil why they dlffered one from another
and what the consequences of thts difference were:

1.
2.

3.
k.

5-
6.

7.
8.

9.

10.

11.

12.
13.
li^.

15.

16.

17.
18.

19.
20.

the nature of evtl

view of human nature

relationship of God to polltlcs

relatlonshlp of Scrlpture to polltlcs

vlew of the Ideal comnunlty

the concept of vir tue

the concept of certalnty

man and Inflnlty

concept of the passlons

the Idea bf Justice

attltude tovards war and polltlcal decelt

relatlonshlp between God and matter

view of nature Itself

attltude tovards conteaporary personal morality

attltude towards sceptlclsm (flrst definlng It)

huffi&n free will and dlvlne provldence

attltudes towards toleratlon

attltudes towards polltlcal power

attltudes towards the "connion people**

deflnltlon of Intellectual excellence and leadcrship

ü?Tr ^"^ graduate studentss a Ij page research paper due 33 Noveaiber. Consult
wlth Mr. Mtr^sse or Rick Stacy flrst.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
First Semester 1978-79

History 512

Hr. Hosse

The followfng books should be bought:

Blalse Pascal, Pensee. Dutton Pocketbook

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan. abridged, Washington Square Press

Descartes, Phi losophical Wrltings. Penguin

The Portable Voltaire, VIking

J.J. Rousseau, Social Contractu Gateway

J.J. Rousseau, Emile. Barron* s Educatlonal Serles

^^^^^ ^^y* The Enllqhtenment: The RIse of Modern P^q;>nlcm, Norton

^^®^^*' The Sorrows of the Young Werther. RInehart Editions

On Reserve

Gerrard WInstanley, "A Letter to Lord Fairfax" and "The Level ler." from
Dunham and Pargellls, Reform and Comp la Int In England

George L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution, A HIstorv of European Raclsm
ZInzendorf, NIne Public Lectures on Important Subjects In R^llgtnn
George L. Mosse, "Changes In Rellglous Thought"

Introduction: The World PIcture of tha I7th and l8th Centuries
The Baroque
Visual material to be assigned.

The Absolute State and its Enemie«;

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

G. WInstanley, "A Letter to Lord Fairfax" and '»The Level ler"

Rellglous Revival of the Seventeenth Century
Pascal, Pen See

Mosse, "Changes In Rellglous Thought"

Hfstory 512 (Contlnued)

-2-

Mr. Hosse

The Beqinninqs of Rational ism and Eni Iqhtenment

Descartes, Discourse on Method and Meditation on First Philosophy

Eni iqhtenment

/

J.J. Rousseau 9 Social Contract and Emile

The Portable Voltaire (Candid, Manners and Spirits of Nations, The Lisbon
Earthqual<e, Selections, pp. 166-183)

Peter Gay, The Eni iqhtenment (Chapters perhaps to be assigned, but you can
and should use the whole boolc as a Icind of text for the course as it
goes back into the 17th Century)

G, L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution (Chapters I, II, IM)

Pietism

Zinzendorf. Nine Lectures. Lecture II (Concern ing. .the Lord's Prayer)
Lecture VI (That it is blessedness to be a Human Soul)

Towards Romanticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Younq Werther

There will be an in-class 6 weeks, an 8-page paper centered on the readings
for this course for the 12 weeks, and a take-home final. Course office is
Hl23 Humanities.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of Hlstory
First Semester 1978-79

History 512

Hr. Mosse

The following books should be bought:

Blaise Pascal 9 Pensee« Dutton Pocketbook

Thomas Hobbes» Levlathan, abridged» Washington Square Press

Oescartes» Philosophical Writings, Penguin

The Portable Voltaire. VIkIng

J.J. Rousseau, Social Contract. Gateway

J.J. Rousseau» Em M e , Barron' s Educatlonal Serles

Peter Gay, The Eni Ightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism. Norton

Goethe» The Sorrows of the Young Werther. Rinehart Editions

On Reserve

Gerrard WInstanley, "A Letter to Lord Falrfax" and "The Leveller," from
Dunham and Pargellls, Reform and Complaint In England

George L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution. A Hlstory of European Racism

ZInzendorf, Nine Public Lectures on Important Subjects In Religion

George L. Mosse, '*Changes In Rellglous Thought"

Introduction: The World PIcture of the 17th and I8th CenturJes

The Baroque

Visual material to be assigned.

The Absolute State and Its Enemles

Thomas Hobbes, Levlathan

G. WInstanley, ''A Letter to Lord Fairfax" and "The Leveller"

Rellglous Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Pascal , Pen See

Mosse, "Changes in Rellglous Thought"

Hl Story 512 (Conti nued)

-2-

Mr. Mosse

The Beqinninqs of Ratlonallsm and Enllqhtefiment

Descartes, Discourse on Hethod and Meditation on First Phllosophy

Eni Iqhtentnent

/

J.J. Rousseau 9 Social Contract and EmI 1e

The Portable Voltaire (Candid, Manners and Spirlts of Natlons, The LIsbon
Earthquake, SelectIons, pp« 166-183)

Peter Gay, The Eni Iqhteninent (Chapters perhaps to be assigned, but you can
and should use the whole book as a kind of text for the course as It
goes back Into the 17th Century)

G. L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution (Chapters I, II, III)

Pletlsm

ZInzendorf, NIne Lectures. Lecture II (Concern Ing. «the Lord's Prayer)
Lecture VI (That It Is blessedness to be a Human Soul)

Towards Romanticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Younq Werther

There will be an In-class 6 weeks, an 8-page paper centered on the readings
for this course for the 12 weeks, and a take-home final. Course offIce Is
4123 Human Itles.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
First Semester 1978-79

Ht Story 512

Hr. Hosse

The following books should be bought:

Blaise Pascal, Pensee. Dutton Pocketbook

Thomas Hobbes» Levlathan. abrldged, Washington Square Press

Descartes, PhJlosophical Writings. Penguin

The Portable Voltaire. VIkIng

J.J. Rousseau, Social Contract. Gateway

J.J. Rousseau, Em i 1 e , Barron's Educational Series

Peter Gay, The Eni iqhtenment: The Rise of Modern Paqanism. Norton

Goethe» The Sorrows of the Younq Werther, Rinehart Editions

On Reserve

Gerrard Winstanley, '*A Letter to Lord Fairfax*' and *'The Leveller,*' from
Dunham and Pargellis, Reform and Complalnt in Enqland

George L. Hosse, Towards the Final Solution« A History of European Racism

Zinzendorf, Nine Public Lectures on Important Subjects in Reliqion

George L. Hosse, 'Xhanges in ReUgious Thought"

Introduction: The World Picture of the 17th and I8th Centurles

The Baroque

Visual material to be asslgned.

The Absolute State and its Enemles

Thomas Hobbes, Levlathan

G. Winstanley, ''A Letter to Lord Falrfax" and 'The Level ler**

Reliqious RevJval of the Seventeenth Century

Pascal , Pen See

Hosse, "Changes in Rellgious Thought'*

Hi Story 512 (Conti nued)

-2-

Mr. Mosse

The Beqinninqs of Rational ism and Enliqhtenment

Descartes, Discourse on Method and Meditation on First Phllosophy

Eni Iqhtennient

J.J. Rousseau, Social Contract and Emile

The Portable Voltaire (Candid, Manners and Spirlts of Natlons, The LIsbon
Earthquake, Selections, pp. 166-183)

Peter Gay, The Enliqhtenment (Chapters perhaps to be assigned, but you can
and should use the whole book as a kind of text for the course as It
goes back Into the I7th Century)

6. L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution (Chapters I, II, |||)
Pletlsm

ZInzendorf, NjneJLectures, Lecture II (Concern Ing. .the Lord's Prayer)
Lecture VI (That It Is blessedness to be a Human Soul)

Towards Romanticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Younq Werther

There will be an In-class 6 weeks, an S-page paper centered on the readlngs

!?o,^u T^*^ ^'"" ^^^ ^^ ""^^^^^ *"^ ^ take-home final. Course offIce Is
HI23 Humanitles.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1978-79

European Culture - //512

Mr. Mosse

FINAL EXAMINATION,

NO MORE THAN FIVE (5) TYPEWRITTEN PAGES.

DUE DECEMBER 16, 1978 in 4263 Humanities or Mr. Stacy's mail box if returned
earlier.

Answer ONE of these only;

1. Whlch of these do you think penetrated best to the essential
Problems of the Enlightenment? Choose three (3) .

Voltaire
Rousseau
Werther

I

Zinzendorf •

2. Discuss what is meant by the process of secularisation through
taking three of these as your example in order to show the
historical progression and the problems involved.

Hobbes

Pascal

Rousseau

Werther .

3. Why do you think nature played such a large role in the
Enlightenment and Romanticism? Be specific.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1978-79

European Culture - //512

Mr. Mosse

FINAL EXAMINATION.

NO MORE THAN FIVE (5) TYPEWRITTEN PAGES.

DUE DECEMBER 16, 1978 in 4263 Humanities or Mr. Stacy's mail box if returned
earlier.

Answer ONE of these only;

1. Which of these do you think penetrated best to the essential
Problems of the Enlightenment? Choose three (3) .

Voltaire
Rousseau
Werther
Zinzendorf.

2. Discuss what is meant by the process of secularisation through
taking three of these as your example in order to show the
historical progression and the problems involved.

Hobbes

Pascal

Rousseau

Werther.

0

3. Why do you think nature played such a large role in the
Enlightenment and Romanticism? Be specific.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON

Department of History

Semester I, 1978-79

European Culture - //512

Mr. Mosse

FINAL EXAMINATION.

NO MORE THAN FIVE (5) TYPEWRITTEN PAGES.

DUE DECEMBER 16, 1978 in 4263 Humanities or Mr. Stacy's mail box if returned
earlier.

Answer ONE of these only;

1. Which of these do you think penetrated best to the essential
Problems of the Enlightenment? Choose three (3) .

Voltaire

4

Rousseau
Werther
Zinzendorf .

2. Discuss what is meant by the process of secularisation through
taking three of these as your example in order to show the
historical progression and the problems involved.

Hobbes

Pascal

Rousseau

Werther.

3. Why do you think nature played such a large role in the
Enlightenment and Romanticism? Be specific.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
First Semester 1978-79

History 512

Hr. Hosse

The following books should be bought:

Blaise Pascal, Pensee. Dutton Pocketbook

Thomas Hobbes» Levlathan. abridged» Washington Square Press

Descartes, Phi losophical Writings. Penguin

The Portable Voltaire. Vlklng

J.J. Rousseau, Social Contract. Gateway

J.J. Rousseau, Emi le. Barron*s Educational Series

Peter Gay, The Enüghtenment: The RIse of Modern Paganlsw. Norton

Goethet The Sorrows of the Young Werther. Rinehart Editions

On Reserve

Gerrard Winstanley, '«A Letter to Lord Fairfax*' and "The Lcveller,»' from
Dunham and Pargellis, Reform and Complaint In England

George L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution. A History of European Racism
ZInzendorf, Nine Public Lectures on Important Sublects in Religion
George L. Hosse, "Changes in Religious Thought**

Introduction: The World Picture of the I7th and I8th Centuries

The Baroque

Visual material to be asslgned.

The Absolute State and its Enemles

Thomas Hobbes, Levlathan

G. Winstanley, '»A Letter to Lord Fairfax*' and "The Level ler"

Religious Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Pascal , Pen See

Hosse, "Changes In Religious Thought"

Hl Story 512 (Conti nued)

-2-

Mr. Mosse

The Beqinninqs of RationaUsro and Eni iqhtenment

Descartes, Discourse on Method and Meditation on First Philosophy

Eni Iqhtenment

J.J. Rousseau, Social Contract and Emile

The Portable Voltaire (Candid, Manners and Splrlts of Natlons, The LIsbon
Earthquake, Selections, pp. 166-183)

Peter Gay, The Eni Iqhtenment (Chapters perhaps to be assigned, but you can
and should use the whole book as a kind of text for the course as It
goes back Into the 17th Century)

G. L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution (Chapters I, II, IM)

Pletlsm

Zlnzendorf, NIne Lectures, Lecture II (Concern Ing. .the Lord's Prayer)
Lecture VI (That it Is blessedness to be a Human Soul)

Towards Romanticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Younq Werther

There will be an In-class 6 weeks, an 8-page paper centered on the readings
for this course for the 12 weeks, and a take-home final. Course offIce Is
4123 Humanitles.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
First Semester 1978-79

History 512

Mr. Mosse

The followfng books should be bought:

Blaise Pascal, Pensee, Dutton Pocketbook

Thomas Hobbes» Levlathan, abridged» Washington Square Press

Descartes, Phi losophical Writings, Penguln

The Portable Voltaire. VIkfng

J.J, Rousseau» Social Contract. Gateway

J.J. Rousseau, Emi le, Barron' s Educational Series

Peter Gay, The Eni Iqhtenment: The Rise of Modern Paqanisin. htorton

Goethe» The Sorrows of the Young Werther, Rinehart Editions

On Reserve

Gerrard Winstanley, *»A Letter to Lord Fairfax»' and "The Leveller," from
Dunham and Pargellis, Reform and Comp la Int in England

George L, Mosse, Towards the Final Solution, A History of European Racism

ZInzendorf, Nine Public Lectures on Important Subjects in Religion

George L. Mosse, "Changes in Rellgious Thought"

Introductlon: The World PJcture of the 17th and I8th Centuries

The Baroque

Visual material to be assigned.

The Absolute State and its Enemies

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

G. Winstanley, "A Letter to Lord Fairfax" and "The Level 1er"

Rellgious Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Pascal , Pen See

Mosse, "Changes In Rellgious Thought"

Hl Story 512 (Conti nued)

-2-

Mr. Mosse

The Beqinninqs of Rational ism and Eni ightenment

Descartes, Discourse on Hethod and Meditation on First Philosophy

Eni ightenment

J.J. Rousseau, Social Contract and Emile

The Portable Voltaire (Candid, Manners and Spirits of Nations, The Lisbon
Earthquake, Selections, pp. 166-183)

Peter Gay, The Eni ightenment (Chapters perhaps to be assigned, but you can
and should use the whole book as a kind of text for the course as it
goes back into the 17th Century)

G. L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution (Chapters I, II, IM)

Pietism

Zinzendorf, Nine Lectures. Lecture II (Concern ing. «the Lord's Prayer)
Lecture VI (That it is blessedness to be a Human Soul)

Towards Romanticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Young Werther

There will be an in-class 6 weeks, an 8-page paper centered on the readings
for this course for the 12 weeks, and a take-home final. Course Office is
4123 Humanities.

< •*

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
First Semester 1978-79

History 512

Hr. Mosse

The following books should be bought:

Blaise Pascal 9 Pensee. Dutton Pocketbook

Thomas Hobbes» Leviathan> abridged, Washington Square Press

Descartes» Philosophical Writings. Penguin

The Portable Voltaire. VIkIng

J.J. Rousseau, Social Contract. Gateway

J.J. Rousseau, Emile, Barron* s Educatlonal Serles

Peter Gay, The Eni Iqhtenment: The Rise of Modern Paqanism. htorton

Goethef The Sorrows of the Young Werther. Rinehart Editions

On Reserve

Gerrard WInstanley, **A Letter to Lord Fairfax»' and »'The Level 1er, •• from
Dunham and Pargellis, Reform and Complalnt In England

George L. Hosse, Towards the Final Solution. A History of European Racism

ZInzendorf, Nine Public Lectures on Important Subjects in Religion

George L. Mosse, '»Changes in Rellglous Thought"

Introduction: The World PIcture of the 17th and I8th Centuries

The Baroque

Visual material to be asslgned«

The Absolute State and its Enemies

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

G. WInstanley, »'A Letter to Lord Fairfax*' and **The Level 1er**

Rellglous Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Pascal , Pensee

Mosse, **Changes In Rellglous Thought**

Hi Story 512 (Conti nued)

-2-

Hr. Mosse

The Beqinninqs of Rational isin and Eni ighteoment

Descartes, Discourse on Method and Meditation on First Philosophy

Eni iqhtenment

J.J. Rousseau, Social Contract and Emile

The Portable Voltaire (Candid, Manners and Spirits of Nations, The Lisbon
Earthquake, Selections, pp« 166-183)

Peter Gay, The Eni iqhtenment (Chapters perhaps to be assigned, but you can
and should use the whole book as a kind of text for the course as it
goes back into the 17th Century)

G. L, Mosse, Towards the Final Solution (Chapters I, II, IM)

Pietism

Zinzendorf, Nine Lectures. Lecture II (Concern ing. .the Lord's Prayer)
Lecture VI (That it is blessedness to be a Human Soul)

Towards Romanticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Younq Werther

There will be an in-class 6 weeks, an 8-page paper centered on the readings
for this course for the 12 weeks, and a take-home final. Course Office is
4123 Humanities.

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
First Semester 1978-79

History 512

Hr. Hosse

The followlng books should be bought:

Blaise Pascal , Pensee, Dutton Pocketbook

Thomas Hobbes, LevJathan, abridged, Washington Square Press

Descartes, Phi losophical Writings, Penguin

The Portable Voltaire. Viking

J.J. Rousseau» Social Contract, Gateway

J.J. Rousseau, Em i 1 e , Barron' s Educational Series

Peter Gay, The Eni ightenment: The Rise of Modern Paqanism. Norton

Goethe» The Sorrows of the Young Werther, Rinehart Editions

On Reserve

Gerrard Winstanley, *'A Letter to Lord Fairfax*' and "The Level 1er," from
Dunham and Pargellis, Reform and Complaint in England

George L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution, A History of European Racism

Zinzendorf, Nine Public Lectures on Important Subjects in Religion

George L. Mosse, "Changes in Religious Thought"

introduction: The World Picture of the 17th and I8th Centuries

The Baroque

Visual material to be assigned,

The Absolute State and its Enemies

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

G. Winstanley, "A Letter to Lord Fairfax" and "The Level 1er"

Religious Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Pascal , Pensee

Mosse, "Changes in Religious Thought"

Hf Story 512 (Conti nued)

-2-

Mr. Mosse

The Beqinninqs of Rational ism and Enlightenment

Descartes» Discourse on Hethod and Meditation on First Philosophy

Eni iqhtentnent

/

J.J. Rousseau, Social Contract and Emile

Tlie Portable Voltaire (Candid, Manners and Spirits of Nations, The Lisbon
Earthquake, Selections» pp. 166-183)

Peter Gay, The Eni jghtenment (Chapters perhaps to be assigned, but you can
and should use the whole book as a kind of text for the course as it
goes back into the 17th Century)

G, L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution (Chapters I, II, IM)

Pietism

Zinzendorf, Nine Lectures, Lecture II (Conccrning. .the Lord's Prayer)
Lecture Vi (That it is blessedness to be a Human Soul)

Towards Romanticism

Goethe, Sorrows of the Younq Werther

There will be an in-class 6 weeks, an 8-page paper centered on the readings
for this course for the 12 weeks, and a take-home final. Course Office is
4123 Humanities.

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1969-70

HISTORY 512

Mr. Mosse

The following books are on reserve:

Alphonse Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Sidney Burrell, The Role of Religion in Modern European History
H. Koenigsberger and George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth

Century

The following books will have to be read:

Blaise Pascal, Pensees

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract

Descartes, Discourses on Method and other Writings

The Portable Voltaire

Peter Gay, The Enlightenment , Vol. I (The Rise of Modern

Paganism)

Sidney Burrell, ed., The Role of Religion in Modern

European History (also on reserve)

Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Erasmus

to Descartes

For background (if you have none) : H. Koenigsberger and

George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth
Century (will be on reserve) .

/

1 . Int r oduction

2 . The Baroque

3. Absolute State of the 17th Century

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)

4. Alternatives to absolutism

5. Reliqious revival of the 17th Century

Pascal, Pensees

History 512 - Semester II, 1969-70

Mr* Mosse

6. Beqinninqs of rationalism and materialism

Descartes, Discourse on Method and other Writings
Popkin, History of Scepticism

Burrell, pages 65-77 (Mosse, Radicalism and the

Eni ightenment )

7 . The Eni ightenment

Gay, The Enlightenment

The Portable Voltaire (pieces to be assigned)
J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract
Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Burrell, pages 89-98 (Moody, Dechristianisation of the

French Working Class)

8. Classical Revival

9. Pietism

10. Pre-romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

\

■^■H

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1969-70

HISTORY 512

Mr. Mosse

The following books are on reserve:

Alphonse Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Sidney Burrell, The Role of Religion in Modern European History
H. Koenigsberger and George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth

Century

The following books will have to be read:

^ S- 7^

Blaise Pascal, Pensees
TJfiomas Hobbes, Leviathan <

L^. J. Rousseau, Confessions, P-^^^f^^*^i

J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract

Descartes, Discourses on Method and other Writings
^^he Portable Voltaire

Peter Gay, The Enlightenment , Vol. I (The Rise of Modern

Paganism)
Sidney Burrell, ed., The Role of Religion in Modern

European History (also on reserve)
Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Erasmus

to Descartes
For background (if you have none) : H. Koenigsberger and

George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth
Century (will be on reserve) .

1. Introduction

2. The Baroque

l/iU*^^

3. Absolute State of the 17th Century

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)

4. Alternatives to absolutism

5. Reliqious revival of the 17th Century

Pascal, Pensees

P>/A^ <^

/

/

.. ' >

History 512 - Semester II, 1969-70

Mr. Mosse

6. Beqinninqs of rationalism and materialism

Descartes, Discourse on Method and other Writings
Popkin, History of Scepticism

Burrell, pages 65-77 (Mosse, Radicalism and the

Enlightenment)

7 . The Enlightenment

Gay, The Enlightenment

The Portable Voltaire (pieces to be assigned)
J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract i

Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Burrell, pages 89-98 (Moody, Dechristianisation of the

French Working Class)

8. Classical Revival

9. Pietism

10. Pre-romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

/

/■

/

/

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1969-70

HISTORY 512

Mr. Mosse

The following books are on reserve:

Alphonse Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Sidney Burrell, The Role of Religion in Modern European History
H. Koenigsberger and George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth

Century

The following books will have to be read:

Blaise Pascal, Pensees

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract

Descartes, Discourses on Method and other Writings

The Portable Voltaire

Peter Gay, The Enlightenment , Vol. I (The Rise of Modern

Paganism)

Sidney Burrell, ed., The Role of Religion in Modern

European History (also on reserve)

Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Erasmus

to Descartes

For background (if you have none) : H. Koenigsberger and

George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth
Century (will be on reserve) .

1. Introduction

2. The Baroque

3. Absolute State of the 17th Century

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)

4. Alternatives to absolutism

5. Reliqious revival of the 17th Century

Pascal, Pensees

* '• *

History 512 - Semester II, 1969-70

Mr. Mosse

6. Beqinninqs of rationalism and materialism

Descartes, Discourse on Method and other Writings
Popkin, History of Scepticism

Burrell, pages 65-77 (Mosse, Radicalism and the

Eni ightenment )

7 . The Eni ightenment

Gay, The Eni ightenment

The Portable Voltaire (pieces to be assigned)
J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract
Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Burrell, pages 89-98 (Moody, Dechi istianisation of the

French Working Class)

8. Classical Revival

9. Pietism

10. Pre-romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

v

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1969-70

HISTORY 512

Mr. Mosse

The following books are on reserve:

Alphonse Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Sidney Burrell, The Role of Religion in Modern European History
H. Koenigsberger and George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth

Century

The following books will have to be read:

Blaise Pascal, Pensees

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract

Descartes, Discourses on Method and other Writings

The Portable Voltaire

Peter Gay, The Enlightenment , Vol. I (The Rise of Modern

Paganism)

Sidney Burrell, ed., The Role of Religion in Modern

European History (also on reserve)

Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Erasmus

to Descartes

For background (if you have none) : H. Koenigsberger and

George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth
Century (will be on reserve) .

1. Introduction

2 . The Baroque

3. Absolute state of the 17th Century

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)

4. Alternatives to absolutism

5. Reliqious revival of the 17th Century

Pascal, Pensees

. • *^

History 512 - Semester II, 1969-70

Mr. Mosse

6. Beqinninqs of rationalism and materialism

Descartes, Discourse on Method and other Writings
Popkin, History of Scepticism

Burrell, pages 65-77 (Mosse, Radicalism and the

Eni ightenment )

7. The Enliqhtenment

Gay, The Eni ightenment

The Portable Voltaire (pieces to be assigned)
J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract
Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Burrell, pages 89-98 (Moody, Dechristianisation of the

French Working Class)

8

Classical Revival

9. Pietism

10. Pre-romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1969-70

HISTORY 512

Mr. Mosse

The following books are on reserve:

Alphonse Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Sidney Burrell, The Role of Religion in Modern European History
H. Koenigsberger and George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth

Century

The following books will have to be read:

Blaise Pascal, Pensees

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract

Descartes, Discourses on Method and other Writings

The Portable Voltaire

Peter Gay, The Enlightenment, Vol. I (The Rise of Modern

Paganism)

Sidney Burrell, ed., The Role of Religion in Modern

European History (also on reserve)

Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Erasmus

to Descartes

For background (if you have none) : H. Koenigsberger and

George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth
Century (will be on reserve) .

1. Introduction

2 . The Baroque

3. Absolute state of the 17th Century

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)

4. Alternatives to absolutism

5. Reliqious revival of the 17th Century

Pascal, Pensees

- •• '■*

History 512 - Semester II, 1969-70

Mr. Mosse

Beqinninqs of rationalism and materialism

Descartes, Discourse on Method and other Writings
Popkin, History of Scepticism

Burrell, pages 65-77 (Mosse, Radicalism and the

Eni ightenment )

The Enliqhtenment

Gay, The Eni ightenment

The Portable Voltaire (pieces to be assigned)
J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract i

Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Burrell, pages 89-98 (Moody, Dechristianisation of the

French Working Class)

8

Classical Revival

9. Pietism

10 . Pre-romanticism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

THE UNIVERS ITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of History
Semester II, 1969-70

HISTORY 512

Mr. Mosse

The following books are on reserve:

Alphonse Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Sidney Burrell, The Role of Religion in Modern European History
H. Koenigsberger and George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth

Century

The following books will have to be read:

Blaise Pascal, Pensees

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract

Descartes, Discourses on Method and other Writings

The Portable Voltaire

Peter Gay, The Enlightenment, Vol. I (The Rise of Modern

Paganism)

Sidney Burrell, ed. , The Role of Religion in Modern

European History (also on reserve)

Richard H. Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Erasmus

to Descartes

For background (if you have none) : H. Koenigsberger and

George L. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth
Century (will be on reserve) .

1. Introduction

2 . The Baroque

3. Absolute State of the 17th Century

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)

4. Alternatives to absolutism

5. Reliqious revival of the 17th Century

Pascal, Pensees

. '^

History 512 - Semester II, 1969-70

Mr. Mosse

Beqinninqs of rationalism and materialism

Descartes, Discourse on Method and other Writings
Popkin, History of Scepticism

Burrell, pages 65-77 (Mosse, Radicalism and the

Eni igh tenment )

The Enliqhtenment

Gay, The Enlightenment

The Portable Voltaire (pieces to be assigned)
J. J. Rousseau, Social Contract
Aulard, Christianity and the French Revolution
Burrell, pages 89-98 (Moody, Dechr istianisation of the

French Working Class)

8

Classical Revival

9. Pietism

10. Pre -romant ic ism

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions

THE ÜNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
Department of Hlstory
Semester II 1965-66

HISTORY 512

MR. MOSSE

EUROPEAN CULTURE. 1600 - 1800

The following assigned books are on reserve:

Peter Gay, The Party of Humanity
R. A. Knox, Enthuslasm

You should buy the following books:

Richard Popkin, Bayles Dictionary (Bobbs-Merrill)
Blaise Pascal, Pensee (Everymans Library)
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Everymans Library)
J. J. Rousseau, Confessions (Modern Library)
The Portable Voltaire (Viking)
Descartes, Philosophical Works (Modern Library)
Goethe, William Meister, (Collier)

!• Introduction

2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

7.

8,
9.

10.

The Baroque

The Absolute State of the 17th Century. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)
Alternatives to Absolutism

Religious Revival of the 17th Century.
Pascal, Pensee (entire)

R. A. Knox, Enthusiasm Chapters IX (Jansenism) through XV (French

Prophets)

Beginnings of rational ism and materialism

Popkin, Bayles Dictionary (entire)

Descartes, Discourse on Method and Philosophical Reflections

The Enlightenment

Portable Voltaire (passages to be assigned)

Peter Gay, Party of Humanity, Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 7

Classical Revival

Pietism

R. A. Knox, Enthusiasm, Chapters XVIII-XXII (John Wesley)

Pre Romanticism

J. J, Rousseau, Confessions (entire)

Goethe, William Meister (entire)

^fism

■■

THE UNIVERS ITY OP WISCONSIN
Department of History

HISTCÄY 512 - EUROPEAN CULTURAL HISTORY 1610-1815

Mr. Wangermann

Course outline and reading for the carly part of the course:

!• The progress of absolute monarchy on the Contlnent
G. N. Clark, The Seventeenth Century, Ch, VI, VII
C. J. Friedrich, The Age of the Baroque, Ch. VI, VII, VIII
J. Lough, Introduction to Seventeenth Century France

2« Confesslonallsm and the triutnph of orthodoxv

G. N. Clark, The Seventeenth Century, Ch. XIX
New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. V, Ch. VI

3« Baroque paintlng and archltecture a8 the expression of lay and clerical
power
V.-L. Tapi€, The Age of Grandeur

4« Challenges to orthodoxy - Galileo. Descartes

A. R. Hall, The Scientific Revolution 1500-1800

A, Koyr6, From the Closcd World to the Infinite Unverse

C. J. Friedrich, The Age of the Baroque, Ch. IV

G. N. Clark, The Seventeenth Century, Ch. XV

5« The establishment of a new order in the Netherlanda and England
G. J. Renier, The Dutch Nation «

New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. V, Ch. XII
C. Hill, The Century of Revolution

6« The commercial triimiphs of the Dutch and Engl iah nations
New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. V, Ch. II
G. N, Clark, The Seventeenth Century, Chs. II-V
C. R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborn Empire

7» The ideology of the new order - Hobbes , Locke
Th. Hobbes, Leviathan

J. Locke, Two Treatises on Civil Government
J. Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Book II
C. B. Macpherson, The Folitical Theory of Possessive Individualism

8« Scientific progress in England and the Netherlands
A. R. Hall, The Scientific Revolution
New Cambridge Modem History, Vol. V, Ch. III

9. The emergence of scepticism and Opposition to confesslonallsm in the
Contlnent
P. Hazard, The European Mind 1680-1715

P. Bayle, Historical and Critical Dictionary (Selections, ed.
Popkin, Bobbs -Merrill)

THE UNIVERSITY OF UISCONSIN
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
Second Semester 1963-4

HISTORY 512 (145b) (European Culture 1600 to 1800)

Mr. Messe

You will need to buy the following books :
Pascal, Pensees (Penguin Classics)

J. Bayle, Philosophical Dictionary (Collier Clacsics)

J. J, Rousseau, Confessions (Pocket Book)

The Portable Voltaire (Viking)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (Beacon)

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Modern Library)

R. A. Knox, Enthusiasm (Pocket Book) is also on closed reserve,
as are che books assigned but not listed above.

I.

II.
III.

IV.
V.

VI.

VII.
VIII

IX.

X.

The Baroque; Artiistic forms

F.L. Nussbaum, Triumph of Science and Reason. Chapter 2.

The Baroque State

Seventeenth Century Absolutism

F.L. Nussbaum, The Triumph of Science and Reason,
Chapter 8 6, 7. ~~"

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)
Alternatives to Absolutism

The Religious Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Blaise Pascal, Pensee (entire)

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm. 176-231 (library copy)

The Classical Revival and the Rise of Scepticism and Atheism.

J. Bayle, Philosophical Dictionary (passages to be assigned)

Science and Deism

The Enlightenment

The Portable Voltaire (passages to be assigned)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (entire)

Pietism

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm. 422-458 (library copy)

Classicism and pre Romanticism

J.J. Rousseau, Confessions. (entire)

■UMMtaMMai

1

J^ "^Jh^. ^/^ /.'i^;t^.

TRE UNIVERSITY OF UISCONSIN
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
Second Semester 1963-4

HISTORY 512 (145b) (European Culture 1600 to 1800)

Hr. Mosse

You will need to buy the follox^ing books:
Pascal, Pensees (Penguln Classlcs)

J. Bayle, Philosophical Dictionary (Collier Classics)

J. J, Rousseau, Confessions (Pocket Book)

The Portable Voltaire (Viking)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (Beacon)

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Modern Library)

R. A, Knox, Enthusiasm (Pocket Book) is also on closed reserve,
as are the books assigned but not listed above.

1.

II.

in.

IV.
V.

VI.

VII.
VIII

IX.

X.

The Baroques Ar<:istic forms

F.L. Nussbaum, Triumph of Science and Reason, Chapter 2.

The Baroque State

Seventeenth Century Absolutism

F.L. Nussbaum, The Triumph of Science and Reason,
Chapters 6, 7. "" ^ ""

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)
Alternatives to Absolutism

The Religious Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Blaise Pascal, Pensee (entire)

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm. 176-231 (library copy)

The Classical Revival and the Rise of Scepticisir and Ai:heism-

J. Bayle, Philosophical Dictionary (passages to be assigned)

Science and Deism

The Enlightenment

The Portable Voltaire (passages to be assigned)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (entire)

Pietlsm

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm. 422-458 (library copy)

Classicism and pre Romanticism

J.J. Rousseau, Confessions. (entire)

■w^j,' ■«■■»•i jgwmmFvm jL.jmmi'7-

THE UNIVERSITY OF UISCONSIN
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
Second Semester 1963-4

HISTORY 512 (145b) (European Culture 1600 to 1800)

Mr. Mosse

You will need to buy the following books:
Pascal, Pensees (Penguin Classics)

J. Bayle, Philosophical Dictlonary (Collier Clacsics)

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions (Pocket Book)

The Portable Voltaire (Viking)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (Beacon)

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Modern Library)

R. A. Knox, Enthusiasm (Pocket Book) is also on closed reserve,
as are the books assigned but not listed above.

I.

II.

III.

IV.

VI.

VII.
VIII.

IX.

X.

The Baroque; Artistic forms

F.L. Nussbaum, Triumph of Science and Reason» Chapter 2.

The Baroque State

Seventeenth Century Absolutism

F.L. Nussbaum, The Triumph of Science and Reason,
Chapter s 6, 7. — — —

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)
Alternatives to Absolutism

The Religious Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Blaise Pascal, Pensee (entire)

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm. 176-231 (library copy)

The Classical Revival and the Rise of Scepticism and Atheism.

J. Bayle, Philosophical Dictionary (passages to be assigned)

Science and Deism

The Enlightenment

The Portable Voltaire (passages to be assigned)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (entire)

Pietism

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm« 422-458 (library copy)

Classicism and pre Romanticism

J.J. Rousseau, Confessions. (entire)

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
Second Semester 1963-4

HISTORY 512(I45b) (European Culture 1600 to 1800)

Hr. Messe

You will need to buy the following books:
Pascal, Pensees (Penguin Classics)

J. Bayle, Phllosophical Dictionary (Collier Classics)

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions (Pocket Book)

The Portable Voltaire (Viking)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (Beacon)

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Modern Library)

R. A. Knox, Enthusiasm (Pocket Book) is also on closed reserve,
as are the books assigned but not listed above.

I.

II.
III.

IV.
V.

VI.

VII.
VIII

IX.

X.

The Baroque: Arüistic forms

F.L. Nussbaum, Triumph of Science and Reason. Chapter 2.

The Baroque State

Seventeenth Century Absolutism

F.L. Nussbaum, The Triumph of Science and Reason,
Chapters 6, 7. ~ '~'

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)
Alternatives to Absolutism

The Religious Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Blaise Pascal, Pensee (entire)

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm, 176-231 (library copy)

The Classical Revival and the Rise of Scepticism and Athelsm.

J. Bayle, Phllosophical Dictionary (passages to be assigned)

Science and Deism

The Enlightenment

The Portable Voltaire (passages to be assigned)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophv of the Enlightenment (entire)

Pietism

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm. 422-458 (library copy)

Classicism and pre Romanticism

J.J. Rousseau, Confessions. (entire)

THE UNIVERSITY OF UISCONSIW
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
Second Semester 1963-4

HISTORY 512 (145b) (European Culture 1600 to 1800)

Mr. Mo88e

You will need to buy the following books:
Pascal, Pensees (Penguin Classlcs)

J. Bayle, Philosophical Dictionary (Collier Classics)

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions (Pocket Book)

The Portable Voltaire (Viking)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightemnent (Beacon)

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Modern Library)

R. A. Knox, Enthusiasm (Pocket Book) is also on closed reserve
as are the books assigned but not listed above. *

1.

The Baroque; Artistic forms

F.L. Nussbaum, Triumph of Science and Reason. Chapter 2

II. The Baroque State

III.

IV.
V.

VI.

VII.
VIII.

IX.

X.

Seventeenth Century Absolutism

F.L. Nussbaum, The Triumph of Science and Reason.
Chapters 6, 7. "~ —

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)
Alternatives to Absolutism

The Religious Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Blaise Pascal, Pensee (entire)

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm, 176-231 (library copy)

The Classical Revival and the Rise of Scepticism and Atheism.

^' Bayle, Philosophical Dictionary (passages to be assigned)

Science and Deism

The Enlightenment

The Portable Voltaire (passages to be assigned)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (entire)

Pietism

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm. 422-458 (library copy)

Classicism and pre Romanticism

J.J. Rousseau, Confessions. (entire)

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
Second Semester 1963-4

HISTORY 5I2(I45b) (European Culture 1600 to 1800)

Mr* Mosse

You will need to buy the follox^ing books:
Pascal, Pensees (Penguln Classics)

J. Bayle, Philosophical Dictionary (Collier Classics)

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions (Pocket Book)

The Portable Voltaire (Viking)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (Beacon)

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Modern Library)

R. A. Knox, Enthusiasm (Pocket Book) is also on closed reserve,
as are the books assigned but not listed above.

I.

II.
III.

IV.
V.

VI.

VII.
VIII

IX.

X.

The Baroque; Ar^:istic forms

F.L. Nussbaum, Triumph of Science and Reason> Chapter 2.

The Baroque State

Seventeenth Century Absolutism

F.L. Nussbaum, The Triumph of Science and Reason,
Chapters 6, 7. ~~ " — ~-~

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)
Alternatives to Absolutism

The Religious Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Blaise Pascal, Pensee (entire)

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm. 176-231 (library copy)

The Classical Revival and the Rise of Scepticism and Atheism,

J. Bayle, Philosophical Dictionary (passages to be assigned)

Science and Deism

The Enlightenment

The Portable Voltaire (passages to be assigned)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (entire)

Pietism

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm. 422-458 (library copy)

Classicism and pre Romanticism

J.J. Rousseau, Confessions. (entire)

THE UNIVERSITY OF UISCONSIN
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
Second Semester 1963-4

HISTORY 512 (145b) (European Culture 1600 to 1800)

Mr. Mosse

You will need to buy the following books:
Pascal, Pensees (Penguln Classics)

J- Bayle, Philosophical Dictlonary (Collier Classics)

J. J. Rousseau, Confessions (Pocket Book)

The Portable Voltaire (Viking)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (Beacon)

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Modern Library)

R. A. Knox, Enthusiasm (Pocket Book) is also on closed reserve,
as are the books assigned but not listed above.

1.

II.

III.

IV.
V.

VI.

VII.
VIII.

IX.

X.

The Baroque; Artiistic forms

F.L. Nussbaum, Triumph of Science and Reason. Chapter 2.

The Baroque State

Seventeenth Century Absolutism

F.L. Nussbaum, The Triumph of Science and Reason,
Chapters 6, 7. ~"~ ~~"

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (entire)
Alternatives to Absolutism

The Religious Revival of the Seventeenth Century

Blaise Pascal, Pensee (entire)

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm, 176-231 (library copy)

The Classical Revival and the Rise of Scepticisir and Athplfim.

J. Bayle, Philosophical Dictionary (passages to be assigned)

Science and Deism

The Enlightenment

The Portable Voltaire (passages to be assigned)

E. Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (entire)

Pietism

R.A. Knox, Enthusiasm. 422-458 (library copy)

Classicism and pre Romanticism

J.J. Rousseau, Confessions. (entire)

/

\

EUROPEAN CÜLTURE

TWO "books — to be chosen after consultatlon with me — to be read
by the final examlnatlon.

R. BalntoR, IIERK I STAMD (Life of Luther)

P* L. Baumer, SARLY TUDOR THEORY OF KINGSHIP

L. Boehmer, LUTHER IN THK LIGHT OF MODERN RESEARCH

L. Boehmer, THE YOUNG LUTHER

K, Brandl, THE COUNTER REFORMATION

Q. Breen, JEAN CALVIN

R. K. Chambers, THOMAS 'JOORE

W* P. Church, CONSTITUTIONAL THOUGHT IiN SIXTEENTH CENTURY FRANCE

J, M. Clark, THREE GREAT GERMAN NfYSTICS

H. Eels, BUCBR

J* N. Figf^iis, PROM GERSO>^ TO GOT JUS

A. J. Grant, HISTORY OF EUROPE 1494-1610

-A. J. Grant, THE HUGENOTS—

F. Hildebrandt, RIELANCHTON

H. Holborn, ULRICH VON HUTTON
J. K^uizinga, ERASOTS

A. Hyma, CHRISTIAN RKNAISSA-NCE
S. M, Jackson, ZWING LY

R. Jones, SPIRITUAL REPORI/TERS OF THE 16th AND 17th CEOTURIES

G. Mattinglv, CATHAHB^^E OF ARAGON

R. B, Merriman, RISS OF SPAMISH EMPIRE, II, III. or IV

S. H. Smythe, CRANMER

"N. Weber, CAPITALISM AND THE PROTESTANT ETHIC

R. H. Tawney, RELIGION AND THE RISE OF CAPITALISM

ix. M. Robertson, RISE OF ECONOMIC INDIVIDUALISM

E. Emerton, ERASMUS

J. Strieder, TH:. PUGGERS

F. Seebohn, THE OXFORD REFORMERS
W. Schenk, CARDINAL .POLE

B. Reynolds, PROPONENTS OF LIMITED MONARCHY
M. Gilmore, ARGUMENTS PRO'.; ROMAIN LAW

C. F. Friedrich, ALTHUSIUS2. POLITICAL METODICA (Introductlon)
J. N. FlfTMs, DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS

C. Roth, A HISTORY OF THE MARANOS

L, B. Campbell, SHA/H:SP-%ARE» S HISTORIES

C. H. Mcllwain, POLITICAL WORKS OF JAMES I ( Introductlon)

Otto von Gierke, THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL THEORY

R. Bax, RISE AND FALL OP THE ANABAPTISTS

W. C. Wedf^ewood, WILLIAM^ THE SILENT

H. 0. Taylor, THOUGHT AND EXPRESSION IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

/

HISTORY lli5b (EÜHOPEAK CÜLTÖRE I6OO to I8OO) -• m. MOSSE

Seecnd S^msttr

.0.1 booka asaigned tra on doeed resarve, T<ni are urged to buy the followiM
pocket booka j

Tho«a« Hobbaa. Levlatttian (Modem Library)

Blaisa Pascal» Panaae (Hodem Llbraiy)
J. J. Rouaaaatt, Soni^eaeiocy (Pockat Book)
B. Caasirar. Philosophy of the Enlightanigant (Baacon)
OH Cari Becker, Haavaiiiy dJtT or fai^taanth Cantury Fhiloaophera (lala
Pocket Book)

I. Tha Baroqua ; Artlatlc f or»a

t\ h. Wusabaum, TrtuaqDh of Science and Ifaiaaon. Chapter 2

!!• Tha Barooua State

Alberi Ouerar % Life and Death of an Ideal, Book II, Chaptara I, II

III. Scventeanth Century Abaolutiaai

Albert Querard, Life ajfid Death of an Ideal, Book II, Chapters HI, I?
F. L, Nueabaum, Trimitfi of Reason and Science^ Cbipter« 6, 7
BüHwar, 33U-337
Tbonaa Hobbea, Levlathan (entlre)

IV» Alternptivea to ^baolutlare

SSSETTTETTJCH

^- T^^e Religioua Revival of the Seventeenth Century

i. L trZx, ^nihualaaa/lTSrgH '^'

Blaise PaacaTTTenaea ( entire )

VIII

VI. The Claaaical ReYival and the Riae of Atheism
fe. Casairer, The Cambridge Platoniats
Bauner, 33ii-3B5

VII» Science azid Deiaw
Üaujuer, 586-386'

The Eiil.ightenw^nt
Saumer, 366-U51

Voltaire, Eaaar on Mannara (entire)

0MB of the Mlowlng entlr«:

TSrl Becker, Heavenly City of Eighteenth Gen tur/ Philoa

E. -^aasirer, Philoaofer of ih»' Inli^CaiSaffC' *■

CIPSTBteR BOOK)

STU]

II. Pietiam and pre-Roaiantici«H

5. A. anox, Enthuai^am, U22>U$fl

J. J. Houaaeau, ^Jonfeaeiona (entire)

"^