The GEOSECS Program : the objectives, the plan, the benefits

oY GEOCHEMICAL
PO) O C EAN
SECTIONS

A US. program for
the International Decade
of Ocean Exploration

c S@éheog TOEO gO

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The OBJECTIVES

The PLAN
The BENEFITS

WHAT IS GEOSECS?

As man becomes increasingly aware of the ocean as a source
of food, a disposal area for nuclear and industrial waste products, a
strategic realm for national security and a controlling factor in the
earth's climatic regime, he also recognizes how very little he knows
about the sea. Until recently, oceanography has been a science of ex-
ploration, of mapping variables that are relatively easy to determine
such as temperature and total salt concentration and of studying the
pattern of wind-driven currents in the surface layers of the water.
Yet, the ultimate use of the sea depends critically upon a detailed un-
derstanding of other processes in the deep sea -- the interchange of
material between deep and surface water, the variation of organic pro-
ductivity throughout the oceans and the exchange of water and gases
with the atmosphere.

Meanwhile, rapid expansion of science and technology in
recent decades has produced sophisticated and powerful tools for the
study required. Shore-based laboratories have mass spectrometers, law
level radioactivity counters, atomic reactors for neutron activation
and gas and liquid chromatographs. All of these instruments have been
used for the analysis of individual constituents of ocean water and
some have been used successfully at sea. The development of well-
trained geochemical oceanographers and of shipboard laboratories, how-
ever, has lagged far behind analytical techniques. Consequently, the
potential for these new methods of studying the sea has only begun to

be realized.

R/V KNORR, a 240' AGOR class research vessel equipped with cycloid pro-
pulsion, will be at sea nearly a full year as it sails from the Arctic
to the Antarctic on the Atlantic Cruise of the GEOSECS project. The
ship is the most modern in the fleet operated by Woods Hole Oceanograph-
ic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, U. S. A. A subsequent Pacif-
ic Cruise will be made by her sister ship, R/V MELVILLE, operated by
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, U. S. A.

The basic purpose of the Geochemical Ocean Section Study,
GEOSECS, is the detailed measurement of oceanic constituents along Arc-
tic to Antarctic sections at all depths to provide, for the first time,
a set of physical and chemical data measured on the same water samples.
Input of these data will permit quantitative studies of oceanic mixing

and organic productivity and, at the same time, serve as a base-line

for levels of pollutants and of fission and waste products being added

to the sea.

Exploration of temperature and salinity patterns together
with theoretical work in fluid dynamics has already provided a quali-
tative understanding of large-scale processes in the ocean. We know,
for instance, that the sea resembles a great convective cell in which
the upper layers are stirred horizontally by wind-driven currents.

In mast areas, these upper layers have the highest salt content be-
cause of evaporation from the surface. Heat and salt are carried down
to deep water by turbulent diffusion. While we know there is a return
flow of heat and salt to the surface and that it must take place by
vertically-rising advective currents, we do not know precisely how this
takes place. The stirring mechanism which drives the vertical flow is
provided by the sinking of cold water in the polar regions where sur-
face waters radiate their heat and increase in salinity by the forma-
tion of sea ice. Bottom water thus formed flows to the deep basins

of the oceans as an abyssal current which supplies the upward return
to the surface. Oceanographic and geochemical studies have indicated
that the abyssal current originates in two areas: the North Atlantic
and the Weddell Sea in the Antarctic region of the South Atlantic.
Wnere this current flows, how fast it travels, the nature of the flow
in the different oceans and whether or not other sources exist are
questions that remain to be studied.

In addition, we know that vertical and horizontal gradients
of chemical constituents in the sea are smoothed by turbulent diffu-

sion which acts at a rate some 100 times faster than molecular diffu-

sion and we have a crude idea of the average rate of this process.
Yet we know nothing of its vertical and horizontal variations or of
the source of energy which drives it. A unique method of tagging
which can be used to measure the rates of downward mixing from sur-
face to intermediate depths has been provided, however, with the re-
cent introduction of fission and nuclear products such as radiostron-
tium and cesium, tritium and man-produced carbon-14 into the surface
waters. In the deep and bottom waters, concentrations of the natural
radioactive isotopes including radium-226, silicon-32 and cosmic ray
produced carbon-14 provide nuclear "clocks" for the study of rates
of advection and turbulent diffusion.

We know that, ultimately, we must be able to predict how
fast, and in what directions, a substance introduced at any depth
and location in the sea will spread, over periods of hundreds to
thousands of years. At the present time we are only beginning to
understand the pattern of variation of these radioisotopes although
precise analytical techniques for all of them exist.

In addition, we need to know more about the return of nu-
trients to the surface of the ocean since this is perhaps the single
most important factor in determining the organic productivity of vari-
Ous regions of the sea. The vertical distribution of many oceanic
constituents is determined by interactions between physical processes
which stir the water and biochemical ones which fix elements to, and
release them from, particulate matter in the ocean. The particulate

flux consists largely of the remains of organisms which live in the

surface waters. As this debris sinks under the influence of gravity
toward the sea floor, oxidation and solution gradually return the
constituent elements to their dissolved form. This downward particu-
late transport process works against the homogenizing influence of
physical mixing and tends to enrich the deep sea in many chemical spe-
cies. Thus, in order to understand the dispersion of a given element
through the world ocean, we must comprehend both physical mixing and
particulate transport phenomena. Organic productivity studies tell us
something of the generation of particles; and sediment studies, some-
thing of the fraction surviving destruction. Still, the details of
the intermediate steps are essentially unknown. A large fraction of
the phosphate, nitrate and other essential nutrients is redissolved
and brought back to the surface by advection and diffusion, we recog-
nize --- and it is this action that is so important in determining
organic productivity in different regions of the sea.

How fast is the material returned to the surface? How
do the particulate fluxes of the different trace elements, nutrients
and isotopes vary in different parts of the ocean? How much of these
constituents is oxidized at different depths and how much settles to
the bottom? These questions, almost unanswerable today, can be settled
by studies of the vertical and horizontal distribution of radioisotopes
and trace elements. Since the radioactive isotopes themselves partici-
pate in the particulate and biological cycles, we must investigate the
distribution of “coupled" radioactive and stable isotopes in order to

separate the effects of fluid mixing and particulate flux. Thus, the

ppssesces:
£ vi P ste sagt

Ra.

Derek W. Spencer of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, a member of
the GEOSECS Executive Committee, and Arnold Bainoridge of Scripps In-
stitution of Oceanography, project director, man the control console
during a GEOSECS test cruise.

distributions of the cosmic ray produced radioisotopes ey and Sie

with half-lives of 5700 and 700 years respectively, must be compared
with those of stable carbon and silicon in order to use the "clocks".
Similarly, the distributions of the man-made fission products Bien and

cs 137

can be corrected for particulate effects by observing the distri-
bution of natural strontium and cesium in the sea. The GEOSECS pro-

gram is designed to give the first detailed information of such distri-
bution patterns by measuring sirultaneously the distribution of all of

the most important tracers and properties along oceanic sections.

PLANNED RESEARCH ACTIVITIES

The Geochemical Ocean Section survey will be made along
north-south tracks through the oceans. The track follows, as far as
is now known, the approximate trajectory of the bottom water current.
The United States program will carry out the major survey work along
this track in the Atlantic, Pacific, Antarctic and Indian Oceans.
Additional programs now being planned by the German Federal Republic,
Japan and other nations will add supplementary sections. (See section
on International Coordination. )

The U. S. program calls for the occupation of oceanographic
stations along main survey tracks as shown in Figure 4. Details will
be worked out later for a proposed six-month cruise in the Indian
Ocean. At each station vertical profiles of 50 samples, each measuring
about 30 liters, will be taken while, at alternate stations, very large
samples of 270 - 1000 liters will be taken at about 20 depths to measure
trace constituents and low-concentration radioisotopes. Locations of
the stations and nominal depths are shown in Table 1. The vertical
Spacing of all samples will be guided by continuous recording, on sta-
tion, of temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen. Particulate matter
will be collected at all depths and dissolved gases will be extracted
from sea water for on-board analysis by gas chromatography. Much of the
analytical work will be done on the ships during the expedition. Remain-
ing work on water samples will be done in laboratories of participating
geochemists throughout the country, and a "water library" of water sam-

ples will be maintained for future work. Flow sheets typifying the

8

Donotrinse. Fill with seawater.

Rinse with 3L
seawater; fill.

Contain pre-added HCl
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p.ethy glass 50 ml

ampoule BaRGoP

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ater Major |
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Sample
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H
¢ Wash filter Samples
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rinse? Sets .
distilled, deion-
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retighten later. (2)

Store
Particulates
Sa Sample (1)
Library Sample

my Figure 1

Flow Sheet: Collection and Storage of Library,
Trace Element and Major Ion Samples
sampling procedure are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
A complete list of properties to be measured, together with

the investigators, is given in Table 2.

EVERY STATION EVERY STATION . EVERY STATION LARGE VOLUME STATIONS

ALL DEPTHS BOTTOM CAST,10 DEPTHS 6 DEPTHS TO 400M 18 DEPTHS
Surface 280L
Pp ie) Gerard
ump
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ol ' Suck through 37 mm Pump through 142 mm Pump through 142 mm
2 ie . Nuclepore filter into preignited glass filter. Nuclepore filter
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penny Nd possible but not less drums 100 - 170 L.

than 500 L.

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pressure through
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Nuclepore.

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with distilled, deion —
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~<—10L Library
Sample.

Wash filter 7 times
with distilled, deion-
ized water.

Particulates
Sample I

Particulates Particulates Particulates
Sample I Sample II Sample IZ

| Store in individual
boxes

Store in individual Fold filter, put in Fold filter, put in
boxes. poly bag. poly bag.
Store in freezer. Store in freezer.

Figure 2

Flow Sheet: Particulates

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MANAGEMENT OF THE PROGRAM
The ultimate responsibility for decisions regarding the
scientific program rests with the GEOSECS Scientific Advisory Commit-

tee. This committee's members are:

Dr. W. S. Broecker Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory
Dr. Harmon Craig Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Dr. H. Gote Ostlund University of Miami

Dr. J. L. Reid Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Dr. D. W. Spencer Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Dr. H. M. Stommel Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Dr. Taro Takahashi Queens College, City Univ. of New York
Dr. K. K. Turekian Yale University

Dre. L.. Volichok Health and Safety Laboratory,

U. S. Atomic Energy Commission

Dr. Klaus Wyrtki University of Hawaii

From this group, three members, Dr. Broecker, Dr. Craig and
Dr. Spencer, have been appointed to the Executive Committee which is
responsible for overall direction of the operations of the program. At
the present time Dr. Spencer is acting as coordinator of all matters
concerning the program with the International Decade of Ocean Explora-
tion, National Science Foundation.

A. E. Bainbridge of S. I. 0. has been appointed project di-

rector and is responsible for organizing, staffing and maintaining ship-

12

NSF — IDOE

\ Sas
SS

GEOSECS SCIENTIFIC
ADVISORY COMMITTEE

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
Broecker, Craig, Spencer*

**INTERNATIONAL COORDINATORS
Munnich (West Germany)

Horibe (Japan)

Chesselet (France)

S ~
»~ >
~

~
~

INFORMATION OFFICER
Laking

~

PROJECT DIRECTOR |

Bainbridge

GEOSECS OPERATIONS
GROUP

SCIENTIFIC PROPOSALS
FROM ALL tNSTITUTIONS
PARTICIPATING IN PROGRAM

LOGISTICS OFFICER
Jouris

*NSF —IDOE Coordinator

** International Coordinators

Figure 3
Management Structure

board operations. A diagram of the management structure is given in
Figure 3. The GEOSECS Operations Group, under A. E. Bainbridge, will
build, operate and maintain the sea-going equipment. W. E. Jouris of
W. H. O. I. is logistics officer and responsible for supervising the
supply of scientific equipment and sample containers to the ships,
for cataloging and distributing samples returned for shore-based ana-
lyses and for general operations at the W. H. 0. I. GEOSECS Building.
13

An empty rosette showing the laser nephelometer, glass sphere encapsu-
lated batteries and bottom package containing bottom pinger, oxygen
probe and salinity-temperature-depth profiler was photographed during
a GEOSECS test cruise.

OPERATION AND LOGISTICS OF THE PROGRAM

The operation of the program is focused around two major

cruises: one in the the Atlantic scheduled for July, 1972 - March,

1973 and a second in the Pacific set for June, 1973 - March, 1974.
On each, shipboard measurements listed in Table 2 will be performed

by two rotating crews of four analysts each while sample collection

and water handling will be done by two five-man rotating crews. In |
addition to the chief scientist, the scientific complement will in-

clude two associate chief scientists, a computer operator and an elec-

14

The rosette pictured above contains 12 reversing thermometer-equipped
30-liter Niskin samplers. Samplers of this type will be used on every
cast during the entire GEOSECS cruise.
tronics engineer. The whole program will involve the collection of wa-
ter from about 140 stations. Of these, about 70 will be made during
the first Atlantic cruise. A schedule for this portion of the project
is given in Table 3. Details of the Pacific cruise are now being for-
mulated but have not been completed.

The magnitude of the sampling program precludes storing al]
of the larger sample bottles on board the ship at the outset. Even
those that must be carried for a single leg would take up all of the a-

vailable storage space below deck. Consequently, special pallets have

15

The new GEOSECS hydrowinch was photographed while in use during night
operations on a project test cruise off the coast of California.
been constructed so that the larger bottles may be carried in the open
on the forward 02 deck of the ship. The water samples will be pumped
from the fantail to the bottles in order to avoid the necessity for
transporting heavy samplers fore and aft. At each port call the full
pallets will be off-loaded and empties, previously shipped for the pur-
pose, will replace them. Table 4 gives an idea of the magnitude of the
logistics involved.

All physical and chemical measurements made at sea will be

coupled with the shipboard computer. Data will be logged from princi-

16

pal and auxiliary sources and brought together in a Real Time System to
compute final values of the parameters. This data will be available be-
fore moving off station and will thus be evaluated at that point by the
Chief Scientist. A complete description of the Real Time System is in-
cluded in the proposal from U. C. S. D., Scripps Institution of Oceano-
graphy, A. E. Bainbridge, principal investigator, and a block diagram

1s presented in Figure 5.

Prior to the cruises major efforts of many of those associ-
ated with the program have gone into construction projects and the test-
ing of equipment as well as into planning scientific investigations.

For the operation of the project, each of the major oceanographic insti-
tutions has been assigned certain areas of responsibility. They are de-
tailed in individual proposals but are summaried briefly here. The list-
ing does not, however, include the specific analytical commitments given

in Tabie l.

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

1) Provision of shiptime, R/V KNORR, for shakedown cruise, June,
1972 and for Atlantic cruise, July, 1972 - March, 1973.

2) Provision of logistics support and facilities for shipment of
equipment, samples and personnel to and from ship during first
cruise.

3) Provision of center for collection and distribution of samples
for shore based analytical work together with facilities for

establishing and maintaining a "water library" for the entire

Ly

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18

TRACK OF R/V MELVILLE
PACIFIC SECTION GEOSECS
JULY 1973 - FEB 1974

4 WELLINGTON

Av Of.

>

%0 69 68 67

°
5

°
°
°
°

P34 TRACK C

35)
66 65 64 63 62.
61

TRACK OF HAKUHO MARU
+ 114 DAYS STARTING
NOV 1971

° STATION © STATION WITH LARGE VOLUME SAMPLES
TRAC(, A NORWEGIAN SEA - SCOTIA SEA R/V KNORR JULY~-DEC 1972
TRACK B ANTARCTIC PUNTA ARENAS - CAPE TOWN R/V KNORR JAN-FEB 1973
TRACK C S. ATLANTIC R/V KNORR FEB- APR 1973
TRACK D EASTERN ATLANTIC JEAN CHARCOT LATE 1973
. TRACK E EQUATORIAL ATLANTIC FS METEOR MID t973
' TRACK F LISBON TO HAMBURG FS METEOR JUNE 9- JUNE 26 1971

one

PROPOSED GEOSECS CRUISE TRACKS

Figure 4

OocT 11,1971

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GEOSECS Shipboard Analytical and Computer Systems

program.

Provision of shipboard equipment for water sampling.
Provision of equipment for preliminary shipboard processing
of water samples for trace elements and particulates.
Organization and provision of facilities for GEOSECS Summer

Institutes.

Scripps Institution of Oceanography

1)

Provision of shiptime, R/V MELVILLE, for ANTIPODE Expedition,
July, 1971; for initial tests of instrument console, Decem-
ber, 1971; for Pacific cruise, June 1973 - March, 1974.
Provision of shipboard computer system, IBM-1800 computer, on
loan from S. I. 0., for both major cruises. Interfacing of
shipboard instrumentation to the computer.

Procuring and training of central technical staff for the
Shipboard operation.

Provision of winch-wire Nansen bottles, etc. for hydrographic
work. Provision of STD system.

Construction of shipboard gas chromatographs, automated titra-
tion systems, etc. for No» INR S 0,5 alkalinity and total C0,.
Construction of bottom water profiling system for precise tem-
perature data and water sampling close to the sea floor. To-
gether with W. H. 0. 1., interfacing this system with the
nephelometer.

29

Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

1)

2)
3)

Development of procedures and equipment for collection and

analysis of in situ rno2? | both in surface and bottom pro-

files.

Development of procedures for determination of Raooe.
Development of shipboard and shore based extraction systems

228 226 «=.14

for large volume water samples -- for Ra , Ra Gein

Gone! and particulates, together with W. H. 0. I.

Participate in testing and perfecting of large volume water
sampling and shipboard handling techniques, with W. H. 0. I.
Construction of equilibrators, infrared analysis system for

CO, partial pressure measurements. Construction of gas chro-

matographs for shore based C0, measurements.

Oregon State University

1)

2)

Provision of facilities for shipboard analysis of nutrients,
autoanalyzers.
Provision of facilities for shore based analyses of dissolved

organic carbon.

University of Miami

1)

30

Provision of shore based facilities for high precision deter-

14 3

minations of C ° and H.

University of Washington

1) Provision of shore-based facilities for high precision deter-

minations of cl

University of Hawaii
1) Development of stripping systems for gases, 0. and C0, for

later isotopic measurements.

INTERNATIONAL COORDINATION

A number of investigators for other countries are participat-
ing directly in the GEOSECS program or are carrying out programs of a
similar nature which are coordinated with the U. S. program. In the
case of countries which are using their own ships for a similar program
and are coordinating their efforts with ours, we have designated the
program organizers as International Coordinators for that particular
country and we are maintaining direct contact with them through a mem-
ber of the Executive Committee. In other cases, the investigators are

Collaborating Investigators participating in the U. S. program.

International Coordinators
German Federal Republic, Inte national Coordinator, Prof. K. 0.
Munnich, University of Heidelberg
Professor Munnich took the F/S METEOR on a GEOSECS-type cruise in
the Atlantic during the summer of 1971, studying the dissolved in-

organic carbon system and measuring total C0. » aan eu nutrients,

31

tritium, etc. The expedition was financed by the German Research
Association (DFG). Present plans are for the METEOR to make seve-
ral east-west cross sections in the Atlantic during the north-south
Atlantic GEOSECS expeditions. Professor Munnich has participated
in both the Pacific (1969) and Atlantic (1970) GEOSECS trial sec-

tions. Contact is maintained through Dr. Broecker.

Japan, International Coordinator, Prof. Yoshio Horibe, Ocean Re-
search Institute, University of Tokyo
Professor Horibe has just finished two sections of the Pacific
(30°N, 65°S and east-west, Japan to Seattle) with the Institute's
new ship Hakuho Maru with a program similar to GEOSECS. The north-
south section - the "Southern Cross Expedition - report has been
published. The program involves measurements of the C0, system
parameters, use of a mass spectrometer aboard ship for dissolved
gas and many other parameters. Professor Horibe and another Jap-
anese investigator participated in the 1971 GEOSECS Pacific shake-
down expedition on R/V MELVILLE (ANTIPODE). Japanese expeditions
are being planned by this group for the Pacific during the GEOSECS

sections there. Contact is maintained through Dr. Craig.

France, International Coordinator, Dr. Roger Chessellet, Centre
des Faibles Radioactivites, Gif-sur-Yvette
Dr. Chesselet will participate in the particulate matter studies of

the GEOSECS program. He also is serving as coordinator for a pro-

32

posed east-west cruise of the JEAN CHARCOT which has been tenta-

tively scheduled for late 1973 as a part of the total GEOSECS

program in the Atlantic. Contact is maintained through Dr.

Spencer.

Collaborating Investigators

1)

Professor Devendra Lal, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,
University of Bombay, India, is collaborating on Sas studies
with the S. I. 0. program. He is spending one quarter of each
year at S. I. 0., financed by the University of California.

Dr. B. K. Somayajulu of the Tata Institute will be working on
gee. both at S. I. 0. and in Bombay. Krishna Swami of the
Tata Institue is collaborating with S. I. 0. on studies of
Rac@é and Rema

Professor A. Longinelli, Laboratory of Nuclear Geology, Univ-
ersity of Pisa, Italy, is measuring 0!8 716 ratios on dissolv-
ed sulfate and phosphate in collaboration with the S. I. 0.
program. His work is financed by Italian NSF. He will also
serve as associate chief scientist on one leg of the GEOSECS
Atlantic cruise.

Professor W. B. Clarke, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada, is measuring He and Ne concentrations and Hen ies ra-

tios in dissolved He in collaboration with the S. I. 0. pro-

gram. Each group will analyze about half of the samples.

33

Attempts are now underway to organize GEQSECS type programs

in Canada (C. S. Wong, P. Wangersky, W. B. Clarke, A. Walton),

34

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