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PRINCETON, N. J. *f.
Purchased by the Hamill Missionary Fund.
bS 809 .P37 1897
Peery, R. B. b. 1868.
The gist of Japan
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2015
https://archive.org/details/gistofjapanislanOOpeer
The Gist of Japan
The Islands
Their People
And Missions
By the Rev.
R. B. Peery, A.M., Ph.D.
Of the Lutheran Mission, Saga, Japan
With Illustrations
New York Chicago Toronto
Fleming H. Re veil Company
Copyright, 1897, by
Fleming H. Revell Company
To My Wife
whose Kindly Sympathy and Help is Largely Due
Whatever of Value there may be in these Pages
This Book is Affectionately Dedicated
PREFACE
Although a great deal has already been pub-
lished in English concerning Japan and the
Japanese people, nothing, to my knowledge, has
yet been published which attempts to give a full
treatment of mission work in Japan. " An
American Missionary in Japan," by Dr. Gordon,
is the only book I am aware of that deals ex-
clusively with this subject ; but its scope is quite
different from that of the present volume. There-
fore I have been led to believe that there is a
place for this book.
I have written for the common people and
hence have tried to give the subject a plain,
popular treatment. There has been no attempt
at exhaustive discussion, but great pains have
been taken to make the book reliable and accu-
rate.
In the preparation of this little book I have
consulted freely the following works in English:
" Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan " ;
files of the " Japan Mail " ; " Transactions of the
3
4
PREFACE
Osaka Conference, 1882"; Rein's "Japan";
Griffis's "Mikado's Empire"; Griffis's "Reli-
gions of Japan " ; Chamberlain's " Handbook of
Things Japanese " ; Miss Bacon's " Japanese Girls
and Women " ; Dr. Lawrence's " Modern Mis-
sions in the East " ; " Report of the World's
Missionary Conference, London, 1888"; and
reports of the various missionary societies operat-
ing in Japan. In Japanese I have consulted some
native historians and moral and religious writers
— especially in the preparation of the chapters on
History, Morality, and Religions.
The book is sent forth with the prayer that it
may be the means of begetting in the American
churches a deeper interest in the work it por-
trays.
R. B. P.
Saga, Japan.
CONTENTS
PAGE
I.
The Land of Japan
9
II.
A Brief History of the Japanese People
32
III.
Japanese Characteristics . . .
SI
IV.
Manners and Customs . . .
69
V.
Japanese Civilization .
89
VI.
Japanese Morality
107
VII.
Religions of Japan ....
122
VIII.
First Introduction of Christianity
144
IX.
Modern Roman and Greek Missions
160
X.
A Brief History of Protestant Missions in
Japan .....
169
XI.
Qualifications for Mission Work in Japan
192
XII.
Private Life of the Missionary
209
XIII.
Methods of Work ....
234
XIV.
Hindrances .....
266
XV.
Special Problems ....
286
XVI.
The Outlook . . « «
306
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fuji San - . . .
A Bridge Scene ...
A Kitchen Scene . ,
Hara-kiri ....
A Shinto Temple
A Buddhist Priest
A Buddhist Cemetery
The Author's Home . .
JiNRlKISHAS ....
, Frontispiece
To face page i6
79
85
124
126
129
310
244
I
THE LAND OF JAPAN
The empire of Japan consists of a chain of
islands lying off the east coast of Asia, and ex-
tending all the way from Kamchatka in the north
to Formosa in the south. Its length is more
than 1500 miles, while the width of the main-
lands varies from 100 to 200 miles. The entire
area, exclusive of Formosa, recently acquired, is
146,000 square miles — just about equal to that
of the two Dakotas or the United Kingdom of
England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. On this
territory, at the beginning of the year 1893, there
lived 41,089,940 souls.
The country is divided into four large islands
and more than two thousand smaller ones. The
larger ones are named respectively Hondo, Kyu-
shu, Shikoku, and Yezo. Of these the first
named is by far the largest and most important.
This island originally had no separate name, but
9
f
10
THE GIST OF JAPAN
in recent years it is very generally called Hondo.
Western geographers have frequently made the
mistake of applying the term " Nihon " to it;
but " Nihon " is the native name for the whole
empire, and not for its chief island. The capital,
Tokyo, the ancient capital, Kyoto, and the com-
mercial center, Osaka, are all situated on this
island.
Kyushu is the second largest island in the
group, and lies southwest of the main island. It
was on this island, in the town of Nagasaki, that
the Dutch lived for more than two hundred years,
forming the only means of communication Japan
had with the outside world.
Shikoku is next in size. It lies south of Hondo
and northeast of Kyushu. Shikoku and Kyushu
are separated from the main island by the Inland
Sea, one of the most beautiful bodies of water in
the world.
The island of Yezo is in the extreme north.
It has very cold winters and resembles the cen-
tral part of North America somewhat in climate
and productions. On this island the aborigines
of Japan, called Ainu, now live.
Among the more important of the smaller
groups are the Liukiu Islands, in the extreme
south ; the Goto Islands, in the west ; and the
Kuriles, in the north. Besides these there are
numerous other islands of considerable size lying
THE LAND OF JAPAN
11
around the coasts, and the whole Inland Sea is
beautifully dotted with them.
Japan is a very mountainous country. For
this reason hardly twelve per cent, of her total
area is cultivated. In general the land gradually
ascends on both sides as it recedes from the
ocean, at first forming hills and table-lands, and
then huge mountains. Thus a chain of moun-
tains is formed in the center of the islands,
extending throughout the whole length of the
empire. The mountains are nearly all of volcanic
origin, which accounts for their jagged appear-
ance. There are many active volcanoes, con-
tinually sending up great clouds of smoke, and
occasionally emitting streams of fire and molten
lava, deluging the whole neighborhood with sul-
phur and ashes. One of the first sights that
greets the traveler from the West as he approaches
Japan is the smoke of a volcano, ever active, on
Vries Island, in the entrance to Yokohama har-
bor. The chief volcanoes active at present are
Asama, Shirane-san, Bandai-san, Aso-san, and
Koma-ga-take. I shall never forget the ascent
of Asama at night, in 1894. The volcano had
been unusually active recently, and a large part
of the crater had fallen in, completely changing
its appearance. The sulphurous vapors and
smoke came up so thick and fast that we dared
not approach near the crater for fear of suffoca-
12
THE GIST OF JAPAN
tion. At that time we could not see down into
the crater at all, but occasionally one can see the
blue-red flames curling and writhing far down in
the bowels of the earth like a sea of fire, a veri-
table gate of hell.
Of extinct volcanoes Japan boasts a large num-
ber. The mightiest of these is the peerless Fuji-
/ san, the pride of every Japanese, the highest
' mountain in Japan. It is 12,365 feet high, and
snow is found on its summit at all seasons. This
mountain is now a huge pile of ashes, lava, and
boulders — apparently harmless. As late as 1 708
it was in eruption, and when I stood on its snowy
summit in August, 1893, there were certain places
where vapors hot enough to cook an egg came
up from the ground. For aught we know, it may
at any time burst forth again and devastate whole
provinces.
This is a land of earthquakes. The records
show that from earliest times this country has
been subject to great ruin by their visitations.
Whole villages and towns have been suddenly
' swallowed up, and huge mountains have disap-
peared in a day. These earthquakes are of
frequent occurrence. The seismic instruments
now in use throughout the empire record about
three hundred and sixty-five per year — one for
each day. Certain localities are much more
exposed to them than others, although none is
THE LAND OF JAPAN
13
entirely free from them. These disturbances are
very destructive of life and property, especially
injuring railways, bridges, and high buildings.
They have left their mark upon the whole coun-
try. Through the effect of volcanoes and earth-
quakes together, the surface of Japan presents an
appearance seldom seen in any other land.
The forces of nature are unusually destructive
in Japan. Besides the volcanoes and earthquakes,
the country is subject to occasional tidal waves,
which kill thousands of people and destroy mil-
lions of dollars' worth of property. Impelled by
some mighty force, the great sea rises in its bed
mountain high, and, angrily breaking out of its
accustomed bounds, sweeps everything before
it. While I am writing this chapter (June, 1896)
news has come of one of the most destruc-
tive waves known here for decades, which has
just swept over the north coast of Hondo. More
than 30,000 people were killed instantly, and
great destruction wrought to property. So ter-
rible is nature in her fiercer aspects!
/ Japan being a very narrow country, her rivers
are short and small, few of them being service-
able for navigation. Ordinarily they are quiet,
lazy streams, but when the heavy rains fall in
the mountains, the waters sweep down like a
flood, swelling these rivers to huge size and con-
verting them into fierce, angry torrents. The
14
THE GIST OF JAPAN
Tone-gawa is the longest and widest river, but
its length is only 1 70 miles. Other important ones
are the Shinano-gawa, the Kiso-gawa, and the
Kitakami. A peculiar feature about these rivers
is that none of them bears the same name from
source to mouth, but all change their name in
nearly every province.
There are few lakes of importance. The larg-
est is Lake Biwa, near Kyoto ; it is 50 miles long,
and 20 wide at its widest point. Lake Inawa-
shiro is of considerable size. Lake Chuzenji, at
the foot of Nantai-zan, is unrivaled for beauty,
and is hardly surpassed in any land. Hakone is
also a beautiful lake, and the reflection of Fuji-
san in its waters by moonlight is a sight well
worth seeing. Indeed, the whole of Japan
abounds in picturesque landscapes and scenic
beauty. Mountain scenes rivaling those of
Switzerland ; clear, placid lakes, in which the
image of sky and mountains blends ; and smiling,
fertile valleys, heavily laden with fruits and grain,
make the landscape one of surpassing beauty.
Few countries are more pleasing to the eye than
is Japan.
I The coasts are indented by many bays and
inlets, affording fine harbors. The seas are very
deep and often wild and stormy. The islands
are favorably located for commercial enterprises,
and the Japanese are by nature destined to be a
THE L/tND OF JAPAN
1«
maritime people. As regards situation and har-
bors, there is a striking resemblance to Englancl.
The two countries are of nearly equal size, they
both are insular powers, and are situated about
equidistant from a great continent. It is safe to
assume that Japan's development will be along
lines somewhat similar to England's.
There is a good system of roads. The moun-
tain roads are carefully graded ; hollows are filled
up and ridges cut through in such a manner as
we employ only for railroads. Indeed, some of
the roads are so carefully graded that ties and
rails could be laid on them almost without any
further modification. Many of them are as
straight as the engineer's art can make them. A
new road was built recently from Saga to the
small seaport town of Wakatsu, and between the
two towns it is as direct as a bee-line. This road
crosses a river just at the junction of two streams.
The fork of the river lay exactly in the path of
the road ; by slightly swerving to either the right
or the left a bridge half the length of the present
one would have sufficed, but the long, costly
bridge was built rather than have the road swerve
from its course even a little.
In the plains most of the roads are elevated
three or four feet above the surrounding fields.
They are not macadamized, but are covered with
large, coarse gravel known as jari. When this
16
THE GIST OF JAPAN
jari is first spread on, the roads are almost im-
passable, but it soon becomes beaten down and
makes a good road. Unfortunately, it must be
applied nearly every year.
Some of the chief highways are very old. The
most famous is the Tokaido, extending from the
old capital, Kyoto, the seat of the imperial court,
to the city of Yedo (now called Tokyo), the seat
of the shogun's government. It was over this
road that the ancient daimios of the western prov-
inces used to journey, with gorgeous pageantry
and splendid retinues, to the shogun's court.
Some highways are lined on either side with
tall cryptomeria and other trees, giving a de-
lightful shade and making of them beautiful
avenues. The most beautiful of these is the road
approaching Nikko. This is said to be lined on
both sides with rows of magnificent cedars and
pines for a distance of 40 miles.
The bridges add a great deal to the peculiar
beauty of the landscape. They are substantial,
beautiful structures, generally built in the shape
of an arch, and are of stone, bricks, or wood.
The Japanese are very careful about bridges, and
little streams across foot-paths, where in America
one sees at best only a plank or log, are here
carefully bridged. The bridge called Nihon-
bashi, in Tokyo, is said to be the center of the
empire, the point at which all roads converge.
THE LAND OF JAPAN
17
Japan is a land in which the rural population
largely predominates. Most of the people live in
the villages and small towns. But in recent years
a process similar to that going on in America has
set in, and large numbers of the rural classes are
drifting into the cities.
The chief city is Tokyo, with a population of
1,323,295. Being now the home of the emperor
and the seat of government, it is held in much
reverence by the people. In popular parlance
this city is exalted on a pedestal of honor, and
the people speak of " ascending to " or " descend-
ing from " it. It is really a fine city, with broad,
clean streets and many splendid buildings, and has
been called the " city of magnificent distances."
One can travel almost a whole day and not get
outside the city limits. It was formerly called
Yedo, but when the emperor removed his court
hither after the Restoration its name was changed
to Tokyo. The term means " east capital." The
city has enjoyed a marvelous growth and is to-
day a vigorous, active place. It has many of
the conveniences of modern Western cities, such
as electric lights, water-works, tram-cars, tele-
phones, etc.
Kyoto is the ancient capital, the place where
the mikados lived in secluded splendor for so
many centuries. It was the most magnificent
city of old Japan, and many highly cherished
18
THE GIST OF JAPAN
national memories and traditions cluster around
it. The old classical Japanese, to whom the
ancient regime is far superior to the present,
still lingers fondly in thought round its sacred
temples, shrines, and groves. When the imperial
court was removed to Tokyo the name of Kyoto
was changed to Saikyo, a term meaning " west
capital." Western geographers frequently have
been guilty of the error of calling this city " Mi-
yako " ; but that has never been the city's name,
and is simply the Japanese word for " capital."
Kyoto is a beautiful, prosperous city, with a
population of 328,354.
Osaka is the commercial center. It is a city
of manufactories, and nearly all native articles of
merchandise bear the mark, " Made in Osaka."
As a business center this city surpasses all others
in the empire. It is centrally located, at the head
of Osaka Bay, about 20 miles from the open port
of Kobe. Here we find the imperial mint, with
long rows of splendid buildings. The population
is 494.314-
The next largest city is Nagoya, with a popu-
lation of 206,742. Other prominent cities are:
Hiroshima, 91,985; Okayama, 52,360; Kana-
gawa, 89,975 ; Kagoshima, 55,495. etc.
There are seven open ports in which foreigners
reside at present and engage in commerce. In
the order of importance they are : Tokyo, popu-
THE LAND OF JAPAN
19
lation 1,323,295; Osaka, 494,314; Yokohama,
160,439; Kobe, 150,993; Nagasaki, 67,481;
Hakodate, 66,333 i Niigata, 50,300. Formerly
Nagasaki was in the lead, but now has fallen to
the fifth place. It is probable that other ports
will be opened to foreign trade in the near future.
Climate
As Japan is so long a country, she has every
variety of climate. In the northern provinces,
and especially on the northwest coast, it is ex-
tremely cold in winter, and snow falls in such
quantities as practically to stop all kinds of busi-
ness. In Formosa and Liukiu there is perpetual
summer. That part of Japan in which the West
is most interested, and about which it knows most,
— which is far the most important portion of the
empire, — has a mild, damp climate, free from
great extremes of either heat or cold. Each
winter snow falls frequently, but it is seldom
known to lie on the ground for more than a few
hours at a time. Cold frosts are rare. Judged
by the thermometer, the summers are no warmer
than those of the Carolinas or Tennessee, but
their effect upon people of the West resident here
is much more trying than the summers of those
places. Various reasons are assigned for this.
Physicians are well aware that humidity affects
20
THE GIST OF JAPAN
health for good or bad as much as temperature.
In considering the healthfulness of a climate, not
only is the temperature to be taken into account,
but the amount of moisture in the air must also
be considered. Now, in Japan there is so exces-
sive an amount of moisture in the atmosphere
that it makes the heat exceedingly depressing.
The presence of this dampness makes it very
hard to keep things clean and free from rust
I and mold. Sewing-machines, bicycles, scissors,
^ knives, and such things have to be watched care-
fully and oiled. Carpets, clothing, shoes, etc.,
I have to be sunned well and then shut up in air-
! tight boxes during the summer season. Often a
single night is sufficient to make a pair of shoes
white with mold. Were it only on the machines
and clothing that the dampness and mold settle,
it would not be so bad ; but we feel that this
same clammy mold is going down into our very
bones and marrow, gradually sapping their vigor
and strength.
Besides this great excess of moisture in the
atmosphere, there are other reasons why the cli-
mate is so debilitating. One of these is the lack
of ozone. This element is known to be one of
the greatest atmospheric purifiers, and also to
have a very invigorating and stimulating effect
upon mind and body. The proportion of ozone
in the atmosphere of Japan is only about one
THE L/IND OF JAPAN
21
third as great as that in the atmosphere of most
1 Western countries.
The proportion of electricity in the atmosphere
is also thought to be much below the average.
While not much is known in regard to the effect
of atmospheric electricity upon the healthfulness
of a country, it is generally believed by scientific
and medical men that the proportion of electricity
in the air has much to do with our physical well-
being.
These three factors, viz., too much moisture,
not enough ozone, and not enough electricity, are
named as the chief causes which conduce to make
the climate depressing and enervating to people
from the West. We missionaries have neither
the energy nor the strength to do here what we
could do at home, and after a five or six years'
residence, to do effective work must be permitted
to recuperate in the home lands.
The rainfall is far above the average of most
countries. Two thirds of the annual downpour
falls during the six months from April to Octo-
ber. The rainy season proper begins early in
June and lasts about six weeks. At this season
it sometimes rains for weeks consecutively. This
year (1896) during the rainy season we did not
once get a sight of the sun for at least three
weeks. The amount of rain varies greatly from
year to year, as also in different localities.
22
THE GIST OF JAPAN
' Notwithstanding the heavy rainfall, bright,
sunny days are far in excess of dark, rainy ones,
j Clear, balmy skies are the rule rather than the
I exception. There is a softness and delicacy about
Japanese skies rare in America, but common in
European countries bordering on the Mediterra-
nean Sea.
Japanese winds are irregular and violent, and
subject to sudden changes. During three months
of the year the dreaded typhoons are expected,
and once or twice each year great damage is
' done by them. These typhoons generally blow
from the southwest. They often sweep houses,
forests, and everything else before them, their
wake being a mass of ruins. In fair weather, on
the sea-shore, there is a gentle land- and sea-
breeze in summer.
Productions
Japan is blessed with a fertile soil, capable of
bearing a variety of products. By centuries of
the most careful fertilization and irrigation (arts
in which the Japanese are adepts) the land has
been brought to a very high state of cultivation.
One of the peculiar things to the people of the
West is the manner in which the fields are irri-
gated. Nearly all the land under cultivation can
be freely watered at the will of the cultivator.
THE LAND OF JAPAN
23
Streams and canals everywhere wind in and out
through the plains and round the hills, making
easy the irrigation of all arable lands.
A striking feature of the farming is the man-
ner of terracing the sides of the hills and moun-
tains. These are not cultivated in their natural
state, as in America, but stone walls are built at
regular gradations on the mountain-sides, and
the soil dug down until level with the tops of the
walls. Arranged in this way a mountain-side
looks not unlike a huge stairway, and lends beauty
to the landscape.
The land here is not divided into large farms,
as is usual in the West. Most of the farms are
very small. One never sees a field of ten or fif-
teen acres, but little plots hardly as large as our
vegetable gardens. The cultivation is mostly
done by hand, the women laboring in the fields
with their husbands and brothers. The imple-
ments in general use are very rude. Plows are
used, but they are roughly made of wood, with
an iron point attached, and do poor work. Nearly
all the cultivating is done with a hoe, the blade
of which is almost as long as the handle, and is
attached to it at an angle of less than forty-five
degrees, making it an awkward thing to use. All
grains are harvested and threshed by hand. The
land being so fertile, the yield is large.
In enumerating the products of their country,
24
THE GIST OF JAP/IN
the native writers usually begin with the go-koku,
or five cereals — wheat, rice, millet, beans, and
sorghum. Fine crops of wheat are grown, es-
pecially in the southern provinces. Perhaps no
country in the world produces better rice or a
greater quantity per acre. One half of all the
land under cultivation is used in the production
of rice.
Green grasses are remarkably rare in Japan,
and the soil does not seem to be adapted to their
growth. Long plains of green meadow- and
pasture-lands, so pleasing to the eye in home
landscapes, are never seen. Almost the only
grass in the empire is the long, coarse grass that
grows on the hills and mountains.
Corn and oats are met with rarely. The cul-
tivation of corn is now being introduced in the
northern provinces, however, and will probably
soon become more general. Hemp and cotton
both flourish. The cotton does not grow as
large or yield as bountifully as it does in our own
Southern States, but a very good crop is raised
each year. There is a large variety of vegetables,
such as turnips, pumpkins, radishes, beets, carrots,
potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions, etc.
Japan produces a great variety of fruits and
berries. We can have fresh fruit all the year
round. Some of the more prominent are or-
anges, persimmons, figs, apricots, pears, peaches,
THE LAND OF JAPAN
26
plums, loquats, grapes, etc. As a rule the fruit
is inferior to that of the West, but the oranges,
persimmons, and figs are excellent.
Until comparatively recent years apples were
unknown here, but now they are being rapidly
introduced and successfully cultivated. They
are grown only in the northern provinces, the
southern soil not being well adapted to them.
For bright, gay flowers Japan can hardly be
excelled. At certain seasons the whole country
resembles an immense garden. The crysanthe-
mum is the national flower, and magnificent
specimens of it are grown. The cherry blossoms
are universal favorites, and when they are at their
best the whole population turns out to see them.
Lotus flowers are highly prized, and in our city
of Saga there is an old castle moat, 200 or 300
yards wide and more than i mile long, filled with
them, which in July and August is a sea of large
red-and-white blossoms, beautiful to behold.
The hills and valleys abound in wild flowers, but
the natives seem to prize them less than the cul-
tivated ones. In recent years Western flowers
are being extensively cultivated, and most of
them do well. Flowers that must be carefully
housed and nursed in America, such as geraniums,
fuchsias, etc., will grow all the year in the open
in Japan. Some one only partially acquainted
with Japan has said that the flowers have no
26
THt GIST OF JAPAN
odor, but this is not true ; they are, however,
less fragrant than those of the West.
There is no country in the East so well supplied
with useful timber. On the island of Yezo alone
there are thirty-six varieties of useful timber-
trees, including the most useful of all trees, the
oak. These vast forests as yet are untouched
practically, and the whole of the Hokkaido is
one huge lumber-yard. The main island, Kyu-
shu, and Shikoku are also well timbered. But
the demand for building material, fire-wood, and
charcoal is so great that rapid inroads are being
made upon the supply of timber. Unless a more
thorough system of forestry is adopted the sup-
ply will some day be exhausted. The mulberry-
tree flourishes, and immense tracts of land are
given to its cultivation. The fruit is not used, but
the leaves are highly valuable in silk culture.
Lacquer-trees also abound, from which a con-
siderable revenue is derived.
The camphor-supply of the world is almost
entirely in the hands of Japan. Magnificent
camphor-trees are growing over all southern
Japan, and in the newly acquired territory of
Formosa there are large groves of them. The
camphor industry is a lucrative one, and happy
is the man who possesses a few trees. Within a
few yards of my former home in Saga, on a little
strip of waste land, there were four camphor-trees
which sold, standing, for $2000, silver.
THE LAND OF JAPAN
27
This account would be very incomplete with-
out a notice of the bamboo, which grows in large
quantities over all the empire. In the northern
provinces it is only a small shrub ; in the southern
it grows to a large tree. The uses to which it is
put are innumerable, and the people hardly could
do without it.
The chief articles of foreign export produced
in Japan are silk, tea, and rice. Silk is produced
throughout the country, with the exception of
the island of Yezo, but the best yielding dis-
tricts are in the center and north of the main
island. The Japanese cocoon seems to be equally
as good as the European, but the methods of
manufacturing are not yet up to the highest
standard; for this reason Japanese silks are
hardly as good as those of France or Italy. The
annual export of silk is worth to Japan about
$30,000,000.
Second only to silk in importance among ex-
ports is tea. Most of it is shipped by foreign
merchants to America, Chinese and Indian teas
being more popular in Europe. About 40,000,-
000 pounds are annually exported. The quan-
tity consumed at home must be very great, at
least equal to that sent abroad.
The foreign trade in rice is large, and is in-
creasing continually. Japanese rice is far bet-
ter than that grown in India or Burmah, and is
esteemed highly in European markets. Formerly
28
THE GIST OF JAPAN
the government exported the rice, as it levied
taxes in rice and hence had great stores of it;
but this practice has been discontinued. Native
merchants are now taking up this branch of the
export trade and are pushing it with vigor. The
value of the export varies very much each year,
in accordance with the crop produced.
Japan is not only rich and fertile, yielding
the greatest variety of products, but she is also
endowed with great mineral wealth. Kaempfer, in
the first history of Japan given to the West, enu-
merates the minerals thus : sulphur, gold, silver,
copper, tin, iron, coal, salt, agates, jasper, pearls,
naphtha, ambergris, etc. Coal of fairly good
quality is present in great quantities in many parts
of the empire. Much of it is sold to the foreign
steamers that call here on their way to China.
The export of copper amounts to more than
$5,000,000 per year. Iron, chiefly in the form
of magnetic oxide, is present along the sea-coast
and in the diluvium of rivers. As yet the iron
resources have not been developed. Gold and
silver are present in many places, but the mines
have never been worked to very great advantage.
Large quantities of salt are made from sea- water.
Traces of petroleum are found in several locali-
ties, but not much has yet been made of it. The
great mineral wealth of Japan as yet is developed
only partially.
THE LAND OF JAPAN
29
Animals
The fauna is represented generally as very
meager, but this is an injustice. A large portion
of the animals now found here may have been
imported, but, taking Japan as we find her to-
day, animals are abundant.
Horses and oxen are the beasts of burden, and
are found everywhere. The horses are smaller
than those of the West, and are not so gentle,
though very sure-footed and hardy. An effort
is now being made to improve the breed by im-
porting American and Australian horses. Native
oxen do most of the carrying and plowing.
Strange to say, the oxen are gentler and more
manageable than the horses. There are very few
sheep, and it seems that the country is not adapted
to them. Almost the only sheep I have seen
here were in menageries, caged, along with lions,
bears, etc. Pigs are found, but the people are
not fond of their flesh, and consequently not
many are raised.
Domestic animals are plentiful, such as cats,
dogs, ducks, geese, chickens, etc. Many of the
cats have no tails, and the people are prejudiced
against cats that have tails. If one happens to
be born with a tail they will probably cut it off.
Turkeys are scarce.
30
THE GIST OF JAPAN
There are many wild animals, such as bears,
wild boars, deer, monkeys, ianJiki, wild dogs,
foxes, and hares. The people are fond of the
chase, but, as large game is rare, the opportunity
to indulge this taste is very limited.
Among the wild birds are found herons, cranes,
ducks, geese, pheasants, pigeons, storks, falcons,
hawks, ravens, woodcocks, crows, and a small
bird, called uqiiisn, resembling the nightingale.
The stork and the heron are perhaps most popu-
lar, and have been pictured in all kinds of native
art. Wild geese and ducks spend the summer
in Yezo and the winter in Hondo. Singing birds
are rare, but not, as some have affirmed, unknown.
The seas surrounding Japan, and her numerous
bays and rivers, are teeming with animal life, and
for multitude and variety of edible fish are per-
haps unsurpassed by any in the world. Salmon,
cod, mackerel, herring, bait, tai, and other small
fish are very abundant, so much so that in many
places they are used as a fertilizer. From time
immemorial fish have formed a prominent part
of the daily diet of the people. Whales are
numerous on the shores of Kyushu and the
southern shores of Hondo, where they are taken
by means of harping-irons or darts. Quantities
of oil are extracted from them, and their flesh is
much relished for food.
The foregoing account will perhaps give the
THE L/iND OF JAPAN
31
reader some idea of the nature, extent, climate,
and products of the land of Japan. With a
fertile soil, rich deposits of minerals, a genial
climate, and a landscape unsurpassed, surely this
is a country highly favored by Heaven. How
sad to think that those to whom God has given
so much know so Httle of Him ! How one's heart
bleeds to see God's beautiful handiwork all marred
and stained by images and idols, and that praise
which the people so justly owe Him given to
gods of wood and stone ! But such is the case
in Japan to-day. The people know that they
are indebted to some higher power for innumer-
able blessings, but they do not know that this
power is the God whom we preach to them.
II
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE
Nothing definite is known concerning the ori-
gin of the Japanese people. Some authorities
think that the southern portion of Japan was first
peopled by sailors and fishermen from Malay,
who were drifted thither by the strong current
of the Black Stream. That this has happened to
shipwrecked sailors in the present time is cited
in confirmation of this view.
Some of the northern islands are within sight
of the mainland, and it is possible that tribes from
northern Asia made their way across the narrow
seas and settled there. Ethnological and philo-
logical evidence indicates that some immigrants
came over from Korea, which they could easily
have done, as the southern part of Korea is very
near.
If these suppositions are true, two races mingled
in Japan — the Malay from the south and the
32
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE 33
Mongol from the west — and the Japanese people
are the joint product of the two. But there is
no certain information regarding these immigra-
tions, and we cannot affirm them as historic facts.
Two of the greatest authorities on this subject,
Baelz and Rein, affirm that the Japanese are of
Mongol origin. Dr. Baelz supposes that there
were two chief streams of immigration from
northern and central Asia by way of Korea. The
immigrants gradually spread eastward and north-
ward and settled in the land, becoming the pro-
genitors of the present inhabitants.
It is historically certain that some Chinamen
and Koreans have settled in Japan and contrib-
uted toward the production of the Japanese race ;
both Chinese and Japanese histories contain ac-
counts of such immigration ; but it is likely that
settlers were already here long before these, of
whom we have historic accounts, arrived.
This problem is made more difficult by the fact
that there are two separate and distinct races here
— the Japanese and the Ainu. The latter do not
appear to be Mongols. The Japanese call them
the aborigines. When they entered Japan, and
where they came from, is not known. There is
very Httle intermixing of these two races. The
Japanese have gradually forced the Ainu back to
the northern island, just as the settlers in the
United States have driven back the Indians. Ef-
34
THE GIST OF JAPAN
forts are being made lately to better the condition
of this race, but they do not meet with much
success. The Ainu appear to have little capacity
for civilization, and the race is rapidly becoming
extinct.
So much for the origin of the people. We
will endeavor to treat their history, very briefly,
under three heads : mythology, mythological his-
tory, and reliable history.
Japanese Mythology
Although we of the West are perplexed as to
the origin of the Japanese, the national records
give what has been a very clear and satisfactory
account of this. Hence I have included a very
brief statement of this native account of the origin
of the Japanese people under the head of history,
although it is pure mythology.
Japanese history teaches that in the beginning
all things were chaos. There was no Creator,
and no First Cause of the universe. There was
merely a cosmic mass. By and by the ethereal
matter sublimed and formed the heavens; what
remained formed the earth. From the warm
mold of the earth sprang up a germ which became
a self-animate being — the first of the gods. Then
four other gods were generated, all sexless and
self-begotten. These gods separated the pri-
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE 35
mordial substance into the five elements of wood,
fire, metal, earth, and water, and gave to each its
properties. The last of these spontaneous divine
generations were a brother and a sister, named
Izanagi and Izanami. Uniting in marriage, they
became the parents of the various islands of Japan
and of gods and goddesses innumerable. Iza-
nami died when giving birth to the god of fire.
Her divine consort afterward visits her in the
lower regions to induce her to return to him.
She would fain do so, but must first consult the
gods of the place. Going to ask counsel of them,
she does not return, and Izanagi, impatient at
her tarrying, goes in search of her. He finds
her a mass of putrefaction, in the midst of which
the eight thunder-gods are sitting.
Disappointed in his hope, he returns to Japan
and purifies himself by bathing in a stream. As
he bathes new gods are born from his clothing
and from each part of his body. The sun-god-
dess was born from his left eye, the moon-god
from his right eye, and Susanoo, the last of all,
was born from his nose. What a prolific breeder
of gods was he !
The mythology goes on relating, tale after tale,
the absurd actions of these gods residing together
for several generations in Japan, the center of
the universe, frequently visiting both heaven and
hell, and performing all kinds of miraculous feats.
36
THE GIST OF JAPAN
In native history this period is called the " period
of the gods." About six generations after Izanagi
and Izanami, in the direct line of descent from
them, the first human emperor of Japan was
born. His name was Kamu-Yamato-Ihare-Biko,
posthumously called Jimmu Tenno.
Those Japanese to whose minds the problem
of the origin of the outside nations ever occurred
solved it in this fashion : the barbarian nations
must likewise have descended from the mikado,
the son of heaven, in very remote times, but have
wandered off and are now far from the divine
source. The Japanese, being still under the pro-
tection of their divine father, are very much nearer
in the line of descent, and hence are the first race
in the world.
Thus they trace their descent direct to the
gods, and their emperor is to this day considered
the divine father of his people. It is a pity we
cannot join with them in accepting this easy solu-
tion of the difficult problem of their origin.
Mythological History
By this term I would designate that period in
Japanese history in which mythology and history
are so blended as to be inseparable. For almost
one thousand years records purporting to be his-
torical are so intermingled with that which is
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE 37
purely mythological as to make it next to impos-
sible to discriminate between them.
Japanese historians claim that the authentic
history of their country dates from the time of
Jimmu Tenno (600 B.C.), and the national records
are unbroken from that time to the present. Most
European and American historians have accepted
these records as true, and yet critical scholars here
feel bound to reject them. The oldest Japanese
histories were not written until the eighth century
A. D., and it does not seem probable that traditions
handed down by word of mouth for more than a
thousand years would be reliable. The records
themselves are contradictory and self-refuting.
Contemporary Chinese and Korean history, in
which are frequent references to the " land of
Wa," i.e., Japan, does not agree with the Japa-
nese records, which bear evidence of having been
written for a purpose other than a true statement
of historical facts. These and other reasons have
led Messrs. Aston and Chamberlain, the scholars
who have studied this subject perhaps more than
any others, to conclude that Japanese records
prior to the date 461 A.D. are unreliable.
This period in dispute (from 600 B.C. to 461
A.D.) I have designated the period of mythologi-
cal history. Even in the Japanese so-called his-
tories the mythology for centuries is narrated
along with that which claims to be genuine his-
38
THE GIST OF JAPAN
tory; the gods still mingle with men and take
part in their affairs. The legends of the gods
and those of the emperors are given side by side
in the same book, and as much credence attaches
to the one as to the other.
Orthodox Shinto scholars, while recognizing
the fact of the parallelism of the mythology and
the history, inconsistently reject the mythological
legends of the gods while strenuously holding to
those relating to the emperors. My own opinion
is that most of the important events related in the
records during this period had some basis in fact,
but that the accounts of them are exaggerated
and perverted.
Commencing with the period which native his-
torians assign as the beginning of authentic his-
tory, the first important event we find is the ac-
cession of Jimmu Tenno to the throne (600 B.C.).
But the very existence of Jimmu Tenno as an
historical personage is not at all certain. The
evidence adduced has never been sufficient to
satisfy Western scholars, although the Japanese
would consider it almost treason to disbelieve
in him.
Japanese histories for this period are very mea-
ger. They consist, for the most part, of a recital
of the names and ages of the mikados, with per-
haps a sentence or two concerning the state of
the country during their reigns.
One of the most important events noted in
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE 39
this early period is the subjugation of Korea by
the Empress Jingo. Slie is said to have collected
a large army, and, by the help of the fishes great
and small, and of favorable winds and currents, to
have crossed over into Korea in small junks, and
completely subjugated the country, reducing it
to the position of a tributary state. The Japanese
firmly believe this story, and are proud of the
early success of their arms in this foreign war.
Korean records justify us in assuming that Japa-
nese influence was predominant in Korea at this
time, but the story of the Empress Jingo, espe-
cially in its details, must be received with cau-
tion. She is perhaps an historical personage, but
whether she invaded Korea or not is doubtful.
The next event of importance in the records
is the introduction of Chinese art, science, and
learning, which took place in the early centuries
of the Christian era, and exerted an incalculable
influence upon the people of Japan. Learning,
religion, philosophy, literature, laws, ethics, medi-
cine, art — all were brought over bodily. From this
time forward the Japanese were largely students
and imitators of China. Korea was the medium
through which these continental influences were
transmitted. With the introduction of learning
and literature historical records began to be kept
over all Japan, and oral tradition was no longer
relied upon. From this time the authentic history
of Japan begins.
#
40
THE CIST OF JAPAN
Reliable History
Chamberlain, Aston, and others agree that the
first trustworthy date in Japanese history is 461
A.D., and that for the succeeding century too
much confidence must not be placed in details.
This disproves the pretty stories told by the
Japanese, and by many Western writers as well,
as to the great age of this nation, and its unbroken
line of emperors extending at least as far back as
600 B.C. ; but it is not the first time that pretty
theories have been rudely broken up by an in-
vestigation of facts. The imperial line is prob-
ably as old as that of the popes, but hardly older.
Japan, in fact and in authentic history, is younger
than Christianity. Her existence as a state began
about the time of the fall of the Roman empire.
With the year 461 historical events and per-
sonages appear, and, in the main, we may accept
the history from this time forward as accurate.
About the middle of the sixth century began
one of the most important processes in Japanese
history — the conversion of the nation to Bud-
dhism. For some centuries previous Chinese
learning and arts had been gradually filtering into
Japan ; but they had not as yet gained general
acceptance. The Buddhist priests brought Chi-
nese civilization, and in the course of two cen-
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE 41
turies it spread over the country, influencing
morality, politics, and everything. Sweeping
changes were made in the government, which
was then organized on the Chinese centralized
plan. Arts, sciences, and literature flourished.
This was the golden age of classical Japan.
In the year 670 A.D. the great Fujiwara family
came upon the stage. The mikados were in the-
ory absolute rulers, but eventually they became
mere figureheads. Their mode of life was not
such as to make of them able rulers. Surrounded
by an effeminate court, living in indolence and
debauchery amid priests and court women, they
were hardly competent to direct afi'airs. The
emperor was often a mere child, who, when he
grew up, either abdicated freely or was forced to
abdicate the throne in favor of another child as
weak as himself. The government was adminis-
tered by the most powerful vassals. The great
Fujiwara family held the affairs of state in its
own hands from 670 to 1050 A.D. : all the im-
portant posts were filled by its sons, while its
daughters were married to the imbecile emperors.
The next important event in Japanese history
is the rise of feudalism. The warlike samurai
classes, disgusted with this weak petticoat govern-
ment, arose in arms and overthrew it. The great
clans of Taira and Minamoto appeared and alter-
nately held the reins of government for nearly
4
42
THE GIST OF JAPAN
two centuries. Lawlessness and disorder pre-
vailed. The leader who could command the
most men and win the victory with his sword
was master of the empire. All Japan became a
military camp, the chieftains waging war against
one another. Thus feudalism took its rise and
prevailed for many centuries, powerfully affecting
every form of thought and life, just as it did in
Europe at a similar period.
The Taira family was finally overthrown by
the Minamotos, and the chief of the latter clan,
Yoritomo, was raised to the supreme power.
This man was the first to obtain from the im-
perial court in Kyoto the title of " shogun "
— generally spoken of in the West as " tycoon."
From this time forward (i 190-1867) the shogun
was the real ruler of Japan. The mikado was still
the theoretical head of the state, descendant of
the sun-goddess, and fountain of all honor, but
he lived in the retirement and seclusion of his
court, never seen by his subjects, and all matters
of government were attended to by the shogun.
Yoritomo's descendants gradually degenerated,
and were finally overthrown by the Ashikaga
family.
This powerful clan took charge of the govern-
ment in 1338 and held it until 1565. It encour-
aged literature and the arts, and the court became
a center of elegance and refinement. Especially
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE 43
did the intricate tea ceremonies flourish at this
time. This family became weak and eff'eminate
finally, like its predecessors, and was overthrown.
Japan was first discovered by Europeans prob-
ably in 1542, when the Portuguese adventurer
Mendez Pinto landed on her coasts. He brought
the first definite information concerning her re-
ceived in Europe, and his reports were so highly
exaggerated that he was spoken of everywhere as
" mendacious Pinto." Soon after his visit numbers
of Portuguese adventurers came, who were re-
ceived warmly by the impressible people. With
them came the Jesuits and the introduction of
Christianity. The growth of Christianity, and
the bloody persecutions it encountered, begin
from this time. These interesting subjects will be
treated in another chapter and hence are passed
over here.
During this period lived successively three of
the greatest men in Japanese history — Nobunaga,
Hideyoshi, and lyeyasu. On these men devolved
the tasks of breaking the power of the feudal lords
and bringing them into more complete subjection
to the shogun ; of unifying the empire and of
strengthening the central government. The plan
was conceived by Nobunaga, begun by Hideyoshi,
and completed by lyeyasu. The former was the
friend and patron of the Christians, the two latter
their bitter persecutors.
44
THE GIST OF Jy4PAN
After the rulers had succeeded in stamping out
Christianity the country was closed to foreign
influence, and for two hundred years remained
hermetically sealed. Even shipwrecked foreign
sailors found on her coasts were executed, and no
Japanese was permitted to leave the country on
pain of death. The only communication with the
outside world reserved was through the Hol-
landers, a small band of whom were permitted to
reside at Nagasaki. Through them various arts
and sciences, including medicine, were introduced.
This calm seclusion was rudely broken in upon
by the coming of Commodore Perry, in l8-5^-
54, with his big guns. He came to establish
treaties of commerce and trade, and to secure
better treatment for American ships and sailors —
peaceably if possible, forcibly if necessary. Here
it is needful, in the interests of truth, to disprove
another pretty story, to the effect that Perry and
his crew were very pious, godly men, and that
they secured the concessions desired by peaceable
methods — by praying and singing psalms. The
fact is that the concessions gained were forced
from Japan by intimidation, by threats, and by a
show of strength. Commodore Perry also used
the same tactics in Liukiu. He effected his pur-
pose, it is true, without using his guns, except for
intimidation, but it is safe to say that he would
not have accomplished it without them.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE 45
The treaties then forced from the govern-
ment were humiliating to Japan; for example,
granting exterritoriality, by virtue of which for-
eigners should live under their own consuls and
in no sense be amenable to the laws of the land.
Such concessions are demanded by civilized states
of the uncivilized only, and their very existence
implies inferiority. But nothing else was possible
at that time, nor did Japan object.
The coming of Perry, and his forced opening
of the country, marked the birth of new Japan, so
different from the old, and the beginning of an era
of unprecedented prosperity. The Japanese now
recognize this, and speak of Perry as one of their
greatest benefactors.
During the years immediately preceding this
there was a great revival of learning. A school
of Hterati arose, which zealously studied the an-
tiquities of its own country as opposed to the im-
ported Chinese classics. A revival of Shinto sprang
up, and with it grew again that great reverence
and esteem for the ancient imperial line, the di-
vine mikados, as against the upstart shoguns. In
this way began the movement which ended in
the revolution of 1868 and the overthrow of the
shogunate.
When Perry came the shogun's government
was already tottering to its fall, and when this
government made treaties with foreign countries,
46
THE GIST OF JAPAN
admitting the " barbarians " to this " land of the
gods," a loud cry arose against it over all the
land. Finally the imperial court at Kyoto,
prompted by the mighty daimios of Choshu,
Satsuma, and Tosa, decided upon the abolition of
the shogunate. The shogun himself submitted
to the decree of the mikado, but many of his fol-
lowers did not. The War of the Revolution en-
sued, and after much fighting the imperial troops
vv^ere victorious ; the shogunate was forever abol-
ished, and the emperor once more took personal
charge of the government.
The literary party had triumphed. Buddhism
was largely supplanted by Shinto ; the shogunate,
which had admitted the foreigners, was abolished ;
and the literati fondly supposed that the court
would now expel the intruders, abolish the trea-
ties, again shut up the country, and affairs would
go on as in the " good old times." But they were
deceived. The mighty lords of Tosa, Satsuma,
and Choshu now declared in favor of foreign in-
tercourse and the adoption of European civiliza-
tion. These princes were too powerful not to be
heard. Their advice was heeded ; the foreigners
were welcomed, the country was opened more and
more, old abuses were corrected, and the Euro-
peanization of Japan was begun.
The reformation was ably assisted from the
very quarter where we would expect to find it
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE 47
most bitterly opposed. The young and able
emperor Mutsuhito, coming out of the obscurity
which had enshrouded his ancestors for ages, and
putting aside the traditions of centuries, ably
seconded the efforts of his ministers in every re-
form. The unparalleled progress during his long
and enlightened reign is due in no small part to
his wisdom and prudence. He has shown him-
self a liberal, enlightened monarch, and I am sure
that I express the sentiment of every friend of
Japan in saying, Long live his Majesty Mutsuhito !
The reformation of the country, the assimilation
of Western civilization and institutions, and the
gradual opening and development of the empire
have gone on uninterruptedly since the restoration
of the emperor to the supreme power.
In 1 87 1 the daimiates were abolished and the
old daimios retired to private life. Thus feudal-
ism was at last broken up and the central govern-
ment strengthened. In this same year the postal
and telegraph systems were introduced and a
mint was established.
In 1889 the constitution was promulgated,
whereby the people were given a voice in the
government, and Japan became a constitutional
monarchy, very much like Prussia or other Eu-
ropean states. In this year local self-government
was also established. In accordance with the
constitution, the first Diet was opened in 1890.
48
THE GIST OF JAPAN
This highest legislative body in Japan resembles
somewhat, in its organization and functions, the
German Reichstag.
One of the greatest recent events in Japanese
history is the successful revision of the treaties.
After the Restoration and the adoption of West-
ern institutions and civilization, efforts were con-
tinually being made to have these treaties re-
vised on a basis more favorable to Japan; but
these efforts were always defeated. Thus Japan
was for many years forced to submit to treaties
made long ago, which were good enough then,
but are outgrown entirely now. No recognition
whatever was made of her great progress during
these thirty years, and the foreign powers still
treated her as an inferior. This was unjust, and
the people naturally chafed under it. Finally,
by the wisdom and perseverance of the present
Japanese statesmen, treaty revision has been se-
cured on the basis of equality. By this revision
she regains the concessions forced from her in
former years. After the year 1900 all foreigners
residing in Japan will become amenable to her
laws ; exterritoriality will be abolished ; power to
levy taxes upon imports within prescribed limits
will be regained ; and Japan will be recognized
as an equal by the great powers of the West. In
return for these concessions on the part of foreign
powers, she gives liberty of residence and travel
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE 49
in any part of the empire, and all privileges gen-
erally accorded aliens in Western nations, except
the right of ownership of land. We rejoice with
Japan that justice has at last been accorded her, and
that the treaties have been satisfactorily revised.
A sketch of Japanese history would be incom-
plete without some mention of the recent war
with China. This war was especially interesting
because it afforded the first opportunity Japan
has had of trying her strength with her new arms.
For years she has been to school to the Western
nations; now she goes out to put into practice
the lessons she has learned. Her fine army and
navy, constructed after the most approved West-
ern models, are tested for the first time. The re-
sults are such as to more than satisfy Japan with
her new equipment. The story of her splendid
success against a nation outnumbering her ten to
one is familiar to all and need not be recounted.
The war was a positive gain to Japan in many
ways. Aside from the material gain in indemnity
and the extension of her territory, it gave her
an opportunity to demonstrate to the world the
substantial progress she has made. Nothing else
would have gained for her so much respect from
Western powers as her prowess exhibited in this
war. A demonstration of force and of ability to
fight great battles is still regarded as a mark of
progress and civilization.
50
THE GIST OF JAPAN
The war also helped to settle many troublesome
internal questions. Some feared the people would
be so elated by their phenomenal success that
their pride and arrogance would be unendurable.
But it was not so. The Japanese expected to
win from the beginning, and were not surprised
at the result. After the war was over they set-
tled down to the even tenor of their ways as
though nothing had happened. They have shown
themselves as able to bear victory as to win it.
Such is an all too brief account of the history
of this interesting people. An acquaintance with
the main facts of this history I thought necessary
to enable American Christians rightly to appreci-
ate the work of their missionaries in their efforts
to plant the church in Japan.
Ill
JAPANESE CHARACTERISTICS
It is next to impossible for an alien to judge
accurately the characteristics of a people. That
a foreigner's interpretation of a nation's character,
and of the moral influences that direct and mold
its life, is apt to be imperfect and erroneous is
now a recognized truth. An Englishman cannot
understand a Frenchman, nor a Frenchman an
Englishman. Even people so closely related as
the English and Americans, with a common an-
cestry, common history and traditions, a common
speech, common laws, and a common faith, find
great difficulty in properly understanding one
another. The American essayist Emerson did
not venture to write " English Traits " until he
had visited England, mingled freely with the peo-
ple, and familiarized himself with the manifold
phases of English character; and Bryce's excel-
lent work on "The American Commonwealth," in
51
52
THE GIST OF JAPAN
which American characteristics are reflected more
truly than they have been by any other EngHsh
writer, did not see the light until its author had
made frequent visits to the United States and had
carefully studied his subject for seventeen years.
If it is so hard to understand a kindred people,
how much harder it is to understand a people so
alien as the Japanese! Here the rehgion, lan-
guage, manners and customs, and moral ideas are
so different from our own that the task of por-
traying the real characteristics of the race becomes
a colossal one. It should be attempted only by
men who have had years of practical experience
with the people, who can read their language and
look at things from their standpoint, and who
bring to their task a loving sympathy with the
people whose life they would portray.
But nothing is more common than to meet
with sweeping judgments on Japanese character
by persons utterly incompetent to make them.
Men who have perhaps never seen Japan sit
in judgment upon her with a gusto unequaled.
Globe-trotters, spending at most only a few
weeks here, and necessarily learning nothing of
the inner life of the people, have made most
sweeping statements concerning the traits of
national character, such as : " The Japanese are a
nation of liars ;" " They are mere imitators, origi-
nating nothing;" "They are fickle and quite
JAPy4NESE CHARACTERISTICS 53
unreliable; " "Licentiousness is the most promi-
nent trait in the national character," etc. Now it
is unnecessary to say that judgments formed in
this way are worthless. Here, if anywhere, it be-
hooves one to write only after careful study and
observation, and even then to speak with caution.
Physically the Japanese are inferior to the
races of the West. They are shorter of stature
and lighter of weight than Europeans or Ameri-
cans. The upper part of their bodies is developed
perhaps as fully as our own ; but the lower limbs
have been so cramped by sitting on the floor for
centuries that they are shorter and weaker.
Their habits of life and their vegetable diet have
combined to make of them a physically weak
people. They age earlier than the races of the
Occident.
In color they do not differ much from the
American Indians or the half-breeds of the South.
There are two types of facial expression : the
old samurai or noble classes have a long, narrow
face, sharp nose, high, narrow forehead, and
oblique eyes ; the lower classes have fat, round,
pudding faces, with broad mouths and flat noses.
These two types are distinguished readily on the
streets, and rank can be judged by them.
The Japanese are a cheerful race. The cares
of life seem lightly to weigh upon them. On the
surface they appear always smiling and happy.
64
THE GIST OF JAPAN
They are very fond of gay scenes and bright
colors. Politeness is a national characteristic.
Etiquette has been carried to such an extent as
to have largely degenerated into empty forms.
Mentally they are bright and intelligent, receiv-
ing and apprehending instruction readily. The
students are equally as diligent and earnest as are
those in the academies and colleges of America,
though physically they are not so able to endure
prolonged study. They have great thirst for
knowledge, and study for the sake of learning
itself; hence the various devices for evading
study so common in the schools at home are
almost unknown. The intensity of this thirst for
knowledge on the part of the young is remark-
able. Hundreds of young men over all Japan
are struggling for an education against very great
odds. Many are now educated abroad, and these
take their stand in our best colleges and univer-
sities along with the brightest of our own students.
When their course is completed they are able to
carry on all kinds of learned scientific investiga-
tions independently of their teachers. Witness
what they have done in seismology, botany, and
medicine. These facts indicate that the Japanese
are an intellectual race.
In order rightly to appreciate the national
character we must remember that the idea of
personality is developed here only partially.
JAPANESE CHARACTERISTICS 55
This is strikingly evident in the structure of the
language, which consists of nouns and verbs al-
most exclusively. Distinctions of person and
number are generally ignored, and true pro-
nouns are entirely wanting. From ancient times
men have been considered, not as individuals,
but en masse. The family has been exalted
above the individual, who is hardly considered to
have an existence apart from it. Thus, in ancient
times, as among Occidental races also, if one
member of a family came under the censure of
the government, all were censured. When one
member was put to death, all were executed.
As the family, and not the individual, was the
unit with which the laws dealt, the family became
the subject of prime consideration. To perpetuate
the family line came to be considered a very es-
sential thing, and in order thereto the system of
concubinage was introduced. It is proper to state
that in regard to this exaltation of the family over
the individual Japan is now in a transition period,
and that the individual is becoming more and
more important in the eyes of the law.
A marked characteristic of the Japanese is their
strong patriotism. There is no more patriotic peo-
ple on the face of the earth. It is said that the
name of the emperor, whispered over the heads
of an excited mob, will calm it as readily as oil
poured on troubled waters. In the recent war
56
THE GIST OF JAPAN
with China there were many more volunteers for
active service than could be sent to the front. I
have seen old men lament, with tears in their eyes,
that they could no longer serve their country as
soldiers, even to the death if need be. This prin-
ciple of loyalty is the strongest motive power in
Japan to-day. It supersedes all others. A man's
duty to his family, even to his parents, is nothing
when compared with his duty to his country ; and
Japanese history abounds in pathetic stories of
men, women, and even children, who have counted
all other duties as naught and have willingly sac-
rificed their lives for their country.
Patriotism here amounts to a passion — I had
almost said a fanaticism. From earliest infancy
it is instilled into the minds of the children, and
there is not one of the httle ones in whose heart
his country has not the first place. A native writer
has expressed the sentiments of every Japanese
thus : " My native land ! everywhere and always
the first affections of my heart and the first labor
of my hands shall be thine alone."
This patriotism is not always held intelligently.
The masses of the people have very mistaken
ideas as to what patriotism is. I meet not a
few who believe that love for Japan necessi-
tates a hatred of all other countries, and that no
man can be loyal and at the same time admire
and praise foreign lands. Fortunately, the class
JAPANESE CHARACTERISTICS 57
whose nationalism is so unenlightened is not an
influential one ; otherwise patriotism itself would
check the growth and development of the coun-
try. As it is, the strong nationalistic feeling
serves to prevent a too indiscriminate adoption of
Western institutions and to preserve the good
elements of old Japan.
Respect for parents and teachers is one of the
most prominent elements in the national character.
The first principle of Confucian ethics, as taught
in China, is reverence and obedience to parents;
and although in Japan this has been subordinated
to the principle of loyalty, it is still a prominent
factor in the national life. The proper attitude
of children toward parents, and pupils toward
teachers, is not one of love, but one of absolute
obedience and reverence. It is said here that
true love can come only from a superior to an
inferior, while the proper feeling of inferiors toward
their superiors is one of reverence. This relation
of superior and inferior is carried into every phase
of society, and on it depends much of the family
and national life. The principle of obedience is
almost the only moral teaching given to the girls,
and when they are grown up their moral ideas
cluster round this one point. In olden times
parents had absolute control over their children
and could dispose of them as they saw fit, even
killing them if they so desired. But now the
58
THE GIST OF JAPAN
parent's control over the child is limited by
law. Children are expected to yield implicit,
unquestioning obedience to their parents, and
Japanese children are usually more virtuous in
this respect than the children of Americans.
As a result of this fundamental principle of obe-
dience, inculcated from childhood, has grown the
universal respect for authority found in Japan.
Whatever the government does the common peo-
ple do not question. Even petty officials are re-
spected and obeyed in a manner surprising to us
independently thinking people of the West. No
matter how disagreeable and unjust an act on the
part of the authorities may be, it is usually ac-
cepted meekly with the comment, " There is no
help for it."
The counterpart of this reverence and unques-
tioning obedience to authority is a feeling of
meekness and dependence. The government is
depended upon for much more than is the govern-
ment in the United States. It is expected to
inaugurate all great commercial and industrial
enterprises. Thus the building of railroads, the
construction of telegraphs, and other great works
have had to be executed by the government.
In recent years this spirit is changing some-
what, and private corporations are beginning to
inaugurate great enterprises. But in general it
may be said that the national character is lacking
in independence and decision.
JAPANESE CHARACTERISTICS 59
Love of the beautiful is a prominent and highly-
developed Japanese trait. Their ideals of beauty
differ much from Western ideals, and many things
that they pronounce beautiful would not be so
judged in the Occident. Most Americans at first
cannot appreciate Japanese art, landscape scenery,
or flowers ; but a short residence here and an ac-
quaintance with native life and scenes soon bring
one to appreciate them. The esthetic faculty is
much more highly developed than in America.
It is possessed by all classes. The gardens of
the rich are laid out with especial care, and no
money or pains are spared to make them beautiful.
I have seen day-laborers stand and gaze for a long
time at a beautiful sunset, or go into raptures over
a dwarfed cherry-bush just putting forth its tiny
buds. Men who have worked in the fields all day,
until they are exhausted, on their return home in
the evening will stop by the wayside to pluck
some beautiful shrub or flower and carry it back
with them. Go into the room of a school-boy and
you will almost invariably find his table brightened
by a pretty bouquet of flowers. When the cher-
ries are in bloom the whole population leaves off
work and turns out to enjoy them. Japan is a
beauteous land, and no people are more capable
of appreciating her beauty than her own.
The Japanese are open-minded and receptive
of truth, from whatever quarter it may come.
Were this not true it would have been impossible
60
THE GIST OF JAP/IN
for her to have become what she is to-day. When
Buddhism was first brought to Japan it was seen
to possess elements of reHgious power that Shinto
did not have, and the people by and by accepted
it. When Confucianism was introduced its moral
teachings were seen to be lofty and inspiring, and
it was given a warm welcome. When Christianity
first came many of the daimios took especial pains
to examine into it to see if it were likely to benefit
their country, with the full intention of accepting
it. How many of them did accept it is told in
another chapter. The present attitude of opposi-
tion is the result of prejudice, instilled in part by
past experience with Christianity, and in part by
the misrepresentation of its enemies ; it is not the
result of natural intolerance. The readiness with
which Western learning of all kinds has been
adopted, and the patient hearing and investiga-
tion native scholars give to all new theories of
science and knowledge, clearly show that their
mind is an open and receptive one. A native
professor has expressed this characteristic in these
words : " The Japanese as a race are open-hearted,
with a mind free from prejudice and open to con-
viction." But that it is as receptive of prejudice
and misrepresentation as of truth and knowledge
is evidenced by its present attitude toward Chris-
tianity.
Many critics have pronounced the Japanese a
JAPANESE CHARACTERISTICS 61
very speculative people, but it is doubtful if this
is true. By nature, I think, they are more indined
to be practical than speculative. Abstract meta-
physical and theological ideas have little charm
for them.
But there is a large element in Japan that simu-
lates a taste for philosophical study. Philosophy
and metaphysics are regarded by them as the pro-
foundest of all branches of learning, and in order
to be thought learned they profess great interest
in these studies. Not only are the highly meta-
physical philosophies of the East studied, but the
various systems of the West are looked into like-
wise. Many of the people are capable of appre-
ciating these philosophies, too ; but they do it for
a purpose.
Japanese character is lacking in steadfastness
and fixedness of purpose. Huge enterprises will
be begun with great enthusiasm, only to be aban-
doned in a short while. There is not that stead-
fastness and fixedness which lays out far-reaching
plans, extending years into the future, and which
adheres to these plans until their purpose is ac-
complished. On the contrary, they are vacillat-
ing and changeful, as is shown by their migratory
disposition. This want of steadfastness is even
evinced by many ministerial candidates. It is a
frequent occurrence for young men to enter the
mission schools with the firm intention of becom-
62
THE GIST OF JAPAN
ing evangelists, and, by the time their academic
course is finished, to change their mind and go
into some other calling. Some of those who have
become evangelists are restless and vacillating,
and after they have been located in one place for
a few years like to be transferred to another.
The " stick-to-it-iveness " of the Anglo-Saxon is
largely wanting. But we must not speak too
dogmatically upon this point, for the Japanese
government has shown itself capable of laying out
far-reaching plans, and of adhering to its original
purpose until it is successfully accomplished.
Inconsistency is another trait of the Japanese
mind, which often turns square about and takes
positions exactly opposed to its avowed principles,
realizing no inconsistency in doing so. This is
well illustrated in the political life of the people.
In theory the emperor, as the divine head of the
nation, cannot go wrong, and whatever he does
is necessarily right. It is the duty of every sub-
ject unquestioningly to obey the will of the em-
peror. To this all Japanese will readily agree,
but in practice the people are often found ar-
raigned against the government, which has the
emperor for its head. Lines of policy which the
emperor himself has mapped out and pursued for
years are often bitterly opposed ; and yet the peo-
ple are all unconscious of this, and resent very much
any insinuation that they are opposing his will.
JAPANESE CHARACTERISTICS 63
Another evidence of inconsistency is seen in
their opposition to Christianity. The usual ob-
jection that is made against our faith is that it is
a Western rehgion, and there are thousands of
people who oppose it solely on this ground. But,
even while opposing the Western religion, they
are daily using all kinds of Western institutions
gladly. All manner of material things are received
from abroad with pleasure, and are considered
none the worse for their foreign origin, the line
being drawn at religion.
Japanese character is largely wanting in origi-
nality. The people have originated almost noth-
ing, having accepted nearly everything at the
hands of others. In ancient times Japan had Korea
for a teacher ; afterward she studied under China ;
now she is at school to Europe and America. Her
medieval civilization was accepted bodily from
Asia, just as her modern is from Europe. No im-
portant inventions have been made. Even the
little jinrikisha, which is the universal means of
locomotion, and which, I believe, is found nowhere
else except in certain Chinese ports, is said to have
been first made by an American missionary for
the comfort and convenience of his invalid wife.
It should be said, however, that some claim the
native origin of the jinrikisha, and contend that
its inventor lived in Kyoto.
But while the Japanese are not originators, they
64
THE GIST OF JAPAN
are excellent imitators. The ability to imitate
well is a power not to be despised. This, when
coupled with assimilation, is a very fruitful source
of progress, as the Japan of to-day witnesses.
The ease and facility with which Japan has imi-
tated the West and assimilated her institutions,
applying them to new and changed conditions, is
marvelous. Given a model, the people can make
anything, no matter how diminutive or compli-
cated. Even the American dude is most success-
fully imitated.
The Japanese do not slavishly follow their
models, but are able to change, modify, and de-
velop them at will. Given the general idea, they
can easily construct the rest. Thus in the adop-
tion of Western institutions they have in some
cases actually improved upon their models. Es-
pecially is this true of the postal and telegraph
systems, which, though copied after our own, are
in many respects superior. They are not blind
followers of their teachers, but often start out on
independent exploration and investigation. Such
powers of imitation are second only to those of in-
vention, and have made Japan what she is to-day.
Another national peculiarity is the slight value
placed upon human life. The idea that the family,
and not the individual, is of supreme importance,
and the Buddhistic teaching that life itself is the
greatest of all evils, are responsible for this. To
JAPANESE CHARACTERISTICS 65
pour out one's blood upon the battle-field for one's
lord has from of old been considered a privilege.
Death has not that terror that it has in the West,
and the people are not afraid to die. Hence sui-
cides are of very frequent occurrence, and to take
one's own life is, under certain circumstances, con-
sidered a meritorious act. Under the old regime
a member of the samurai or warrior classes could
not be executed like a common man, but after con-
demnation was left to take his own life.
About seven thousand suicides occur In Japan
each year. The slightest reasons will induce a
man to take his own life. Statistics show that
the proportion of suicides varies with the success
or failure of the rice crop. If sustenance is cheap,
people live ; if it is dear, they rid themselves of
the burden of life. The number of suicides also
varies much with the season of the year, showing
that such little matters as heat and discomfort
will outweigh the value put upon life.
A young girl recently came to Saga from
Kagoshima as a household servant. She did not
like her new home, and asked her mistress to send
her back to her birthplace. The mistress refused,
and the next morning the poor girl was found
dead in the yard, having hanged herself during
the night — all, forsooth, because she could not
go home. So low is the value placed upon life
here! Human life is valued highly in the West
66
THE GIST OF JAPAN
solely because of Christian teaching; outside of
Christendom it is cheap.
It has been charged upon the Japanese that
they are wanting in gratitude, or, at least, that
their gratitude lasts only so long as they are look-
ing for favors. This is but partially true. Ever
since I came to Japan I have been teaching a few
boys English at odd hours, and they have really
embarrassed me by the number of their presents.
On the other hand, I have helped young men
with money at school, who were at first grateful
apparently, and would come to my home to per-
form various small services in return, but by and
by would object to doing the least service, even
while living on my charity.
In past years Japan has in various capacities
employed a great number of Americans and Eu-
ropeans, and has usually rendered them a very
adequate return for their services. In addition to
the stipulated salary, she has often given them
costly presents. But recently a good deal of com-
plaint has been made by foreign employees to the
effect that, after they have given the best years
of their lives to the service of Japan, they have
been summarily dismissed, without previous notice
and without thanks.
Evidences of ingratitude are very numerous in
the native church. The missionary who has left
home, friends, and country for the sake of these
JAPANESE CHARACTERISTICS 67
people, and who labors for them with all the
powers God has given him, is often not rewarded
by that gratitude and kindness on the part of
his converts which he reasonably expects. Fre-
quently he takes young men from the humbler
walks of life, provides both their food and cloth-
ing, gives them six or eight years' instruction in
well-equipped schools, supports them liberally as
evangelists, only to have them rise up against
him, oppose him in his work, and pronounce him
an ignoramus. In many parts of the native church
there is a strong anti-missionary spirit, and the
feeling of gratitude which these churches should
have for their founders, organizers, and supporters
is wanting. From such facts as these we are
forced to conclude that the feeling of gratitude is
not very strong.
Much has been said in regard to the commercial
honor and integrity of the Japanese. Our first
American minister to Japan, Townsend Harris,
pronounced them " the greatest liars upon the
face of the earth." A foreign employee in a
government school, when asked concerning the
native character, replied in two words — deceit and
conceit. The numerous exceptions to upright
dealing in mercantile circles seem to justify these
judgments. Native merchants are unreliable in
such matters as punctuality, veracity, and the
keeping of contracts. They will do all in their
68
THE GIST OF JAPAN
power to avoid the fulfilment of a contract which
would entail a loss. The artisan class is even more
unreliable in these respects than are the mer-
chants.
To offset this, it should be said that, while the
people are frequently unreliable in private matters,
in public affairs and in all governmental relations
they are honest and fair-dealing. Public office is
seldom perverted for private ends, and the na-
tional conscience would quickly call to account
any official who would enrich himself at the public
expense. In this respect Japan is in striking con-
trast with the other nations of the East, and, alas!
with many of those of the West as well.
I have not endeavored to give an exhaustive
statement of the national characteristics of the
Japanese people, but have simply tried to give
enough to help my readers to an appreciation of
the native character. I have endeavored to be
strictly truthful and at the same time to do justice
to the race. While fully recognizing the failings
of the Japanese, we must also recognize the great
improvement of the national character in recent
years, and must remember that they are in many
respects laboring at a great disadvantage, and de-
serve, not hatred and contempt, but our warmest
sympathy and love.
IV
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
A STUDY of the manners and customs of foreign
peoples is both interesting and profitable. If we
have no knowledge of the customs of other nations
we are apt to think that our own customs have
their ground in eternal reason, and that all cus-
toms differing from ours are necessarily false and
wrong. But if we study the manners of other
lands, and learn of the daily observance of customs
many of which are squarely opposed to our own,
and which nevertheless work well, we will be led
to value our own customs at their true worth, and
to realize that we have not a monopoly of all that
is good, convenient, and useful.
To know the manners and customs of a country
is to know much about that country. There is
no truer index of the character of a people's life.
Knowing these, the prevailing morality and gov-
erning laws may be very largely inferred. In fact,
69
70
THE GIST OF JAPAN
every phase of a nation's life has so intimate a
connection with the manners and customs that a
study of these is exceedingly profitable.
Such a study is especially necessary to those
who would gain a correct knowledge of the nature
and difficulties of mission work in foreign lands.
The customs of a people will have a direct bearing
upon mission work among them. If Christianity
violates national customs it will be condemned ; if
it observes them it will be tolerated. Whether it
observes or violates them must depend upon the
nature of the customs themselves. The success
of Christianity in any country will depend, in part,
upon the nature of the customs prevalent there.
Therefore it is wise for us to study those of Japan,
in order to a better understanding of the people
and of the condition and prospects of mission work
among them.
One of the most striking facts in connection
with Japanese customs is that many of them are
exactly opposed to those which prevail in the
West. People who have been accustomed to
doing certain things one way all their lives, and
have come to iook upon that as the only way, upon
coming out here are shocked to find these very
same things done in precisely the opposite way.
This is so to such an extent that Japan has been
called " Topsyturvydom." But to those who are
acguainted with the customs of both East and
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
71
West it is a serious question which one is topsy-
turvy. After one has become used to them, many
of the customs appear just as sensible and con-
venient as those of America or Europe. Why
this opposition, we do not know, but perhaps the
fact that the Japanese are antipodal to us makes
it fitting that their customs should be antipodal
too. I will point out a few of the things that are
so different.
The manner of making books and of writing
letters is very different from that to which my
readers are accustomed. An Occidental has an
idea that something inherent in things necessitates
that a book begin at the left side, and the thought
of beginning at the other side appears to him
ridiculous. But in reality it is every whit as con-
venient, fitting, and sensible to begin at one side
as at the other; and all Japanese books begin at
the side which people of the West call the end, i.e.,
at the right side, and read toward the left. While
English books are printed across the page in lines
from left to right, Japanese books are printed from
right to left in columns. An Occidental generally
turns the leaves of his book from the top with his
left hand ; an Oriental turns them from the bottom
with his right hand. In Western libraries the
books are placed on their ends in rows ; in Japan
they are laid flat down on their sides and piled up
in columns. If we see several good dictionaries
72
THE GIST OF JAPAN
or encyclopedias in a man's study we are apt to
infer that he is a man of studious habits; the
Japanese of olden times inferred just the oppo-
site. The idea seems to have been that a scholar
would already have the meaning and use of
all words in his head and would not need to
refer to a dictionary. A Japanese friend who
came into my study one day expressed great sur-
prise at seeing several large dictionaries there.
" You have certainly had better educational ad-
vantages than I have," he said, " and yet I can
get along with a very small dictionary ; why can-
not you?" Upon inquiry, I learned that many
Japanese keep their dictionaries concealed, be-
•:ause they do not want it said that they must
I'efer to them often.
The manner of addressing letters in Japan is
exactly opposed to ours. Take a familiar example.
We write :
Mr. Frank Jones,
1 lO Gay Street,
Knoxville,
Tennessee.
A Japanese would write it :
Tennessee,
Knoxville,
Gay Street, no,
Jones, Frank, Mr.
The latter is certainly the more sensible method,
because what the postmaster wants to see is not
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
73
the name of the man to whom the letter is ad-
dressed, but the place to which it is to go.
In matters of dress there are some customs
quite opposed to our own. The American lady,
especially if she goes to a ball, has her neck and
arms bare, but she would be shocked at the very
mention of having her feet bare. The Japanese
lady puts her heaviest clothing on her arms and
shoulders, but does not at all mind being seen with
bare feet and ankles. Many of the ladies do not
wear any foot-gear at all in the house, but these
same women could hardly be induced to expose
their arms and necks as Western women do.
A Western lady is very anxious to have a thin,
narrow waist ; her Japanese sister wants a broad
one. In the West curly hair is highly prized on
girls and women ; in the East it is considered an
abomination. If you tell a little girl here that her
hair is curly, she will consider it a disgrace and
will cry bitterly. The most striking difference in
regard to dress, however, is in mourning dress.
Whereas in the West it is always black, in Japan
it is always white.
Another remarkable contrast is found in the
relation of the sexes. In America the woman is
given the precedence in everything. Her hus-
band, and all other men who come within her in-
fluence, must serve and honor her. Attend' an
evening party and see woman in her glory. How
74
THE GIST OF JAPAN
the men crowd round her, anxious to serve or
entertain ! When supper is announced they vie
with one another for the honor of escorting her
to the dining-room. She must have first seat at
table and be first served, and during the progress
of the meal the men must be careful to see that
she has everything her sweet will desires. When
supper is over the ladies precede the men to the
drawing-room, and by the time the men again ap-
pear on the scene the ladies, including the hostess,
are settled in the easiest chairs. When the time
for departure has come it is my lady who an-
nounces to the hostess — not the host — her de-
parture, and her husband or escort simply awaits
her bidding. In Japan all of this is changed.
The man takes precedence everywhere, and the
woman must serve him. At meals the woman
must first wait on her husband and then she her-
self may eat. When guests come, the husband
is the chief entertainer, and the wife takes a back
seat and says little. On passing through a door,
entering a train or carriage, etc., the husband al-
ways precedes his wife. When walking on the
street together she does not walk by his side,
but comes along behind. The men do not intend
to mistreat the women ; they simply take what
they regard their due as the head of the family.
Among the customs most pecuHar in the eyes
of Westerners and most squarely opposed to their
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
75
own are those relating to marriage. In Japan the
young man and woman have nothing whatever to
do with the match-making, except to give their
consent to the arrangements of their parents ; and
frequently even this is not asked. The wedding
is arranged in some such manner as this : When-
ever the parents of a young man think their son
old enough to get married they secure the services
of some friend, who acts as " go-between." It is
the duty of this party to search out a suitable girl
and win the consent of her parents to the mar-
riage. While this is going on it is not likely that
either of the young people is aware of it, but as
soon as the parents have arranged matters to their
own satisfaction they are informed. It often hap-
pens that the man has never seen his bride until
the wedding-day. Young people seldom object
to the arrangements of their parents, and mar-
riages made in this way seem to work well.
In the West the wedding often takes place in
church ; in Japan the temples are studiously
avoided at such times. There a minister is nearly
always present ; here they are very careful to ex-
clude priests. The wedding is to be joyous, and
as priests are known best as ofiiciators at funerals,
and ideas of sadness and misfortune are associated
with them, they are excluded.
In the West, if the wedding does not take place
in church, it will probably be held in the home of
76
THE GIST OF JAPAN
the bride ; in the East it is always held in the
home of the groom. There the bride's household
prepares the feast; here the groom's prepares it.
There the groom must go to fetch his bride ; here
she must come to him. It makes no difference
whether she lives in the same city or in a distant
province ; she must go to the groom, not he to her.
The poor mother-in-law is evil spoken of in the
East as well as in the West ; but while there it is
the mother of the bride who is said to make life
miserable for the groom, here it is the mother of
the groom who often makes life miserable for the
bride.
Customs in regard to the use of houses are
quite different. In America the front rooms of
a house are considered most desirable ; in Japan
the back rooms are preferred. There the parlors,
sitting-rooms, etc., are in front, and the kitchen
and store-rooms are relegated to the back; here
the kitchen and store-rooms are in front, and the
parlors and sitting-rooms behind. There the front
yards are kept clean, but the back yards are pro-
verbially dirty ; here all sorts of dirt and trash may
be lying around in the front yard, while the back
yard is a perfect little garden of beauty.
Signs made with the hands are very different
in Japan from those to which my readers are ac-
customed, and are much more graceful. Here,
when we call some one to us by the hand, in-
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
77
Stead of the awkward, ungainly motion of the
index-finger used in the West, we simply hold
out the whole hand horizontally in front of us
and gently move all the fingers up and down.
The latter motion is very graceful, while even
a pretty girl cannot execute the former one
gracefully. Here, when we refuse a request or
repel one from us by a sign of the hand, instead
of turning the palm of the hand outward and
pushing it from the body in a rough, uncivil man-
ner, we merely hold the hand perpendicularly be-
fore the face, palm outward, and move it back and
forth a few times.
Japanese carpenters saw by pulling the saw to-
ward them instead of pushing it from them; the
planes cut in the same way ; and screws are put
in by turning them to the left instead of the right.
Even in the nursery we find customs directly
antipodal. While the American nurse takes the
child up in her arms, the Japanese nurse takes it
on her back.
These are some of the customs most squarely
opposed to our own. The first thought of my
readers when learning of them will probably be,
how ridiculous and inconvenient ! And yet they
are just as convenient and sensible as their own,
and some of them much more so. There is noth-
ing in the nature of things why most customs
should be either this way or that.
78
THE GIST OF JAPAN
The most interesting things about foreign
peoples are those connected with their daily lives
— their homes, food, and dress. Let us examine
a Japanese house, take a meal with its occupants,
and then observe their manner of dress.
The houses are usually very light structures,
built of wood, one or two stories high. They re-
semble an American house but little. The roofs
are made of tiles, straw, or shingles. Tiles make
a pretty and durable roof, but they cost much
more than straw, and hence the common people
generally use the latter. The skilful Japanese
workman can make a very pretty, lasting, and
effective roof of straw. The houses of the rich
are large and have many nice rooms in them ;
those of the poor are small, with only one or
two rooms. Houses are so constructed as to
permit the air to pass through them freely. The
rooms are separated only by light, detachable
partitions made of paper, and these are frequently
taken away and the whole house thrown into one
room. Many of the outer walls are also detach-
able, and on a warm summer day are put aside,
when a delightful breezeconstantly passes through
the house. The floors are covered with thick,
soft straw mats, which are kept so clean that the
people, even when dressed in their best clothes,
sit or loll on them. On entering a Japanese house
you must leave your shoes at the door, just as you
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
79
do your hat. It would be an unpardonable offense
to come inside and tread on the mats with your
shoes on.
The average Japanese eats, sleeps, and lives in
the same room. He has no chairs, no bedsteads,
and no tables to get in his way. During the day
he sits on the soft straw mats; when evening
comes two large comfortables are brought, and
one is spread on the floor to lie on, while the
other is used for covering. No sheets are used,
and the pillow is a funny little block of wood.
On this simple bed the man sleeps as soundly as
we in our more elaborate ones. In the morning
the bed is rolled up and packed away. At meal-
time little tables, four or six inches high and
about sixteen inches square, are brought, and one
is placed before each person. The food is served
in pretty little lacquer or china bowls, and each
one's portion is placed on his own table. The
people eat with chopsticks about eight inches long
and one fourth of an inch in diameter. These
answer their purpose well, but are hard to use
until one is accustomed to them. When the
meal is over all these things are carried away to
the kitchen, and the room is ready for any other
use to which one may desire to put it. In this
way one room is made to serve for all the pur-
poses of a household.
The most conspicuous thing in a Japanese room
80
THE GIST OF JAPAN
is the hibachi — a little wooden or china box about
one foot square. This is kept half full of ashes,
and on top of the ashes is a handful of burning
charcoal. On this usually sits a little tea-kettle,
filled with boiling water used in making the tea,
which is drunk without milk or sugar at every
hour of the day. When one first enters a Japanese
house, politeness requires that the host or hostess
immediately offer the guest a small cup of this
tea. There is no other provision than this hibachi
for heating a room ; and, as one would imagine,
it gives out but little heat. Japanese houses are
very cold in winter. They would not at all an-
swer in a cold climate, and even here the people
suffer from the cold.
Japanese food is unpalatable to most foreigners,
and the eating of it is an art which must be ac-
quired gradually. After repeated experiments
we learn to like it, and can live on it fairly well;
but most foreign residents usually take more or
less European food with them every time they
go into the interior.
From of old Buddhism forbade the eating of
anything that had animal life, and hence it came
about that the Japanese are probably as vegetarian
in their diet as any people on earth. Even such
animal food as butter and milk is not used. But-
ter is very unpalatable to them, but many are be-
ginning to use a little milk. Bread, so necessary
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
81
to a Western table, forms no part of a Japanese
bill of fare. The staple here is rice, not boiled
and mashed to pieces, with milk and butter, but
simply boiled in water sufficiently to cook it well
without breaking the grains. When it is cooked
each grain remains intact, and it is snowy white
and perfectly dry. No salt or seasoning of any
kind is put into it, as it is thought to spoil the
flavor.
The rivers, lakes, and seas of Japan are teeming
with splendid fish, which form an important part
of the native diet. It seems that Buddhism, while
forbidding the use of meats generally, permitted
the eating of fish. Certain kinds of fish, cut into
thin slices and eaten raw with a kind of sauce, are
considered a great delicacy. The idea of eating
raw fish seems very repugnant, but many of my
readers would eat it without realizing what it is
unless they were told. I often eat it. But only a
few of the fish consumed are eaten raw ; most are
boiled or fried.
Foreign vegetables are rare, and are not much
liked by the natives. But there is an abundance
of native vegetables. The most common one is a
large, coarse radish called daikoti, which is pickled,
and eaten at nearly every meal. This daikon is
very cheap, and is a chief part of the diet of that
small portion of the population that cannot afford
rice. Sweet potatoes are abundant and cheap.
82
THE GIST OF JAPAN
They are considered the poor man's food, and the
well-to-do people are ashamed to eat them.
Often at hotels, when I have asked for sweet
potatoes, the servant has replied in astonishment,
" Why, do you eat sweet potatoes ? They are
for coolies." A mountain-potato and the roots
of the lotus and bamboo are also eaten. Since
the country has been opened to foreign trade and
foreigners have settled here it is possible to get
meats and flour and some foreign vegetables at
most places.
Japanese clothing is frequently conspicuous by
its absence. Many of the people do not realize
the necessity of burdening themselves with cloth-
ing on a hot summer day, and wear very little.
The government has been constrained to make
laws against nudity, but these are enforced only
in the cities. The usual summer garment of
many of the children in my city is simply the
dark-brown one given them by nature. Most of
the coolies wear nothing but a little loin-cloth
when at work.
The real native costume is both pretty and
becoming. It consists usually of a single robe
reaching from the shoulders to the ankles, and
tied round the waist with a heavy girdle. Tight-
fitting undergarments, in foreign style, are some-
times worn now, but they form no part of the
original native costume. A black outer garment,
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
83
reaching only to the knees, is placed over the
ordinary robe on state occasions. Formerly the
Japanese did not wear hats, and even now half of
the men one meets on the street are bareheaded.
The women wear neither hats nor bonnets.
It is not considered improper to go barefooted
in Japan, but generally the better classes are shod
when they go out of doors. If anything resem-
bling a stocking is worn, it is what they call tabi,
a sort of foot-glove, made of either white or black
cloth, with a separate inclosure for the great toe.
A block of wood called geta corresponds to our
shoes. It has two cords attached to the same
place in front, and then dividing, one being fas-
tened on each side at the back. These cords slip
in between the great toe and the others, and,
passing over the foot, secure the geta.
Japanese bathing customs are peculiar. Per-
haps there are no other people on earth that
bathe as often as they. It is customary for every
one, even the coolies, to bathe well the whole body
every day. The baths are taken very hot — about
I io° F. Each private house has a large bath-
tub, which in many instances is capacious enough
to accommodate the whole family at once. Be-
sides these private baths each city and town has
its public ones, where a good hot bath, in a place
large enough for you to swim round, can be had
for one cent. Men, women, and children go into
84
THE GIST OF JAPAN
them at the same time, indiscriminately. Japan
is a land of hot springs, so that almost every dis-
trict has its natural hot baths. Most of them have
medicinal value, and the people flock to them by
thousands.
The funeral customs are very different from
ours. It is a strange feature of the native char-
acter that when one is deeply moved he is very
likely to cover up his emotion with a laugh. If
a man announces to you the death of his child,
he will probably laugh as he does so. At funerals
there is not that solemn silence which we expect,
but frequently loud talking and laughter. The
coffin is a square, upright box with considerable
ornamentation. The corpse is placed in it in a sit-
ting posture. In Japan are found the hired mourn-
ers of whom we read in the Bible. Anciently
they were employed to follow the corpse, mourn-
ing in a loud voice ; but that has become obsolete,
and now they simply follow in the procession,
wearing the white garments. The usual manner
of disposing of dead bodies is by interment, but
cremation is rapidly growing in favor. The gov-
ernment will not permit a body to be buried until
it has been dead twenty-four hours.
For several weeks after a body has been interred
it is customary for the members of the bereaved
family to make daily visits to the tomb and pre-
sent offerings to the departed spirit in the temple.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
86
Each year, on the anniversary of the death, the
children are expected to visit the tomb and wor-
ship the spirit of the departed. This custom of
ancestor- worship is forbidden by Christianity,
and hence the people charge us with teaching
disrespect to parents and ancestors.
A custom peculiar to Japan is a form of suicide
known as hara-kiri, or "belly-cutting." From
time immemorial, to take one's own life in this
manner has been considered very honorable and
has expiated all crimes and offenses. In olden
times, if the life of any one of noble blood became
hurtful to the state, he was simply sent a certain
kind of short sword. This meant that he was to
take his own life by the favorite national method.
So the recipient quietly ate his last meal, bade his
family farewell, and, seating himself squarely on
the mat, deliberately thrust the sword into the
left side of his abdomen, and drew it across to the
right side. As this cut does not kill immediately,
a retainer, from behind, placed there for that pur-
pose, struck off his master's head with one blow of
a heavy sword. In the eyes of the law this death
atoned for all sins and offenses ; hence it was often
practised in old Japan. It is almost obsolete now.
The Japanese are an exceedingly polite people.
They have been called the Frenchmen of the
Orient in recognition of this national characteris-
tic. Politeness is exalted above everything, above
86
THE GIST OF JAP/IN
even truth and honor. If you ask an ordinary
Japanese which is better, to tell a falsehood or be
impolite, he will at once reply, "To tell a false-
hood." But while the people are exceedingly
polite, a large part of this poHteness is merely
surface, without any meaning. Etiquette re-
quires that you always address and treat your
equals as though they were your superiors. There
is a separate form of address for each step in the
social scale. I have seen Japanese men stand at
a door for five minutes, and blush, and beg each
other to pass through first, each hesitating to pre-
cede the other. A Japanese gentleman never
stops to converse with a friend, be he only a child,
without taking off his hat.
To look down upon one from a superior eleva-
tion is considered very impolite. Thus if the em-
peror or any one of especial distinction passes
through a city, all the upper stories of the houses
must be vacated. Under no circumstances are
any permitted to observe the procession from an
upper window. I was out walking one day in
our good city of Saga with a foreign friend who
was leading his little boy by the hand. It hap-
pened that a countess was passing through the
city. The policemen had cleared the street for
the procession, and a large crowd was standing
at the corner. We joined this crowd. The little
boy could not see, so his father held him up that
M/tNNERS AND CUSTOMS
87
he might look over the people's heads. At once
the police forbade it and made him put the child
down.
In many instances forms of politeness are car-
ried to a ridiculous extreme. When you give a
present, no matter how nice, you must apologize
by saying that it is so cheap and hisig?iifica7it that
you are ashamed to lift it tip to the hcmorable
person, but if he will condescend to accept it he
will make you very happy. If you receive a pres-
ent you must elevate it toward the top of the head
(as that is considered the most honorable part of
the body) and at the same time say that it is the
most beautiful thing on earth. When you are in-
vited to a dinner the invitation will carefully state
that no special preparation will be made for the
occasion. At the beginning of the meal the
hostess will apologize for presuming to set before
you such mean, dirty food, and will declare that
she has nothing whatever for you to eat, although
she will doubtless have a feast fit for a king.
Even if it should not be good, you must say that
it is and praise it extravagantly.
The greetings between friends are sometimes
right funny. I have often overheard such con-
versations as the following. Two men meet in
the street, and, taking off their hats, bow very
low, and begin as follows :
A. " I have not had the pleasure of hang-
88
THE GIST OF JAPAN
ing myself in your honorable eyes for a long
time."
B. " I was exceedingly rude the last time I
saw you."
A. " No ; it was surely I who was rude.
Please excuse me."
B. " How is your august health ? "
A. " Very good, thanks to your kind assis-
tance."
B. " Is the august lady, your honorable wife,
well?"
A. "Yes, thank you; the lazy old woman is
quite well."
B. " And how are your princely children? "
A. " A thousand thanks for your kind interest.
The noisy, dirty little brats are well too."
B. " I am now living on a little back street,
and my house is awfully small and dirty ; but if
you can endure it, please honor me by a visit."
A. " I am overcome with thanks, and will early
ascend to your honorable residence, and impose
my uninteresting self upon your hospitality."
B. " I will now be very impoHte and leave
you."
A. " If that is so, excuse me. Sayonara."
;
V
JAPANESE CIVILIZATION
The question is often asked, Are the Japanese
a civilized people? The answer will entirely
depend upon our definition of civilization. If
civilization consists in a highly organized com-
mercial and industrial life, in the construction and
use of huge, towering piles of manufactories and
commercial houses, such as are seen in New York
and Chicago, in amassing enormous capital, con-
trolling the trade of the country by monopolies,
and doing the work of the world by machinery
that moves with the precision of clockwork, then
Japan is not yet civilized. But if civilization
consists in a courteous, refined manner, in a calm
enjoyment of literature and the arts, in an ability
to live easily and comfortably with a due regard
to all the amenities of life, then the Japanese are
a civilized people.
A very brilliant writer on Japanese subjects *
* Lafcadio Hearn.
89
90
THE GIST OF JAPAN
has said that the Japanese have been a civilized
people for at least a thousand years. Chinese
civilization was brought to Japan early in the
Christian era, and flourished for more than fifteen
hundred years. While it differs much from Eu-
ropean civilization, it is a highly organized and
developed system, venerable with age. When
people of the West speak of civilized countries
they are apt to think of Europe and America, to
the exclusion of all the rest of the world. This
is unfair. Chinese civilization is much older than
our own. Long before the dark ages of Europe
the Chinese were living under a regular system
of laws and were engaged in all peaceful pursuits.
Systematic methods of agriculture, the art of
printing, gunpowder, and the mariners' compass
were all known and us&d. While our own fore-
fathers in northern Europe roamed the forests as
wild men and dressed in skins, the Chinese were
living quietly in cities and towns, dressed in silks.
This venerable Chinese civilization was readily
adopted in Japan, and prevailed down to the time
of the Restoration, in 1868. Since that time the
adoption and assimilation of Western civilization
have been progressing with a rapidity and success
which have no precedent in the history of the
world. The old immobile, crystallized Chinese
civilization has been thrown off, and the vigorous,
elastic forms of the West have been successfully
JAPANESE CIVILIZATION
91
adopted. Japanese civilization of to-day is Euro-
pean, only with a national coloring.
On the advice of an American missionary,*
who was then president of the Imperial Univer-
sity, and who arranged the program for the expe-
dition, in 1872 a committee of seventy intelligent
Japanese gentlemen, many of them from the noble
families, was sent to the West to visit the capitals
of the several countries, examine into their forms
of government and civilization, and, of all that
they found, to choose and bring back with them
what was best adapted to Japan. This commit-
tee, after visiting Washington, London, Berlin,
and other places, and carefully examining into
their different institutions, returned and reported
to the government. From this time began the
rapid adoption of Western civilization, which is
still in progress.
Foreign employees have played an important
part in this peaceful revolution. At first nearly
everything that was adopted was under foreign
superintendence ; but the Japanese are such apt
learners that they are now capable of managing
this new civilization for themselves, and the for-
eign employees have been mostly dispensed with.
With this brief history of Japanese progress
before us, let us now examine into the present
condition of Japanese civilization.
* Dr. Verbeck.
92
THE CIST OF JAPAN
One of the best indicators of the civilization of
a country is its literature. No writers of world-
wide fame have arisen in Japan, yet the country
has a literature of which she is not ashamed. In
ancient times the Chinese classics were alone
studied, and all literature was molded by Con-
fucian ideas; to-day these models have been cast
aside, and a school of young, independent writers
has arisen, by whom history, political and moral
science, botany, sociology, belles-lettres, and nu-
merous other subjects are discussed with vigor
and originality.
In the number of newspapers and magazines
published Japan can compare favorably with any
country of equal size. The great dailies have
not yet grown to such importance as those of
America or England, but they already wield a
mighty influence. Nearly every small town has
its morning and its evening sheet. Even in our
backward old town of Saga we have two very
good dailies. There are a large number of able
magazines published. Nearly every branch of
learning has a magazine devoted exclusively to
its interests, as is frequently the case in the West.
The very existence of this innumerable multitude
of newspapers and magazines shows that the
Japanese are great readers.
The educational system in vogue is a good
index of a nation's civilization. Perhaps no na-
JAPANESE CIVILIZATION
93
tion of the West has a better organized and
developed free-school system than has Japan.
Schools are found in every village and hamlet,
and as all children of a prescribed age are re-
quired to attend, they are full to overflowing.
The little round-faced, sleek-headed Japanese
children swarm round them like bees. There are
four grades of schools : the primary lower, the
advanced lower, the lower middle, and the higher
middle. The lower schools are found everywhere ;
the higher ones only in the large towns and cities.
Of the higher middle schools (which correspond
to our American colleges of middle grade) there
are seven, distributed at various points over the
empire. At the head of this whole system stands
the Imperial University in Tokyo, which is itself
the outgrowth of several colleges, and is largely
modeled after the German universities. The lower
schools are modeled after our American schools.
Unfortunately, so large a part of the time of
the school-children must be spent in studying
Chinese characters that it takes about eight years
to learn to read. What a pity that the awkward,
antiquated system of Chinese writing is not aban-
doned! It seems that the native katia, of which
there are about forty-eight, with a few of the
more common Chinese characters, would answer
all purposes ; then the long years spent in study-
ing Chinese could be devoted to other things, to
THE GIST OF JAPAN
the immense advantage of the student. In the
lower schools very Httle is studied except Chinese.
In the middle schools the branches studied are
just about what American youths study in the
academies. Formerly considerable stress was laid
upon the study of modern languages, and all
students of the middle schools were required to
study English and either French or German.
But in recent years only English has been re-
quired, and it, even, is not studied so carefully as
it was. Since the revision of the treaties the
study of foreign languages seems to be on the
increase.
The Imperial University compares very favor-
ably with Western universities of the middle class.
It has six faculties, namely, law, medicine, litera-
ture, science, engineering, and agriculture. The
medical department is under German influence;
the others have professors of various nationalities,
mostly English, German, and Japanese. The
students number over looo. The government
has recently undertaken the establishment of an-
other university in Kyoto. It also supports two
higher normal schools, a higher commercial
school, naval and military academies, fine-arts
school, technical school, the nobles' school, the
musical academy, and the blind and dumb school.
Professor Chamberlain, of the Imperial Univer-
sity, says the leading idea of the Japanese govern-
JAPANESE CIVILIZATION
95
ment in all its educational improvements is the
desire to assimilate the national ways of thinking
to those of European countries. In view of the
difference between the East and the West, this is an
enormous task ; and great credit is due that brave
body of educators who, fighting against fearful
odds, are gradually accomplishing their purpose.
The Japanese are a nation of artists. Life in
one of the most beautiful countries in the world
has, to a rare degree, developed in them the love
of the beautiful ; and this has expressed itself in
the various phases of national art. In general,
Japanese art is pretty, but small, isolated, and
lacking in breadth of view. Its chief use in
former times was largely decorative, to paint a
screen or a piece of porcelain, and the artists did
this to perfection. As a nation the Japanese are
very skilful with the pencil. Long writing of
Chinese characters has given them a control of
the pencil or crayon not commonly found among
the people of the West. Drawing is taught in
the schools, and every school-boy can draw pretty
pictures. But in art, as in other things, the
Japanese are frequently inconsistent, and show
a haughty disregard of details. They excel in
portraying nature.
The government of Japan is progressive and
enlightened. In reality it is an absolute mon-
archy, ruled by the " heaven-descended mikado."
96
THE GIST OF JAPAN
The empire belongs to him by divine right, and
none has ever disputed this. Unquestioning,
implicit obedience is the duty of all subjects.
But the present emperor, who is a liberal-minded
monarch, has graciously given his people a voice
in the government. In 1889 the constitution
was promulgated, which laid the foundation for
a new order of things. It established the Diet,
consisting of two houses, and gave many rights
to the people, including local self-government,
within certain limits. The franchise is so limited
in Japan that a man must annually pay a stipu-
lated amount of tax before he can either vote or
run for office.
Japanese laws have for years been gradually
approaching Western standards. The transition
has been difficult and necessarily slow, but praise-
worthy progress has been made. A code some-
what resembling the Code Napoleon is now the
law of the land, and is being applied in the courts
as fast as circumstances will permit. People com-
ing from Europe or America will find that, in
the main, the laws are not very different from
those they have been accustomed to.
Nearly all the material expressions of an ad-
vanced civilization found at home are likewise
met with in Japan — good railways, steamboats,
telegraphs, mails, electric lights, etc. It is often
a surprise to the traveler from the West who has
JAP/iNESE CIVILIZATION
97
read little about the country, and who expects
only the rudest form of civilization, to find instead
nearly all the conveniences to which he has been
accustomed.
Railways. — Japanese railways are narrow
gauge, and while in recent years the question of
changing them to standard gauge has been agi-
tated, nothing definite has been done. The nar-
row-gauge system seems fairly adequate to the
present demand. The railways are modeled after
those of England, and are miniature as compared
with those thundering monsters that make the
American valleys tremble with their tread. The
coaches are much smaller than the American and
are differently arranged, opening on the side in-
stead of the end, passage from one coach to an-
other being precluded. There is no conductor
to come around and disturb one with the continual
cry of "Tickets!" The punch, ptinch, pimch, so
annoying to sensitive people, is not heard. As
the passenger leaves the station to enter the train
his ticket is examined, and this ends the matter
until he reaches his destination, when he must
pass out through the station, where his ticket is
taken by a polite ofificlal. One of the things that
have most impressed me about the railroad ser-
vice is the kindness and politeness of the officials,
in striking contrast with the gruffness and incivil-
ity one often encounters in America.
98
THE GIST OF JAPAN
The average Japanese train has three classes
of coaches. The first class corresponds to the
ordinary first-class day-coach at home; second
class corresponds to our smoking-cars ; while
third class is poorer still. The fares are just
about one half what they are in America, and one
can travel in first-class style for a cent and a half
per mile. Third-class fare is only a Httle over
half a cent, and most of the people travel in this
class. The trains do not have the conveniences
to which my readers are accustomed. There are
no sleeping- and dining-cars, no provision for
heating in winter, and no water. The average
running speed is about 20 miles per hour — a rate
which would not at all suffice for the high-ten-
sioned, nervous, always-in-a-hurry civilization of
the West, but which meets all the demands of
the slower, quieter life of the East. Running at
this rate, accidents are comparatively rare, and
the trains easily make their scheduled time.
There is one main trunk-line running through-
out the length of the land, besides numerous
shorter lines. All of the more prominent towns
and cities are connected by rail. At present a
railroad-construction craze has seized Japan.
Many are being constructed, others are being sur-
veyed, and the papers daily contain accounts of
new ones projected. So far, Japanese railway
stocks have yielded good dividends. That the
JAPANESE CiyiLIZATION
99
more important lines are owned and operated by
the government is not the result of any political
or economic theory, but simply because at first
private individuals had neither the means nor the
energy to inaugurate such huge and hitherto un-
tried enterprises. Many of the smaller roads are
now owned and controlled by private corporations,
and most of those in process of construction are
private enterprises. Some months ago a private
corporation made a proposition to the government
to buy its main railway, but the offer was rejected.
Steamers. — Steamboat service in Japan is
good. As the country is only a range of islands, the
largest of which are very narrow, and as all the
more important towns are on the sea-coast or only
a short distance inland, it is possible to go nearly
everywhere by boat. Travel by water is very
popular. There are fairly good steamers plying
daily between the most important ports, but for-
eigners generally prefer to travel only on those
officered by Europeans or Americans. There
are a number of native steamers, comfortable and
speedy, which are officered by foreigners, and
differ but little from the transpacific liners. These
were nearly all built in England, but in recent
years they are building very good ones in Japan.
The facilities for travel in this empire leave little
to be desired.
Telegraphs. — The Japanese telegraph sys-
100
THE GIST OF JAPAN
tern is excellent. It extends to all towns of any
size in the empire, and by cable to all parts of
the world. From the old city of Saga, in which
I live, I can send a cablegram to any point in
Europe or America. A telegraph code on the
basis of the Morse code has been made in Japan,
which admits of internal telegrams being trans-
mitted in the native syllabary. In this respect
the Japanese system is unique among Eastern
countries. For instance, in India or China tele-
grams can be transmitted only in Roman letters
or Arabic figures. By the formation of a vernac-
ular code the telegraph was brought within the
reach of the masses of the people, and it soon
became familiar and popular.
The tariff for messages is perhaps lower than
any other in the world. A message of ten kana,
equaling about five English words, together with
name and address of sender and receiver, can be
sent to any part of the empire for eight or nine
cents. Telegrams in foreign languages are sent
within the empire for five sen per word, with a
minimum chargq of twenty-five sen for five words
or a fraction thereof. No charge is made for
delivery within a radius of 2\ miles of the tele-
graph office.
There are no private telegraph corporations.
The government builds, owns, and operates the
lines just as it does the mails. The postal and
JAPANESE CIVILIZATION 101
telegraph systems are intimately connected, and
the same office does service for both.
The first telegraph line in Japan was opened
in i86g. The venture proving a success, the
following year the line was extended and a gen-
eral telegraphic system for the whole country de-
cided upon. The rapid construction of telegraph
lines began in 1872, from which year it has gone
forward uninterruptedly. At present the lines
extend to every corner of the empire. The first
lines were surveyed, built, and operated under
foreign experts ; but the natives have learned so
rapidly that they have been enabled to do away
with all foreign employees. All of the materials
and instruments in use, with the exception of
submarine cables and the most delicate electrical
measuring apparatus, are made in Japan.
Mails. — The Japanese mail system was mod-
eled after the American in 187 1. At first it was
limited to postal service between the three large
cities of Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka; but in 1872
it was extended to the whole country, with the
exception of a certain part of the Hokkaido, which
was without roads and almost without population.
To-day there is no village or hamlet in the whole
land which does not enjoy the convenience of a
good postal system. The mails are sent with
promptness and despatch, and it requires only a
few days to communicate with any part of the
102
THE GIST OF JAPy4N
empire. The postal rates are very low. Postal
cards cost one sen and letters two sen — about
five eighths and one and two eighths of a cent,
respectively.
All mail is delivered free of charge. Not only
is this so in the cities and larger towns, but in the '
villages and rural districts as well. There is no
place where the dapper little postman does not
go. Another convenience of the mail system is
its excellent parcel-post department. Very large
parcels, containing almost anything, can be sent
for a small charge. Still another praiseworthy
feature is that each office is a savings-bank, where
the people can deposit small sums of money at
any time and receive a good rate of interest.
This money can be withdrawn without previous
notice. The government has estabHshed these
savings-banks in connection with the post-offices
to encourage the people to lay up small sums of
money, and they accomplish their purpose well.
Japan was admitted into the International
Postal Union in 1879, with full management of
all her postal affairs. As all her rates are now
based on a silver standard, postage to foreign
countries is much cheaper than from them to
Japan. To the United States or to China we
pay five sen (about two and a half cents) per
letter; to all other countries within the Postal
Union ten sen per letter.
JAPANESE CIVILIZATION 103
Lights. — The system of lighting is an index
of the civiHzation of a country. In this respect
Japan is not yet so far advanced as the leading
countries of the West, yet she is well lighted. In
all the large cities there are good electric plants,
and electricity is extensively used. The streets
and many of the best stores and shops are very
well lighted with it. However, electric lights are
seldom found in interior cities of less than 40,000
people. I think electricity is too costly to come
into general use, except in the centers. Illumi-
nating gas is very little used.
The only oil used in former times was extracted
from whales and large fish, and chiefly from the
seed of a certain tree. Since the opening of the
country, kerosene has come into general use,
immense quantities being imported from the
United States and from Russia. Oil has been
found in several places in Japan, but as yet has
never been developed.
Banking. — One of the most useful products
of the introduction of our modern civilization
is the present system of banking. This sys-
tem will compare favorably with those of the
West. There are a number of national banks
distributed over all the land, together with many
substantial private banking corporations. All
forms of banking business are transacted, and
good interest is given on deposits. The great
104
THE CIST OF JAPAN
popularity of the banks is shown by the fact that
to-day in Tokyo, only eight years after bank-
checks have come into use, the amount annually
drawn exceeds $100,000,000.
Having taken this rapid view of Japanese civili-
zation, we are in a position to judge as to whether
or not this is a civilized land ; and we answer that
it is. But although modeled after that of the
West, it in many respects differs from Western
civilization. Japan has shown herself capable of
doing great things, but she does not do them in
the same way that they are done in Europe or
America. For example, consider her manufac-
tories, which now threaten to compete with those
of our own country. In America manufactories
mean enormous capital invested. Costly factories
must be erected, the most approved machinery
provided, and the completed plant operated at
great expense. Here almost no capital is used.
The buildings are low, one-story sheds, not more
costly than a row of stables at home. It is true
that Japan has a few large, substantial buildings
for manufacturing purposes ; but such are rare,
and, when found, look out of harmony with their
surroundings. Even nature seems to protest
against huge piles of brick and stone, as she so
frequently demolishes them. Most of the wares
of Japan are manufactured in small, cheap build-
ings, and little machinery is used. The best silk
JAPANESE CIVILIZATION 105
made is woven in a house that cost scarcely
$500. The best cloisonne, of which only a small
piece a few inches high will cost hundreds of
dollars, is made in a little, two-story house
with only six rooms. Some of the greatest
porcelain-makers in the world, whose products
are better known in London and Paris than in
their own country, do their work in small wooden
houses in Kyoto, no better than the homes of
the American laborer. " The vast rice crop is
raised on millions of tiny farms ; the silk crop in
millions of small, poor homes; the tea crop on
countless little patches of soil. Japan has be-
come industrial without becoming essentially
mechanical and artificial." * On this small scale
the great work of Japan is done. Japanese civili-
zation, in its parts, is miniature.
When compared with the civilization of the
West, it is unstable ; in fact stability is almost
unknown. The land itself is a land of change.
The outlines of the coasts, the courses of the
rivers, the form of the mountains, by the com-
bined action of volcanoes, earthquakes, winds,
and waves, are constantly changing.
The people themselves are continually drifting
about from place to place, changing their resi-
dence with the seasons. It has been said that
no people in the world are so migratory. Prepa-
* Lafcadio Hearn.
106
THE GIST OF JAPAN
ration can be made in a few hours for the longest
journey, and all the necessary baggage wrapped
up in a handkerchief. Japanese life is in a con-
stant state of fluidity.
The average house, likewise, seems built but
for a day. The walls, the roof, the floors, are
made of the lightest materials, and apparently
there is no thought of permanence.
We of the West are wont to think that no real
progress can be made without stability, but Japan
has proved the contrary. A uniformly mobile
race is, correspondingly, uniformly impression-
able. The fluid mass of the Japanese people
submits itself to the hands of its rulers as readily
as the clay to the hands of the potter, and thus
it moves with system and order toward great ends.
It is thus that Japanese civilization is strong.
When compared with Western civilization, that
of Japan is seen to be less organized and de-
veloped, less hasty and feverish in its movements.
It does not impress one so much with its huge-
ness and ponderosity. It is lighter, brighter,
quieter, more soothing. It is the civilization of
the West robbed of its immensity and seriousness,
and reflecting the national characteristics of these
light-hearted sons of the East.
VI
JAPANESE MORALITY
Japanese morality has been much written
about by men of the West, and many dogmatic
judgments have been pronounced upon it. At
one extreme, we have been told that " they are
the most immoral people on the face of the
earth " ; at the other, we are told that in mo-
rality " they have nothing to learn from the people
of Christendom." There is about as much — or
rather as little — truth in the one statement as in
the other. The fact is that it is necessary to have
an experimental acquaintance with Japan before
one can really understand or appreciate the moral
condition of her people. The moral ideas and
teachings to which they have been accustomed
from childhood are so different from our own
that they could not be expected to approximate
to our standards. Judged by the ideas of the
West, they are lacking in morality ; but from
107
108
THE GIST OF JAPAN
their own standpoint they are a moral people.
While we cannot accept theirs as the true stan-
dard, it is but fair that, in judging them, we keep
this in view.
Before the introduction of Chinese ethics there
was no such thing as a moral code. The origi-
nal native religion, Shinto, taught no doctrines of
morality, as we understand them. According to
it, to obey implicitly the mikado was the whole
duty of man. As for the rest, if a Japanese
obeyed the natural impulses of his own heart he
would be sure to do right. Modern Shinto
writers, in all seriousness, account for this absence
of a moral code by stating that originally Japanese
nature was pure, clean, and sinless, possessing no
tendency to evil or wrong. Barbarians, like the
Chinese and Americans, being by nature immoral,
were forced to invent a moral code to control
their actions ; but in Japan this was not necessary,
as every Japanese acted aright if he only con-
sulted his own heart. They explain the need for
the present moral laws — a need which they ac-
knowledge— by the fact of association with out-
side nations. Immorality and dissoluteness were
introduced by the Chinese and Western peoples,
to counteract the evil influence of which they now
have the shameful spectacle of a moral law even
among the children of the " heaven-descended
mikado." So much for the teaching of Shinto in
JAPAUESE MORALITY
109
regard to morality. It would be exasperating
were it not ludicrous.
Confucius is the master of Japanese morality.
His teachings were introduced into Japan early
in the Christian era, but they became predomi-
nant only in the time of lyeyasu, in the seven-
teenth century. This great statesman, warrior,
and patron of learning caused the Chinese classics
to be printed in Japan for tJM| first time ; and
from that day to this th^jiT>rfflty of Japan has
been dominated by C^Hrcian ideas.
In order to understand Japanese morality, it is
necessary for us to shift our moral base and try
to look at the subject through Japanese eyes.
The average native of the West thinks of " mo-
rality " as something belonging to the individual.
Even in religion his first thought is to save his
own soul. The value of the soul, its immortality,
its immediate relation to the infinite and eternal
Father — these have been emphasized ever since
the first establishment of the church. In conse-
quence, there is a duty which man owes to him-
self. He may not disregard it even at the
command of father or king. Within the soul is
the holiest of all, for there is heard in conscience
the voice of God himself. No external authority
may be supreme, and at no external voice may
one violate his own convictions of truth.
This thought exalts the individual, and, there-
110
THE GIST OF JAPAN
fore, sins which degrade our own personality be-
come most repulsive. Thus, among high-minded
men truth is almost first among the virtues, and an
accusation of falsehood the most hateful of insults.
For truth seems peculiarly personal and spiritual,
as if belonging to the very sanctuary of one's na-
ture. And in like manner, among women, in
popular esteem chastity is of the essence of mo-
rality, as its violi^tion seems to contaminate and
debase her holiest self..
Now the Confucian^^^^cs rest upon a quite
different principle, and in this are at one with the
ancient teaching of the Greeks and Romans. The
supreme duty is not to the self, but to the organ-
ization of which one is but a part — that is, to the
family or to the state. The great Chinese mor-
alists were statesmen, and their chief concern was,
not the salvation of the individual, but the peace
and prosperity of the state. In their view, the
family was the unit, and the state a greater family.
So the conflict of duties, in their questions of
casuistry, is never between individual and social
duties, but between duties owed to family and
to state. Loyalty to the state and obedience to
parents must be supreme ; but China and Japan
differ as to the value of these two.
According to original Confucianism, the first
duty of men is obedience to parents ; the second,
loyalty to rulers ; but in Japan the order of these
JAPANESE MORALITY
111
duties has been changed, the second being given
first place.
The people have learned well this teaching of
Confucius. Japan was prepared soil for its sow-
ing. The native religion taught that the emperor
was a direct descendant of heaven, who ruled by
divine right; the provincial lords were his minis-
ters, and hence loyalty was a plain duty. The
Confucian teaching only strengthened, deepened,
and gave form and outline to a sentiment already
existing. This principle of loyalty thus became
the foundation stone of Japanese ethics, and one's
duty to one's lord paramount to all other duties.
In the olden times the people did not look
beyond their own feudal lords and clans to the
emperor and the nation. They were to be faith-
ful unto death to these, but no further. Now
that loyalty once shown to the local princes and
clans finds its apotheosis in the emperor and the
empire.
A man's duty to his friends, to his wife and
children, and even to his parents, is counted as
nothing in comparison with his duty to rulers and
country. There are many instances in Japanese
history of men who, having slain their own pa-
rents, children, wives, for the sake of their prince,
were praised. At the time of the recent tidal
wave in northern Japan, when the waters were
rushing furiously into one home, a husband and
112
THE GIST OF JAPAN
father turned a deaf ear to the cries of his drown-
ing wife and children, permitting them to perish
that he might save the emperor's picture ; and he
was applauded for the act. A fire recently de-
molished the beautiful new buildings of the middle
school in Saga. The library, laboratories, and
scientific apparatus were mostly destroyed, and
many of the students lost their clothing and
books. The loss in buildings alone was some
$20,000. Yet the thing the loss of which they
lamented most deeply was a photograph of the
emperor which could easily be replaced for a few
yen.
A characteristic story, showing the devotion
with which the old samurai carried out this prin-
ciple of loyalty, is the tale of the forty-seven
ronins. It is rather long to insert here, but as it
illustrates so well the power of this principle, I
will relate it.
In the year 1 701 the lord of Ako, Asano by
name, visited Yedo to pay his respects to the
shogun. While there the shogun appointed him
to receive and entertain an envoy from the mi-
kado. Now, the reception of an envoy from the
imperial court was one of the greatest state cere-
monies of the day, and as Asano knew little of
ceremonies and etiquette, he asked the advice of
another nobleman, named Kira, who was expert
in such matters. This man, who seems to have
JAPANESE MORALITY
113
been of a very mean disposition, grudgingly gave
the information desired, and then asked a fee for
the same. Asano refused to give the fee, and
Kira, becoming angry, twitted and jeered at him,
calling him a country lout, unworthy the name
of daimio. Asano endured the insults patiently
until Kira peremptorily ordered him to stoop
down and fasten his foot-gear for him, — a most
menial service, — when he drew his sword and
gave the offender a deep cut across the face.
This quarrel took place in the precincts of the
palace, and instantly the whole court was in an
uproar. To degrade the sacred place was an
insult punishable with death and the confiscation
of all property ; and Asano was condemned to
take his own life by hara-kiri that same evening,
his estates were confiscated, his family declared
extinct, and his clan disbanded. Henceforth his
retainers became renins (" wandering men "),
with no country and no lord. According to the
ethics of their country, it was their bounden duty
to avenge the death of their lord, and we shall
see how relentlessly they followed their purpose
until it was accomplished.
The senior retainer of the dead Asano, Oishu
Kuranosuke, together with forty- six others of his
most trusty fellow-lieges, took counsel as to how
they might avenge their lord. They all were
willing to lay down their lives in the attempt, but
114
THE GIST OF JAPAN
even then the task was difficult, because of the
vigilance of the government. For such venge-
ance was rigidly prohibited by law, although as
rigidly required by custom. Notwithstanding
the fact that all who slew an enemy for vengeance
werepunished by death, notto take such vengeance
never entered the mind of any chivalrous Japanese.
After much planning the forty-seven ronins
decided that to avoid the suspicions of the govern-
ment it would be necessary for them to separate
and for the time conceal their purpose. So they
separated, settling in diflferent cities, and taking
up various occupations. Many of them became
carpenters, smiths, and merchants, and in these
capacities gained access to Kira's house and
learned all about its interior arrangements. The
leader of this faithful band, Oishu, went to Kyoto
and plunged into a life of drunkenness and de-
bauchery. He even put away his wife and chil-
dren, and led the most dissolute life possible,
simply to throw off the suspicions of the author-
ities. All of the ronins were closely watched by
spies, who secretly reported their conduct to Kira.
But by these devices they finally lulled all suspi-
cion, and the vigilance ceased. Then the day
long waited for had come. Suddenly, on the
night of January 30, 1703, two years after the
death of their lord, in the midst of a violent snow-
storm, these forty-seven faithful men attacked
JAPANESE MORALITY
115
Kira's castle, forced the gate, and slew all the
retainers. Kira, who was a coward at heart,
concealed himself in an outhouse. The renins
found him there, drew him forth, and requested
him to kill himself by hara-kiri, as was the privi-
lege of a man of his rank. But he refused out
of fear, and the retainers of Asano were forced
to kill him as they would have killed a common
coolie. Thus did they accomplish their purpose
and fulfil the high duty of loyalty to their dead
lord, after two years of waiting, most careful
planning, and ceaseless vigilance.
By the time their purpose was accomplished
day had dawned, and, in plain view of the whole
city, this brave band marched in order to the
temple of Sengakuji, where Asano was buried.
The citizens showed them every honor on the
way. A wealthy nobleman, as a reward for their
loyal deed, sent them out costly refreshments.
When they arrived at the temple the head abbot
received them in person and showed them every
honor. Finding the grave of their dead lord, they
laid thereon the head of the enemy by whom he
had been so deeply wronged, and then felt that
their duty was done. They were all sentenced
to commit hara-kiri, which they did willingly.
Afterward they were buried together in the same
temple grounds with their lord, where their graves
can be seen to this day.
116
THE GIST OF JAPAN
These men simply obeyed the ethical code of
their time and country, and as a reward for their
loyalty they have received the enthusiastic praise
of their countrymen for two centuries. No other
story is so popular to-day, or so stirs the hearts
of the people, as this. While we, believing that
vengeance belongs to the Lord, cannot indorse
this deed, we must admire the loyalty and faith-
fulness of those renins, and the perseverance
with which they adhered to their purpose. In
this true story we see clearly the power of this
first principle of Japanese morality — loyalty.
The sister principle of loyalty in Confucian
ethics is obedience to parents. Unquestioning,
absolute, implicit obedience is required of all
children. Formerly the child was considered the
property of the parents, and could be disposed of
at will, even to the taking of its life. To-day
the father may sell his daughter to a life of shame,
or " lend " her to a private individual for immoral
purposes ; and, however much she may dislike
such a life, obedience to parents requires that she
acquiesce in his will, which she does uncomplain-
ingly.
This principle of obedience is the foundation
stone of Japanese family life. The relation be-
tween parents and children is stronger than that
between man and wife, and is given a prior place.
An only son cannot be forced to leave his mother
JAPANESE MORALITY
117
and become a soldier, but a husband may be
forced to leave his wife. Within the family circle,
the son's duty to his aged parents always precedes
his duty to his wife. Every Japanese feels deeply
this obligation to his parents, and properly to sup-
port and nourish them in old age he holds to be
a sacred duty. Americans could learn much that
would be profitable from the reverence and respect
shown for parents and teachers by the Japanese.
In Japan, however, this principle is carried too
far. It continues after death as binding as before,
and divine honors are paid to dead ancestors.
Periodical visits are made to their tombs, religious
candles are kept burning in their honor, and
prayers are said to them. Among the more
enlightened to-day there is perhaps nothing in
these ceremonies but reverence and respect; yet
by the masses of the people ancestors are wor-
shiped.
There are two moral maxims that show well
the relative importance in which parents, relatives,
and wives are held. They are the following:
" Thy father and thy mother are like heaven and
earth ; thy teacher and thy lord are like the sun
and the moon." " Other kinsfolk may be likened
to the rushes ; husbands and wives are but as
useless stones."
It is apparent that virtues have differing values
in the Confucian and Christian systems. We can
118
THE GIST OF JAPAN
appreciate their point of view best, perhaps, as we
remember the ethics of an army. Here obedi-
ence, loyalty, self-devotion, courage, are supreme.
Much is forgiven if these are manifested. The
organization is everything, and the individual
nothing, save as he is a fraction of the great ma-
chine. Carry that idea into the social commu-
nity, and think of it as an army, with all, women
as well as men, of value only as parts of the
greater whole, and we shall understand why and
how the Japanese may esteem men and women
righteous whom we judge debased and even crim-
inal. So would the Japanese judge them, were
the motive mere passion or selfish desire, but not
when the controlling power is loyalty or obedi-
ence. Thus the forty-seven ronin were pre-
eminently " righteous " when they debauched
themselves with every swinish vice.
Of course this view of morality puts great
temptation in the way of parents and rulers.
Having supreme power, they may use it to the
degradation of those whom they control. Con-
fucius, it is true, taught parents and rulers that
they too owed duties to the state, and that use
of their Heaven-given powers for selfish ends
was treason against the supreme law ; but, beyond
doubt, the duty of submission, of loyalty and un-
questioning obedience, was so exaggerated that
evils many and great resulted. At the same time
JAPANESE MORALITY 119
a sympathetic view leads one to wonder the
rather that the ethical results are so wholesome.
Turning from this general view, one finds in
particulars much the same conditions as in other
lands. For example, immense quantities of alco-
holic stimulants are consumed annually. There
is a native liquor called " sake," made from rice,
that is very popular and, in some of its forms,
very intoxicating. Its manufacture and sale is
one of the most lucrative businesses in the em-
pire. Foreign whiskies, wines, and beers are
sold in large quantities, but they are so costly
as to be beyond the reach of all but the wealthy.
Outside of the small circle of Christians, there
are few people who do not drink. The total
abstainer is a rarity. But, while nearly every
one drinks, in general the Japanese do not drink
to such excess as other nations. One seldom
sees such beastly drunkenness as is often seen in
the West. Drinking is taken as a matter of course,
and society does not condemn it. The usual way
in which Japanese men pass a dull day is in feast-
ing and drinking. The use of alcoholic stimulants
is much more common here than at home.
In business and commercial morality there is
much to be desired. The merchants do not sell
according to the worth of an article, but according
to what they can make the purchaser pay. They
are great bargainers. Recently I wanted to buy
120
THE GIST OF JAPAN
two large wall-pictures. The dealer asked me
$21 for them, but finally sold them for $5. It
is a very common thing to buy articles for less
than half the price first asked. In matters of
veracity and in the fulfilment of contracts Japa-
nese merchants are not generally to be trusted.
The average man is famous for lying, and the
merchants and tradesmen seem to have acquired
an extra share of this general characteristic. A
Japanese trader will do all in his power to
avoid the fulfilment of a contract if it entails a
loss. This lack of commercial honor is recognized
by the foreign firms doing business here, and it has
hindered not a little the growth and development
of trade.
The moral sense of the people in regard to
taking one's own life is very different from that
of Christendom. From ancient times, suicide has
been thought to be a praiseworthy act, and has
been extensively practised. Formerly it was en-
couraged, and sometimes required, by the govern-
ment ; but now it has no official sanction whatever.
Still, the custom exists, and some authorities place
the annual number of suicides as high as 10,000.
The people laugh at our Western idea that it is
wrong to take one's own life. On the contrary,
they hold that when misfortunes and calamities
make this life unattractive it is the part of wisdom
to end it. Even the feelings of young Japanese,
JAPANESE MORALITY
121
who have been educated somewhat into our own
way of thinking, do not seem to have changed
on this point ; they still adhere to the old Roman
view that self-destruction is permissible and often
meritorious. The Western fiction that all suicides
are the result of some form of insanity is not
countenanced here. The various causes leading
to self-destruction are coolly and carefully tabu-
lated, and very few are attributed to insanity.
Contrariwise, long and careful study of the sub-
ject has shown that self-destruction is gone about
with as much coolness, precision, and judgment
as any act of daily life.
The above are in brief the leading moral ideas
and principles that govern the Japanese people.
Fortheirloyalty and obedience we have only admi-
ration. But both of these principles are given an
undue importance and are carried to extremes.
The chief defect of Japanese morality is the minor
place it gives to the individual. The moral need of
the nation is a Christian morality — not just the
morality of the West, but a morality founded on
the ethical principles inculcated in the Bible. This
would exalt truth and chastity, would soften and
temper the great duties of loyalty and obedience,
and would make of Japan an honest, temperate
nation.
VII
RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
The Japanese are by nature a religious people.
In the earliest times a conglomerate mass of super-
stitions and mythological ideas was made to do
service as a religion. Fetishism, phallicism, ani-
mism, and tree- and serpent- worship were very
common. The line of distinction between the
Creator and the creature was not clearly marked ;
gods and men mingled and intermingled, and were
hardly known apart. But it is not our purpose
here to trace the ancient religious ideas of Japan,
but rather to give a short account of contemporary
religions. Therefore we cannot dwell on these
unwritten mythological-religious systems.
The religions of contemporary Japan are four
— Shinto, Buddhism, Confucianism, andTenrikyo.
Shinto and Tenrikyo are indigenous ; Buddhism
and Confucianism have been imported from China
and Korea. Tenrikyo is of recent origin and has
122
RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
123
not yet the influence and standing of the others.
Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism have existed
here side by side for centuries. There is no great
antagonism between them, as there is between
Christianity and the ethnic reHgions. Many of
the people are disciples of all three at the same
time, taking their theology from Shinto, their so-
teriology and eschatology from Buddhism, and
their moral and economic ideas from Confucian-
ism. No inconsistency is felt in thus believing
all three religions and worshiping at their shrines.
Indeed, these three faiths have so commingled,
the ideas and practices of one have so filtered into
the others, that it is hard now to distinguish the
pure teachings of each. In the minds of the masses
they are not distinguished in detail. And yet as
regards origin, history, and teachings they are
separate and distinct faiths.
7
Shinto
Shinto may be called the national cult of Japan.
The word " Shinto" means " the way of the gods."
This system hardly deserves the name religion.
It has no moral code, no dogmas, no sacred books.
Originally it consisted chiefly of ancestor- and
nature- worship, and of certain mythological ideas.
; A chief feature of it still is the worship of ances-
1 tors, who are exalted to a high pedestal in thought
124
THE GIST OF JAPAN
and worshiped as gods. The divine origin of the
imperial family, and the obligation to worship and
obey it, was a prominent teaching of Shinto. The
ancestors of the imperial family were to be held
in supreme reverence and were the objects of
especial worship.
According to the Shinto of this period, there
was neither heaven nor hell, but only an inter-
mediate Hades. There was a sort of priesthood,
but its duty was to watch over particular local
gods, not to preach to the people. Pure Shinto
taught that a man's whole duty lay in absolute
obedience to the mikado and in following the
natural promptings of his own heart.
Shinto was very much affected by the intro-
duction of Buddhism, about the middle of the
sixth century, and its further growth was checked.
Buddhism adopted and largely absorbed it.
Shinto gods were given a place in the Buddhist
pantheon, and many of the Shinto ceremonies were
adopted. But Shinto was completely overshad-
owed by Buddhism, and lay in a dormant state
from the year 550 to 1 700, a night of more than
a thousand years.
Since the beginning of the eighteenth century
a revival of Shinto has sprung up. Native scholars
tried to call up the past, to find out what pure
Shinto was before its corruption by Buddhism,
and to teach it as the national faith. In this effort
RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
125
they were partially successful. The old Buddhis-
tic accretions were largely thrown off, and many
of the temples, stripped of their Buddhist orna-
ments, were handed over to the Shinto priests.
Buddhism was disestablished, and Shinto again be-
came the religion of the state. A Shinto " Coun-
cil for Spiritual Affairs " was appointed, which
had equal rank with the Council of State. This,
however, was reduced gradually to the rank of a
department, then to a bureau, later to a sub-bureau.
At present Shinto is the state religion, in so far
as there can be said to be any state religion ; but
in reality there is no established religion. The
connection of the government with Shinto extends
no further than the maintenance of certain temples
and the attendance of certain officials on some
ceremonies. Shinto enjoys a large amount of
popularity because it is indigenous, while Bud-
dhism and Confucianism labor under the disadvan-
tage of being of foreign origin. The majority of
the upper classes in Japan who to-day have any
religion at all are Shintoists.
Buddhism
The religion founded by Buddha in India is six
centuries older than Christianity. Its nominal
adherents comprise almost one third of the
human race. Its philosophical precepts are deep
126
THE GIST OF JAPAN
and profound, while its ethical teachings are, for
the most part, lofty and ennobling. This religion
is worthy the careful study of any man who has
the time and inclination.
We cannot attempt to give a full exposition of
it, but will have to content ourselves with a bare
mention of its more prominent teachings. Certain
resemblances to Catholicism in ritual, ceremony,
and ornamentation strike one very forcibly in ob-
serving Buddhist rites. The candles, the incense,
the images and processions, all resemble Rome.
But this resemblance extends no further than
ritual and ceremony. In point of doctrine Bud-
dhism is widely separated from every form of
Christianity. In Buddhism the condition on
which grace is received is not faith, but knowledge
and enlightenment. Salvation is accomplished,
not by the vicarious sufferings of a Redeemer,
but by self-perfection through self-denial and
discipline.
Dr. Griffis, a man who has written much and
well on Japan, has pronounced the principal fea-
tures of Buddhism to be atheism, metempsychosis,
or the transmigration of souls, and absence of
caste.
Buddhism knows nothing of the existence of a
supreme God who created the world. It inherited
ideas of certain gods from Brahmanism, but these
are made secondary to the hotoke, or buddhas.
A Buddhist Priest.
RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
127
who are simply men who have finally reached
the calm of perfect holiness after toihng through
endless ages and countless existences. It teaches
that existence itself is the chief of all evils. In-
stead of longing for eternal life, the Buddhist
longs for annihilation. Happy, well-fed Western
people, to whom existence is a delight, can hardly
understand how any one can really desire its ces-
sation. But the life of the lower classes in many
countries of the East is one daily struggle for
bread, so full of sorrow and misery that it is not
unnatural they should desire to end it.
This religion teaches that the evil of existence
springs from the double root of ignorance and
human passions, and is to be overcome by know-
ledge and self-discipline. The heaven it offers is
absorption in the Nirvana — the loss of personal
identity and practical annihilation.
Buddhism numbers more devotees and exerts
a greater influence than any of the other religions
of Japan. It was received from Korea about the
middle of the sixth century. After it had been
transplanted and had grown into popular favor,
many Japanese were sent to Korea and China to
study its doctrines more fully ; and they brought
back with them not only Buddhism, but also
Chinese literature and civilization. At first
Buddhism encountered fierce opposition, but it
was fortunate in securing court patronage, and
128
THE GIST OF JAPAN
very soon the opposition entirely ceased, so that
in two or three centuries it spread itself through-
out the whole empire. If ever a nation was ripe
for the introduction of a foreign religion, that
nation was Japan at that time. The national cult
was silent, or almost so, in regard to the destiny
of man and many other questions which religion
is expected to answer. The religious nature of
the people was asserting itself, and they were
longing for more light on the great questions of
life — its whence, why, and whither. Buddhism
gave this light, and therefore was warmly wel-
comed. It had the whole field to itself, and took
complete possession of it.
From the time of its introduction into Japan
down to the present, Buddhism has enjoyed a
wide popularity and exerted a powerful influence.
It is not too much to say that Buddhism has
largely formed Japanese civilization and national
life. In the words of Professor Chamberlain,
" All education was for centuries in Buddhist
hands. Buddhism introduced art and medicine,
molded the folk-lore of the country, created its
dramatic poetry, deeply influenced politics and
every sphere of social and intellectual activity.
In a word, Buddhism was the teacher under
whose instruction the Japanese nation grew up."
Buddhism has by no means lost its hold in
Japan. It still has great life and power. Some
RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
129
writers have said that they have never seen a new
temple in Japan — only old ones falling into decay.
Their experience must have been limited. I see
plenty of new temples, some of which are very
costly.
/ Buddhist temples are numerous, and many are
of imposing architecture. Being generally sur-
rounded by tall trees, they have a lonely, mourn-
ful appearance. Hideous beasts, dragons, and
serpents are carved upon them, and large, fierce-
looking stone lions guard them, the effect being
to awe and terrify the beholder. Some are fur-
nished with gorgeous altars covered with beautiful
flowers, images, and statues. Besides the temples
there are everywhere little shrines. The religious
spirit of the people prompts them to dedicate the
most beautiful spots and nooks to the gods, and
there to erect shrines and idols.
Buddhist priests dress in robes not very unlike
the official robes of the Episcopal clergy. Their
heads are always close-shaven, a mark by which
they are easily distinguished. Forbidden to
marry, they are expected to lead lives of purity
and chastity. They have greatly degenerated, a
large per cent, being illiterate and immoral. Their
lives will not bear comparison with those of the
Christian evangelists. That nearly all the ceme-
1 teries of Japan are in their hands gives them great
influence.
130
THE GIST OF JAPAN
Japanese Buddhism is divided into numerous
sects, chief of which are the Tendai, Shingon,
Jodo, and Zen, of Chinese origin, and the Shin
and Nichiren, of native origin. The latter two
are most prosperous.
Buddhism has profited by its contact with
Christianity. As the reaction of Protestantism
upon Cathohcism was beneficial to the latter, so
the reaction of Christianity upon Buddhism has
been healthful. It has forced a revival and puri-
fication of the Buddhist faith, and to-day it is
better and more active than before it encountered
Christianity. Still, Christianity is gradually en-
croaching upon its domain and is crippling its
influence. That Buddhism is bound to perish in
its encounter with Western civilization and Chris-
tianity seems a foregone conclusion.
Confucianism,
Confucianism is even less deserving the name
of a religion than Shinto. It consists chiefly in a
set of moral teachings, of narrow application and
mostly of a political nature. Confucius, avoiding
all metaphysical abstractions and devotional rhap-
sodies, confined himself to the much more practi-
cal field of morals and politics. But his disciples
and commentators, especially during the middle
ages, expanded his doctrines and added ideas
RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
131
more or less religious. Thus developed, it be-
came a sort of religious system, the only one
believed by the old samurai or warrior classes.
Confucius, its founder, was born in the year
551 B.C., in the state of Lu, province of Shantung,
China. He was an earnest student of the older
Chinese classics, and one of the most learned
men of his time. He gathered round him a circle
of young men, whom he instructed, like Socrates,
by questions and answers. He died in 478 B.C.
No other human teacher has had more disciples
or exerted a wider and stronger influence.
From its birthplace in China Confucianism
spread to Korea, where it soon became, and still
continues to be, the predominant faith. From
Korea it advanced to the Japanese archipelago,
where for many hundred years it has had much
to do with shaping and molding the character of
the people. Confucianism has undergone many
modifications. At first a comparatively simple
system of ethics and politics, it has expanded until
to-day it is a complicated philosophico-religious
system.
The basal principles of Confucian ethics are the
" five relations." These are : sovereign and
minister ; father and son ; husband and wife ; elder
brother and younger brother; friend and friend.
I have named them in the order of their impor-
tance. The duty of loyalty is above that of filial
132
THE GIST OF JAP/iN
obedience, while the relation of husband and wife
is inferior to both of these. We will briefly con-
sider each of these relations separately.
The duty of a minister, or servant, to his prince,
or sovereign, is the first duty of man, and is em-
phasized to an extreme degree. In order to dis-
charge this obligation to the feudal lord or em-
peror, one must, if necessary, give up everything:
house, lands, kinsmen, name, fame, wife, children,
society — all. And Japanese history is filled with
instances of retainers who have counted their lives,
their families, their all, as less than nothing when
compared with their duty to their lord. Loyalty
is the one idea which dominates all others in the
Confucianism of Japan. Thus it has exerted an
influence hardly second to Shinto in inculcating
loyalty to the emperor and to Japan, and making
the people fanatically patriotic.
The second relation is that of father and son,
or parent and child. My readers perhaps would
consider the relation of husband and wife the first
of all human relations, but not so the Oriental.
With him the family is of far more importance
than the individual, and the chief aim of marriage
is the maintenance of the family line. If the wife
becomes a mother she is honored because she as-
sists in perpetuating the family line ; if she is child-
less she is probably neglected. Where there are
no children adoption is the universal practice.
RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
133
The one adopted takes the family name and per-
petuates it. No greater misfortune can be con-
ceived than for the house to become extinct.
The relation of parent and child is very dif-
ferent from that to which we are accustomed.
Mutual love hardly exists. The parent feels
compassion and love for his child ; the child rev-
erences the parent. To speak of a child's love
for his father, or a man's love for God, is repug-
nant to the Confucianist. It is thought to be
taking an undue familiarity, and the proper re-
lation is considered one of dependence and rev-
erence. In old Japan the father was absolute lord
and master, and had power over the life and death
of his child. In recent times his power is more
limited, and the idea is beginning to dawn upon
thinking natives that children have rights as well
as duties. A Japanese child feels more reverence
for its parents, or at least for its father, than does
the average child reared in the Christian homes
of the West.
The third relation is that of husband and wife.
On this point the teaching of Confucius is very
different from that of Christ. Instead of having
two parties bound together by mutual love, with
equal rights and duties, we have the relation of
superior and inferior, of master and servant. The
husband precedes the wife in all things. She
must serve him and his family zealously and un-
134
THE GIST OF JAPAN
complainingly. She must be especially on her
guard against the foolish sin of jealousy, and is
not to complain if her husband introduces a con-
cubine into the same house in which she resides.
She is to yield absolute obedience to him in all
things. She can be divorced for very slight
reasons, and divorces are matters of every-day
occurrence. Statistics show that the annual
number of divorces is about one third the num-
ber of marriages. Sentiment is gradually chang-
ing in this regard, and marriage and divorce laws
are becoming more strict.
Confucius condemned adultery as a heinous
crime, but this teaching is made to apply only to
the wife. She must remain true to her husband,
but he is not considered under the same obliga-
tion to her.
(The fourth relation is that of elder brother and
younger brother. This is evident from the lan-
guage used to express the relation of children of
the same household to one another. The word
for brother or sister is seldom used ; in fact, there
is no word to express just that idea. In its stead
we hear "elder brother," "elder sister," and
/ " younger brother," " younger sister." The chil-
dren of a household are not considered equals ; the
elder ones are given the preference in all things.
Especially does the eldest son hold a position
of prominence far above that of the other children.
RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
135
He is looked upon as the perpetuator of the family
line and is given especial honor. His younger
brothers and his sisters, and even his mother,
must serve and obey him.
The younger sons are subjects for adoption into
other families, especially into those where there
are daughters to be married and family names to
be perpetuated. This is in accordance with the
Eastern idea that the house is of more importance
than the individual. Confucian ethics largely
overlooks the idea of personality.
The fifth relation is that between friends. Some
writers have spoken of this as that of man to man,
and have thus read Christian ideas into Confu-
cianism ; but this relation as taught by Confucius
is only between friends. As regards man and
man, Confucius taught the duties of courtesy and
propriety, but no others. He taught the duty
of kindness to strangers, but most students of his
writings are of the opinion that he did not include
foreigners among strangers. The nearest ap-
proach to Christianity in Confucianism is the
negative of the golden rule, " Do not do unto
others as you would not have others do unto
you." This approaches the teaching of Christ
very nearly, but only in a negative form. Some
have thought that Confucius taught the duty of
returning good for evil, but this is a mistake.
One of his contemporaries, Lao-tse, did teach
136
THE GIST OF JAPAN
this duty ; but when Confucius was asked about
it he replied, " What, then, will you return for
good? Recompense injury with justice, and re-
turn good for good."
Certain it is that this relation, as understood in
Japan, does not apply to foreigners. How the
Japanese treated foreigners in former times is
well known. Foreign sailors shipwrecked on her
coasts were tortured and executed. Ships from
abroad, bringing shipwrecked Japanese back to
their own country, were met with powder and
ball and repulsed. Commodore Perry, in at-
tempting to establish a treaty with Japan, justly
complained to the native authorities that the
dictates of humanity had not been followed, that
shipwrecked men were treated with useless cru-
elty, and that Japan's attitude toward her neigh-
bors and all the world was that of an enemy and
not of a friend. The fifth relation did not teach
a common brotherhood of men and obligations of
kindness to foreigners. It applied only to the
charmed circle of friendship.
On these five relations rests the whole Japanese
social and moral structure. Family and national
life has been shaped and molded by them.
They are the ten commandments of the East.
How very different from the principles which
have determined our own family and social life!
Confucianism in Japan has been developed into
RELIGIONS OF J/IP/iN
137
a highly complicated religious system, and in this
form is believed by large numbers of high-class,
educated Japanese. It is wholly pantheistic in
its teaching, having points of resemblance with
German pantheism. It knows no such thing as
God as a separate existence. Rather, all is God.
Dr. Martin, of China, has well styled it " a pan-
theistic medley."
Although Confucianism has long had a strong
hold upon Japanese minds, its influence is waning.
• The ancient classics are little studied, and the
! younger generation knows almost nothing of
I them. The great temple of Confucius in Tokyo,
the Seido, has been changed into an educational
Perhaps some will think that Tenrikyo does not
deserve mention along with the before-named
great religions. Certainly it is not worthy of the
respect accorded to them, and has not exerted
such an influence as they have. It is of very
recent origin and is as yet confined to the lower
strata of society. But its disciples constitute one
of the most vigorous and active religious bodies
in Japan to-day. Its growth has been remark-
ably rapid, especially during the past five years.
Government recognition has been already gained,
and it is gradually making a place for itself among
Tenrikyo
138
THE GIST OF JAPAN
the religions of Japan. Some authorities place
the number of its adherents as high as 5,000,000,
but these figures are probably too high.
Tenrikyo is a missionary religion, having very
earnest representatives in almost every dis-
trict in Japan. These men rely almost ex-
clusively upon preaching for the propagation of
their doctrines, and their efforts are generally
successful.
Space permits us to say only a fevi^ words in
regard to the origin of this religion. Its founder
was a peasant woman named Nakayama Miiki,
popularly called Omiiki, who was born of a very
poor family in the province of Yamato in 1 798.
There was nothing remarkable about her life until
her fortieth year, when she fell into a trance.
While in this state one of the old Shinto deities,
Kuni-Toko-Tachi No Mikoto, appeared to her,
and, after causing her much distress, left her for
a short time undisturbed. After this brief inter-
val of quiet she again fell into a trance, and was
visited by a large number of gods, some of them
the greatest of the Shinto pantheon. These gods
revealed to her the substance of her teaching,
representing it as the only true doctrine and
the one which would ultimately triumph over all
others. They also informed her that she was the
divinely appointed instrument through whom this
revelation was to be given to the world. From
RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
139
this time forward Omiiki devoted herself to the
propagation of this revelation.
Not wishing to break entirely with the old re-
ligions, she represented her revelation as having
been received from the Shinto gods, and gave a
place in her teaching to some prominent Buddhist
elements. By this means she won popular favor
and gained an earnest hearing.
The term " Tenrikyo " signifies the " Doctrine
of the Heavenly Reason." While many of its
teachings differ but little from current Shinto and
Buddhistic ideas, its more prominent tenets are
radically different.
In the first place, Tenrikyo tends much toward
monotheism. Omiiki herself accepted polytheism,
but taught that man's real allegiance is due to the
sun and the moon. These she regarded as the
real gods ; but as they always work together, and
as the world and all things therein are the product
of their joint working, they are practically one.
Since her death the teaching has become more
and more monotheistic in tendency, and some of
its preachers teach explicit monotheism.
Omiiki taught a new relation between the gods
and men — a relation of parents to children. The
gods watch over and love their children just as
earthly parents do. The emperor is the elder
brother of the people, who rules as the represen-
tative of the divine parents.
140
THE GIST OF JAPAN
Faith-healing formed a prominent part in the
original teaching of Tenrikyo. It asserted that
neither physicians nor medicine was needed, but
that cures are to be effected through faith alone.
Marvelous stories are told of the wonderful cures
it has accompUshed, many of which seem well
authenticated. But while there seems no good
reason for doubting the genuineness of some of
these cures, the power of mind over mind, and
the influence of personal magnetism in certain
kinds of nervous disorders, are so well known that
they can be easily explained without any reference
to the supernatural. The faith-cure feature of
this religion is now falling into disuse.
Tenrikyo makes very little of the future state,
although Omiiki assumed its reality. In one
passage she refers to the soul as an emanation
from the gods, and says that after death it will
go back to them. She teaches that the cause of
suffering, disease, and sin is found in the impurity
of the human heart, and that the heart must be
cleansed before believers can receive the divine
favor. She insists over and over again that no
prayers nor religious services are of any avail so
long as the heart is impure.
The aim of Omiiki and her followers seems
to be a worthy one. The movement is highly
ethical, and there is little doubt but that the ad-
herents of the Tenrikyo are superior in morals to
RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
141
the rest of their class. Some features of this new
religion are, however, looked upon with suspicion,
and it is being closely watched by the government.
Charges of gross immorality have been preferred
against it, especially in reference to the midnight
dances, in which both sexes are said to participate
indiscriminately ; but these charges are made by
its enemies and have never been proved.
In many respects Tenrikyo materially differs
from the other religions of Japan. Its adherents
assemble at stated times for worship and instruc-
tion, while the Buddhists assemble in the temples
for worship and preaching only three or four times
a year, and the Shintoists seldom, if ever, as-
semble. The worship of Tenrikyo, for the most
part, consists of praise and thanksgiving by music
and dancing ; but prayer is also practised.
Another distinguishing characteristic of Ten-
rikyo is that it is exclusive. The other religions
of Japan are very tolerant of one another; one
may believe them all. But Tenrikyo will not
tolerate either Buddhism or Shinto. Its adherents
must give their allegiance to it alone.
It is interesting to conjecture as to the influence
Christianity has had upon Tenrikyo. It does not
seem probable that Omiiki was at all influenced
by it, unless the traditions of the Catholic Chris-
tianity of some two or three hundred years pre-
vious reached her in some way. But the expansion
142
THE GIST OF JAPAN
and development of the system by its later
teachers have been very much affected by Chris-
tianity. Some of its present preachers, in con-
structing their sermons, borrow largely from
Christian sources. In the minds of the common
people Tenrikyo is generally associated with
Christianity,
There are several other small religious sects in
Japan, such as the Remmon Kyokwai, Kurozumi
Kyokwai, etc., but they are not of sufficient im-
portance to command notice here.
Any statement of the religions of contemporary
Japan would be incomplete without notice of
Christianity, but that will be reserved for another
portion of this book.
The three great religions, Shinto, Buddhism,
and Confucianism, are completely woven into
the warp and woof of Japanese society. As
Christianity has shaped the political, social, and
family life of the West, so these ancient faiths
have that of the East. The laws, the morality,
the manners and customs of these peoples all
have been determined by their religions. And
to-day the masses of the people look to them for
principles to guide their present life, and for their
future spiritual welfare, with just as much confi-
dence and trust as my readers look to Christianity.
The missionary, in his work, must encounter and
RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
143
vanquish all of these religions, which is no light
task. They all have elements of superstition, and
their origin and supernatural teachings will not
bear the search-light of the growing spirit of
criticism and investigation. Each one of them is
even now modifying gradually its doctrines in
some features, so as to bring them into harmony
with true learning and science ; and as the nation
progresses intellectually the hold of these ancient
faiths upon the common mind will become more
and more precarious. We expect to see them
gradually retreating, though stubbornly resisting
every inch of ground, until they shall finally leave
the field to their younger and more vigorous an-
tagonists, Christianity and civilization.
VIII
FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY
One of the most interesting chapters of Japa-
nese history is that relating to the introduction
and growth of Catholic Christianity in the six-
teenth century. This story has been eloquently
told in nearly all European languages, and is
familiar to the reading public. The terrible per-
secutions then enacted are vividly represented in
paintings and other works of art on exhibition in
art galleries of Europe and America. This chapter
is not written with the hope of saying anything
new upon the subject, but because a story of
mission work in Japan would be incomplete with-
out it ; and it may be that some for the first time
will here read this story.
In order rightly to appreciate the introduction
and spread of Christianity in Japan, it is necessary
that we take a bird's-eye view of the internal
condition of the country about the middle of the
144
FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 145
sixteenth century. The Japanese were not then,
as now, a homogeneous people with a strong
central government. The emperor, although the
nominal ruler, was in reality the creature of the
shogun, who was the real ruler. His title to the
shogunate was frequently disputed, however, and
rival claimants waged fierce war upon him. The
whole of Japan was divided into warring factions
that were hardly ever at peace with one another.
The feudal lords of the various provinces were
only bound to the central government by the
weakest ties, and were continually in a state of
rebellion. Many of these daimios were great
and powerful, able to wage war with the shogun
himself. Jealousy and rivalry between the prov-
inces kept up constant quarrels and divisions.
Bad government, internal wars, the disputes and
quarrels of different clans, and the ambitions and
jealousies of their rulers had destroyed the re-
sources of the country and had devastated her
rich and beautiful cities. Even the fine old
capital of Kyoto is represented as at that time
in a state of dilapidation and ruin, its streets
filled with unburied corpses and all kinds of debris
and filth. Kamakura, the seat of the shogun's
government, once boasting 1,000,000 inhabitants,
was in ashes.
In those dark times there was little in the prev-
alent religions to cheer and uplift discouraged
146
THE GIST OF JAPAN
men. Shinto was so completely overshadowed
by Buddhism that it was Httle more than a myth.
Buddhism had become a political system, and
paid httle attention to purely religious matters.
The priests had degenerated into an army of
mercenaries, living in luxury and dissoluteness.
The common people were in a continual state of
excitement and ferment.
Into this disordered, chaotic society Catholic
Christianity was first introduced. The conditions
were favorable to its reception.
St. Francis Xavier, one of the most devoted,
earnest, and successful missionaries ever sent out
by the Roman Church, has the honor of having
been the first missionary to Japan. He was led
to go there in the following manner : A refugee
from Japan, named Anjiro, had wandered to
Malacca, and there he met Xavier, who was at
that time engaged in preaching the gospel in
India and the Sunda Islands. Through Xavier's
influence Anjiro was converted to Christianity.
The stories which he told of his own people fired
the great evangelist with the desire to preach the
gospel to the Japanese. A few years prior to
this some Portuguese traders had made their way
to Japan, had been warmly received, and had
begun a lucrative trade. Some of the daimios
expressed to them a desire to have the Christian
religion taught to their people; and Xavier no
FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 149
ligion grew apace. Catholic Christianity took its
deepest root in the southern provinces, flourishing
especially in Bungo, Omura, and Arima; but
there were churches as far north as Yedo, and
evangelists had carried the tidings of Christ and
the " Mother of God " even to the northern
boundaries of the empire. This was the high tide
of Japanese Catholicism.
The native Christians were so earnest and loyal
Ito the church that, in 1583, they sent an embassy
|of four young noblemen to Rome to pay their
[respects to the pope and to declare themselves
' his spiritual vassals. They were suspected by
j some of their countrymen of desiring to become
his vassals in another sense as well. This embassy
was received with the greatest honors by the
pope, as well as by the European princes, and
was sent away heavily laden with presents. After
an absence of eight years it returned to Nagasaki,
accompanied by seventeen more Jesuit fathers.
Up to this time all of the priests laboring in
Japan were members of this order. From time
to time other embassies were despatched from
Japan to Rome, one of which was sent many
years after the persecutions had begun. Catholic
histories put the number of native Christians at
this time at about 600,000, but native authorities
put it much higher.
150
THE GIST OF JAPAN
Persecutions
Such was the happy state of Christianity in
this empire as the sixteenth century was drawing
to a close. But, thick and fast, clouds were
gathering over the horizon, and suddenly and
furiously the storm broke. The loss of their pro-
tector, Nobunaga, was the beginning of the mis-
fortunes of the Christians. This great man was
slain by an assassin, Akechi by name, who at-
tempted to take the reins of government into his
own hands. Hideyoshi, one of the greatest men
Japan ever produced, now came upon the stage.
He was the loyal general of the mikado, and, by
the help of the Christian general Takayama, he
overthrew the usurper Akechi, and became the
molder of the destinies of the empire. He was
the unifier of Japan.
Hideyoshi was at first tolerant of Christianity ;
but his suspicions were by and by aroused, and
he became a cruel and relentless persecutor.
According to Dr. Grififis, his umbrage arose partly
because a Portuguese captain would not please
him by risking his ship in coming out of deep
water and nearer land, and partly because some
Christian maidens of Arima scorned his degrading
proposals. The quarrels of the Christians them-
selves also helped to bring on the persecutions.
FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 147
sooner heard of this than he set out for Japan,
accompanied by the native convert Anjiro.
They landed at Kagoshima, a large city on the
coast of the southern island of Kyushu, August
i5> 1549- The prince of Satsuma gave Xavier a
hearty welcome, but afterward became jealous
because one of the rival clans had been furnished
with firearms by the Portuguese merchants, so
that Xavier was compelled to remove to Hirado.
From there he went to Nagato, thence to Bungo,
where he again met a warm reception. Although
so great a missionary, and having labored in
so many countries, Xavier is said never to have
mastered completely a single foreign tongue. He
studied the rudiments of Japanese, but, finding
that way much too slow, began preaching through
an interpreter, with marked success and power.
Anjiro had translated the Gospel of Matthew,
writing it in Roman letters, and Xavier is said to
have read this to the people with wonderful
effect. He stayed only two and a half years in
Japan ; yet in that short time he organized several
congregations in the neighborhood of Yamaguchi
and Hirado, and visited and preached in the old
capital Kyoto. He then left the work in the
hands of other missionaries, while he undertook
the spiritual conquest of China. This ancient
empire, with her hard, conservative civilization,
impervious to foreign influence, lay like a burden
148
THE GIST OF JAPAN
on his heart. Contemplating her learning, her
pride, and her exclusiveness, he uttered the de-
spairing cry, " O mountain, mountain, when wilt
thou open to my Lord?" He died December
2, 155 1, on an island in the Canton River.
The inspiring example of Xavier attracted
scores of missionaries to Japan, and also incited
the native converts to constitute themselves mis-
sionaries to their kinsmen and friends ; and their
labors bore much fruit. In a very short time, in
the region of Kyoto alone, there were seven
strong churches ; and the island of Amakusa, the
greater part of the Goto Islands, and the daimi-
ates of Omura and Yamaguchi had become Chris-
tian. In 1 58 1 the churches had grown to two
hundred, and the number of Christians to 150,000.
The converts were drawn from all classes of the
people ; Buddhist priests, scholars, and noblemen
embraced the new faith with as much readiness
as did the lower classes. Two daimios had ac-
cepted it, and were doing all in their power to
aid the missionaries in their provinces. At this
period the missionaries and Christians found a
powerful supporter in Nobunaga, the minister of
the mikado. This man openly welcomed the
foreign priests, and gave them suitable grounds
on which to build their churches, schools, and
dwellings; and under his patronage the new re-
FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 151
Franciscan and Dominican missionaries from
Spain had recently landed in Japan, and they
were continually at strife with the Portuguese
Jesuits. The jealousy and indiscretion of these
unfriendly religious orders, and the slanders cir-
culated by the Buddhists, stirred up the popular^
fury, and a persecution of fire and blood broke
out. Hideyoshi issued an edict commanding the
Jesuits to leave the country in twenty days; but
this edict was winked at, and the persecutions
were carried on only locally and spasmodically.
The converts increased faster during these perse- (
cutions than before, about 10,000 being added
each year.
In open violation of the edict, four Franciscan
priests came to Kyoto in 1593 with a Spanish
envoy. They were allowed to build houses and
reside there on the express condition that they
were not to preach or teach, either publicly or
privately. Immediately violating their pledge,
they began preaching openly in the streets, wear-
ing the vestments of their order. They excited
a great deal of discord among the Jesuit congre-
gations and used most violent language. Hide-
yoshi was angered at this, — as he had good reason
to be, — and caused nine preachers to be seized
while they were building chapels in Osaka and
Kyoto, and condemned to death. These, together
with three Portuguese Jesuits, six Spanish Fran-
9
152
THE GIST OF JAPAN
ciscans, and seventeen native Christians, were
crucified on bamboo crosses in Nagasaki, Febru-
ary 5, 1597. They were put to death, not as
Christians, but as law-breakers and political con-
spirators.
Hideyoshi was further confirmed in his opinion
that these foreign priests had political designs by
the remark of a Spanish sea-captain who showed
him a map of the world, on which the vast domin-
ions of the King of Spain were clearly marked,
and who, in reply to the question as to how his
master came by such wide territories, foolishly
replied that he first sent priests to win over the
people, then soldiers to cooperate with the native
converts, and the conquest was easy. Hideyoshi's
fears were not entirely ungrounded. The truth
is that Catholic Christianity has always been, and
was especially at that time, so intimately con-
nected with the state that her emissaries could
not keep from entangling themselves in politics.
Hideyoshi died in 1597, and with the death of
their persecutor the missionaries again took heart
and began their work anew. The political suc-
cessor of Hideyoshi was lyeyasu — a man even
greater, perhaps, than his predecessor. He was
not permitted to assume direction of affairs with-
out a fierce and bloody struggle. Around the
capital 200,000 soldiers were gathered under
ambitious rival leaders. Soon the camps were
FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 153
divided into two factions, the northern soldiers
under lyeyasu, and the southern soldiers under
their own daimios. Most of the Christians were
naturally allied with the latter party. Believing
lyeyasu to be a usurper, the Christian generals
arrayed themselves against him and went forth
to meet him in the open field. On the field of
Sekigahara a bloody battle was fought, and
10,000 men lost their lives. The Christians were
beaten, and were dealt with after the custom of
the time — their heads were stricken off. lyeyasu,
finding himself in undisputed possession of the
reins of government, began at once the comple-
tion of the work of Hideyoshi, i.e., the creation
of a strong central government and the subju-
gation of the several daimios. Henceforth the
Christians had to deal with this central govern-
ment instead of the petty local ones.
Systematic persecutions were now begun in the
different provinces, culminating in the year 1606,
when lyeyasu issued his famous edict prohibiting
Christianity. At this time there were more than
1,000,000 Christians in Japan. An outward show
of obedience warded off active persecution for
a few years, when the Franciscan friars again
aroused the wrath of the government by openly
violating the laws and exhorting their converts
to do likewise. In 161 1 lyeyasu is reported to
have discovered documentary evidence of the
154
THE GIST OF JAPAN
existence of a plot on the part of the native
Christians and the foreign emissaries to overthrow
the government and reduce Japan to the position
of a subject state. Taking advantage of the op-
portunity thus afforded, he determined to utterly
extirpate Christianity from his dominions. Jan-
uary 27, 1 6 14, he issued the famous edict in
which he branded the Jesuit missionaries as triple
enemies — as enemies of the gods, of Japan, and
of the buddhas. Desiring to avoid so much
bloodshed, if possible, he tried the plan of trans-
portation. Three hundred persons — Franciscans,
Jesuits, Dominicans, Augustinians, and natives
— were shipped from Nagasaki to Macao. But
many priests concealed themselves and were
overlooked. The native Christians refused to
renounce their faith. It was evident that the
end was not yet. The Christians were sympa-
thizers with Hideyori, who had been a rival
claimant with lyeyasu for the shogunate, and
whose castle in Osaka was the greatest strong-
hold in the empire. In this castle Hideyori gave
shelter to some Christians, and lyeyasu called
out a great army and laid siege to it. The war
which followed was very brief, but, if the report
of the Jesuits is to be relied upon, 100,000 men
perished. The castle finally fell, and with it
the cause of the Christians. Hidetada, the next
shogun, now pronounced sentence of death upon
FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 155
every foreigner, whether priest or catechist, found
in the country. All native converts who refused
to renounce their faith were likewise sentenced to
death. The story of the persecutions that fol-
lowed is too horrible to be described. Fire and
sword were freely used to extirpate Christianity.
Converts were wrapped in straw sacks, piled in
heaps of living fuel, and then set on fire. Many
were burned with fires made from the crosses
before which they were accustomed to bow.
Some were buried alive. All the tortures that
barbaric cruelty could invent were freely used to
rid the land of them. The calmness and fortitude
with which they bore their lot, gladly dying for
their faith, command our warmest admiration.
The power of our religion to uphold and sustain
even in the midst of torture was never more
strikingly illustrated, and the ancient Roman
world produced no more willing martyrs than did
Japan at this time.
At last even the patient, uncomplaining Japa-
nese Christians could stand it no longer. Perse-
cuted until desperate, those who remained finally
arose in rebellion, seized and fortified the old
castle of Shimabara, and resolved to die rather
than submit. The rebelling party probably
numbered about 30,000, and there was not one
foreigner among them. A veteran army, led by
skilled commanders, was sent against the rebels,
156
THE GIST OF JAPAN
and after a stubborn resistance of four months
the castle was taken. Men, women, and children
— all were slaughtered. There is an old story to
the effect that many of them were thrown from
the rock of Pappenburg into the sea ; but it lacks
confirmation and doubtless is only a myth. It
has also been charged against the Protestant
Hollanders then resident in Nagasaki that they
assisted in the overthrow of the Shimabara castle
and the destruction of the Catholics with their
heavy guns, but this probably is untrue.
There was now left no power to resist, and
the sword, fire, and banishment swept away every
trace of Christianity. The extermination ap-
peared so complete that non- Christian writers
have pointed to Japan as a land in which Chris-
tianity had been entirely conquered by the sword,
thus proving that it could be extirpated. But
the extirpation was not so thorough as at first
appeared. Christian converts remained, and as-
sembled regularly for worship; but the utmost
secrecy was observed, for fear of the authorities.
When the country was reopened in 1859, the
Catholic fathers found remaining in and around
Nagasaki whole villages of Christians, holding
their faith in secret, it is true, but still holding it.
During the two hundred years in which they had
been left alone the faith had become corrupt, but
there were still thousands of people who, amid
FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTMNITY 157
much ignorance, worshiped the true God and
refused to bow at pagan shrines. Christianity
was not entirely crushed, neither can be, by the
secular arm.
After the government had, as it fondly sup-
posed, entirely suppressed the hated foreign reli-
gion, in order to prevent its return it determined
upon the most rigid system of exclusiveness \
ever practised by any nation. The means of '
communication with the outer world were all ;
cut off ; all ships above a certain size were de-
stroyed, and the building of others large enough
to visit foreign lands rigidly prohibited ; Japanese
were forbidden to travel abroad on pain of death ;
native shipwrecked sailors who had been driven
to other lands were not permitted to return to
their own country, lest they should carry the
dreaded religion back with them ; and all for-
eigners found on Japanese territory were exe-
cuted. Over all the empire the most rigid
prohibitions of Christianity were posted. The:
high-sounding text of one of them was as follows :
" So long as the sun shall continue to warm the
earth, let no Chri.stian be so bold as to come to
Japan ; and let all know that the King of Spain
himself, or the Christians' god, or the great God
of all, if He dare violate this command, shall pay
for it with His head." These prohibitions could
still be seen along the highways as late as 1872.
158
THE GIST OF JAPAN
During this period of exclusion the only means
of communication with the outside world was
through the Dutch, a small colony of whom were
permitted to reside in Nagasaki as a sort of safety-
valve and a means of communication with the
outside world when such communication became
absolutely necessary. They enjoyed the confi-
dence of Japan more than any other nation.
These Hollanders were compelled to live on the
narrow little island of Desima, in Nagasaki harbor,
always under strict surveillance. Ships from
Holland were permitted to visit them occasionally,
and they carried on a very lucrative trade be-
tween the two countries.
The mistake of Catholic Christianity in Japan
during the century the history of which we have
been reciting was its meddling in politics and
getting itself entangled in the internal affairs of
the country. If it had avoided politics and been
at peace and harmony with itself, it might have
enjoyed continued prosperity, and Japan to-day
might have been one of the brightest stars in the
pope's crown.
While this was, as we firmly believe, a very
corrupt form of Christianity, we must remember
that it was immeasurably better than any religion
Japan had yet known. Although it taught
Mariolatry, salvation in part by works, penance,
and many other errors, it also taught that there
FIRST INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY 159
|s but one God, and that His Son died for men.
It very much improved the morals of its adher-
lents, and purified and exalted their lives.
/ At the present day very little remains of this
/ century of Christianity besides the few scattered
/ and corrupt congregations found by the Jesuits
on their return, the introduction of firearms and
a few rude tools, and the infusion of a handful of
foreign words into the language. The most im-
portant effect of this period is an inborn and in-
veterate prejudice against and mistrust of Chris-
tianity on the part of the people, which to-day
hinders much our work of evangehzation.
IX
MODERN ROMAN AND GREEK MISSIONS
Roman Church
The Roman Church was not discouraged by
the fierce persecutions she was called upon to
endure during the seventeenth century. Nothing
daunted, she continued to send missionaries at
intervals during the eighteenth century ; but they
were thrown into prison or executed as soon as
they landed. In order to be in readiness for the
opening of the country, which could not be much
longer delayed, the pope, in 1846, nominated a
bishop and several missionaries to Japan. These
men took up their station in the neighboring
Liukiu Islands and patiently awaited their op-
portunity. As soon as the treaties with foreign
nations were made, and the country was opened,
they at once entered Japan, and resumed the work
so rudely interrupted two hundred years before.
160
MODERN ROMAN AND GREEK MISSIONS 161
A few years later these priests had the joy of
discovering in the neighborhood of Nagasaki sev-
eral Christian communities that had survived the
bloody persecutions and had perpetuated their
faith for more than two centuries, in spite of the
vigilance of the authorities and the rigid prohibi-
tions of Christianity. Left for so long without
direction and guidance, bound for the sake of
their lives to strictest secrecy, and, above all, not
having the Bible to enlighten them, the faith of
these communities had become very corrupt. But
they still retained a certain knowledge of God, of
Jesus Christ, and of the Virgin Mary. The rite
of baptism and some prayers also survived.
Of the existence of these Christian commu-
nities, and the perpetuation of their faith in se-
crecy for more than two hundred years, there is
not the slightest room for doubt. The persecut-
ing spirit, which had also survived, found large
numbers of them in 1867, and more than 4000
who refused to renounce their faith were banished.
After six years of exile they were permitted to
return to their homes.
The mistake of the Romanists here, as else-
where, was in not translating the Bible into the
vernacular. Xavier and his successors did not
give the Word of God to the churches, and hence
when the priests all were banished the people
were left without any light to guide them. Had
162
THE GIST OF JAPAN
they possessed a Japanese Bible, the reopening
of the country would have shown us, instead of
a few corrupt Christian communities, a vigorous,
aggressive native church, only made stronger by
persecution. Such was the case in Madagascar,
and such probably it would have been in Japan
had the people been given the Word of God.
The relative importance of the Bible to the
Romanist and the Protestant is well shown in
this matter of Bible translation. One of the first
efforts of the Protestant Churches in Japan was a
translation of the Bible, and an excellent version
was prepared and published more than ten years
ago. The Roman Church, with more than a
century of unprecedented prosperity in former
times, and with the same advantages enjoyed by
the Protestants in recent years, has not yet pub-
lished its Bible in Japanese. Some priests and
native scholars are now engaged on a translation
of the Vulgate, which will doubtless be published
soon.
Ever since the opening of the country the
Church of Rome has been very earnest and zeal-
ous in her efforts to evangelize this land. She
has used a great many men, who have labored
hard and faithfully, and has expended large sums
of money. Her success has not been great, be-
cause she has had to contend against fearful odds.
The hindrances that have made the progress of
MODERN ROMAN AND GREEK MISSIONS 163
Protestant missions in this land very slow have
had to be overcome also by Catholicism, besides
some other strong militating influences. I will
mention two of the most important of these hin-
drances peculiar to Catholicism.
1. The genius of the Catholic Church is not
adapted to Japan. The priority of the spiritual
over the temporal ruler, the exaltation of church
over state, the allegiance required to a foreign
pope, the unqualified obedience to foreign ecclesi-
astical authority, and numerous other things, come
into conflict with the strong national feeling now
animating the Japanese, and seem to them to con-
flict with the great duty of loyalty. The celibacy
of the clergy and the rite of extreme unction are
also very unpopular. Both Catholicism and Prot-
estantism are regarded as evils, but the former is,
on account of its nature and organization, consid-
ered the greater.
2. The past history of Catholicism in Japan
also militates very much against its progress.
The people recognize it as the specific form of
Christianity that the government, in former times,
felt bound, for the sake of its own safety, to per-
secute to the death. They cannot forget that,
although under great provocation, it dared bare
its arm against the imperial Japanese government
and inaugurate a bitter rebellion. In their work
to-day the priests encounter all of these objec-
164
THE CIST OF JAPAN
tions, and must satisfactorily explain them away
— a difficult task.
But, notwithstanding, the Roman Church has en-
joyed an equal degree of prosperity with the Prot-
estant Churches since the opening of Japan in 1858.
The statistics for the year 1895 show 50,302 ad-
herents— about 10,000 more than the Protestants.
But the manner of compiling statistics differs so
much that these figures do not fairly represent
the numerical strength of the two bodies. The
Catholics not only count all baptized children,
but all nominal adherents ; while Protestants
count no nominal adherents, and many of the
denominations do not even count baptized chil-
dren. If the same method of compiling statistics
were used by both bodies, their numerical strength
would probably appear to be about equal.
These 50,302 adherents are comprised in two
hundred and fifty congregations. There are one
hundred and sixty-nine churches and chapels ;
one theological seminary, with 46 pupils ; two
colleges, with 181 pupils; three boarding-schools
for girls, with 171 pupils; twenty-six industrial
schools, with 764 pupils; and forty-one primary
schools, with 2924 pupils.
The Catholic Church throughout the East is
noted for its splendid charities. It is doing more
to care for the helpless, aged, and infirm than all
the Protestant bodies combined. It supports in
MODERN ROMAN AND GREEK MISSIONS 165
Japan one hospital for lepers that is exceedingly-
popular with that unfortunate class. The govern-
ment has one good leper hospital, but it is said
that the lepers much prefer going to the Catholic
hospital, because there they are treated so much
more kindly and considerately. There are 70
lepers in this Catholic hospital. The Catholic
Church has also one hospital for the aged, with
31 inmates; and nineteen orphanages, with 2080
children in them. This large number of charitable
institutions supported by the Roman Church
makes a strong appeal to the Japanese public
and does much toward overcoming the prejudice
against her.
The active working force of the Catholic mis-
sion, besides the lay members of the native church,
consists of I archbishop, 3 bishops, 88 European
missionaries, 20 native priests, 304 native cate-
chists, 25 European friars, 85 European sisters,
and 42 novices. The archbishop and bishops
reside respectively in Nagasaki, Osaka, Tokyo,
and Hakodate.
Greek Church
The Greek Church has had a flourishing mis-
sion in Japan ever since 187 1. It is always
spoken of here as the " Greek Church " or the
" Greek Catholic Church," although it would
more properly be called the " Russian Church,"
166
THE GIST OF JAPAN
as it was founded and is supported by the na-
tional church of Russia.
This mission is largely the result of the pro-
digious labors of one man — Bishop Nicolai Kasat-
kin. He first came to Japan in 1861 as chaplain
to the Russian consulate at Hakodate, but it was
his desire and intention from the beginning to do
mission work. For some years he was so ab-
sorbed in the study of the language that he made
no attempt whatever to preach or teach. After
he had been in Hakodate several years a Bud-
dhist priest who came to revile him was converted
through his influence. This man was the first
convert to the Greek Church in Japan, and was
baptized in 1866. Three years afterward the
second convert, a physician, was baptized.
The zeal of these converts, and Nicolai's own
conscience, now incited him to throw his whole
life and influence into the cause of a mission in
Japan. He was led deeply to regret that he had
not done more to make Christ known to the
Japanese, instead of giving all his time and at-
tention to scholarship and letters. In 1869 he
returned to Russia and began to agitate the
founding of a mission in Japan. The Holy Synod
gave the desired permission the next year, and
appointed Nicolai its first missionary. In 187 1
Nicolai returned to Japan and made his head-
quarters in the capital city, Tokyo. From this
MODERN ROMAN AND GREEK MISSIONS 1G7
time his active missionary work began, and in it
he has shown himself a master. Whether in the
work of preaching, translating, financiering, build-
ing, or what not, he has been director and chief
laborer. In 1872 a new priest, Anatoli by name,
came out from Russia and ably assisted Nicolai
for eighteen years, at the end of which time de-
clining health forced him to return.
Nicolai again returned to Russia in 1879, and
was consecrated bishop of the Greek Church in
Japan. At this time he began a work which had
long been on his heart, viz., the collection of funds
for the erection of a fine cathedral in Tokyo.
This cathedral was begun in 1 884 and completed
in 1 89 1. It is a magnificent building, by far the
finest ecclesiastical structure in Japan. It stands
on an eminence from which it seems to dominate
the whole city. The cost of this cathedral was
$177,575, silver.
Here one may hear the finest choral music in
the empire. Those who believe it to be impos-
sible to train well Japanese voices have but to
attend a service at this cathedral to have their
ideas changed. A choir of several hundred voices
has been trained to sing in perfect harmony, and
the music is inspiring. Travelers who have heard
the music of the most famous cathedrals and
churches of Europe and America say that this
will compare favorably with the best. The de-
168
THE GIST OF JAPAN
velopment of music in the Greek Church of Japan
has been marvelous.
The work of this church, while scattered over
the whole empire, is chiefly carried on in the cities
and larger towns. Like the Roman Church, it
refuses fellowship with the various Protestant
bodies. Some men of note belong to it, and it is
to-day recognized as one of the influential re-
ligious bodies.
A notable feature of its work is that it has
employed comparatively few foreign missionaries.
The burden of the work has been done by Bishop
Nicolai and an able body of trained native assis-
tants. At present there are only two foreigners
in connection with it, and there have never been
at any time more than three or four. While
foreign priests have been little used, several of
its native priests have been educated abroad.
This church has 21 native priests and 158 un-
ordained catechists. It is now conducting work
in two hundred and nineteen stations and out-
stations. It has one boarding-school for boys,
with 47 pupils; one for girls, with 76 pupils;
and one theological school, with 18 pupils. The
membership at the close of the year 1895 was
22,576, and the amount contributed for all pur-
poses during that year was $4754.95.
X
A BRIEF HISTORY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS
IN JAPAN
During Japan's period of seclusion, when no
foreigner dared enter the country upon pain of
death, many godly people were praying that
God would open the doors, and some mission
boards were watching and waiting for an oppor-
tunity to send the gospel to the Japanese. When,
in the year 1854, treaties were made with West-
ern powers, and it became known that Japan was
to be reopened to foreign intercourse, great in-
terest was at once manifested by the friends of
missions in the evangelization of this land.
This same year the Board of Foreign Missions
of the Presbyterian Church in the United States
of America requested one of its missionaries in
China to visit Japan and examine into the condi-
tion of affairs there, with the purpose of estab-
lishing a mission. At this time permanent resi-
169
170
THE GIST OF JAPAN
dence of foreigners was not secured, and it was
doubtless for this reason that no progress was
made toward the establishment of a mission.
The country was not actually opened to foreign
residence until the year 1859, and by the close
of that year three Protestant missionary socie-
ties, quick to take advantage of the opportunity
offered, had their representatives in the field.
The Protestant Episcopal Church of the United
States has the honor of sending the first Protes-
tant missionaries to Japan. It transferred two of
its missionaries from China, the Rev. C. M. Wil-
liams and the Rev. J. Liggins. Previous to this
time a few missionaries had made transient visits
from China to Kanagawa and Nagasaki, and
found opportunity to teach elementary English ;
but this work accomplished little.
According to the treaty with England, the
four treaty ports of Japan were opened July i,
1859; according to that with America, July 4th.
Mr. Liggins arrived in Nagasaki May 2d, two
months before the actual opening of the port; he
was joined by Mr. Williams one month later.
On October i8th of the same year the first mis-
sionaries of the Presbyterian Church in the United
States of America, Dr. and Mrs. J. C. Hepburn,
arrived at Kanagawa. A fortnight later the Rev.
S. R. Brown and D. B. Simmons, M.D., of the
Reformed Church in America, reached Nagasaki.
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN 111
The Rev. Dr. G. F. Verbeck, also of the Reformed
Church, reached Nagasaki one month later. Thus
it will be seen that missionaries were sent here
as soon as the country was opened to foreign
residence, the Episcopalian, Presbyterian, and
Reformed churches of America beginning the
work almost simultaneously.
The example set by these boards was soon
followed by others. The American Baptists
began the work in i860, the American Board
(Congregationalist) in 1869, and the American
Methodists in 1873. From time to time other
boards also sent representatives.
Although the country was now open to foreign
residence, it was by no means open to the propa-
gation of the foreign religion. All that the mis-
sionaries could do was to study the language and
teach English. In this early period many of
them found employment in the schools of the
various daimios and in those of the national
government.
The first years were very trying ones. The mis-
sionaries were in imminent danger of their lives ;
attacks without either provocation or warning
were very common. Foreigners, and especially
those who wanted to teach the foreign religion,
were everywhere bitterly hated. The lordly
samurai walked about with two sharp swords
stuck into his belt, and his very look was threat-
172
THE GIST OF JAPAN
ening. At their houses and when they walked
abroad foreigners had special guards provided
them by the government.
Great difficulty was at first experienced by the
missionaries in employing teachers, because of
the suspicion in which foreigners were held.
Those who finally agreed to teach were afterward
found to be government spies.
The government was still confessedly hostile to
Christianity as late as 1 869. Shortly before this
time some Roman Catholic Christians who had
been found around Nagasaki were torn from
their homes and sent away into exile. The sale
of Christian books was rigidly prohibited. The
prohibitions against Christianity were still posted
over all the empire, and were rigidly enforced.
If a conversation on religious subjects was be-
gun with a Japanese his hand would involuntarily
grasp his throat, indicating the extreme perilous-
ness of such a topic.
The following story shows what native Chris-
tians had to endure in some parts of Japan as
late as 1871. " Mr. O. H. GuHck, while at Kobe,
had a teacher, formerly Dr. Greene's teacher,
called Ichikawa Yeinosuke. In the spring of the
year named this man and his wife were arrested
at dead of night and thrown into prison. He
had for some time been an earnest student of the
Bible, and had expressed the desire to receive
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN 173
baptism, but had not been baptized. His wife
was not then regarded as a Christian. Every
effort was made to secure his release ; but neither
the private requests of the missionaries, nor the
kindly offices of the American consul, nor even
those of the American minister, availed anything.
Even his place of confinement was not known at
the time. It was at length learned that he had
been confined in Kyoto, and had died there
November 25, 1872. His wife was shortly after-
ward released. She is now a member of the
Shinsakurada church in Tokyo."
At this early period no distinction was made
between Catholic and Protestant Christianity,
and both were alike hated. There was no op-
portunity to do direct Christian work, and many
of the supporters of missions at home were be-
ginning to doubt the expediency of keeping mis-
sionaries where they were not permitted to work.
Some boards even contemplated recalling their
men. But the missionaries were permitted to
remain and await their opportunity, which soon
came. With the gradual opening of the country,
and especially with the dissemination of a know-
ledge of foreign nations and their faith, the oppor-
tunities for work more and more increased and
the old prohibitions were less and less enforced.
During the period of forced inactivity the mis-
sionaries were busily engaged in a study of the
174
THE GIST OF JAPAN
language and in the writing of various useful
books and tracts. At first Chinese Bibles and
other Christian books were extensively used, the
educated classes reading Chinese with facility.
' The first religious tract published in Japanese ap-
peared in 1867. One of the most important of
the literary productions of the missionary body,
Dr. J. C. Hepburn's Japanese-English and Eng-
lish-Japanese Dictionary, appeared in this same
year. It was a scholarly work, the result of
many years of hard, persevering labor. The
first edition was speedily exhausted, and a sec-
ond was issued in 1872. The translation of the
Holy Scriptures was also begun and gotten well
under way in this period. Several separate por-
tions of the Scriptures from time to time appeared.
The first was the Gospel of Matthew, translated
by the Rev. J. Goble, of the Baptist mission, and
published in 1871. Dr. S. R. Brown had previ-
ously prepared first drafts of some portions of the
New Testament, but unfortunately they were
destroyed by fire. Translations of Mark and
John, by Drs. Brown and Hepburn, were pub-
lished in 1872.
This irregular, piecemeal method of translation
was not satisfactory ; so in order to expedite the
work, and to elicit an active interest in it ou the
part of all the missionaries in the country, a con-
vention on Bible translation was called to meet
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN 175
in Yokohama on September 20, 1872. As a
result of this convention the Translation Com-
mittee was organized. At first it consisted of
Drs. Brown, Hepburn, and Greene. Other
names were afterward added. This committee
was ably assisted in its work by prominent Japa-
nese Christian scholars. The great undertaking
was brought to a successful conclusion in 1880,
when an edition of the whole Bible was published
in excellent Japanese.
We have anticipated matters somewhat. Let
us now go back a few years and take up the
thread where we left off. The work of the mis-
sionaries for a long time was fruitless, but the
day of reaping was near. The first Protestant
convert of Japan was baptized in Yokohama by
the Rev. Mr. Ballagh, in 1 864. Two years later
Dr. Verbeck baptized two prominent men in
southern Japan. In 1866 Bishop Williams, of
the Episcopal Church, baptized one convert.
Who can tell the joy of these missionaries when,
after so many years of hard work, they were per-
mitted to see these precious fruits? From time
to time others were baptized, but for many years
accessions were rare. The first church was or-
ganized in Yokohama in 1872. It was left to
draft its own constitution and church government,
and was a very liberal body.
During all this time the prohibitions of Chris-
176
THE GIST OF JAPAN
tianity were still posted over all the land, and the
government had never officially renounced its
policy of persecution. But the infringement of
the laws was permitted, and gradually they be-
came a dead letter. Many Japanese of influence
and of official position traveled abroad, and learn-
ing of the status of Christianity in the countries
of the West, and particularly of the attitude of
the chief nations of the world toward the perse-
cution of Christians, exerted their influence to
have these prohibitions rescinded. Especially
did the strong stand taken by some Western
governments influence Japan in favor of toleration.
Our own Secretary of State in Washington
plainly informed the Japanese committee then
visiting there that the United States could not
regard as a friendly power any nation that perse-
cuted its Christian subjects.
As a result of various influences, the edicts
against Christianity were removed from the sign-
boards in 1873. This was an event of the ut-
most importance to Christian work, for, although
the infringement of the edicts had been for some
time winked at, their very existence before the
eyes of the people had a great deterring effect.
The government announced that this action did
not signify that the prohibition of Christianity
was now abrogated. It declared that the edicts
were removed because their subject-matter, hav-
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN 177
ing been so long before the eyes of the people, ^
" was sufficiently imprinted on their minds." And
yet their removal conveyed the idea to the peo-
ple at large that liberty of conscience was hence-
forth to be allowed, and this virtually proved to
be so. Persecutions ceased and the work was
allowed to go on untrammeled. The object for
which the church abroad had waited and prayed,
and for which the missionaries on the ground had
longed and labored, was at last realized. Joy and
hope filled the hearts of the workers. The cause
of missions had received a new and powerful im-
pulse, which ere long made itself felt in a wide
enlargement of its operations.
The work now went on much more rapidly.
Soon a great pro-foreign sentiment sprang up.
With the rapid adoption of Western civilization
there grew up not only a toleration, but an
actual desire for the Western religion. It be-
came rather fashionable to confess Christ. Some
statesmen even went so far as to advocate as a
matter of policy the adoption of Christianity as
the state religion.
In this happy time Christian schools, which
had sprung up like mushrooms over all the land,
were filled with eager students ; the churches and
chapels were crowded with interested listeners;
and large numbers were annually added to the
church.
178
THE GIST OF JAPAN
But the pendulum had swung too far. About
1888 a reaction set in, caused largely by the im-
patience of the Japanese at the refusal of West-
ern nations to revise the treaties on a basis of
equality. A strong nationalism asserted itself.
Everything foreign was brought into disrepute.
Christianity was frowned upon as a foreign reli-
gion, and the old native religions again came into
favor. Attendance at Christian schools fell off
almost fifty per cent. ; the churches and chapels
became empty ; and few names were added to
the church rolls. A sifting process began which
very much reduced the membership. When
Christianity was popular many had hastily and
as a matter of policy joined the churches, who in
this time of disfavor fell away. This reactionary
feeling has lasted uninterruptedly down to the
present, and in recent years the losses numerically
have almost equaled the gains. This reaction
has in some respects worked good to the churches.
The former growth was too rapid. Many un-
converted men came into the bosom of the church.
Such have fallen away ; the church has been
pruned of her old dead branches, and is now a
livelier, healthier body.
In the judgment of some, this reactionary pe-
riod is now on the decline. The recent growth
and progress of Japan have been recognized by the
West; treaty revision on a basis of equality has
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN 179
been granted her, and the cause which brought
about the reaction has thus been largely removed.
For these reasons we may look for a gradual
breaking down of the prejudice and opposition
toward foreign institutions and religion, though
such a pro-foreign wave as swept the country
during the eighties will not probably be experi-
enced again.
In order to give a correct idea of the work now
being done by the various missions in Japan, it
will be well to give a short sketch of each one
separately. We will consider them in the order
of their size and influence.
American Board Mission
This mission is conducted by the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions
(organized on an undenominational basis, but
now Congregational), and has met with great
success. Begun in 1869, it is younger than
either the Episcopalian, Reformed, Presbyterian,
or Baptist missions, but has exerted a greater
influence than any of them. It has for years en-
joyed the distinction of having more adherents
than any other Christian body at work here.
But there has been a large falling off in its mem-
bership, and during the past year or so very few
new names have been added to its rolls. At the
180
THE GIST OF JAPAN
close of 1895 the Church of Christ in Japan
(Presbyterian) was only about 62 members behind
this body, and by the close of 1896 will in all
probability be ahead.
This mission was especially fortunate in reach-
ing a wealthy, influential class of people, which
has given it a position and prestige superior to
the other missions. In the number of self-sup-
porting native churches it has led all other de-
nominations.
The first missionaries of the American Board
to Japan were Dr. and Mrs. Greene. They ar-
rived in Yokohama November 30, 1869, and,
with the usual intermissions for rest, have labored
here continuously since that time. Three years
later the Rev. O. H. Gulick and wife, and the
Rev. J. D. Davis and wife, joined the mission.
Since that time the number of missionaries has
been rapidly increased until now it reaches 74.
The membership of the native church is about
11,162. There are 60 ordained native ministers
and 54 unordained. There are four boarding-
schools for girls, with 863 students. The most
advanced of these is the Girls' School of Kobe,
with a curriculum as high as that of most female
colleges in America. There is also one school
for the training of Bible-women.
The chief educational institution of this body
is the Doshisha University, in Kyoto. This
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN 181
school is largely the result of the labors of Dr.
Neesima, easily the first Christian preacher and
teacher Japan has yet produced. It is a large
school, beautifully located and well housed. Last
year only 320 students were in attendance, a
great decline from former years. Unfortunately
this institution does not now exert the positive
influence for Christianity that it formerly did.
Higher criticism and speculative philosophy have
largely supplanted Christian teaching. The
school is now entirely in the hands of the trustees
(all natives), and the mission has no control over
it whatever. Recently all of the missionaries of
the American Board who were serving as profes-
sors in the Doshisha have, because of dissatisfac-
tion with the policy of the school authorities,
resigned. The trustees affirm that it is their in-
tention to keep the school strictly Christian, but
they refuse to define the term " Christian." Such
vital matters as the divinity of Christ and the
immortality of the soul are not positively affirmed.
The rationalism which has emanated from this
school has perhaps done as much in recent years
to impede the progress of Christianity as any
other one cause. It is very sad to see an insti-
tution, built up at great expense by bequests of
earnest Christian people, intended by its founder
to lead the evangelical Christianity of this coun-
try, thus turned aside from its original purpose.
182
THE GIST OF JAP/iN
We trust that a gradual growth of a deeper
Christian consciousness and a more positive faith
in the hearts of the trustees and professors may-
yet lead them to make of this school a positive
force for evangelical Christianity.
The mission of the American Board has ex-
perienced more trouble in recent years than any
other, especially in the attempt properly to adjust
the relations between the native and foreign
workers, and in the matter of mission property.
Most of the valuable property of the mission has
passed into native hands, and in some instances
has been perverted from its original purpose. The
,nissionaries are regarded with jealousy by many
in the native church ; they are entirely excluded
from the church councils, and are being gradually
pushed out of the most important positions, and
their places filled with Japanese. It is a question
just how far the policy adopted by this mission
from the beginning is to blame for this unfortu-
nate state of affairs. This policy has been to
push the native workers to the front, to give
them the important positions, and to allow them
perfect freedom in all church matters. As a
consequence, that which was at first granted as
a concession is now demanded as a right. As a
teacher in one of their own schools has comically
put it, the mission said in the beginning — in
Japanese phraseology — to the native brethren,
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN 183
" Please honorably condescend to take the first
place," and they are just doing what they were
bidden to do. Other boards, with a different
policy, have fared better. The Episcopal Church
of Japan, which is one of the most active, vigor-
ous bodies at work here, is governed by foreign
bishops, and nearly all the positions of importance
are filled by foreign missionaries, and yet the
relations between the native and foreign work-
ers are, on the whole, cordial and harmonious.
The Methodist Church is governed by foreign
bishops, and nearly all the presiding elders are
foreign missionaries, yet complete harmony pre-
vails between the native and the foreign ministry.
The Presbyterian Church, with a policy some-
what resembHng the Congregational, is encoun-
tering the same difficulties in a milder form.
These facts seem to indicate that, at least in part,
the policy of the mission is itself responsible for
the position in which it now finds itself.
But in nearly every mission field, as soon as a
strong native church is developed, misunderstand-
ings and friction between the native and foreign
workers have arisen. Questions regarding the
position of the native church and its relation to
the foreign boards and missionaries almost inevi-
tably arise. Therefore what the American Board
has encountered may be partially encountered
by all as soon as a stronger native church is de-
184
THE GIST OF JAPAN
veloped. Perhaps the national characteristics of
the people are to some extent responsible also
for this trouble and friction.
The Church of Christ in Japan
This body represents an attempt at church
union on a large scale. It is composed of all the
Presbyterian and Reformed churches working in
Japan. These are the Presbyterian Church in
the United States of America, the Reformed
Church in America, the United Presbyterian
Church of Scotland, the Reformed Church in the
United States, the Presbyterian Church in the
United States (South), the Woman's Union Mis-
sionary Society, and the Cumberland Presbyte-
rian Church. All of these bodies are engaged in
building up one and the same native church — the
Church of Christ in Japan. Yet each has its own
field and is doing its own individual work.
The growth and success of this body have been
phenomenal. It has 1 1 , i oo members, 60 ordained
native ministers, 113 unordained catechists, and
146 missionaries. Its leading educational in-
stitution is the Meiji Gakuin, in Tokyo, with
both an academic and a theological department.
This is a large, well-equipped school, with a good
faculty.
In connection with this Church of Christ there
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN 185
is a good academic and theological school in
Nagasaki, known as Steele College, and supported
by the Dutch Reformed and Southern Presby-
terian missions. This school is as thoroughly
evangelical and positive in its teachings as any
to be found in Japan.
There are besides these five boarding-schools
for boys, with 376 students, and sixteen board-
ing-schools for girls, with 795 pupils.
The representatives of the Church of Christ are
found throughout the length and breadth of the
land and are doing a good work. It is likely
that this church will take the lead in the future.
Methodist Churches
There are five branches of the Methodist
Church at work, namely, the American Metho-
dist Episcopal, the Canadian Methodist Episcopal,
the Evangelical Association of North America,
the Methodist Protestant, and the American
Methodist Episcopal (South). There is no or-
ganic union between these bodies, but harmony
and fraternity prevail. Efforts at union have
been made time and again, but have been as yet
unsuccessful. We hope the future Methodist
Church of Japan will be a united body.
At present each one of these different bodies
supports its own schools ; their efficiency is thus
186
THE GIST OF JAPAN
impaired, and great loss of men, time, and money
entailed. In the whole Methodist Church there
are five boys' boarding-schools, with 329 scholars ;
sixteen girls' boarding-schools, with 970 scholars ;
and five theological schools, with 60 students.
There are 143 missionaries, 115 native minis-
ters, 116 catechists, and 7678 members.
The Methodist missions have had a rapid, sub-
stantial growth and are exerting a strong influ-
ence. They surpass all other bodies in annual
contributions per member, and I think it may be
said that the native Methodist churches have
shown less of self-seeking and more of self-sacri-
fice than the others. The emotional character
of Methodism adapts it to the taste of the people.
Episcopalians
The five branches of this church working in
Japan are laboring unitedly for the establishment
of one native church, called Nippon Sei Kokwai.
These five bodies are the American Protestant
Episcopal Church, the Church Missionary Society
(English), the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel (English), the Wyclif College Mission
(Canada), and the English Church in Canada.
The united body has 149 missionaries, 30 native
ministers^ 124 unordained helpers, and 5555
communicant members.
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN 187
This church conducts five boarding-schools for
boys, with 169 scholars; eight boarding-schools
for girls, with 263 scholars; and four theological
schools, with 52 students. This body has done
a great deal of hard, substantial work, and has
enjoyed a fair degree of the popular favor.
During these late reactionary years, when other
missions have made little progress, its growth
has continued uninterruptedly. The Nippon Sei
Kokwai is presided over by five bishops, four of
whom are English and one American. Two are
located in Tokyo, one in Hokkaido, one in Osaka,
and one in Nagasaki.
Baptists
There are four Baptist societies doing mission
work in Japan : the Baptist Missionary Union
(United States), the Disciples of Christ, the
Christian Church of America, and the Southern
Baptist Convention. There is no organic union
between them, but the first- and last-named
bodies work together. The four bodies unitedly
have 92 missionaries, 14 native ministers, 68 native
catechists, and 2327 members.
They have one boarding-school for boys, with
14 students; six boarding-schools for girls, with
205 students ; and two theological schools, with 2 1
students.
188
THE GIST OF JAPAN
The Baptist missionaries laboring in Japan are
an able, hard-working, evangelical body of men,
and there are some good, strong native Baptist
ministers.
Lutherans
The Lutheran Church began mission work in
Japan only four years ago, and as yet her mission
is small. It is supported by the United Synod
of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the South
(United States). The Lutheran Church in the
United States has occupied a peculiar position.
A large per cent, of the emigrants from the Old
World are of Lutheran antecedents. Hundreds
of thousands of them have come over and settled
in the West, and the energies of the American
Lutheran Church have been largely expended
in caring for these unhoused and unshepherded
sheep of her own flock. It seems that Provi-
dence has allotted to her this special work. No
other church in America is carrying on home
mission work on so large a scale, among so
many different nationalities, and in so many lan-
guages. Because of the great home mission work
that has naturally fallen into her hands and de-
manded her men and money she has not engaged
in foreign work as extensively as some other
American bodies.
And yet the American contingent of this old
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN 189
mother church of Protestantism has a foreign-
mission record of which she is not ashamed. She
has supported for many years a mission on the
west coast of Africa, at Muhlenberg, that is by
universal consent the most successful mission in
West Africa. She is also supporting two large
and successful missions in India.
The Lutheran mission in Japan was begun as
a venture. The after development of the work
has amply justified the wisdom of the undertak-
ing. It is not the purpose of the Lutheran
Church to antagonize any of the bodies now at
work in Japan, but rather to stand, amid all the
doctrinal unrest characteristic of Japanese Chris-
tianity, for pure doctrine, as she has always done.
It is her purpose to teach a positive, evangelical
Christianity.
The working force of the mission consists of 2
missionaries and their wives, 2 native helpers, and
I Bible-woman. The field occupied is small.
There is only one station, and that is in the city
of Saga, on the island of Kyushu. Much work
is done in the surrounding villages and towns
from Saga as a center. It is not the purpose of
this mission to use large numbers of men and
great quantities of money, as some others have
done. It purposes working intensively rather than
extensively. It attempts to devote all of its time
to evangelistic work, and does not engage in
190
THE GIST OF JAPAN
educational work further than theological instruc-
tion.
Although the missionaries came to Japan in
1892, the station was not opened until 1893.
Since that time about 55 converts have been
baptized.
There are numerous small Christian bodies at
work, such as the Scandinavian Japan Alliance,
the Society of Friends, the International Mission-
ary Alliance, the Hephzibah Faith Missionary
Association, and the Salvation Army. There are
also three liberal bodies working here, generally
classed as unevangelical : the Evangelical Prot-
estant Missionary Society, the Universalist mis-
sion, and the Unitarian mission.
The English and American Bible and tract
societies have ably seconded these missionary
bodies by the circulation of large numbers of
Bibles, tracts, and various kinds of Christian
books. The value of their work can hardly be
estimated. The American Bible Society, the
National Bible Society of Scotland, the British
and Foreign Bible Society, the American Tract
Society, and the London Religious Tract Society
have all had a part in the work.
Such is a brief enumeration of the Christian
forces at work in Japan. With so large a body
of consecrated workers and so much missionary
PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN JAPAN 191
machinery, it seems that the work of evangeliza-
tion ought to go on rapidly. A great deal has
already been accomplished, as the figures given
above show. A native church of 40,000 people
is no mean prize ; but this is only the smallest
part of the work of the missions. They have
created a Christian literature, disseminated a cer-
tain knowledge of the gospel among the people,
and in a hundred different ways indirectly influ-
enced the life of this nation. Japanese missions
have been a brilliant success.
XI
QUALIFICATIONS FOR MISSION WORK IN JAPAN
For mission work, as for every other calling in
life, some men are naturally adapted, others are
not. Those by nature fitted for the work will in
all probability have a reasonable degree of suc-
cess, while no amount of zeal or spiritual fervor
can make successful those not so fitted. It is
true to a large extent that missionaries are born,
not made.
How important it becomes, then, that mission
boards and societies should carefully consider the
qualifications of all applicants before they are sent
to the mission field ! How necessary it is for all
those contemplating work in certain fields, before
offering their services to the boards, to examine
whether their qualifications are such as to justify
an expectation of a reasonable degree of success
in those fields!
For the benefit of the various missionary soci-
192
QUAUFICATIONS FOR MISSION IVORK 193
eties that are annually choosing and sending out
new men to Japan, as well as for the advantage
of those who contemplate offering themselves for
work in this field, I will put down a few thoughts
on the necessary qualifications for successful mis-
sion work here.
These may be roughly classified as physical,
spiritual, and mental.
Physical Qualifications. — I regard phys-
ical qualifications as of supreme importance.
Many of my readers will think that the spiritual
should precede the physical, but with this opin-
ion I do not agree. Health is absolutely essen-
tial to successful work ; deep spirituality, while
greatly to be desired, is not so essential. Many
men have failed on the field and have been
forced to withdraw because of a lack of physical
qualifications, while few have failed for lack of
spiritual qualifications. I think it is true that
young men who when in college and seminary
appear to be almost consumed with missionary
zeal and enthusiasm, who are pointed out as ex-
amples in spirituality, and who are burning with
a desire to get into the foreign field, do not make
as good missionaries as some others. Men who
pledge themselves in youth, and who, actuated
by a wild enthusiasm, which has more zeal than
knowledge, urge themselves upon the mission
boards, do not do as good work as those chosen
194
THE GIST OF JAPAN
by the boards themselves, who may never have
considered seriously foreign work before the call
was extended to them. Enthusiasm and zeal are
good things in their place, but they are apt to
lead men to extremes. People who enter mission
work simply because they are filled with a burn-
ing enthusiasm and zeal are not likely to stay as
long or work as well as those who enter upon the
work with more hesitation, after careful delibera-
tion and a counting of the cost.
Wallace Taylor, M.D., of Osaka, Japan, him-
self an experienced missionary of the American
Board, says : " I should advise that men be
chosen for their physical and mental adaptation
and ability rather than for their burning zeal for
the foreign work. To maintain health and be a
successful missionary a man must possess more
judgment than enthusiasm and more discretion
than zeal. Enthusiasm and zeal are good quali-
ties in a missionary, but to these you must add
that which is better — judgment, wisdom, and
self-control. The burning fire shut up in the
bones, that cannot be controlled, only consumes
vital energies and speedily produces failing health.
We need men who can stand and face the white
harvest and the many calls to work, and yet with
cool deliberation preserve their strength for future
work. We want men sent for their cool deliber-
ation and self-control rather than for their burn-
QUALIFICATIONS FOR MISSION IVORK 195
ing zeal and enthusiasm. We need men who
are intellect rather than a bundle of nerves. A
nervous, excitable, uneasy person will fret and
wear himself out in from six months to three
years in Japan."
It is desirable, then, in the first place, that the
missionary be a sound physical man. No one
should be accepted by a mission board for work
in Japan who cannot secure a policy in a reliable
life-insurance company, and it would be well if
the medical examination were made by an ex-
aminer for such company. The examinations
made by a physician appointed by the mission
boards are usually mere farces, for the desire to
go as a missionary frequently covers up many
physical weaknesses and prevents a thorough
examination. The examination should therefore
be made by a disinterested medical man, who
will not be influenced by such motives.
It seems hard to subject candidates for mission
work to such rigid examinations, and perhaps re-
fuse to send them because of some small physi-
cal defect ; but the interests of the work make
it imperative. Otherwise the young missionary
will, in all probability, break down and have to
go home in three or four years, before he has
been able to do any active work. The experi-
ment will have cost the board a large amount of
money and a loss of several years, and the mis-
196
THE GIST OF JAPAN
sionary some of the best years of his life, prob-
ably making of him an incurable invalid. In so
serious a matter as this the boards cannot afford
to be swayed by sentiment. Nothing but sound
business principles should be followed.
The same physical requirements should be
made for the woman as for the man. She, too,
should be subjected to a medical examination,
and any serious defect in her constitution should
cause her immediate rejection. It seems hard to
subject the wife to this test, as she is not a mis-
sionary in the strict sense of the term, and to
many the requirement will be distasteful ; but for
their protection, and for a judicious use of con-
secrated funds, the boards should require it. A
little thought will show that the failure of the
wife's health is just as disastrous for the mission
as the failure of her husband's. It cripples his
efficiency while on the field, and ultimately drives
him home. Most boards operating in Japan have
not made this requirement, and as a consequence
many missionaries' wives are in poor health, and
as many men have had to return home because
of the failure of their wives' health as for any
other one cause.
The mission boards should not appoint too
young men to work in Japan. It is well known
that young men cannot endure so well as older
ones change of climate and hard work. Those
QUALIFIC/ITIONS FOR MISSION IVORK 197
who are physically and mentally immature will
very probably be unable to bear the strain. In
general, no one should be sent out under twenty-
five years of age, and it would be safer if all who
came had attained the age of thirty. Against
this it is argued that a young person will acquire
the language more readily than an older one, and
this is doubtless true. But health is o/ first im-
portance.
Spiritual Qualifications. — Although I
consider spiritual qualifications after physical
ones, I nevertheless regard them as of great im-
portance. It is highly desirable that every mis-
sionary be a deeply spiritual man, fully conse-
crated to the cause of Christ. The consecration
needed in the missionary is little different from
that needed in the home pastor. If he has given
himself and all that he has to Christ, he will be
ready to work for Him anywhere. Those who
come to the mission field without such consecra-
tion, expecting the grandeur of the work to beget
it, will be bitterly disappointed. In many in-
stances contact with heathenism weakens more
than it strengthens consecration. The societies
should require that those who are to do spiritual
work should be consecrated, spiritual men.
The missionary should be sound in the faith,
should clearly discern and readily accept the
fundamental doctrines of Christianity, and should
198
THE GIST OF JAPAN
be able to distinguish between essentials and
non-essentials, tenaciously holding to the former,
while allowing liberty in regard to the latter.
He will encounter many strange things in his
new environment ; many of his pet theories
will be exploded, and he will meet much that
will try his faith. His belief in the essentials of
Christianity should be so strong that even if his
views undergo a change in non-essentials he shall
not be shaken at the center. He must be able to
defend his faith against its enemies, as well as to
impart it to those to whom he is sent. To do
this his own hold upon it must be firm and un-
yielding.
The missionary should have a positive, not a
negative, faith. His position should continually
be one of offense, not of defense. His faith must
be aggressive and dominant in its hold upon
others, must b« both persuasive and constructive.
He must be sure of the faith in which he trusts,
and must be positive in his presentation of it to
the world.
It is especially important that the missionary's
doctrinal development be full and rounded. He
should see all the doctrines of the Christian sys-
tem in their proper relation to one another, and
should give due importance to each. A one-
sided, eccentric man, who has struck off from the
main line of doctrinal development and is on a
QUALIFIC/iTIONS FOR MISSION JVORK 199
side-track, having exalted some one phase of the
Christian teaching or hfe to the exclusion of
others, is not fitted for mission work. He can be
used to better effect at home, because there he
is continually under restraining influences, while
here there are no restraints. For this reason
what would be only a harmless eccentricity at
home may result in great mischief abroad. Those
who are to found the church in Japan, to shape
its theology and its life, should be well-rounded
men, who will not unduly exalt any one doctrine,
but who, having a comprehensive view of the
Christian system, will give due importance to
every part.
It is very important that prospective mission-
aries fully count the cost, and be prepared before-
hand to endure patiently the trials and hardships
that will be sure to meet them. No one should
go out without having carefully considered all of
these things, and gained the full consent of his
heart to endure them. If the cost has not been
counted, and the work willingly entered upon
with a full knowledge of its hardships and diffi-
culties, the encounter of these upon the field is
apt to result in disappointment and dissatisfaction.
Every missionary should be a lover of human-
ity, even in its lowest and most degraded forms.
It is useless for us to attempt to persuade and
influence non-Christian men if we do not love
200
THE GIST OF JAPAN
them. The audiences we address may not be
moved by our logic or rhetoric ; our most elo-
quent sermons may have no effect on them ; but
practical illustrations of our love for them will al-
ways meet with a hearty response. Love is the
key that opens all hearts " Faith, hope, love,
these three; but the greatest of these is love."
To love refined Christian men and women is
easy, but to love humanity in its more degraded
forms is hard. And yet the missionary must be
prepared to love an alien race, that regards him
with coolness and distrust. He must be ready
to associate with lowly people, amid humble and
immoral surroundings, and to be patient, kind,
and loving to the most degraded. No one who
has not lived on the mission field and associated
freely with the people knows how hard this is.
Such love will win more men to Christ than elo-
quent preaching or most careful instruction. The
man who possesses a large amount of it, other
things being equal, will meet with success.
The missionary should, as far as possible, pre-
sent in his own character all Christian graces.
He will be looked upon as a product of the faith
he represents, and will exercise more influence
by his life than by his words. He must not be
impatient, quarrelsome, or wilful, and, above all,
he must not be proud. Constant association with
an inferior race is apt to beget a haughty, dom-
QUALIFICATIONS FOR MISSION IVORK 201
ineering manner, and the missionary needs to be
especially on his guard against this. He may
present no striking defects of character, else his
faith will be held responsible for them. Peculiar-
ities and faults that are known to be merely per-
sonal at home are regarded in the mission field
as the result of a bad religion.
It is very important that the missionary be an
attractive man, possessed of personal magnetism.
He should by nature draw men, not repel them.
Although hard to define, we all know what this
power is. Let a little child come into a room
where two men are sitting. It will readily go to
the one, but no amount of coaxing will induce it
to go to the other. The one possesses an innate
power to attract, while the other repels. Where
the personal element plays so important a role it
is essential that the missionary possess the power
to draw men.
Mental Qualifications. — Hardly less im-
portant than physical and spiritual are the men-
tal qualifications. A mediocre man cannot do
good work in any mission field, least of all in a
field Hke Japan. None but strong men should be
sent out. In former years, when the science of
missions was little understood, it was thought a
waste to send a man of unusual intellectual en-
dowments, because an ordinary man could do the
work just as well; but the boards have wisely
202
THE GIST OF JAPAN
abandoned that policy. Experience has clearly
demonstrated the wisdom of sending the very
best men that can be had.
In the first place, the prospective missionary to
Japan should have as complete and thorough a
mental training as possible. A full academic and
theological course is highly desirable. He should
know how to reason logically and profoundly,
and should be a skilled dialectician, able to meet
the native scholars on their own ground. The
subtle philosophies of the East, which he will
daily encounter, can only be dealt with by a man
thoroughly trained. The atheistic and agnostic
philosophies of the West are spread over all
Japan, and the missionary must be able to com-
bat them.
Another reason why the missionary should be
as highly educated as possible is that large num-
bers of the Japanese people are highly educated,
and a man of poor ability and training cannot
command their respect. Education is to-day
being diffused more and more throughout Japan,
and the missionary must work among an edu-
cated people. It is necessary that he feel him-
self to be at least the intellectual equal of all with
whom he comes in contact.
In order, then, successfully to combat the sub-
tle philosophies of the East, to show the fallacies
of the prevalent skeptical philosophies of the
QUALIFICATIONS FOR MISSION H^ORK 203
West, and to command the respect of the people
among whom he labors, the missionary to this
land should have a thorough intellectual train-
ing.
Linguistic talent is another essential, and es-
pecially so in Japan. No one should be sent here
who is deficient in this. This language is perhaps
the most difficult of all spoken languages for an
Occidental to acquire. It is so thoroughly un-
like any of the European languages that the stu-
dent must change his view-point and learn to
look at things as the Japanese do before he can
make much progress. To master it one must
study both Japanese and Chinese. While a fair
linguist can, by hard work, preach with compar-
ative intelligibility after three years of study, a
complete mastery of the language is the work of
a lifetime.
If any one contemplating mission work in
Japan remembers that he was a poor student of
languages at college and made little progress in
them, let him feel assured that he can probably
serve the Lord better at home. I state this
matter strongly because just here is where so
many missionaries fail. There are men who
have been here ten or fifteen years and yet who
experience great difficulty in constructing the
smallest sentence in Japanese. Such men are not
useless ; in certain departments they serve well ;
204
THE GIST OF JAP/IN
but they would probably be of more use at
home. At least one third of all the missionaries
in Japan, if called upon to make an extempore
address in Japanese, would be found wanting.
In view of these facts, how important it be-
comes that only those men be sent out who
have a reasonable expectation of learning the
language !
Along with natural linguistic talent, the pro-
spective missionary should have a large amount of
perseverance. Nothing but persistent, slavish
work through many years will enable one to
speak Japanese well ; and no one should come
here who is not willing to stick to an unattractive
task until it is accomplished.
It is of primary importance that the missionary
have a large endowment of common sense.
Nothing else will make up for deficiency in this.
It alone gives power to adapt one's self to a new
environment and to live under changed condi-
tions. The demands upon common sense here
are much greater than at home, because the
conditions under which we live are so different,
and the practical questions that daily meet us are
so numerous. Dr. Lawrence finely says : " At
home so much common sense has been organized
into custom that we are all largely supported by
the general fund, and many men get along with
a very slender stock of their own. But on the
QUAUFICATIONS FOR MISSION H^ORK 205
mission field, where Christian custom is yet in
the making, the drafts on common sense would
soon overdraw a small account."
A knowledge of music will be found of great
assistance to the missionary, the more the better.
He will often have to start his own hymns, play
the organ, or direct the music. He may have to
translate hymns and set them to music, or even
compose tunes himself. Good church music is
now so essential in worship that every missionary
should have a knowledge of it. But this quali-
fication, while highly desirable, is not indispen-
sable.
The missionary also needs to a great degree
the power of self-control. He should be a cool,
conservative man, able to govern himself under
all circumstances. He must not be moved to
excessive labor by the present needs of the work,
but must exercise self-restraint, husbanding his
strength for future tasks. One of the most diffi-
cult things to do is to refrain from overwork
when the need of work is so apparent. But the
missionary must consider the permanent interests
of the work ahead of its temporary needs.
To sum up the desired intellectual qualifica-
tions : a missionary to Japan should have a good
mind, well disciplined by thorough training; an
abundant supply of common sense; linguistic
ability, and the power of self-control.
206
THE GIST OF JAPAN
There is one other qualification, that can hardly
be classed under any of the above heads, i.e., the
missionary should be a married man. The vast
majority of missionaries in the field to-day are
unanimous in this judgment. The experience
of the various mission boards and societies also
confirms it, and they are sending out fewer
single men each year.
Married men make more efficient workers for
many reasons. They enjoy better health and
are better satisfied. They have a home to which
they can go for rest and sympathy, and in which
they can find agreeable companionship. They
have the loving ministrations of a wife in times
of sickness and despondency, and they also have
the cheer and relaxation of children's society.
All of these things tend to make the missionary
healthier and happier, and enable him to do bet-
ter work.
Again, he should be married because a man of
mature years who is single is regarded with more
or less suspicion. To the Japanese celibacy is
an unnatural state, and it is seldom found. Most
unmarried men here are immoral, and therefore
the unmarried missionary is naturally suspected
of leading an immoral life, which cripples his in-
fluence.
But the strongest argument in favor of married
as against single missionaries is that the former
QUALIFICATIONS FOR MISSION IVORK 207
alone are able to build Christian homes. The
homes of single men are very poor things at best,
and certainly cannot be pointed to as models.
But the married man establishes a Christian home
in the midst of his people, and sets them a con-
crete example of what Christian family life should
be. This example is one of the most potent in-
fluences for good operating on the mission field.
In home life perhaps more than in any other
respect Japanese society is wanting. The reno-
vation of the home is one of the crying needs of
the hour. An open Christian home, exhibiting
the proper relations between husband and wife,
parents and children, will do much toward bring-
ing this about.
This argument is not intended to apply against
single women who come out to teach in the girls'
schools. Their work is entirely different, and is
such as can be done best by single women. The
argument applies only to the missionary engaged
in evangelistic work.
Such I believe to be the qualifications essential
to successful mission work in Japan. To many
the requirements may seem too strict. But the
work to which the missionary is called is a high
and noble one, and the ideal for a worker should
be correspondingly high. The extreme difficulty
of the work, and its great expense, make it im-
perative that only men adapted to it be sent out.
208
THE GIST OF JAP/iN
While setting forth this high ideal of what a
missionary to this land should be, no one is more
sensible than the writer of the fact that many-
missionaries, including himself, fail to realize it.
But he is glad to be able to affirm that a large
per cent, of these desired qualifications are found
in the majority of the missionary brethren in
Japan.
XII
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY
It is our purpose in this chapter to show the
churches at home something of the life which
their missionaries lead in Japan. We will attempt
to draw aside the veil and look at their private
life — the holy of holies. This is a delicate task,
and I hesitate to undertake it. And yet I think
a knowledge of the trials, perils, discouragements,
temptations, hopes, and fears of the missionary
may be very profitable to those who support
our missions.
Missionaries are men of like appetites, passions,
hopes, and desires with those at home. They
long for and enjoy the comforts and amenities
of life. They have wives and children whom
they love as devotedly, and for whom they desire
to provide as comfortable homes, as the pastor
at home.
There was a time when missionaries were
209
210
THE GIST OF JAP/IN
called upon to forego nearly all social] pleasures
and submit to endless discomforts, but that time
is past. The mission home to-day is frequently
as comfortable as that of the pastor in America.
It is right that the standard of living in the home
lands should be maintained by the missionaries
abroad, and that they surround themselves with
all available pleasures and conveniences. There
is no reason why a man should lay aside all
pleasures and comforts so soon as he becomes a
missionary.
Those who live in the foreign ports in Japan
have nice, roomy houses modeled after Western
homes. Many of them are surrounded with
beautiful lawns and fine flowers, and are a com-
fort and delight to their possessors. Most of the
missionaries who live in the interior occupy native
houses, slightly modified to suit foreign taste.
By building chimneys, and substituting glass for
paper windows, the native houses can be made
quite comfortable, though they are colder in win-
ter and do not look so well as foreign ones. The
writer has lived in such a home during most of
his residence in Japan, and has suffered little
inconvenience. Some of the wealthier mission
boards have built foreign houses even in the in-
terior, and to-day there are a good many such
scattered over Japan.
As has been before remarked, the mission
PRiyATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY 211
home is one of the most important factors in
connection with the work ; it is a Httle bit of
Christendom set down in the midst of heathen-
dom. It presents to the non-Christian masses
around it a concrete example of exalted family
life, with equality and trust between husband and
wife, and mutual love between parents and chil-
dren— things not generally found in the native
home. It is a beacon-light shining in a dark
place.
This is one of the many reasons why a mis-
sionary should be a married man. The single
man cannot create this model home, which is to
teach the people by example what Christian
family life should be. In this respect Catholic
missions are deficient, the celibacy of the priests
precluding family life.
First, then, the mission home is an example to
the non-Christian people around it. It is fre-
quently open to them, and they can see its work-
ings. They often share its hospitality and sit at
its table. Their keen eyes take in everything,
and a deep impression is made upon them.
Just here arises one of the greatest difficulties
the missionary has to contend with in his private
life. The people are so inquisitive naturally, the
mission home is so attractive to them, and our
idea of the privacy and sanctity of the home is so
lacking in their etiquette, that it is hard to keep
212
THE GIST OF JAPAN
the home from becoming public. People will
come in large numbers at the most unseasonable
hours, simply out of curiosity, wanting to see
and handle everything in the house. It is often
necessary, in self-defense, to refuse them admit-
tance, except at certain hours. Not only are the
seclusion and privacy of the home endangered,
but the missionary also is in great danger of hav-
ing his valuable time uselessly frittered away.
Notwithstanding all that the mission home is
to the people, it is much more to the missionary.
It should be to him a sure retreat and seclusion
from the peculiarly trying cares and worries of
his work. It should be a place where he can
evade the subtle influences of heathenism which
creep in at every pore — a safe retreat from the
sin and wickedness and vice around it.
The mission home should be a Western home
transplanted in the East. It may not become
too much orientaHzed. It should have Western
furniture, pictures, musical instruments, etc., and
should make its possessor feel that he is in a
Western home. It should be well supplied with
books and newspapers, and everything else that
will help to keep its inmates in touch with the
life of the West. The missionary may not be
orientalized, else he will be in danger of becom-
ing heathenized.
For the sake of his children the missionary's
PRiy/lTE LIFE OF THE MlSSlON/fRY 213
home should be as exact a reproduction of the
Western home as possible. These children are
citizens of the West, heirs of its privileges; and
to it they will go before they reach years of
maturity. Therefore it is but fair that their child-
hood home should reflect its civilization.
In order that the missionary may be able to
build up such a home it is necessary that he
be paid a liberal salary. While living in native
style is very cheap, living in Western style is
perhaps as dear here as in any country in the
world. Clothing, furniture, much of the food,
etc., must be brought from the West; and we
must pay for it not only what the people at
home pay, but the cost of carrying it half-way
round the world, and the commission of two or
three middlemen besides.
Most boards operating in Japan pay their men
a liberal salary. They also pay an allowance for
each child, health allowance, etc. All this is
well. Man is an animal, and, like other animals,
he must be well cared for if he is to do his best
work. No farmer would expect to get hard work
out of a horse that was only half fed, and no
mission board can expect to get first-class work
out of a missionary who is not liberally supported.
The missionary has enough to worry him without
having to be anxious about finances.
Especially is it wise that the boards give their
214
THE GIST OF JAPAN
men an allowance for children. The expenses
incident to a child's coming into the world in
the East are very high. The doctor's bill alone
amounts frequently to more than $ioo. Then
a nurse is absolutely necessary, there being no
relatives and friends to perform this office, as
sometimes there are in the West. The birth of a
child here means a cash outlay of $150 to $200,
to pay which the missionary is often reduced to
hard straits. If he belongs to a board that makes
a liberal child's allowance he is fortunately re-
lieved from this difficulty.
The allowance is also necessary to provide for
the future education of the child. As there are
no suitable schools here, children must be sent
home to school at an early age. They cannot
stay in the parental home and attend school from
there, as American children do, but must be
from childhood put into a boarding-school, and
this takes money. Now no missionaries' salaries
are sufficiently large to enable them to lay up
much money, and unless there is a child's allow-
ance there will be no money for his education, in
which event the missionary must sacrifice his
self-respect by asking some school or friends to
educate his child. He feels that if any one in
the world deserves a salary sufficient to meet all
necessary expenses without begging, he does ;
and it hurts him to give his life in hard service to
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY 215
the church in a foreign land, and then have his
children educated on charity.
AH mission boards should give their men an
allowance for each child, unless the salary paid is
sufficiently large to enable them to lay aside a
sufficient sum for this very purpose.
The health allowance is also a wise provision be-
cause the climate is such as often to necessitate
calling in a physician, and doctors' bills are enor-
mously high. If the missionary is not well he
cannot work ; but if he is left to pay for medical
attendance himself out of a very meager salary,
all of which is needed by his wife and children,
he will frequently deny himself the services of a
physician when they are really needed.
The work of the missionary is most trying, and
the demands on his health and strength are very
exhausting. The petty worries and trials that
constantly meet him, the rivalries and quarrels
which his converts bring to him for settlement,
the care of the churches, anxiety about his
family, etc., are a constant strain on his vital
force, in order to withstand which it is necessary
that he should have regular periods of rest and
recreation. Nature demands relaxation, and she
must "nave \\, or fne liealth of ti\e worker fails.
It is customary in Japan for the missionaries to
leave their fields of work during the summel
season and spend six weeks or two months in
216
THE GIST OF JAPAN
sanatoria among the mountains or by the sea-
shore. Here their work, with its cares and anxi-
eties, is all laid aside. The best-known sanatoria
in Japan are Karuizawa, Arima, Hakone, Sapporo,
and Mount Hiezan. In most of these places
good accommodations are provided, and the hot
weeks can be spent very pleasantly. Large
numbers of missionaries gather there, and for a
short time the tired, isolated worker can enjoy
the society of his own kind ; his wife can meet
and chat with other housewives ; and his children
can enjoy the rare pleasure of playing with other
children white like themselves. These resorts
are cool, the air is pure and invigorating, and
the missionary returns from them in September
feeling fresh and strong, ready to take up with
renewed vigor his arduous labors.
It is objected to these vacations that they take
the missionary away from his field of work, and
that so long an absence on his part is very inju-
rious to the cause. This is partially true ; but a
wise economy considers the health of the worker
and his future efficiency more than the temporary
needs of the work. The absence of the foreign
worker for a short period is not as hurtful as
one would at first glance suppose. A relatively
larger part of the work is left in the hands of the
native helpers in Japan than in most mission
fields, and these evangelists stay at their posts
PRiyATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY 217
all through the summer, and care for its interests
while the foreigner is away. The same need of
a vacation does not exist in their case, because
they are accustomed to the climate, and they
work through their native tongue and among
their own people.
The need of this missionary vacation is so evi-
dent that we need only give it in outline. In the
first place, the unfavorable climate makes a change
and rest desirable. As I have already stated, the
climate of Japan is not only very warm, but also
contains an excessive amount of moisture and a
very small per cent, of ozone, and is lacking in
atmospheric magnetism and electricity ; hence its
effect upon people from the West is depressing.
Besides the climate, the missionary's work is so
exhaustive and trying, and its demands upon him
are so great, that a few weeks' rest are absolutely
necessary. The same reasons which at home
justify the city pastor in taking a vacation are
intensified in the missionary's case.
Not least of these reasons is that the missionary
may for a while enjoy congenial society. Many
of us spend ten months of the year isolated al-
most entirely from all people of our own kind.
The Japanese are so different that we can have
but little social life with them ; and it is but
natural and right that, for a short period, we
should have the opportunity to meet and asso-
218
THE GIST OF JAPAN
date with our fellow-missionaries. The work
which we do the remainder of the year is done
much better because of this rest and fellowship.
Dr. J. C. Berry, in a paper read before the
missionary conference at Osaka in 1883, discusses
very fully this question of missionary vacations
and furloughs. After elaborating the reasons for
them, which reasons I have given in brief above,
he says : " It therefore follows that, because of
the numerous and complex influences operating
to-day to produce nerve-tire in the missionary in
Japan, regard for the permanent interests of his
work requires that a vacation be taken in sum-
mer by those residing in central and southern
Japan, the same to be accompanied by as much
of recreation and change as circumstances will
permit."
With all the care and precaution that can be
taken, with systematic rests and vacations, there
soon comes a time when it is necessary for the
missionary to return to his home land, to breathe
again the air of his youth, and to replenish his
physical, mental, and moral being. All the mis-
sion boards recognize this and permit their men
in this and in other fields to return home on fur-
lough after a certain number of years. The defi-
nite time required by the different missions before
a furlough is granted varies from three to ten
years, the latter period being the most general.
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY 219
But this has been found to be too long, and fail-
ing health usually compels an earlier return.
Some boards have no set time, but a tacit under-
standing exists that the missionary may go home
at the end of six or eight years.
At the end of the prescribed period the mis-
sionary family is taken home at the expense of
the board, and is given a rest of a year or eigh-
teen months. During this time, if the missionary
is engaged in preaching or lecturing for the board,
as is generally the case, he is paid his full salary.
If he does no w^ork he is sometimes paid only
half his salary. This is very hard, as the salary
is just large enough to support him and his family,
and their expenses while at home are almost as
great as while in the field. If the salary is cut
down the pleasure and benefit of the furlough are
curtailed. If the missionary in the service of the
board exhausts his health and strength in an un-
favorable climate it seems but fair that he should
be properly supported while endeavoring to re-
cuperate. When a church at home votes its pas-
tor a vacation, instead of cutting down his salary
during his absence, it is customary to give him
an extra sum to enable him to enjoy it. Why
should not the same be done for the missionary ?
He should at least be permitted to draw the full
amount of his small salary.
Against these vacations is urged their great
220
THE GIST OF JAPAN
expense to the boards, the greater loss to the
mission because of the absence of the worker,
and the moral effect of frequent returns upon the
church at home. All of these objections have
weight, but they are far outweighed by the rea-
sons that necessitate the furlough. The accumu-
lated experience of the different boards makes
the judgment unanimous that these are necessary.
The judgment of competent medical men also
confirms the statement. Dr. Taylor said in the
Osaka conference : " I am convinced that a mis-
sionary's highest interest requires, and the great-
est efficiency in his work will be secured by, a
return home at stated intervals." Dr. Berry said
in the same conference : " The new and strange
social conditions under which the missionary is
obliged to work ; the effects of chmate, intensified
in many cases by comparative youth ; the absence
of many of those home comforts and social, intel-
lectual, and religious privileges with which the
Christian civilization of to-day so plentifully sur-
rounds life ; the home ties, strengthened by youth-
ful affections, — all these combine with present
facilities of travel to render it advisable that the
young missionary be at liberty to take a compara-
tively early vacation in his native land."
From an economic standpoint it is wise to grant
these furloughs. It is poor economy to keep the
workers in the field until they are completely
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY 221
broken down, and then have to replace them by
inexperienced men, who will not be able to do
the work of the old ones for years. Far wiser is
it to let them stop and recuperate in the home
lands before this breakdown comes. It costs less
money to keep a missionary well than to care for
him during a long, unprofitable period of sickness.
I quote again on this point Wallace Taylor, M.D.,
who, in the paper referred to above, said : " The
present haphazard, unsystematic methods of most
missions and boards is attended with the greatest
expense and the poorest returns. Some of the
boards working in Japan have lost more time and
expended more money in caring for their broken-
down missionaries than it would cost to carry out
the recommendations herein made. Again, I ob-
serve that many who do not break down begin
to fail in health after the fourth or fifth year from
entering on their work. They remain on the
field, and are reluctantly obliged to spend more
or less time in partial work, while experiencing
physical discomfort and dissatisfaction of mind.
Very many of these cases would have accom-
plished more for the means expended by a fur-
lough home at the close of the fifth or sixth year.
. . . Over $90,000 have been expended in Japan
by one mission alone in distracted efforts to regain
the health of its missionaries."
These furloughs are also needed to keep the
222
THE GIST OF JAPAN
missionary in touch with the Hfe of the home
churches. The West is rapidly progressing in
civilization, in arts and sciences, and in theology
as well. The missionary who spends ten or more
years on the field before returning home finds
himself in an entirely new atmosphere, with which
he is unfamiliar. He looks at things from the
standpoint of ten or more years ago ; his methods
of work, his language, all are belated. In order
that he may give to the nascent churches of Japan
the very best theology, the very best methods,
and the very best life of the Western churches, it
is necessary for him to return frequently tobreathe
in their spirit and life and keep up with their for-
ward march.
For the missionary's personal benefit he should
be permitted to come into frequent contact with
the home churches. A too long uninterrupted
breathing of the poisonous atmosphere of hea-
thenism has a wonderfully cooling effect upon his
ardor and zeal, and is trying to his faith. He
needs to come into contact with the broader faith
and deeper life of the home churches, and receive
from them new consecration and devotion to his
work.
The church at home needs also to come fre-
quently into contact with its missionaries. Noth-
ing will so stir up interest and zeal in the mission
cause as to see and hear its needs from living,
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY 223
active workers, fresh from the field. If mission-
aries were more frequently employed to repre-
sent the cause to the churches at home perhaps
our mission treasuries would not be so depleted.
Mission addresses from home pastors are abstract
and theoretical ; those from missionaries are con-
crete and practical. The former speak from read-
ing, the latter from personal experience. The
address of the missionary comes with power be-
cause he speaks of what he has seen and felt, and
his personality is thrown into it.
For the sake, then, of the work abroad, of the
missionary himself, and of the home churches,
missionaries should be required to take regular
furloughs at stated intervals, and should spend
them in the home lands.
How long can the missionary safely work in
Japan before taking his first furlough ? That will
depend upon the nature of the man himself, and
the kind of mission work in which he is engaged.
The average length of time spent here by the
missionaries before the first furlough is about
seven years. There are no men more competent
to pass judgment upon this matter than Drs.
Berry and Taylor, who have spent the better part
of their lives here, in the service of the American
Board, and who are thoroughly acquainted with
the conditions that surround us. Dr. Berry says :
" I do not hesitate to affirm that the ' ten-year-
224
THE GIST OF JAPAN',
or-Ionger rule,' still adhered to by some mission-
ary societies, and by many missionaries as well,
is too long for the first term. ... I indorse what
in substance has been suggested by my friend
Dr. McDonald, viz., that the time of service on
the field prior to the first furlough be seven
years, and that prior to subsequent furloughs be
ten years ; this plan to be modified by health,
existing conditions of work, home finances, and
by individual preferences." Dr. Taylor says:
" My observations have led me to the conclusion
that the first furlough ought to be taken at the
close of the fifth or sixth year, and after that once
every eight or ten years."
We have yet to look at the trials and sorrows,
the encouragements and joys, of the missionary.
We have already looked into the missionary's
home ; let us now endeavor to look into his heart.
If the former is his sanctum, this is his sanctum
sanctorum ; and I trust my missionary brethren
will pardon me for exposing it to the public view.
We will pass by all physical hardships, such
as climate, improper food, poor houses, etc. Al-
though these are often greater hardships than
the people at home know, they are but " light
afflictions " to the missionary. His real trials lie
in an entirely different sphere.
The greatest hardship the missionary has to
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE MISSION /tRY 225
bear is his loneliness and isolation. Separated
almost entirely from his own race, he is deprived
of all those social joys that are so dear to him.
The thought of his kinsmen and friends is ever
in his mind, but alas! they are so far away.
He must go on year after year living among a
people from whom an impassable gulf separates
him, leading the same lonely life. For the first
year or two he rather enjoys the quiet and pri-
vacy, but by and by it becomes almost unendur-
able. Dr. Edward Lawrence has correctly styled
the missionary "an exile." We cannot do bet-
ter than quote his words : " Very many of the
missionary's heaviest burdens are summed up in
the one word whose height and breadth and
length and depth none knows so well as he — that
word 'exile.' It is not merely a physical exile
from home and country and all their interests ;
it is not only an intellectual exile from all that
would feed and stimulate the mind; it is yet
more — a spiritual exile from the guidance, the in-
struction, the correction, from the support, the
fellowship, the communion of the saints and the
church at home. It is an exile as when a man is
lowered with a candle into foul places, where the
noxious gases threaten to put out his light, yet
he must explore it all and find some way to drain
off the refuse and let in the sweet air and sun to
do their own cleansing work. . . . The mission-
226
THE GIST OF JAPAN
ary is not only torn away from those social bonds
that sustain, or even almost compose, our men-
tal, moral, and spiritual life, but he is forced into
closest relations with heathenism, whose evils he
abhors, whose power and fascinations, too, he
dreads. And when at last he can save his own
children only by being bereft of them, he feels
himself an exile indeed."
The missionary's life is full of disappointments.
Men for whom he has labored and prayed it may
be for years, and in whom he has placed implicit
confidence, will often bitterly disappoint him in
their Christian life. Boys who have been edu-
cated on his charity, who are what they are
solely by his help, will frequently be guilty of
base ingratitude, and, worse yet, will repudiate
his teachings. The native church not having
generations of Christian ancestry behind it, and
not being in a Christian environment, is often, it
may be unwittingly, guilty of heathen practices
that sorely try the heart of the missionary.
The struggle between the new life and the old
heathenism is still seen in the church-members
and even in the native ministry. Each mission-
ary, if he would be well and cheerful in his work,
must learn to cast all burdens of such a charac-
ter on the Lord, and not be oppressed by them.
One of the greatest trials some of us have to
bear is that we must live in an environment so
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY 227
unconducive to personal growth and development.
There is a great deal of ambition lurking about
us still, and we do not like to see our own de-
velopment cut short because of an unfavorable
environment, while our friends and classmates
at home, who were no more than our equals in
former days, far surpass us in intellectual devel-
opment and in influence and power. Perhaps a
missionary should be above such thoughts and
should be perfectly content with a life of obscu-
rity and partial development; but missionaries
are still men, and to many an ambitious one the
limits placed upon his personal development are
very irksome.
But why are the conditions unfavorable to
high personal development? Because those
stimulants to prolonged, vigorous effort that
exist in the West are lacking. The stimulus of
competition, the contact of thinking minds, so
necessary to enlist the full exercise of a man's
powers, are largely wanting. One is shut up to
his own thoughts and to those he gets from
books, and his development, in so far as it does
proceed, is very apt to be one-sided. This is
the reason why so many missionaries are narrow,
unable to see a subject in all its relations and to
give due importance to each.
The work of the missionary from beginning to
end is one of self-sacrifice and self-effacement.
228
THE GIST OF JAPAN
There is no future for him in the councils of the
native church. As the work grows and extends
he must gradually take a back seat. As the
native ministry develops, the foreign minister is
less and less needed, and must gradually with-
draw.
Again, the home land, father and mother,
brothers and sisters, friends and companions, are
just as dear to the missionary as to any one else.
Yet it seems inevitable that he will gradually
grow away from them and be forgotten by them.
Prolonged absence brings forgetfulness ; diverse
labors and interests put people out of sympathy
with one another. When the new missionary
first comes out to his field, communication be-
tween him and friends is frequent. Letters pass
regularly, little remembrances are sent from time
to time, and he is still in touch with his friends
at home. But by and by a change comes.
After one or two years exchange of presents
and remembrances ceases ; gradually the letters
cease also, and none come except those from his
immediate family. Even these become less and
less frequent. The arrival of the mails, which at
first was looked forward to with so much joy, is
now scarcely noted. An old American gentle-
man who has spent some forty years in the East
tells me that he now receives from the home land
not more than two or three letters per year.
PRiyATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY 229
After a few years of residence here one feels that
he is largely out of touch with the life of the
West, and that he is forgotten by home and
friends.
It seems to me that churches and friends can
do much toward preventing this, and toward
brightening the lives of their missionaries, if they
will. Let pastors and friends throughout the
church take special pains to write interesting
personal letters to the missionary. It will do him
good just to be remembered in this way. It is
natural that the same kindness, attention, and
love that are shown to the home pastor should
not be shown to the missionary, because he is so
far away and the strong personal element is
wanting. But if the churches would make an
effort to share their kindness and beneficence
between the home pastor and the foreign one it
would be highly appreciated by the latter.
Especially does this seem but fair in a case
where a church supports its own missionary and
where most of its members are personally ac-
quainted with him. Such churches speak of hav-
ing two pastors ; one at home ministering to them,
and one abroad, in their stead, preaching the gos-
pel to the heathen. Why should not these pas-
tors have equal place in their hearts and receive
equally their kindness and their gifts? If any
preference is shown, it would seem that it should
230
THE GIST OF JAPAN
be to the foreign pastor, for he has much the
harder work. But the foreign pastor is generally-
forgotten, while the home pastor, with whom liv-
ing is much cheaper, is paid a larger salary ; he
is given a vacation, and a purse to enable him to
spend it pleasantly ; at Christmas he is substan-
tially remembered, and all through the year he is
presented with numerous gifts and shown many
favors. The poor lonely missionary is paid a
moderate salary and is given no further thought.
Imagine the feelings of a man in a mission field,
supported by one church which always speaks of
him as its foreign pastor, as he takes up a church
paper and reads of the favors shown the home
pastor; among them such items as "a nice purse
of fifty dollars," " a three months' leave of ab-
sence, and expenses to ." He cannot help
thinking with a sigh of that unpaid doctor's bill
of fifty dollars incurred by his wife's ill health
last summer, or of the money needed to send
his boy home to be educated.
A church should try to remember its pastor
abroad as well as the one at home. The home
pastor himself could see to it that this is done.
If he should simply say, when handed a present
for some purpose, " Our foreign pastor has not
been remembered by us, and he needs it more
than I, therefore we will send this to him," the
result would probably be that he and the foreign
PRiyATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY 231
pastor would both be remembered. If little ex-
pressions of appreciation and kindness, such as
this, were occasionally shown the missionaries, it
would do much to brighten and cheer their hard
lives. These are little things, but the little things
have much to do with our happiness.
If the missionary life has its sorrows and dis-
appointments, it has its pleasures and joys as
well. It is with great pleasure that I turn from
the dark to the bright side of our lives.
First I would mention that sweet peace and joy
that come from the consciousness of doing one's
duty. The true missionary feels that God has
called him into the work, and that he is fulfilling
the divine will. This knowledge brings with it
much pleasure. The joy is all the sweeter be-
cause of the sacrifices that must be undergone in
answer to the divine call. He feels not only that
he is in the field by the call of God, but also that
God is with him in his work, leading, guiding,
blessing, helping him. He hears the words of
his Master, " Lo, I am with you alway," and he
gladly responds, " In Thy presence is fullness of
joy." The brooding Spirit of God is especially
near the Christian worker in foreign lands, and
imparts to him much joy and peace.
Another of the missionary's joys is to see the
gospel gradually taking hold of the hearts of the
people and renewing and transforming them. It
232
THE GIST OF JAPAN
is passing pleasant to tell the gospel story, so full
of hope and joy, to these people whose religious
ideas and aspirations are only dark and gloomy.
Who could desire sweeter joy than to watch the
transforming power of the gospel in the heart of
some poor heathen, changing him from an idol-
worshiping, immoral creature into a pure, con-
sistent Christian? It is the good fortune of the
missionary to see such changes taking place in
the people to whom he ministers. And what a
change it is! For gloom and dejection it gives
joy and hope ; for blind, irresistible fate it gives
a loving providence. The change is so great
that every feature of the face expresses it.
Lastly, the crown of the missionary's life is to
see a strong, vigorous native church springing
up around him, the direct result of his labors;
to see it gradually and silently spreading itself
throughout the whole nation as the leaven
through the meal, permeating every form of its
life and impressing itself upon every phase of its
character. To this native church he confidently
looks for the evangelization of the masses and
the accomplishment of all that for which he has
labored so long and so earnestly. When the mis-
sionary can look upon such a native church with
the feeling that it will be faithful to its Lord and
do His work ; when he can sit in its pews and
hear soul-nourishing gospel sermons from his
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE MISSIONARY 233
own pupils, now grown strong in the Lord — then
indeed his cup of joy is full. The trials and sor-
rows that were endured in connection with the
work are all forgotten, and his only emotion is
one of glad thanksgiving.
In some lands many missionaries have already
received this crown to their labors ; it has been
partially received in Japan, and if we are but
faithful to our crust shall yet be received in all
lands.
XIII
METHODS OF AVORK
Missionaries attempt in various ways to
evangelize the nations to which they are sent.
The extent and variety of the work which the
missionary is called upon to perform are much
greater than the people at home are apt to think.
He must be at the same time a preacher, a teacher,
a translator, a financier, a judge, an author, an
editor, an architect, a musician. The great variety
of the work necessitates a well-rounded man.
All of these offices are, in an indirect sense,
ways of doing mission work ; but we will here
confine ourselves to the consideration of the more
direct and positive methods in vogue in Japan.
These are direct evangelization, educational work,
literary work, and medical work.
Direct Evangelization
By this I mean the actual propagation of the
gospel, by word of mouth, to the people to whom
234
METHODS OF IVORK
235
we are sent. I mention this first because I re-
gard it as the most important of all methods.
The supreme vocation of the missionary is, not to
educate, not to heal, but to preach the gospel.
It is well for mission boards and missionaries to
remember this, for there is danger in many places
of making this primary method secondary tc
education. While it is probably true that the
evangelization of the masses will depend ulti-
mately upon the efforts of the native ministry, this
should not therefore be construed to mean that
the foreign missionary has nothing to do with
this department of the work. He should per-
sonally engage in this evangelistic work, should
himself come into actual contact with the unevan-
gelized masses, and should proclaim the gospel
directly to them. In this way only can he un-
derstand thoroughly the nature of the work in
which he is engaged, and be enabled to sympa-
thize with and advise his evangelists. He should
not only train native evangelists, but should be
an evangelist himself, teaching his helpers, by
earnest, zealous example as well as by precept,
right methods of the proclamation of the gospel.
Such work must also bear direct fruit in the con-
version of souls ; for even in this land, in spite of
the great nationalism and strong prejudice against
foreigners, a foreigner will draw larger congrega-
tions and be listened to with more attention than
236
THE GIST OF JAPAN
a native. And this is not simply because of curi-
osity ; the people have more confidence in his
ability properly to represent the foreign religion.
For these reasons, then, viz., for the sake of the
souls he may win, for the sake of the example he
may set to his helpers, and for his own sake, that
he may rightly understand and appreciate the
work, every missionary should, as far as possible,
be an evangelist. This is emphasized here be-
cause in many places the evangelistic work is in
danger of being subordinated to the educational,
and missionaries are not lacking who take the
strange ground that it is neither necessary nor
profitable for the missionary personally to come
into contact with the unevangelized masses. This
seems to me to be a very mistaken view of the
sphere of the foreign worker. He should not
only train helpers, support and advise them, but
he should also go with them among the people
and preach to them himself.
The direct propagation of the gospel may be
either local or itinerating. The missionary may
reside in one place, have a fixed chapel, and there
teach all who come to him ; or he may go on
long tours through the country, preaching from
town to town and from village to village. In
general these methods are combined in Japan.
The missionary is located in one town and to the
work there gives most of his attention; but he
METHODS OF IVORK
237
also at stated intervals visits the surrounding
towns and country, doing evangelistic work
wherever he can.
Local Evangelism. — For obvious reasons,
local evangelistic work yields the greatest returns.
To it the missionary gives his constant care and
attention, while his visits to the country are only
periodical. Local evangelistic work in Japan is
carried on somewhat in the following manner:
A house, as centrally located in the town as
possible, is rented and fitted up as a chapel. The
only furnishings needed are a small table and
some lamps. Japanese houses are so constructed
that the whole wall on the street side can be re-
moved, and people standing in the street can see
and hear all that is going on within. In this new
chapel, one or two evenings a week, the gospel
will be preached. In China there is preaching
in such chapels every day, but in Japan the peo-
ple will not come oftener than once or twice a
week. In all probability both the missionary and
the native evangelist will preach the same even-
ing, one after the other. At first very few peo-
ple will come into the house, but numbers will
congregate in the street and will listen to what is
said. After the service is over an opportunity is
given for personal conversation on religious top-
ics. By and by a little interest is manifested,
and some begin to come into the house. A great
238
THE GIST OF JAPy4N
deal has been gained when people will go so far
as to come up into the Christian chapel, in plain
view of the multitudes, and hear the sermon.
In many cases the native evangelist lives in the
chapel (in the same building, but occupying differ-
ent rooms) and daily meets and talks with people
about religion. In this way he hears of those
who are interested, and he and the missionary
visit such in their homes and converse privately
with them. In my own mission, as soon as any
are interested, they are organized into a cate-
chetical class, which meets weekly, and are thor-
oughly instructed in Luther's Small Catechism.
But I find that unless this is preceded by more
elementary instruction this excellent little manual
will not be well understood. Real inquirers are
glad to come and study the catechism and the
Bible, and they study them well. Some of the
most satisfactory work I have done in Japan has
been along the line of catechetical instruction.
Some of the larger missions working here have
not been sufficiently careful about giving their
converts sound elementary instruction in Chris-
tian doctrine, but have left them to gather all the
necessary knowledge from the sermons they hear
and the instruction given in the Sunday-schools.
One of the desiderata of most missions in Japan
is more systematic catechetical instruction.
Among the first things a missionary does in
METHODS OF IVORK
239
beginning work in a town is to open a Sunday-
school. The children are generally more acces-
sible than the older people, and many of them
will come to the school. They cannot at first be
organized into classes, as their interest is not
sufficiently great to induce them to attend regu-
larly and to study. The first instruction is
usually by means of large Bible pictures that
catch the eye and teach a religious truth. By
and by, when the work becomes more substan-
tial and the interest more developed, the pupils
can be organized into classes and more systematic
instruction given. If there are any Christians in
connection with the chapel their children form the
backbone of the Sunday-school.
A considerable part of the time of the mission-
ary doing local evangelistic work, if he is wise,
will be occupied in house-to-house visitation.
The Japanese are a very social people, and it is
wonderful how a little personal kindness and in-
terest in them will break down the prejudice
against us and our work. As a rule, the mission-
ary who goes into a native home with humility,
simplicity, and love will gain the good will of the
whole household. Men feel freer to talk about
religious subjects in the privacy of their own
homes. In a discourse to a promiscuous audience
the truth is scattered broadcast, and each one
catches what he can ; but in a private conversa-
240
THE GIST OF JAPAN
tion in the home the truth especially adapted to
the hearer can be given. It is like a man trying
to fill a bottle with water : he will get it full much
quicker by taking it up in his hand and pouring
the water into it than by throwing a whole bowl-
ful at it from a distance.
It is a very pleasant experience to enter a
friendly home in the evening, to sit around the
social hibachi (fire-box), sip tea, and talk about
the great questions of time and eternity. One is
generally received with cordiality and made to
feel at home. He is listened to attentively and
respectfully, and the questions asked are intelli-
gent, appreciative ones. If the missionary expects
his host immediately to be convinced by his
eloquence, to agree to all he says, to discard at
once his old religion and embrace the new, he
will be disappointed. But if he is content to seek
an opportunity to present the truth under most
favorable circumstances, leaving it to do its own
work silently and gradually, he will be sure to
find it.
House-to-house visitation and personal talks
with the people are of great importance in local
evangelistic work. But in doing such work great
care should be taken to comply strictly with
Japanese etiquette and rules of propriety, and
especially to avoid a haughty bearing. The
ordinary native home is much smaller, simpler,
METHODS OF l^ORK
241
and frequently dirtier, than the missionary's, and
the people are constantly watching for any rec-
ognition of this fact on his part. He should
carefully guard himself against any look or ex-
pression which might imply his superiority, or
his dissatisfaction with things around him.
I have been both amused and pained by over-
hearing Japanese imitate the sayings and actions
of two visiting missionaries. According to the
imitation, the one bears himself haughtily and
proudly ; as soon as he comes near the door he
instinctively draws back as though fearing bad
odors; when he comes in he bows stiffly, seats
himself on the best mat, carefully draws up his
clothes as though fearing contamination, casts a
scornful look at the bare walls, utters a few com-
monplace sentiments, and hastily departs. The
other one comes with a cheery greeting, a smil-
ing countenance, and a humble demeanor. He
never notices the lowly house and bare walls, but
quietly and unconcernedly takes the place as-
signed him, freely and appreciatively partakes of
. the tea and cakes set before him, and kindly and
sympathetically talks with the people as one of
them. It is very evident which one of these two
will do the most good.
As soon as the work grows and a small com-
pany of believers has been gathered the duties of
the missionary increase. There now rests upon
242
THE GIST OF JAPAN
him that burden which so oppressed Paul — the
care of the churches. He must look after the
regular worship of the church, must develop in
his people a church-going sentiment, and must
instruct them in the observance of all Christian
duties. In this work he will need much patience,
wisdom, and zeal. The native converts, not hav-
ing generations of Christian ancestors as we have,
will need oft to be exhorted, oft rebuked, and
loved much. Christian duties that are with us
almost habitual must be urged upon these people
time and again. The church must be organized
and developed into an harmonious working body.
In all of this' the missionary is fortunate if he has
the assistance of a wise, godly native helper.
Perhaps the most attractive and interesting
feature of all mission work is this forming and
molding, under one's own hand, of the theology,
the life, and the activities of a young church.
The one who is privileged to do this occupies a
position of responsibihty than which none could
be greater. May God give us grace to do it
aright.
Itinerating Evangelism. — No true mis-
sionary living in a non-Christian land will confine
his labors to the town in which he resides. His
heart will be constantly yearning over the people
in the surrounding towns and country, and he
will gladly take advantage of every opportunity
METHODS OF IVORK
243
to make them occasional visits, telling to them
also the old, old story.
But there are other workers whose sole busi-
ness it is to visit these outlying points and carry
a knowledge of the gospel to those who cannot
have regular gospel ministrations. Perhaps this
feature of missionary work is the one most prom-
inent in the minds of the people at home, who
are fond of picturing their missionary as a man
who goes about from town to town and from
village to village, proclaiming the gospel to all
who will hear.
Christianity is by nature diffusive. It spreads
itself as naturally as the leaven spreads in the
meal. Confucius taught : " The philosopher
need not go about to proclaim his doctrines ; if
he has the truth the people will come to him."
In striking contrast to this Christ taught : " Go
ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to
every creature." We are not only to teach those
who come to us, but we are also to go out in
search of hearers, to carry our message to the
people.
When our Saviour was upon earth the work
He did was largely itinerating ; going about from
place to place, teaching in the synagogue, by the
wayside, or on the sea-shore. The disciples
were all itinerating evangelists, carrying their
message from city to city and from land to land.
244
THE GIST OF JAPAN
St. Paul was an itinerating missionary on a large
scale. Not content to abide long in any one
place, but looking out continually to the regions
beyond, his life was one ceaseless activity in
itinerating evangelism. The missionaries through
whom northern Europe and England were con-
verted were itinerants. And those who to-day
in mission fields take their valises well stocked
with tracts and sermons and go out into the coun-
try on long evangelistic tours can feel that they
are following in the footsteps of worthy exemplars.
We can hardly overestimate the importance of
this work. The word of mouth is still the most
effective means of conveying a message to the
masses, and a knowledge of Christian principles
that could else hardly be given is in this way
spread abroad throughout the land.
The facilities for itinerating in Japan are ex-
cellent. Most of the important points are easily
reached by rail or water. But in general, on an
itinerating tour, the missionary has little use for
the steamers and railways. The points he wants
to visit are not on the great thoroughfares, but
are in out-of-the-way places. There is, however,
a good system of roads, and the jinrikisha,
which is everywhere found, is easily capable of
carrying one 40 or 50 miles a day. This little
cart resembles a buggy, except that it has only
two wheels and is much smaller. The seat is
METHODS OF IVORK
245
just large enough to accommodate one person.
A small Japanese coolie between the shafts fur-
nishes all the necessary motive power. These are
very convenient and comfortable little convey-
ances, and are the ones in ordinary use by mis-
sionaries in their itinerating work.
In recent years the bicycle has become popu-
lar for this purpose. As the " wheel " has been
made to serve almost every other interest, it is
but fair that it should also serve the gospel.
Perhaps to-day one half of all the male mission-
aries in Japan ride wheels. They have decided
advantages over the jinrikisha, chiefly in the way
of speed, personal comfort, and pleasure. I wish
my readers could see their representatives in
Japan just starting on their wheels for a tour
in the interior. Dressed in negligee shirts, caps,
and knickerbockers, with a large bundle tied upon
the wheel in front of each one, they present a
comical appearance. Many sermons have been
preached in Japan in negligee shirts and knicker-
bockers.
There are nice, clean little inns in all the vil-
lages and towns, and the missionary is not put to
such straits for a place in which to rest and sleep
as he is sometimes in other mission fields. But
as the food offered him is unpalatable to most
foreigners, he carries with him a few things, such
as bread, canned meats, and condensed milk.
246
THE GIST OF JAPAN
The splendid telegraph system extending over
all Japan keeps him in communication with his
family and friends, no matter where he may go,
and he need not hesitate to go into the interior
on that score. A good daily mail system is also
at hand to carry his letters.
Formerly the greatest hindrance to itinerating
in Japan was the difficulty of obtaining passports
to travel in the interior. No one was permitted
to go outside of certain limits without a special
passport, and such passports were only given for
two purposes : for health, and for scientific obser-
vation. The government did not intend by this
restriction to prohibit mission work in the interior,
but aimed simply to prohibit foreigners from en-
g^'^ing in interior trade. As the missionaries
were not going for purposes of trade, many of
them availed themselves of these passports ; but
there were some whose consciences would not
permit them so to do. Several high officials
were directly spoken to about the matter by mis-
sionaries ; and they replied that, in the eyes of the
law, a man could want to travel for only three
purposes: for health, for trade, or for scientific
observation. As this restriction was simply to
prevent foreigners from engaging in interior
trade, and as the missionaries were not going for
that purpose, they were told that they should go
on with their vork. The government knew well
METHODS OF IVORK
247
the purpose for which they were going, and per-
mitted it; hence their consciences might be at
rest. These explanations on the part of the offi-
cials removed the difficulty in the minds of some,
but not of all. Fortunately, since the revision of
the treaties, passports are granted without any
question as to the purpose for which they are
wanted, and all who ask it are freely given per-
mission to travel where they will. Since this re-
striction has been removed more itinerating is being
done, and it is probable that it will still increase.
The missionary does two kinds of itinerating
in Japan: (i) he visits periodically a large num-
ber of outstations, where are native evangelists ;
(2) he goes into regions where there are no evan-
gelists and heralds the gospel.
Itinerating among stations where native work-
ers are located and regular work kept up is by
far the most frequent. These tours are generally
made about every two or three months, one mis-
sionary visiting perhaps a dozen stations. The
local evangelist makes all preparations for the
meetings, which are generally of a special charac-
ter. There will probably be a special preaching
service for non-believers, and a communion ser-
vice with the Christians. If there are any bap-
tisms the sacrament is then administered. The
visit of the missionary is intended to be as mucK
a stimulus and encouragement to the evangelist
248
THE GIST OF JAPAN
as anything else. These men, living in out-of-
the-way places where there are few, if any,
Christians, are apt to get despondent and discour-
aged, and they need occasionally the sympathy
and advice of a fellow-worker. The missionary
who has charge of this kind of work is a sort of
bishop, with an extended parish.
When fields where no regular work is carried
on are visited the work is necessarily different.
In this case the missionary must take his helper
with him. He seldom goes alone, for various
reasons. When on one of these tours he will
spend one or two days in a village, talking
personally with all who will come to him. Very
likely he will rent a room in the inn in which he
is stopping, and he and his helper will there
preach one or two evenings. Sometimes, if the
weather is good, he obtains permission of the
authorities to hold the meeting in the open air,
and preaches on the street or in the public squares.
Wherever an audience can be gathered the mes-
sage is told. After one or two days spent in this
manner they move on to the next town, and
there do as they did before, thus going their
whole round. The most that is accomplished by
this method of preaching is to spread abroad
a general knowledge of Christianity among the
people and break down their prejudice against it.
Not many conversions result from it.
METHODS OF IVORK
249
Some may ask what kind of sermons one
preaches on these itinerating tours. They should
be of the plainest, simplest character. It is
profitable to consume a good deal of time in dis-
proving the false ideas which prevail concerning
Christianity, and in giving the people correct
views of its nature. The nature of God must be
carefully explained, both because the word we
use for God is in Japanese applicable to an earthly
hero as well as to a divine being, and because the
divinities of Japan differ very much in nature
from the Christian conception of God. One can
preach a long time on sin before getting the
people properly to understand it. The Japanese
are really without any sense of sin, and have no
word in their language to express the idea exactly.
We use the word which means crime or offense
against the laws of the land. Then the old story
of Christ simply told always commands a hearing
everywhere.
The kind of itinerating last described is open
to serious objection. It is uncertain and fitful.
One visit may be made to a town each year, or
some years not even one. No provision is made
for carrying on the work, or for keeping alive
any interest that may have been aroused. To
be made very profitable such itinerating should be
regular and systematic ; the visits should not be
too far apart ; and as soon as some inquirers are
•
250 THE GIST OF J^PAN_
found, a native evangelist should be stationed
there to care for them. When conducted in this
way it is conducive of great good.
Educatio7ial Work
The educational department of mission work
has in recent years been coming more and more
into prominence. This feature of the work at-
tracts the attention of the visitor from the home
lands more than any other, because it makes more
show. The imposing buildings that are erected,
and the large number of students that can be
gathered into them, make a favorable impres-
sion.
Educational work is generally more attractive
than evangelistic. The former is regular, while
the latter is desultory. The former is continuous,
occupying one's time and attention every day ;
the latter is intermittent. The former can be
pursued at home, and the missionary can enjoy
the constant society of his family ; the latter takes
him away from his family and occupies him
abroad. Educational work is usually carried on
in the open ports and large cities, where one en-
joys all the conveniences of life, with sympathetic
society ; evangelistic work takes the missionary
into the interior, where there are few conveniences
and no society. Lastly, educational work is more
METHODS OF IVORK
251
or less welcomed by the natives, while evange-
listic work is unwelcome.
Japan possesses a large number of mission
schools. Their imposing buildings are seen in
almost every city of the empire. Every mission
of large size has its schools for both boys and
girls. The annual support of these schools costs
the various boards more money than all the
evangelistic work that is done in Japan. More
missionaries are engaged in educational than in
evangelistic work.
A certain amount of educational work seems
necessary to the success of every mission. First
in importance is theological training. A body
of well-trained native pastors is absolutely es-
sential. Especially in this land, where there are
many educated people and where all forms of
rationalism and skepticism are rife, is it necessary
that the evangelist have a liberal education, that
he be well rooted and grounded in Christian doc-
trine, and able to answer the philosophical objec-
tions to Christianity that meet him on every side.
An educated ministry is just as necessary in
Japan as it is in the West, and the schools that
are providing such a ministry are doing a good
work.
But some of the methods used by them are
open to criticism. Heretofore most theological
training has been in the English language, and
252
THE GIST OF JAPAN
the language alone has taken up a great deal
of the student's time and strength. And again,
very few Japanese young men gain a sufficient
knowledge of English to appreciate or derive full
benefit from a theological course in that language.
Against this is urged the paucity of Christian
literature in Japanese, and the wide field of re-
ligious thought which a knowledge of the English
language opens to the student. This is very
true ; but if the same amount of time and energy
that has been expended in instruction in English
had been given to the creation of a native Chris-
tian literature the evil would not exist. I am glad
to note that recently nearly all the theological
schools have introduced courses in the vernacular
for those who cannot take the English course. It
would be well if the English course were dis-
pensed with entirely and all instruction were
given in the vernacular.
Many of the missions operating in Japan have
sent worthy young men to America and England
for theological training. In nearly every instance
this has proved an unwise investment. The good
people at home take up these young men and
nurse and pet them until they are completely
spoiled. They come back to Japan unfitted by
taste and education for the position they must
occupy and the work they must do. Most of
them become dissatisfied in the work after a few
METHODS OF IVORK
253
years. Foreign education largely denationalizes
them and removes them from the sympathies of
their own people. Of course there have been
some exceptions to this rule ; but, in general, ex-
perience has proved that locally trained evange-
lists are best suited for the work and give most
satisfaction in it.
By this it is not intended to imply that Japa-
nese pastors and teachers should not have the
advantages offered by the Western seminaries
when they desire them and are able to obtain
them for themselves. They are as capable of
receiving advanced instruction as we are, and
have the same right to it. But the money which
foreign boards spend for training evangelists
should be spent in the field.
Besides the theological schools there are large
numbers of academical schools for young men, in
which a great deal of mission money is spent.
In justification of these it is argued that they are
necessary for the preparatory training of evan-
gelists. It is said that the education of these
future pastors of the church should be Christian
from the beginning, and this is true. But more
than half the evangelists now laboring in Japan
have not received such training. The education
they received from government and private
schools answers very well in their case. Actual
experience has proved that, whatever may be the
254
THE GIST OF JAPAN
aim of these academies, as a matter of fact they
do not train evangelists. Most of the men who
take their full course enter other professions.
One of the oldest missions in Japan, employing
about twenty evangelists, has among them only
one man who has taken the full academical course
in its mission college ; but many men have been
educated at the church's expense for other pro-
fessions.
Again, it is said in justification of these acade-
mies and their large expenditure of mission money
that a Christian education must be provided for
the children of the constituency of the mission.
The church provides a Christian education for her
sons and daughters at home ; why should she
not do it for her wards abroad ? Far be it from me
to attempt to minimize the importance of Chris-
tian education ; but will it not be time enough
for such education when the constituency of the
native church feels its need to such an extent that
it will demand this education itself, support the
schools with its money, and send its sons and
daughters to them ? At present even the Chris-
tian people frequently prefer a government school
to a mission school ; and they often send their
children to the latter, when they do send them,
because they will there be given financial aid.
There was a time when Christian schools did a
good work in Japan. Before the government
METHODS OF IVORK
255
schools were brought up to their present standard
the mission schools were well patronized, and
they considerably benefited the cause of missions.
But to-day the government has schools of every
grade, and frequently they are better than the
mission schools. The students who formerly
flocked to the mission schools now flock to those
of the government, and the former have but few
pupils. The times have changed, and these
large, expensive schools are now hardly needed.
In so far as they are needed for the preparatory
training of a native ministry, and can be made to
serve that end, they may be all right, but cer-
tainly as an evangelizing agency they are not
justified. The native church should be encour-
aged and stimulated to educate its own children;
it might even be assisted in the attempt, when it
has shown an honest effort to do this; but its
children should not be educated for it by the
nltssion free of charge. To spend so large an
amount of the people's money in purely secular
education seems to me a misappropriation of
funds.
More than half the mission schools in Japan
are boarding-schools for girls. Nearly all the
unmarried women engaged in mission work are
in these schools, and there are many of them.
Some of these schools have very fine locations and
buildings, about as good as those of the average
256
THE GIST OF JAPAN
girls* college at home. That they are more popu-
lar and better patronized than those for boys is
because the government does not provide for the
higher education of girls as it does for boys.
The purpose of these girls' boarding-schools is
to train up earnest Christian women, who will
be the wives and mothers of the new Japan. It
is said that if the mothers of the nation are made
Christian the evangelization of the whole people
will speedily follow. This purpose is a worthy
one. Most of the girls who enter these mission
schools become Christians, and the training given
them seems to be good. I recently attended the
closing exercises of one of the largest of these,
and was surprised at the progress made by the
girls. They could paint and draw, and recite
classical music as well as the young ladies of the
seminaries at home ; and I have no doubt that
the graduates leave the schools pure-minded,
earnest Christians, with worthy aims and aspira-
tions, and with a full intention to exert their influ-
ence for God and His church.
But alas! when they go back to their homes
the position Japanese etiquette assigns them so
effectually ties their hands that the results are
bitterly disappointing. I will mention one case
which came under my own observation. A
young lady was educated by a mission school in
a certain city, who was noted for her piety and
METHODS OF IVORK
257
earnest Christian spirit. Her teachers had most
extravagant hopes as to the strong positive in-
fluence she would exert for Christianity. After
her graduation she spent several years in the
same school as a teacher, and her Christian life
was broadened and deepened by longer and more
intimate contact with the foreign teachers. She
finally married and removed to her new home, in
a distant city. There she attended church once
or twice and then stopped entirely. Neither the
urgent personal request of the native pastor nor
the oft- repeated invitation of the Christian con-
gregation could induce her to come any more.
Instead of exerting an influence for good' upon
others she herself became a fit subject for mission
work. I have known several cases of this kind,
and all missionaries have had the same experience.
Social conditions in Japan are such that a girl
marrying into a non-Christian home can exert
little Christian influence.
But admitting for the moment the utility of
this Christian training for the girls, these large
schools are open to serious objections on other
grounds. The course is too long, and the in-
struction given too advanced. In many of these
schools the girls are kept for twelve or fourteen
years. During all this time they are more or less
supported by mission funds, even down to pin-
money. They are taught all kinds of abstract
258
THE GIST OF JAPAN
sciences and advanced ideas that can be of no
possible use to them. Latin and Greek, biology,
geology, psychology, and many other things are
taught them that they neither need nor can
appreciate. Painting, drawing, vocal and instru-
mental music form a prominent part of the cur-
riculum. Girls are made to practise on the piano
for ten years or more who will in all probability
never see a piano after they leave school. Of
course these are not the only subjects taught;
more useful ones are taught as well.
If mission schools for the education of girls
should exist at all the instruction should be much
more elementary and practical. A course of two
or three years, teaching them how wisely to fill
their position as wives and mothers, would amply
suffice.
It is claimed by the Japanese with great reason
that these schools unfit the girls for the sphere
they must occupy in after life. A life of ten,
twelve, or fourteen years in constant association
with foreign teachers, in a foreign building, with
all necessaries and conveniences supplied, pursu-
ing a pleasant course of study, does not fit the
pupil for life in her humble home. No wonder
she loves the school and dreads to see the day
approaching when she must leave it. Having
lived so long under much better circumstances,
her home, with its thatched roof, narrow walls,
METHODS OF fVORK
259
and homely duties, becomes distasteful to her.
Of what use now are her music and painting, her
Latin and Greek, when her time must be spent in
boiling rice and mending old, worn-out clothes?
There is such a thing as educating people above
their sphere in life, and such education is more
hurtful than otherwise.
But it is said, " We are training future Bible-
women who will go out and teach the gospel to
their country-women." In reply to this it can
be answered that not a great many graduates of
girls' schools become Bible-women ; and it is the
experience of nearly every missionary that the
best Bible-women are middle-aged women, who
may never have been in a mission school.
Again, it is said that it is worth while to have
these schools if only to train educated Christian
wives for the native evangelists. But many of
the evangelists, even among those who themselves
have received a more or less foreign training,
prefer wives who have never been in a mission
school, saying that these girls who have lived so
long under better surroundings will not be con-
tented and happy in the homes they can provide.
It is also true that many of the young ladies who
graduate from these schools object to marrying
at all, feeling that they have been unfitted for
the life they would have to lead.
A very serious objection to the present edu-
260
THE GIST OF JAPAN
cational method in use by many missions in Japan
is that it hinders self-support in the native
churches. These large foreign plants, with their
costly appliances, can never be supported by the
native churches, and the evident futility of the
effort so discourages them that they will not even
do what they can. The day when the churches
of Japan can become self-supporting is very
much postponed by the existence of these costly
schools. At present the native churches could
hardly keep the school buildings in repair.
The whole work of missions in Japan was in the
beginning projected on too high a plane. To
many it seems a great mistake that such large and
costly buildings were erected and the schools
started on a foreign basis. Should not the build-
ings have been entirely of native architecture from
the beginning, and the educational work projected
on a plane corresponding to Japanese life? If
small wooden houses, with straw roofs and no
furniture, are good enough for these people to
live in and to transact all kinds of business in,
then they are good enough for them to study in
and to worship God in. If from the very begin-
ning the schools and churches had been built on
a plane corresponding with ordinary Japanese
houses and life the day would much sooner have
come when the Japanese themselves could under-
take their support. When, in the providence of
METHODS OF JVORK
261
God, the native church shall have been sufficiently
developed, materially and spiritually, to under-
take the education of her children and the train-
ing of her own pastors, the manner in which she
will do it will be very different from that in which
it is now done by the mission boards.
I am aware that many missionaries in Japan,
for whose opinions I have all respect, will not
agree with these views. But, after most careful
thought and investigation, the above are the
conclusions to which I have arrived ; and I am
glad to know that my views are shared by many
of my fellow-missionaries. It is my sincere
conviction that most of the money now being
used for educational purposes in Japan is misap-
plied, and would yield far greater results if used
in other ways.
Literary Work
One of the most important and fruitful branches
of missionary work is the literary. The creation
of a sound Christian literature is one of the first
and most imperative duties pressing upon the
missionary to the heathen.
This is an exceedingly difficult task. When
we think of how much labor and how many
precious lives our own Christian literature has
cost us, we begin to have some conception of the
immensity of the task of creating a Christian
262
THE GIST OF JAPAN
literature in a heathen land. In the first place,
the missionary must have a complete mastery of
the language, — in Japan an appalling task, — and
then he must create the terms to express so many
ideas. Many of our Christian ideas have no
counterpart in non-Christian lands, and the very
words to express them must be coined. A com-
mon device is to take words of kindred meaning
and to make them serve the purpose, endeavoring
to attach our own meaning to them by gradual
processes of instruction and use. Thus with the
words for God and sin in use by most missions in
Japan. These words are kami and tsumi. Now
kami is the word used for numerous mythologi-
cal divinities, with natures very different from
our God, and is also applied to the ancient he-
roes of Japan. As it expresses the idea better
than any other word we have, we use it for God ;
but we must be careful always to explain the
sense in which we use it. The word tsumi means
crime, or offense against the laws of the land.
Our idea of sin is lacking in the Japanese mind,
and hence there is no word that exactly ex-
presses it. We take the word tsumi as being
nearest it, and endeavor to impart to it our own
meaning. In this way we have not only to
translate the ideas, but also to coin or modify
the words to express them.
This work of the missionary is very different
METHODS OF IVORK
263
from that of translating English books into a
European language which has a circle of ideas
similar to our own, for there the words are found
ready-made to express the ideas.
Generally the first literary work to be done by
missionaries is the translation and publication of
portions of Scripture and of tracts. As soon as
their knowledge of the language is sufficiently
advanced, they translate the whole Bible and
some good hymns. Then follow apologetical
and evidential works, and treatises on theology
and morality. Afterward biographical and de-
votional books, magazines, and Christian news-
papers are published. We cannot overestimate
the value of a good Christian newspaper. It
will carry gospel truth to people whom the mis-
sionary and the native evangelist cannot reach,
and it will help much to nourish and strengthen
the life of the native converts. In such a paper
the latter will probably see their religion set forth
in all its relations to the questions of practical
life in a way they seldom hear it done in sermons.
I think parish papers, which are becoming so
common at home, would also exert a splendid
influence in Japan.
In this field a considerable Christian literature
has already been created. Among the most
important books translated so far might be men-
tioned the Bible, the Book of Common Prayer,
264
THE GIST OF J /I PAN
Luther's Small Catechism, the Heidelberg Cate-
chism, Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress." A con-
siderable number of books on apologetical, evi-
dential, dogmatic, and historical theology have
been published, besides biographical, ethical, and
devotional books. There are also several Chris-
tian newspapers, and recently the missionaries of
the American Board have begun the pubHcation
of a Christian magazine.
A Christian literature which will be a powerful
auxiliary to our work is at present forming
rapidly in Japan.
Medical Work
Medical work is one of the youngest depart-
ments of missionary labor. Christ healed the
body as well as the soul, and it is peculiarly fit-
ting that the missionary be able to heal the body
likewise. Medical missions have done more in
some countries toward breaking down the preju-
dice against Christianity than any other one thing.
Doors effectually closed to the evangehst have
been opened wide to the doctor. The power for
good of a consecrated physician in many mission
fields is boundless. The mission boards have
fully recognized this fact, and have wisely used
large numbers of medical missionaries.
In former times medical missionaries accom-
plished much good in Japan. They helped greatly
METHODS OF IVORK
265
to break down the prejudice and opposition to
Christianity. Many who came to the hospitals
to have their bodies healed went away having
their ears filled with words from the great Phy-
sician, and their hearts moved by the kindness
and love of these Christian doctors. Not only
was much direct mission work accomplished in
this way, but the principles of physiology and
medicine were also taught to large numbers of
native physicians and students. Among the men
who did most in this work were Drs. Hepburn,
Berry, and Taylor.
Although they have accomplished much good,
medical missions are no longer needed in Japan.
The Japanese themselves have become adepts in
medical science, and especially in surgery. Every
town and city has one or more hospitals where
competent medical consultation and treatment
can be had, and these now occupy the position
formerly filled only partially by the mission hos-
pitals. A few hospitals and dispensaries are still
kept in operation by some missions, but most of
them were years ago dispensed with as no longer
profitable. We rejoice that Japan has so far pro-
gressed as to be well able to care for the health
of her own people, and we adapt ourselves to the
changed circumstances, diverting into more fruit-
ful channels the energies formerly expended in
this way.
XIV
HINDRANCES
Many of the hindrances that oppose the pro-
gress of Christianity in Japan have already been
indirectly suggested in other portions of this
book. But that they may be more clearly ap-
prehended by the friends of missions at home,
and that the effect of their militating influence
may be fully felt, we will endeavor in this chap-
ter to arrange them in order and show just how
they oppose our work. For the sake of clearness
and logical order we will consider the subject
under two divisions: i. Hindrances in Japan
common to all mission fields; 2. Hindrances
peculiar to Japan.
I. There are certain things inherent in the very
nature of Christianity that impede her progress.
They are necessities of her being, and cannot be
gotten rid of. These things may be either a part
of Christianity herself, belonging to her nature,
266
HINDR/INCES
267
or they may be necessary results of her accep-
tance by non-Christian peoples. For this reason
they are encountered wherever the gospel is
propagated ; they are common hindrances to the
advance of our faith alike in China, India, Africa,
and Japan.
Although not peculiar to Japan, it seems to
me wise briefly to refer to these universal hin-
drances, because often they are not realized in
their full force and power either by the people of
our home churches or even by our pastors. To
appreciate fully their militating influence one
must go to the mission field, and there observe
them actually hindering the rapid progress of
evangelization. There they are seen in a new
light, and are impressed upon the mind as they
can hardly be otherwise. If I can succeed in
causing the constituency of the churches at home
to realize the number, magnitude, and power of
these hindrances I will have done good service
for the cause of missions.
As the first one of these universal militating
influences, inherent in the very nature of missions,
opposing the progress of Christianity wherever
its teachings are newly propagated, I would men-
tion its revolutionizing tendency. Christian mis-
sions are in their nature revolutionizing. The
result is inevitable and unavoidable. The ad-
vance of Christianity in a heathen land necessi-
268
THE GIST OF JAPAN,
tates the revolutionizing of many institutions that
have obtained for centuries. Not only must the
rehgious ideas undergo a revolution, but all moral
ideas, and manners and customs as well. The
reasons for this are very evident.
Religion is intimately connected with the life
of man. It furnishes the motive power of his life,
controls his actions, creates his morality, deter-
mines his manners and customs, and shapes his
laws. The ethnic religions are just as intimately
interwoven with the lives of their adherents as
Christianity is with the lives of Christians; and
Buddhism, Confucianism, and Brahmanism have
shaped and determined the lives and actions of
their adherents.
The connection between reHgion and morality
is a necessary and indissoluble one. The two
are united in their growth and development, and
the form of morality is necessarily colored by the
dominant religion. Wherever the Buddhist faith
has been accepted there has sprung up a system
of morality peculiar to it ; so that we speak of a
Buddhistic in opposition to a Christian morality.
This morality is dependent upon the religion, and
a change of religion must bring about a change
of morality.
Christianity, having necessarily developed a
morality in accord with its principles, must, as it
advances, destroy the existing systems and create
HINDRANCES
269
widely different ones. While the better element
in heathen nations has more or less outgrown its
religious ideas and superstitions, and can calmly
contemplate a change of religion, yet its moral
system has a stronger hold, and anything which
antagonizes it is severely condemned. This
necessary revolutionizing of moral ideas very
much opposes the progress of Christianity.
The acceptance of Christianity necessitates also
a revolution in manners and customs. These are
partially an expression of the faith that is in us,
their nature being determined by it. A change
of religion, therefore, means a change in all of
these.
People have great respect for time-honored
customs, and that which antagonizes these brings
upon itself condemnation. Christianity changes
the manners and customs, and therefore the peo-
ple do all they can to oppose it.
In these ways the work of missions is revolu-
tionizing, and must expect to encounter the op-
position of the spirit of conservatism, which is
much stronger in the East than in the West.
A second principle inherent in the very nature
of Christianity which hinders its progress in
heathen lands is its exclusiveness. Our religion
is among the most intolerant in its attitude toward
other faiths. We believe and teach that " there
is none other name under heaven given among
270
THE GIST OF JAPAN
men, whereby we must be saved," than the name
of Christ. While acknowledging that other re-
ligions contain grains of truth, we must affirm
that, as religious systems, they are false. Christ
sent forth His apostles to make disciples of all,
winning them to the Christian faith. And the
aim of the church to-day is, not to cultivate
brotherly love and communion with other re-
ligions, but rather to exterminate them and make
Christians of all. She can brook no rival. Her
adherents must give their allegiance to her alone.
Christianity not only claims to be the only re-
ligion, but she can offer no hope to those outside
of her pale. While the Bible does not demand
that I teach the Japanese that their ancestors are
surely lost, it certainly gives me no ground for
assuring them of their salvation. We all revere
our forefathers, but none so much as the Oriental.
He pays periodical visits to the tombs of his an-
cestors ; he worships his father and commemorates
the day of his death by mourning. A heaven
from which his ancestors are excluded has little
attractions for him. Often does the Shintoist say,
" I would rather be in hell with my ancestors than
in heaven without them."
If Christianity could be less exclusive and more
tolerant of other faiths she would find a much
more ready acceptance at the hands of non- Chris-
tian peoples. But she cannot be so and be true
HINDRANCES
271
to her own nature and mission. In ancient Rome,
when the church was called to pass through fire,
the manifestation of a more tolerant spirit would
have saved her from that awful persecution. The
Romans had many gods and did not object to one
more. They adopted those of all the conquered
peoples, and were ready to adopt the Christians',
and erect an altar to Him, if the Christians would
acknowledge Him as simply one among the other
gods. And from that day to this the exclusive
claims of Christianity have brought upon her trials
and persecutions, and have hindered her progress
throughout the earth. Especially is this religious
exclusiveness unpopular in Japan, because there
the native religions are very tolerant of one an-
other.
These are some of the strongest hindrances to
the rapid progress of Christianity in pagan lands.
They belong to the very nature of our faith, and
cannot be avoided. Their antagonizing influence
is encountered wherever the gospel is preached.
2. But I think that the greatest hindrances to
mission work in Japan to-day are those which
are peculiar to this field. Many circumstances
conspire to make Japan stand alone among mission
fields. She has been pronounced at once the
most promising and the most difficult of all fields
for evangelistic work : the most promising because
of the life, force, and ability of her people; the
272
THE GIST OF JAPAN
most difificult because of the host of peculiar hin-
drances under which the evangeHst must labor
there. I will proceed to point out some of these.
(i) Perhaps the most potent at present is the
extreme nationalistic feeling, which has brought
into disrepute everything of foreign origin. The
Christian religion, being a foreign institution, is
therefore unpopular, and is thought to be less
adapted to the people and less liable to nourish a
strong national feeling than the native Shinto.
It is hard for us to realize the fanatical intensity
of their patriotism. Having been taught for so
many centuries that this is the first virtue, the
people have exalted it above everything else.
" Japan first, forever, and always," is the univer-
sal motto. There is hardly a man, woman, or
child in the empire to-day who would not be per-
fectly willing to lay down his life for the good of
the country.
This extreme patriotism operates in several
ways to hinder the progress of Christianity. It
prevents the ready acceptance of the new religion.
There are a great many so ignorant and inconsis-
tent as to hate Christianity just because it is of
foreign origin, thinking that nothing good can
originate outside of Japan. Such people adhere
to the native religion, in spite of its inferiority,
simply because they think that to do so is patri-
otic. But there is a much larger and more influ-
HINDRANCES
273
ential class that is led to antagonize Christianity
from patriotic motives other than this. They
hold that a belief in the native religions is neces-
sary to preserve their darling patriotic spirit, and
that the adoption of any foreign religion would
gradually destroy all patriotism and loyalty.
Christianity is not national, but cosmopolitan.
It teaches the Fatherhood of God and the
brotherhood of man, both of which great ideas
are repugnant to most Japanese, because they do
not harmonize with their ideas of the divine ori-
gin of the imperial family, and their national
superiority to the other races of the world. They
want a religion which exalts Japan above every-
thing and inculcates patriotism and loyalty to
her alone.
But the most hurtful influence of this extreme
nationalism is felt within the pale of the church
herself. Actuated by it, many of the native
Christians, both clerical and lay, want to do away
with everything foreign in connection with the
churches. The more strictly national they can
make their work the better satisfied are they.
Not only do they antagonize the missionary and
try to push him off the field, but they also antag-
onize foreign theology, and want to build up a
native system with no foreign taint. The result
is great friction between the native and foreign
workers, strained relations, and in many instanc«?s
274
THE GIST OF JAPAN
open antagonism. This want of cordiality and
harmony, for which the national feeling is largely
responsible, is very hurtful to the best interests of
our work.
But the desire for a purely native theology,
which this strong, benighted patriotism begets, is
even more hurtful than its sowing seeds of dis-
cord among the workers. Many of the leading
native ministers and laymen say that it is folly
for their churches to perpetuate the theological
divisions and creeds of the West, and they pro-
pose to develop a theology peculiarly their own.
Now Christianity cannot be kept pure and sound
without paying due regard to its historical devel-
opment ; and the Japanese, in cutting loose from
this, have already run into heresy. The danger
is that a Christianity may be developed which is
lacking in all that is distinctively Christian, and
which will be harder to overcome than the old
heathenism.
(2) Another hindrance which has operated with
great power throughout the whole history of
Protestant missions in Japan is the past record of
Christianity. In a former chapter upon the
" First Introduction of Christianity " I have told
how Christianity was first introduced, how it grew
to magnificent proportions, and how finally it
was crushed by the secular arm. The fact that
the government once felt constrained to extirpate
HlNDR/tNCES
275
Christianity, at whatever cost, and especially the
fact that the Christians dared oppose the govern-
ment, have brought our religion into disrepute.
Since, according to native morality, whatever
government does is right and whatever govern-
ment opposes is wrong, the mere fact of this op-
position on the part of the government is enough
to condemn Christianity in the eyes of many.
Then the fact that the Christians at last rebelled
gives color to the idea already formed that Chris-
tianity is disloyal to Japan. That idea prevails
widely, and in many quarters Christians are re-
garded with suspicion.
A memory of the past bitter persecutions and
of the hated rebellion still lingers. The old peo-
ple talk of them around the hibachi, as they sip
their tea and smoke their pipes; the young read
of them in the histories, and thus their memory
is kept alive. Many are still living who saw and
read the rigid prohibitions of Christianity on the
sign-boards over all the country, and they cannot
forget them. There are not a few people in the
empire who to this day have hardly learned that
the changed attitude of the government toward
Christianity is more than outward ; and these still
regard the foreign faith as the chief of all evils.
It is really pathetic sometimes to hear them talk
of it. There was an old man living near a Chris-
tian chapel not far from here, who one day was
276
THE GIST OF J/tPAN
complaining of his woes and wishing to die. He
said it had been a bad year, and none of his crops
had done well, two of his children had died, his
country had been insulted by a foreign power,
and, to cap the climax, Christianity had come
and taken up its abode next door to him. This
last evil was too much, and he wanted to die.
He still regarded our faith as the worst of evils.
I once gave a few tracts to some old men in a
mountain \allage near Saga, and they remarked
that they remembered the time when it would
have meant certain death to be seen with one of
those little books.
(3) The character of the education prevalent in
Japan to-day is also antagonistic to Christianity.
The Japanese are a studious race and are capable
of high mental development. The country is so
well supplied with schools — nearly all of them
government institutions — that no one is too poor
to receive some education. There is, on the part
of the school authorities, no open antagonism to
Christianity as such. According to the regula-
tions, no one religion is to be favored more than
another in the schools, and complete religious
liberty is to be allowed. But the general tenor
of the education given is unchristian — an exalta-
tion of reason above faith, of science above reli-
gion. Especially is the tendency of the higher
education against any form of religion. The
HINDR/tNCES
277
educators of Japan are training a nation of atheists
and agnostics. The scientific schools of the West
that have no room for religion are studied ear-
nestly and copied by educated Japan. In philos-
ophy Herbert Spencer and his school have been
acknowledged masters. Indeed, it never seems
to have occurred to the minds of thinking Japa-
nese that there are systems of philosophy other
than the materialistic. All reHgious sentiment is
crushed in the schools, other things being substi-
tuted. Science, learning, is thought to be all that
is necessary, and religion is left for old women
and children. Men who still believe in religion
are thought superstitious and uneducated, and are
regarded with a sort of lordly contempt. In a
conversation some time ago with a graduate of
the Imperial University I was dogmatically told
that Christianity was acknowledged to be absurd
by all thinking men everywhere, that all religions
are only for the infancy of the race, and that full-
grown men can dispense with them. This man's
views are the usual product of the higher educa-
tion of Japan to-day. Hence it happens that few
students of the higher schools are Christian, and
frequently men go there with Christian senti-
ments, only to lose them before they leave.
(4) The old religions of Japan strongly oppose
the march of Christianity. Men often speak as
though the old heathen faiths had lost their power
278
THE GIST OF JAPAN
and were no longer really believed. Their power
is on the wane, but they lack much of being dead.
They still possess enough vitality strongly to op-
pose the evangelization of this land. The old
Shinto faith, having the decided advantage of
national origin, and fitting in exactly with Japa-
nese ideas of their relative national importance and
the nature of their emperor, is a strong opposing
influence. Buddhism still possesses a strong hold
upon the masses of the people. It has the rec-
ommendation of age, has played a prominent
part in the national history, and is dear to the
hearts of the people. It occupies a decided van-
tage-ground from which it opposes us and our
work. To some in the West it seems almost in-
credible that these people should really believe
and trust in these faiths. And yet be assured
that they do believe and trust in them. There
are about the same sincerity, the same confidence,
and the same faith placed in Buddhism by its
adherents as are placed in Christianity by its.
The religious cravings and instincts of the people
are, on the whole, satisfied by their native reli-
gions.
The opposition of Buddhism to Christianity
does not consist solely in misrepresentation, nor
is it founded on ignorance, but is an intelligent
opposition. Some of the Buddhist priests study
carefully our language for the purpose of reading
HliDRANCES
279
our theology and informing themselves as to our
faith. It is said that one of the very best collec-
tions of books of Christian evidences and apolo-
getics to be found in all Japan is in the Buddhist
library in Kyoto. Buddhism has learned some
useful lessons from Christianity. She is now
learning the value of stated preaching for the
information of her people in Buddhist doctrine,
and the value of organized, systematic effort. A
Young Men's Buddhist Association has been
formed, after the model of the Young Men's
Christian Association, which is doing much to-
ward holding the young men to the Buddhist
faith. Buddhism is on the alert, is quick and
active, antagonizes us at every turn, and is one
of the very strongest hindrances to the progress
of Christianity.
(5) The social ostracism visited upon those who
become Christians very much hinders our pro-
gress. Most of our converts, unless their relatives
and friends are Christians, are ostracized ; in many
cases they are entirely cut off from their families
and are disinherited. In America, when one be-
comes a Christian, he has the encouragement and
sympathy of all good people, and his family and
friends rejoice with him. In Japan for a member
of a family to become a Christian is considered a
disgrace, and the united influence of family and
friends is powerfully exerted to prevent such a
280
THE GIST OF JAP/IN,
calamity. Influential men in our city have told
me that perhaps the greatest hindrance to my
work is that by becoming a Christian a man shuts
himself oflF from his family and friends. I am
convinced that many would take a stand for
Christ much more readily if the home influence
were not so antagonistic. A student in the
Normal School of our city, who came to me for
many months to study Christianity, told me that
his family bitterly hated the Christian religion,
and that he could not return home if he became
a believer. In spite of this he was led by the
Spirit to ask for baptism, and I baptized him.
Afterward he wrote very dutiful letters to his
home, trying to explain that he felt impelled by
duty to take this step, and that Christianity was
not so heinous a thing as they supposed ; but no
answers came. In course of time, being com-
pelled to return to his own town on business, he
went to his home to spend the night ; but his
mother and brothers would not recognize him,
and he had to go away to a hotel. His father
was dead, and his mother tried to disinherit him,
but was by the law prevented. His family and
friends have never forgiven him, and now he
never sees them. Similar cases could be cited
without number proving the same thing. Is it
not natural, then, for a man to hesitate to take
this step ?
HlNDR/iNCES
281
(6) Another obstacle to the progress of mis-
sions in Japan is that the church is too much
divided. Almost every small religious body
known has felt it incumbent upon itself to under-
take work here. It may be true that denomina-
tions working separately are no hindrance to the
cause of Christ in the home field, but I think they
are surely a hindrance in the foreign work. It is
a fine rhetorical figure to liken the various de-
nominations and sects to different divisions of one
vast army, all engaged under the same general,
in the same work ; but the figure does not repre-
sent the facts. We do not have one vast Chris-
tian army, each division occupying only its own
field, directed by one mind, and moving in unison.
The most optimistic cannot so regard the different
denominations and sects of Christendom. Like
other oft-used figures, this one is entirely at vari-
ance with the facts. Oftener is it true that these
sects oppose one another, and much prefer their
own welfare to that of the whole body of Christ.
You cannot satisfactorily explain to non-Chris-
tian people the reasons why you must have a
Lutheran, a Methodist, a Presbyterian, and a
Baptist church ; and if they could be brought to
understand our differences this would in no way
recommend us or our creed to them. It is a
great pity that each mission field is not allotted
to some one denomination and left alone by all
282
THE GIST OF ]APAN
the others. If this cannot be, at least only one
body should work in one town. Then these com-
plications would be partially avoided, and Chris-
tianity would more recommend itself to the
thoughtful citizen.
We suffer in Japan more from a superfluity of
sects than of denominations. The Universalists
and Unitarians are here with their heresies, and
are poisoning many minds. Many other bodies
are here, antagonizing the established order of
things and teaching religious anarchy. I sup-
pose there is no mission field in the world that
has a larger number of sects and divisions.
But the regular orthodox denominations work
more harmoniously in Japan than in the home
lands. Strifes and jealousies between them are
rare, while expressions of mutual appreciation and
of Christian courtesy are common.
(7) I think the foreign communities in the open
ports of Japan are a hindrance to the work of
evangelization. In the seven treaty ports there
are regular concessions for foreign residence and
trade, and thousands of foreigners live in them.
These communities are largely composed of mer-
chants and of those connected with the various
consulates, most of whom have come here for
purposes of gain, and are interested in nothing
besides money-getting. A large per cent, of this
population is very undesirable. As representa-
HlNDRy4NCES
283
tives of Western civilization (the product of Chris-
tianity) the foreign settlements should be model
Christian communities, and were they such they
could exert a powerful influence for good. But
as it is, their example does not recommend itself
to the Japanese.
To say nothing whatever of the charges of im-
morality and dissoluteness preferred against these
men, they are certainly not Christians. One
would think, to observe them, that they had not
come from Christian lands at all. Many who are
here only temporarily, being away from all home
influences and restraints, set a most ungodly ex-
ample. They will not attend church ; they take
no interest in religious work ; they speak dis-
paragingly of religion in general, and of the
Christian religion in particular; and to them a
missionary is an eyesore. While we are laboring
to Christianize the people, our own countrymen,
the representatives of Christian lands and the
exponents of a Christian civilization, are in the
foreign ports setting a most ungodly example.
The natives are quick to notice these things, and
they reason that, if our faith is as good as we
represent it to be, why have our countrymen not
profited better by it? The presence of these
antichristian representatives of Christendom is a
great hindrance.
But not all of the foreigners in the open ports
284
THE GIST OF JAPAN
of Japan are of this character. There are some
good Christian men and women among the busi-
ness classes, who are interested in all kinds of
Christian work. And yet the prevailing tendency
of the foreign business communities is against
Christian work.
(8) The last but not the least hindrance I will
mention is the language. It has been said of
both Chinese and Japanese that they were in-
vented by the devil to keep Christian missionaries
from speaking freely with the natives. Whether
that be true or not, it certainly is true that Japa-
nese is one of the most difficult languages on the
globe. To know it well, three different languages
must be acquired : spoken Japanese, written
Japanese, and Chinese. The colloquial and the
book language are quite different, the literary
being partly Chinese. The latter is written by
ideographs, and you must have a sign for each
idea. About five thousand of these characters
will enable one to get along, although there are
probably fifty thousand in all. By a sheer act of
memory to learn five thousand hideous characters
is no little task. The colloquial itself is exceed-
ingly difficult to use aright. My readers may be
surprised to learn that of the missionaries labor-
ing in Japan one third cannot speak the language
intelligibly to the natives. It seems that many
Occidentals, laboring never so hard, really cannot
HINDRANCES
285
acquire the language. One never feels sure in
this language that he is saying just what he wants
to say. If it were less difficult, so that mission-
aries could acquire complete command of it and
use it as readily as they do their mother tongue,
the work of evangelization would go on more
rapidly.
These, as I understand them, are the principal
things which at present hinder the progress of
Christianity in Japan. Some of them are inherent
in the very nature of the work, and will be en-
countered to the end. Others, I believe, are
transient, and will by and by pass away.
XV
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
In the broad sphere of labor which the mis-
sionary must fill he daily meets most diflficult
problems, whose solution requires the exercise of
consummate judgment, skill, and patience. Al-
though these problems are not given a prominent
place in mission reports, and are not therefore
very well known at home, they loom up moun-
tain-high before every missionary. They have a
practical importance in the field surpassed by
none other. Men differ so widely in regard to
their solution that they not infrequently work
division in a mission.
A brief presentation of some of these problems
will enable the home churches better to under-
stand our work and to sympathize with us, and
will be of practical worth to those who contem-
plate coming to work in this field.
The first problem to meet the missionary is,
how to deal with inquirers.
286
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
287
In Japan not one in three at first comes with
sincere motives and good intentions. On the
contrary, he comes seeking some material advan-
tage, hoping in some way to profit by his associa-
tion with the missionary, or vaguely expecting
to be benefited by an alliance with what appears
to be a stronger and more living cause. Those
who from the first are impelled to come by real
spiritual motives are indeed rare. How t*» deal
with such inquirers is the question. TC turn
them away would be to send them back into
heathenism. Manifestly we must hold vhem
until they have more spiritual motives.
I suppose all missionaries would agree that,
no matter how material and selfish their motives,
inquirers should be encouraged to continue com-
ing, with the hope of gradually leading them
into the truth. We could hardly expect them at
first to have pure motives, as such are practically
unknown to them. Heathenism, with its de-
grading idolatries and immoralities, does not
beget these, and we cannot expect to discover
them until the old religions have been discarded
and the inquirers have been brought under the
instruction and care of the church. Therefore,
whatever the motive, we should receive them,
and after a long period of Christian teaching and
discipline look for a change of heart. But the
length of this probation before they are received
288
THE GIST OF JAPAN
into the church, and whether it shall be required
— those are matters upon which the practice of
missions differs widely. Some have a prescribed
time which must elapse before candidates are
admitted to membership ; others leave it to the
judgment of the local evangelist or missionary.
The latter seems the better plan.
Another question is, Jtist how much shall candi-
dates for church-membership be required to give
up? As to strictly heathen practices, such as
idolatry and gross immorality, there can be no
question. But what of practices about which
the judgment of men differs? Some missions
require total abstinence from all intoxicating
drinks. Some, like the Methodist, require ab-
stinence from the use of tobacco, especially on
the part of pastors and evangelists. These
churches urge in favor of their position the com-
parative ease with which such restrictions may
be applied in the young churches of Japan.
Shall we follow the lead of these more conser-
vative churches, or shall we adopt a more liberal
policy ? Shall we require converts who are en-
gaged in any way in the manufacture or sale of
tobacco or liquor to change their business? The
practice of our own mission (the Lutheran) is,
except in the manufacture, sale, or inordinate use
of intoxicants, to allow liberty of conscience.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
289
Another and a very perplexing problem we
find to be, what to do with honest inquirers who
have no means of siipport. This class is numer-
ous. There are a great many poor in Japan — in
fact, nearly all are poor. As Japanese custom
— even more in ancient times than at present —
made the poorer classes look to the rich for their
maintenance and support, many converts look to
the missionary, not to support them outright, but
to help them into positions where they can earn
a living. Not a few have their means of support
cut off by the very act of becoming Christians.
In such cases it seems but fair that the mission
should do what it can to assist them. But how?
To support them is too expensive, besides being
demoralizing to them and the community. In
some mission fields industrial schools, mission
farms, and various other enterprises are estab-
lished to provide employment for such, and in
this way they are helped to support themselves.
But in a country like Japan, where industrial and
commercial life is highly organized and developed,
it is almost impossible for the missions to do such
work. We have neither the means nor the skill
to compete with the industries around us. This
question of support for the poor of the churches
is a pressing one, and causes the missionary much
anxiety and thought. The native church can do
290
THE GIST OF JAPAN
much more toward its solution than the mission-
ary, and as the church grows in influence and
resources the problem may solve itself.
After a body of converts has been gathered,
and the time has come for organizing a church,
the greatest problem of all arises — the problem of
the native church.
This is not one problem, but is rather a com-
bination of problems, some of which are the
following: What shall be the form of its organi-
zation? How shall its ministry be supplied?
How shall it be supported ? What is the relation
of the missionary to the native church? What
shall be its attitude toward national customs?
These are important and difficult problems, and
on their right solution will depend in no small
measure the prosperity and success of the native
church.
Some missions do not seem thoroughly to
grasp and give due prominence to this idea of the
native church. They interpret their commission
to mean the evangelization of the masses rather
than the building up of a strong native church.
But the Christianization of any land will ulti-
mately depend upon the native church, and not
upon the foreign missionary. Therefore the first
and chief aim of the missionary should be to call
out and develop a strong, self-supporting, and self-
propagating native church, in whose hands the
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
291
evangelization of the masses of the people can
ultimately be left.
In the organization of the native church, what
polity shall be given it? Shall it be organized
exactly as the home church which the mission
represents, or shall it be free to develop its own
form of organization? Both of these plans are
unsatisfactory. Most churches are agreed that
no special form of church polity has divine sanc-
tion, this being merely a question of expediency ;
and that therefore the new churches should, as
far as possible, be left free to adopt a constitution
in harmony with the national character and
habits.
At the same time, forms of church government
that have been tried at home and approved should
not be ignored. What has stood the test of time,
and proved its worth in many lands, doubtless
will in its main features be of substantial value in
the mission field. It is but natural that Presby-
terian societies should organize native churches
under their own form of government, Methodist
under theirs, and Episcopal under theirs. But,
in the very nature of the case, a first organization
will only be tentative. As the church develops
it will probably develop a polity of its own. In
view of this, the polity imposed upon the native
church by the mission at its first organization
should be as flexible as possible.
292
THE GIST OF JAPAN
It would be folly for the Lutheran Church, for
instance, which has one polity in Germany, an-
other in Sweden, another in Iceland, and still
another in America, to attempt permanently to
impose any one of those special forms upon the
Japanese Lutheran Church; it will have its own
special polity, but this should not cause us
any anxiety or concern. If the faith and life of
the church are right, it matters but little about
its polity. We should be more concerned for the
broader interests of the kingdom than for the
perpetuation of our special form of the church,
for the promise of final triumph is only to the
kingdom.
Experience has settled certain points in regard
to the native church, which Dr. Lawrence, in
his admirable book on " Modern Missions in
the East," denominates "axioms of missions."
My own experience and judgment lead me to
give them my hearty indorsement. Three are
named :
1. " The native church in each country should
be organized as a distinct church, ecclesiastically
independent of the church in any other country."
2. " The pastorate of the native church should
be a native pastorate. Whatever else the mis-
sionary is, he should not be pastor."
3. " The principles of self-control, self-help,
and self- extension should be recognized in the
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
293
very organization of the church. To postpone
them to days of strength is to postpone both
strength and blessing."
The question of self-support and independence
is one of the gravest in connection with the na-
tive church. All are agreed as to its desirable-
ness, and all aim ultimately to attain it ; but the
success hitherto attained in Japan is not what
might be expected. There are perhaps a larger
number of self-supporting churches in Japan than
in most mission fields, but not so many as there
should be. The native churches, as a rule, do
not contribute what they should or could toward
their own support. In this regard the statistics
usually given are very deceptive. Many of those
churches put down as self-supporting either are
so largely through the private contributions of
the missionaries of the station, or are churches in
connection with mission schools, where the ex-
pense is small because one of the professors, who
draws a salary from the board, acts as pastor. I
have heard of one church marked " self-support-
ing " that was composed of only one man and
his family. This man was the evangelist, who,
having some private means, supported himself.
While the annual statistics show fairly good
contributions " by the native churches," it should
be borne in mind that the contributions of a large
body of missionaries, who are liberal givers, are
294
THE GIST OF UPAN
included. At most stations they give more than
the whole native church combined.
Native Christians do not contribute as much
toward the support of the gospel as they formerly
did toward the support of their false religions.
The reasons for this are, first, that heathenism
induced larger gifts by teaching that every one
who makes a contribution for religious purposes
is thereby heaping up merit for himself in the life
to come. And, second, that the native churches
have from the beginning leaned on the mission-
aries and societies, until independent giving and
self-sacrifice have been discouraged. The mis-
sion board is looked upon as an institution of
limitless resources, whose business it is to pro-
vide money for the work. And, third, that in
many instances the native evangelists do not
heartily second the efforts of the missionaries
to bring the churches to a self-supporting basis.
They would much rather draw their salaries from
the mission treasurer than from the members
of their churches. The reasons for this are
obvious: they could not conscientiously urge
their flocks to support them on a better scale
than they themselves live, but they can ask the
mission to do this ; again, when their salaries
come from the mission they are prompt and sure,
while if they come from the churches they are
irregular and uncertain. But in justice to Japa-
SPECML PROBLEMS
295
nese pastors it should be said that, while the
above is true of many of them, there are others
who have willingly made personal sacrifices, living
on much smaller salaries than formerly, in order
to assist their churches to self-support.
How to overcome all these obstacles and de-
velop a liberal, self-supporting spirit in the native
church is a difTicult problem with which the
mission boards are at present grappling. The
Congregational Church has more nearly solved it
than any other, yet its number of independent
churches fell off considerably during the past
year.
The native church must not be judged too
harshly for its failure in self-support. It has not
yet been educated in giving as the home churches
have, and its resources are very limited. Most
of its members are exceedingly poor and have all
they can do to provide for the support of them-
selves and families. Our proper attitude toward
them in this matter is one of patience, sympathy,
and help.
How shall the native church be provided with
a competent ministry? This is a perplexing
question to the churches in the home lands ; how
much more so in a mission field! It is neces-
sary to provide pastors, evangelists, catechists,
teachers, Bible-women, etc. — a whole army of
workers.
296
THE GIST OF JAP/tN
The first question in this connection is, How
is the material to be provided? Shall bright,
active boys who seem adapted to the work be
selected out of the mission schools and especially
trained for this work at the expense of the mis-
sion, without waiting for a divine call? This is
the usual method, but it is far from satisfactory.
Such, not having sought the ministerial office, do
not feel its dignity and responsibiHty as much as
those who are brought into it by a personal call.
Some of the brightest and most promising, after
having been educated at the expense of the mis-
sion, are easily enticed into other callings. Men
so chosen and educated are very apt to consider
themselves, and to be considered by others, as
simply paid agents of the mission. Often their
labors are performed in a mere routine and per-
functory manner, they evidently caring more for
employment than for conversions. These are
serious objections, and yet many good and noble
men have been so trained ; it does seem that in
the early stages of mission work there is hardly
any other way of providing a native ministry.
So soon as a native church is developed, with
its accompanying Christian sentiment, the per-
sonal call to the ministry can be relied upon to
furnish the material. An eflFort is then made by
most of the larger missionary bodies to give a
broad training to many men, and to rely upon a
SPECML PROBLEMS
297
certain number, in answer to a divine call, seek-
ing the ministerial office. In this way the mission
schools supply a portion of the theological stu-
dents, but in Japan the larger portion are not
graduates of the mission schools.
After the men are supplied, how shall they be
trained for work? Shall instruction be given in
Japanese only, or shall English be taught also?
(For full discussion of this question see Chapter
XIII.) Shall Greek and Hebrew be studied? How
far shall the native religions be taught ? Shall the
curriculum in other respects be about what it is
at home, or shall it be modified and especial stress
laid upon certain subjects? Shall students study
privately with the missionaries, or shall theolog-
ical seminaries be erected? Shall students be
encouraged to complete their theological training
in Europe and America? Space does not permit
a discussion of each of these questions, but only
a bare statement of the consensus of judgment
and practice in Japan after years of experience.
Shall instruction in the original languages of
Scripture be given? As to the desirability of
this there can be no question; but as the whole
science of theology is entirely new here, and a
study of its more important branches requires a
long time, it has not been customary to give in-
struction in either of these languages. In recent
years some seminaries have been trying to intro-
298
THE GIST OF JAPAN]
duce primary courses in Greek and Hebrew, and
as the schools grow older, and their equipment
improves, these languages will gradually be
added to the curriculum.
Shall the religious systems and books of Japan
be taught in theological schools? It is highly
desirable that native ministers clearly understand
and be able intelligently to combat the false re-
ligions around them ; and to this end some semi-
naries give instruction in the doctrines of Bud-
dhism and Shinto as well as Christianity. In one
or two instances Buddhism is taught in Christian
theological schools by Buddhist priests, but it is
usually taught by Christian teachers in connection
with dogmatic theology. As a rule, the native
ministry desires more thorough instruction in the
native religions, while the missionaries oppose
any extension of the curriculum in that direction.
In general the same branches of theology are
taught here that are taught at home. It is
especially desirable that instruction in dogmatics
and apologetics be thorough and sound, and
these branches should perhaps be emphasized
more than others.
Experience has proved that it is much better
to have theological schools where the native
ministry may be instructed than for the mission-
ary to undertake such instruction in private.
All the larger missions have fairly well-equipped
SPECML PROBLEMS
299
theological schools, and private instruction is only
given by a few men whose missions have not yet
been able to establish these. It is unfortunate,
both for the student and for the missionary, when
theological instruction must be given in private.
Many Japanese have been sent abroad to com-
plete their theological course, but the experiment
has not been satisfactory. The consensus of
opinion now is that for the main body of pastors
and evangelists a local training is much better
than a foreign one. A few men of exceptional
ability may be educated abroad as teachers and
leaders, but great care must be taken not to de-
nationalize them.
Another perplexing question in connection with
the native church is its relation to the mission-
aries. On this subject there is great diversity of
opinion. Shall the missionary retain any control
over the native church, or shall he have only
advisory power? Can he take an active part in
its deliberations, or shall he be excluded from
them ?
As the church grows and develops it will come
more and more to rely upon itself and to act in-
dependently of the mission. The majority of
Japanese Christians take the ground that the
missionary has nothing to do with the organized
native church, but that his sphere is with the
unevangelized masses and unorganized chapels.
300
THE GIST OF JAPAN
In the Congregational churches the missionaries
have no voice or vote in the meetings and coun-
cils, and are recognized only as advisory members.
In contrast to this policy is that of the Episcopal
and Methodist bodies, in whose councils natives
and foreigners meet together and deliberate in
harmony. The meetings are presided over by
the foreigners, and they have a controlling voice
in all legislation. The Presbyterians also take
part in presbytery and synod, but the Japanese
usually preside and are in the majority.
Certainly the missionary should not be pastor
of the native church and should not exercise lordly
control over it ; but it does seem that he should
retain some influence, or at least should have veto
power against unwise legislation.
What shall be the attitude of the native church
toward certain national habits and customs?
Here is a problem that often perplexes mission-
aries and evangelists. It is recognized by all that
anything squarely in contradiction to Christianity
must be opposed. On the other hand, it is recog-
nized that national customs should be carefully
observed when they are not antichristian or im-
moral. There are some customs in Japan about
the nature of which great difference of opinion
prevails, such as the honors shown dead ancestors,
bowing before the emperor's picture, contributing
to certain religious festivals, etc.
SPECML PROBLEMS
301
When a parent dies it is customary for the
children to pay regular visits to the tomb, to
make offerings there, and to reverence or worship
the departed. In the eyes of some this act in-
volves real worship ; to others it is merely an
expression of reverence and respect. It seems
that Paul's principle of not eating meat for his
weak brother's sake should be applied here. The
act in itself may be performed without com-
promising a Christian's conscience ; but for the
sake of the common people, to whom it means
worship, it should be omitted by Christians, and
the churches generally forbid it.
In all the schools, at certain festivals, the em-
peror's picture is brought out, and all teachers
and pupils are required to bow before it. This
is a national custom very dear to the hearts of
the people, and any one failing to comply with it
is severely censured. Much has been said and
written as to the religious significance of the act.
To the more enlightened of the Japanese this
prostration before the emperor's picture may be
only an act of deep reverence and respect, such
as is shown to royalty in the West by the lifting
of the hat, but to the masses it doubtless is real
worship, in so far as they know what worship is.
This is not strange when we remember the almost
universally accepted belief as to the divine origin
of the mikado. The government itself virtually
302
THE GIST OF JAP/IN
acknowledged the religious significance of the act
when it passed a law permitting foreign teachers
in the various schools to absent themselves on
the day of the exaltation of the imperial picture,
if they so desired.
Now here is a national custom very dear to the
people, in itself harmless, but which in the eyes
of many involves real worship. What shall be
the attitude of the church toward it ?
Some religious festivals are observed in Japan
which have more or less political significance.
While they are generally held in connection with
some temple, there may be nothing distinctively
heathen about the festival itself. To provide for
the expense, each house is asked to contribute a
certain amount of money — the Christians along
with the rest. There is no legal compulsion in
the matter, but every one contributes, and there
is a moral necessity to do so. Now what stand
shall the Christian church take on this matter?
Shall the members be advised to comply with the
custom, or shall they be forbidden to do so?
How to remain faithful to her Lord, and yet
not unnecessarily wound the national feelings of
her countrymen, is the delicate and difficult prob-
lem which the native church must solve.
A very important problem is, how to bring
about more cooperation in mission work. It is
highly desirable that Christianity present an un-
SPECUL PROBLEMS
303
divided front to the enemy, that its forces at least
work in harmony with one another.
While men's views on important theological
questions differ so radically as at present it is
useless to talk of organic union ; but there can and
should be brotherly recognition, mutual assistance
whenever possible, respect for one another's views,
absence of controversy, scrupulous regard for an-
other's recognized territory, and hearty coopera-
tion in all possible ways.
There is something of this realized in Japan
to-day. The Christian bodies, as a rule, dwell
together in peace and harmony, rejoicing in one
another's welfare. Contentions and strife are
much less common than in the West. All the
various branches of the Reformed and Presby-
terian churches are laboring in hearty coopera-
tion to build up one united native church. The
various Episcopal bodies, while themselves or-
ganically distinct, are also building up an undi-
vided Japanese Episcopal Church.
But much yet remains that might be done in
this line. In matters of publication, theological
education, etc., that involve heavy expense, plans
might be devised whereby several missions could
cooperate, and thus the expense be lessened to
each and the work better done. To illustrate :
here is a small mission, with only a few workers
and a very small amount of money wherewith to
304
THE GIST OF JAPAN
operate. It has all the evangelistic work it can
do, and is unable to support its own theological
school. Some of its missionaries are taken from
the evangelistic work and forced to train, as best
they can, one or two theological students. In
the same community is a good theological school
belonging to a sister mission, that has only a few
students and would be glad to give its advantages
to the students of the other mission. It does
seem that some plan of cooperation should be
devised whereby each could be accommodated.
This problem is unsolved, and each little mission
goes on working independently of all the others,
at the cost of larger expenditure and poorer work.
An easier form of cooperation very much to
be desired, which has not yet been consummated,
is that between different branches of the same
church. That those known by the same name,
whose doctrine and polity differ but little, and
who are separated in the West only by geo-
graphical divisions, should codperate on the mis-
sion field is a plain duty, failure to effect which is
culpable. Take the great Methodist Church.
There are five different Methodist bodies at work
in Japan — each one prosecuting its work separate
and distinct from the others. There is no conflict
between them, neither is there any cooperation.
What a saving there would be if these bodies
would cooperate, especially in the matter of edu-
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
305
cational work! As it is, each one of them sup-
ports its own academical and theological school,
at a cost of men and money almost sufficient for
the needs of all if united. Many of these differ-
ent schools are at present poorly attended and
consequently poorly equipped ; whereas if the
whole educational work were done by one or at
most two institutions there would be a large
number of students and the equipment could be
made first-class.
An effort has been made on several occasions
to unite these various Methodist bodies, and most
of them desire a union, but as yet it has failed of
accomplishment.
The responsibility for this failure lies much
more with the home boards than with the mis-
sionaries. The latter generally desire more co-
operation, and could bring it about were it not
for the restrictions placed upon them. This is a
problem to the solution of which the various
missionary societies should set themselves in
earnest. If the advance of the kingdom is partly
hindered by a lack of this cooperation, then the
mission boards are responsible before God.
The above are but some of the problems which
present themselves to-day in Japan. If I have
succeeded in impressing the reader with their
number, complexity, and difficulty of solution,
my purpose is accomplished.
XVI
THE OUTLOOK
It is exceedingly difficult to form a reliable
conjecture concerning the future state of Chris-
tianity in Japan. In this land the unexpected
always happens. It has been called a land of
surprises. Instability, vacillation, and change
are its characteristics. What is in favor to-day
may be out to-morrow; what is out of favor to-
day may be in to-morrow. The signs of the
times may clearly indicate a certain trend of
events for the next year, but ere that year has
come all may change and the happenings be quite
different from what was expected. The fact is,
Japan is undergoing a peaceable social and polit-
ical revolution, and it is hard to tell what a day
may bring forth.
But there are certain factors which, if left to
their natural development, will tend to bring
about a certain condition, and by considering
306
THE OUTLOOK
307
those factors we can tell something about what
that condition ought to be. We will attempt,
then, to take a bird's-eye view of the influences
in operation on this mission field, and will make a
surmise as to their probable outcome in the future.
There are three factors which must be con-
sidered in attempting to form an opinion as to
the outlook : the working forces; the opposition
to their work; and the natural adaptability or
inadaptability of the people. We will endeavor to
look right closely into these.
Humanly speaking, the forces engaged in any
work will determine, to some extent, the future
condition of that work. The future of Christi-
anity in Japan will depend in part upon the pres-
ent working Christian forces. These forces are
the native church, the body of missionaries, and
the whole mass of mission machinery.
The burden of the work rests with the native
church. The evangelization of the masses must
be chiefly by her eff'ort. The standing of Chris-
tianity in the empire will depend upon her. If
true to her Lord, and faithful in the discharge
of the task which He has given, the result will
probably be good. Now what is the condition
of the native church in Japan to-day? There
are 100,000 Christians, including Protestants,
Greeks, and Romanists. These Christians have
manifested commendable zeal, earnestness, and
308
THE GIST OF J/IP/iN
piety. The native church is organized, hope-
ful, and aggressive, yet in many respects not what
her friends desire and what they pray she may
be. Very much is yet to be desired in the
matters of orthodoxy, self-support, and internal
harmony, but it is not sure that this native church
is more lacking in these respects than native
churches in other mission fields. Church history
seems to indicate that the church in every land
must go through a certain period of doctrinal
development. The old heresies of Arianism,
Pelagianism, and Sabellianism spring up in their
order on each mission field, and are finally suc-
ceeded by orthodoxy. Japan is now in that de-
veloping period, and loose theological views are
to be expected. There are many men of unor-
thodox views in the native church, who exert a
strong influence ; but there are also many men of
sound evangelical views, who will be able prob-
ably to restrain the radicals and determine the
future development. I think in time there will
come to the church in Japan a sounder faith and
a fuller Christian consciousness, and that she will
faithfully bear her part in the evangelization of
this land. Although there are now many ele-
ments in the church which should not be there,
we must have faith to leave the removal of them
to the influence of time and the guidance of the
Holy Spirit. God will take care of His church
THE OUTLOOK
309
and endow her for the work He has given her
to do.
The foreign missionaries in Japan can be de-
pended upon to do all in their power to bring
about the triumph of Christianity. They are a
large body of earnest, consecrated workers, led
by the Spirit of God. With but a few exceptions,
a more faithful and talented body of men cannot
be found. There are in all branches of the
church, including Greek and Roman Catholics,
876 European missionaries. This number in-
cludes single and married women. Such a force,
led by the Holy Spirit, ought to be able to do
much to hasten the coming of the kingdom in
Japan.
Besides the native and foreign workers, all the
machinery and institutions of various kinds ne-
cessary for the growth and expansion of the church
are now in operation. A good Christian litera-
ture is rapidly forming, numerous Christian
schools of various grades are planted over all the
empire, and a large number of Christian colleges
and theological seminaries are already open.
When we thus review the human forces upon
which the future depends we have reason to feel
encouraged.
But no matter how strong and consecrated the
body of workers, the success of the work will in
some degree be conditioned by the hindrances
310
THE GIST OF JAPAN
which are placed in the way. There may be
certain social or governmental oppositions, certain
combinations of militating circumstances, which
will prove insurmountable to the best workers,
effectually hindering the future of a work other-
wise promising.
Formerly, as has been shown, the government
put every opposition it could in the way of Chris-
tian work. Long after the prohibitions of Chris-
tianity were removed governmental influence was
exerted against it in many ways. Even after
religious liberty was granted by the promulga-
tion of the constitution it was far from being
realized. In certain departments of the govern-
mental service, especially in the military and
educational departments, until very recent years
persecutions were still practised in a mild but
effective way. But all this is now a thing of the
past.
The attitude of the government has changed
recently, and instead of hindering it has actually
encouraged and in several ways helped in our
work. During the late war with China it per-
mitted the sending to the army of three native
chaplains, and on the field encouraged and helped
them all it could. These men were not officially
styled " Christian chaplains," but were called
imonski, or comforters. It is not true, as has
recently been affirmed by a minister in New York,
THE OUTLOOK
311
that there are regularly appointed permanent
Christian chaplains to the Japanese army. None
but these three have ever been appointed, and
their appointment was only temporary. But the
fact that the government granted them permission
to accompany the armies and encouraged their
work shows clearly a changed attitude toward
the Christian religion.
The same is indicated by the fact that the ;
authorities willingly gave permission for the dis- \
tribution of Bibles to the soldiers in every de- '
partment of the army. They even aided in the
distribution, and often arranged for those who
distributed them to preach to the soldiers. I
think few non-Christian lands have ever gone so
far as this in their encouragement of Christianity.
From these facts I infer that the government
will no longer place obstacles in the way of our
work. Such obstacles have in the past prevented
many from favoring Christianity, and their re-
moval augurs well for the future.
The native religions have very much hindered
the evangelization of Japan. Their militating
influence is still active and powerful, but I think
it is gradually declining. Buddhism will die hard,
but she is too old, effete, and corrupt permanently
to withstand her younger and more powerful foe.
The inherent truth of Christianity must ultimately
give it the victory. As Japanese education and
312
THE GIST OF JAPAN
enlightenment advance, the intrinsic superiority
of Christianity over Buddhism must appear and
must recommend it to the people.
The hope of our religion in this land lies
largely in the fact of the insatiable desire of the
people for Western learning and civilization.
The ever-increasing introduction of Western
literature, the adoption of our civilization and in-
stitutions, will necessarily bring about a better
acquaintance with Christianity, its spirit and aims.
Then the prejudice against it will gradually die
out, and it will, appealing to them in its true
light, — the germ and base of all true civilization,
and the foster-mother of education and enlighten-
ment,— be readily accepted.
The social hindrances operating against Chris-
tianity to-day are all local and personal, and will
probably become less and less until they die a
natural death. Every part of the empire is abso-
lutely open, and there is nothing to hinder a full
and free proclamation of the gospel in every town,
village, and hamlet in Japan.
The superior position of Christianity at present
to that which it held a few years ago is strik-
ing. Professor Chamberlain, a very close ob-
server, whose experience in Japan has extended
over many years, says : " To those who can look
back thirty years, or even only twenty years, the
change in the position of Christianity in Japan
THE OUTLOOK
313
is most striking, indeed well-nigh incredible."
From a hated and despised thing it has risen to
a position in which it commands the respect of
many of the best men in the land.
But there is another element which must be
taken into consideration in making up an estimate
of the outlook, and that is the natural adaptability
or inadaptability of the people for Christianity.
The farmer may labor long and hard ; he may
sow the best seed ; sunshine and rain may lend
their encouragement ; but if the soil is uncon-
genial the yield will be small. In the same
way, a strong, consecrated working force may
labor, unopposed, with might and main in the
mission field, but if the soil is not congenial the
results will be small.
Are the Japanese people well or ill adapted by
nature to the reception of Christianity? The
strongest opposition to our work, and the one
which makes us most anxious for the future, lies
in the natural constitution of the people for whom
we labor. Many natural characteristics of this
people predispose them to reject Christianity.
I must again refer to that strong nationalistic
feeling which is inborn in every Japanese and
which hinders the rapid progress of the gospel.
This principle, operating within the church,
threatens to destroy the orthodoxy and integrity
of the faith. Animated by a patriotic feeling
314
THE GIST OF JAPAN
that is more blind than enlightened, the creeds,
the polity, the life of the church of the West, are
considered as of little worth, and many parts of
the native church are extremely anxious to cut
off everything possible that has a foreign flavor,
and to create a form of Christianity peculiarly
Japanese. ~
Again, the nationalistic feeling prompts many,
both in the church and out of it, to chafe at the
presence of foreign religious teachers in their
midst. The very presence of these teachers is
looked upon as an implication that the Japanese
are not competent to instruct themselves in reli-
gious matters, and this is much resented. As a
prominent Japanese put it not long ago, " What
could be more inconsistent or improper than for|
great Japan, that has so recently humbled Chinai
and forced the admiration of the world for heij
skill in arms, as well as for her educational, com-,
mercial, and industrial development, to be in-j
structed in religious matters by foreigners? " ) I
Operating in these ways, Japanese patriotism
ill adapts the people for a reception of Christianity.
Another feature of the native character which
is not favorable is its lack of seriousness and
stability. Religion is a serious, solemn matter,
but the Japanese are not a serious-minded people.
Their beliefs have always sat lightly upon them,
to be taken off and put on at will. Where these
THE OUTLOOK
316
characteristics are largely wanting the progress of
Christianity will probably be slow.
At present the Japanese are too materiaHstic
properly to appreciate a religion so spiritual as
ours. In religion, as in all other things, they
desire to receive some present material benefit;
and when the rewards of Christianity are found to
be chiefly spiritual, and most of them not realized
in the present life, a deaf ear is turned. This is
an era of great material prosperity in Japan, and
the minds of the people are fully occupied with
commercial and industrial questions, to the exclu-
sion of moral and religious ones.
The most common attitude of the Japanese
public toward Christianity to-day is one of abso-
lute indifference. The people think that if ,the
government permits this religion it cannot be so
very bad ; it is making little progress anyway,
and they need give it no notice whatever. If
others care to go and hear about it, all right, but
as for themselves, they have no relations with it.
The usual experience now when a new chapel is
opened and preaching begun is that for a few
times large numbers of people will come out of
curiosity; then after a little they stop, and no
further regard is paid to the chapel or the preach-
ing. The conflict of religions, the inconsistencies
and shortcomings of the old faiths, the advancing
knowledge, have combined to bring about a state
316
THE GIST OF JAPAN
of indifference, wide-spread and hard to overcome.
It is in many respects more hurtful than a posi-
tion of open antagonism.
j The natural tendency of the Japanese mind to
be skeptical in regard to all supernatural ques-
tions has been fostered by education to such an
extent that educated Japan is to-day largely a
nation of atheists, or at least of agnostics. The
proud pharisaic spirit is abroad, indisposing the
race to accept Christ.
The course of Christianity in the future will
not be an unopposed, easy march to victory.
There yet remains a great deal to be done.
Many clouds still linger on the horizon, making
us anxious about the morrow. But so much has
already been done that the churches at home
should feel encouraged to renew their energies
for the final contest. When one division of an
army has forced a breach in the enemy's lines, it
is not left to hold the position alone, but rein-
forcements are hurried forward to its assistance,
and the advantage gained is instantly followed
up. The attack has been made in Japan ; the
enemy's lines have been broken, but the victory
is not yet. This is no time for retreat, for hesi-
tancy, or for cavil ; this is a time for prompt rein-
forcement and liberal support. Let the home
churches feel that such is their present duty to-
ward the work in Japan.
THE OUTLOOK
317
Although the outlook to-day is not to the
natural eye very bright, to the spiritual eye all is
as noonday. The victory has been assured from
the beginning. However indisposed by nature
the people among whom we labor may be, what- |
ever hindrances may oppose our work, the word I
of the Almighty has gone forth — the kingdoms of \
this world shall become the kingdoms of our Lord i
and of His Christ. The victory is sure, because \
God reigns. In His own good time every oppos- \
ing influence will pass away, and the banner of!
King Immanuel will wave over all this fair land.
It may not be in the present century ; it may not
even be in the lifetime of any now living ; but it
will surely be when God's time is fulfilled.
With an assured faith, built upon the firm
promises of God, we confidently look forward to
the time when the empire of Japan shall no
longer be a mission field, but shall herself send
the message of light and life to the darkened ,
millions around her. I
May God hasten the day. j
INDEX
Ainu, lo, 33.
American Board (Congrega-
tional), 171 ; history of work,
179; strained relations with
native church, 182.
Ancestors, worship of, 117, 270,
301.
Animals, 29.
Art, 95.
Asama, II.
Ashikaga, 42.
Ballagh, Rev. Mr., baptized first
convert, 175.
Banking, 103.
Baptists, 171, 187.
Bathing, 83.
Beautiful, love of the, 59.
Belief, missionary's, 198.
Berry, Dr. J. C, opinions on
vacations, 218, 220, 223; his
medical work, 265.
Bible, first portions translated,
147, 174; translation of,
essential, 162; translation
committee and work, 175;
distribution to soldiers, 311.
Bible and tract societies of
America and England, work
of, 190.
Bicycle, 245.
Birds, 30.
Biwa, 14.
Bridges, 16.
Brotherhood, universal, un-
known, 136; repugnant,
273-
Brothers, relation of, 134.
Brown, Rev. Dr. S. R., 170;
drafts of New Testament,
174.
Buddhism, introduction of, 40 ;
principal features of, 126 ; his-
tory of, 127; formative power
of, 128; temples and priests,
129; and Christianity, 126,
130, 279; vitality of, 278,
311-
Camphor, 26.
Census of 1893, 9.
Chamberlain, Professor, on ad-
vance of Christianity in Japan,
312.
Chaplains, Christian, appointed
by the government, 310.
Character, missionary's, 200.
Cheerfulness, native, 53.
Children, an allowance for, 214.
China, early influence of, 39 ;
ancient civilization of, 90 ;
recent war with, 49, 310.
Christianity, first introduction
of, 144; early successes, 148;
attempted extermination of,
154; cannot be extirpated,
156; prohibitions of, 157,
172 ; edicts against, removed.
#
320
INDEX
1 76 ; reaction against, 1 78 ; by
nature diffusive, 243 ; revolu-
tionizing tendency of, 267 ;
exclusiveness of, 269 ; past
record of, 274; advance of,
312.
Church, first organized, 175;
sifting of, 178.
Church of Christ in Japan, 184.
Civihzation, definition of, 89 ;
Japan's compared with West-
ern, 106; adoption of West-
ern, 177.
CHmate, 19-22.
Clothing, 73, 82.
Commercial honor, 67 ; moral-
ity, 120.
Confucianism, and Japanese
morality, 109; ethics of, no;
history of, 130; basal prin-
ciples of, 131 ; nearest ap-
proach to Christianity, 135 ;
contrasted with Christianity,
243-
Consecration of missionary,
197.
Constitution of Japan, 47, 96.
Converts, first, 175; social
ostracism of, 279; require-
ments of, 288 ; indigent, 289.
Curiosity, native, 212.
Customs, bearing of, upon mis-
sion work, 70, 269.
Davis, Rev. and Mrs. J. D., 180.
Death, not afraid of, 65.
Disappointments, missionary's,
226.
Doshisha University, 180; ra-
tionalistic teaching of, 181.
Duty, ours to the missionary,
229; joy of doing, 231.
Earthquakes, 12, 13.
Educational system of Japan,
93, 255 ; antagonistic to
Christianity, 276.
Educational work of missions,
compared with evangelistic,
250; criticism of, 253;
hinders self-support, 260.
Embassy to Rome, 149.
Emperor, power of name, 55 >
worship of picture, 112, 301.
Environment, missionary's, un-
favorable, 227.
Episcopalians, 170, 183; five
branches of, 186; native
church, 187, 303.
Ethnology, 32, 33.
Europeanization of Japan, 46,
91 ; our hope, 312.
Evangelization, 234 ; mission-
aries must be evangelists,
235 ; subordinated to educa-
tional work, 236; local, 237;
itinerating, 242.
Exiles, missionaries, 225, 228.
Exports, 27.
Facial expression, 53.
Farms, 23.
Festivals, religions, 302.
Feudalism, rise of, 41 ; condi-
tions under, 145.
Fish, 30.
Food, 80.
Foreign pastor, 230.
Foreigners, treatment of, 44,
136; country open to, 1 70,
171; ungodly example of,
282.
Formosa, 9.
Franchise, limited, 96.
Friends, 135.
Fuji-san, 12.
Fujiwara family, 4I.
Funerals, 84.
Geography of Japan, 9-15-
Girls' boarding-schools, 255;
purpose of, 256 ; end defeated
by etiquette, 257; reasons
for and against, 258, 259.
INDEX
321
Goble, Rev. J., translation of
Matthew, 174.
God, Japanese word for, 249,
262.
Government, Japanese, 95 ;
paternalism of, 58; hostile
to Christianity, 172, 173,313.
Gratitude, 66.
Greek Church (Russian), 165;
its founder, 166; its cathe-
dral, 167; its work, 168.
Greene, Dr. and Mrs., 180.
Greetings, 88.
Gulick, Rev. O. H., 180; story
of his teacher, 172.
Hara-kiri (belly-cutting), 85.
Haughty bearing of mission-
ary, 241.
Health of missionary, the first
qualification, 193 ; medical
examinations, 195 ; allowance
for, 215; and vacations, 216.
Heathen faiths opposed to
Christianity, 277, 311.
Hibachi, 80.
Hideyoshi, 43 ; persecutor of
Christians, 150.
Hindrances to Christianity, 266 ;
common to all fields, 267 ;
peculiar to Japan, 271 ; the
greatest, 313.
Hiroshima, 18.
Hollanders, 10, 44, 156, 158.
Homes, mission, necessity of
as examples, 207, 211 ; com-
fort of, 210; a Western
home, 212.
Hondo, 9.
Houses, Japanese, use of, 76 ;
construction of, 78; furni-
ture, 79.
Human life, cheap, 64.
Imitativeness, 64.
Imperial University, 94.
Inconsistency, 63.
Inland Sea, 10.
Inns, Japanese, 245.
Inquirers, how to deal with,
238, 286.
Instability, of people, 61, 314;
of civilization, 105.
Intellectual life, 54; open-
mindedness, 59.
Islands of Japan, 9, 10, 11.
Itinerating, 242 ; greatest hin-
drance to, 246 ; kinds of, 247 ;
objections to, 249.
lyeyasu, 43, 109; and the battle
of Sekigahara, 153; persecu-
tion of Christianity, 153.
Japan, the land of, 9; new,
birth of, 45 ; religions of, 122.
Japanese, reliable history of,
40; characteristics, 51 ; man-
ners and customs, 69 ; civi-
lization, 89 ; morality, 107 ;
skeptical, 316.
Jesuits, introduction of Chris-
tianity by, 45.
Jimmu Tenno, 36, 38.
Jingo, Empress, 39.
Jinrikisha, 63, 244.
Joys of the missionary, 231.
Kagoshima, 18.
Kanagawa, 18.
Kasatkin, Bishop Nicolai,
founder of Greek mission,
166.
Korea, subjugation of, 39.
Kyoto or Saikyo, 10, 17, 18.
Kyushu, 9 ; Dutch residence
on, 10.
Lakes, 14.
Land, cultivated, II, 22; pic-
turesque, 14; irrigation of,
22 ; terracing, 23.
Language, structure of, 55 ;
difficult to learn to read, 93 ;
first dictionary of, 174; talent
322
INDEX
for, essential to the mission-
ary, 203 ; difficult to master,
262, 284.
Lawrence, Dr. E., on common
sense, 204 ; on exiles, 225 ;
" axioms of missions," 292.
Laws, 96.
Libraries, how regarded, 72.
Life, chief of all evils, 127.
Liggins, Rev. J., 170.
Lights, 103.
Literature, native, 92 ; Chris-
tian, 261, 263.
Love of humanity, missionary's,
199.
Loyalty, first moral principle,
III, 132.
Lutherans, missionary prob-
lems of, 188; purpose in
Japan, 189.
McDonald, Dr., on furloughs,
224.
Mails, 10 1, 246.
Manufactories, 104.
Marriage, customs, 75 ; rela-
tion, 133 ; essential to mis-
sionary, 206.
Martyrs, 115.
Materialism in Japan, 277, 315.
Maxims, 117, 272.
Medical missions, 264 ; no
longer needed in Japan, 265.
Mental qualifications of the mis-
sionary, 201.
Methodist Church in Japan,
171, 183; branches of, 185,
304 ; present status of, 186.
Mikados, 41.
Minamoto, great clan, 41.
Minerals, 28.
Missionaries, lives in danger,
171; qualifications of, 192;
private life of, 209 ; extent
and variety of work of, 234 ;
number of, in Japan, 309.
Missions in Japan, modern Ro-
man and Greek, 160; Protes-
tant, 169; the "happy time"
of, 177; differing policy of,
182; small bodies, 190; re-
sults of, 191 ; projected on
too high a plane, 260 ; hin-
drances to, 266 ; special prob-
lems of, 286 ; the outlook of,
306.
Morality, compared with West,
109, 117; chief defect of,
121.
Music in the Greek Church,
167.
Mutsuhito, 47.
Mythological history, 36-39.
Mythology, 34, 122.
Nagasaki, 10.
Nagoya, 18.
Native church, its relation to
the missionary, 182, 228, 299,
314; missionary's crown,
232 ; development of, 242 ;
hurtful national feeling in,
273; problem of, 290 ; polity
of, 290 ; self-support, 293 ;
reasons for dependence, 294;
attitude toward national hab-
its and customs, 300 ; condi-
tion of, to-day, 307.
Native ministry, educated, 251 ;
how provided, 295 ; how
trained, 297.
Neesima, Dr., 181.
Newspapers, Japanese, 92 ;
value of Christian, 263.
Nihon, native name of empire,
10.
Nihon-bashi, center of empire,
16.
Nobunaga, 43 ; patron of early
Christianity, 148 ; assassi-
nated, 150.
Obedience, result of, 58.
Official honor, 68.
INDEX
323
Okayama, i8.
Omiiki, founder of Tenrikyo,
138.
Open ports, 19.
Originality, native, 63.
Outlook in Japan, 306 ; bright
to spiritual eye, 317.
Parental relation, 133.
Parental respect, 57; great
ethical principle, 116.
Passports, 246.
Patriotism, extreme, 55; hin-
ders Christianity, 272, 313.
Perry, Commodore, and the
opening of Japan, 44.
Persecutions, causes of, 150;
Christians exiled, 172; Unit-
ed States government and,
176; cessation of, 177 i mem-
ory of, 275.
Physique, native, 33.
Politeness, the exalted virtue,
85 ; ridiculous extremes, 87.
Portuguese, discovery of Japan,
43 ; captain and Hideyoshi,
150.
Prayer, 169.
Presbyterian Board of Foreign
Missions in the United
States, 169, 170.
Problems, special, 286.
Railways, 97.
Rainfall, 21.
Reformed Church in America,
170.
Religion, Japanese, composite,
123; influence of, 142; and
morality, 268.
Rivers, 13.
Roads, 15, 16.
Roman Catholic Church in
Japan, pioneer work of,
144; driven out, 154; early
mistakes, 158, 161 ; the work
resumed, 160; peculiar hin-
drances to, 163; prosperity
of, 164.
Ronins, story of the forty-
seven, 112.
Sake, 119.
Salary of the missionary, 213;
when on furlough, 219.
Schools, Sunday-, 239 ; mis-
sion, 251; academical, 253;
girls', 255.
Sectarianism, a hindrance to
missions, 281; disappearing,
303 ; advantages of coopera-
tion, 304.
Self-control of missionary, 205.
Sermons, kind of, 249.
Sexes, relation of, 73.
Shikoku, 10.
Shimabara, fall of, 155.
Shinto, revival of, 45 ; moral-
ity, 108; history of, 123;
state religion, 125 ; ancestors,
270; opposing Christianity,
278.
Shogun (tycoon), 42 ; aboli-
tion of the office, 46.
Sign language, graceful, 76.
Simmons, Dr. D. B., 170.
Sin, no word for, 249, 262.
Society, missionary's need of,
216, 217, 225.
Spiritual qualifications of the
missionary, 197.
Steamers, 99.
Suicides, 65, I20.
Taira, great clan, 41.
Taylor, Dr. W., 265; opinions
on missionary's qualifica-
tions, 194; furloughs, 220,
221, 224.
Telegraphs, 99, 246.
Tenrikyo, missionary religion,
137; origin of, 138; teach-
ings of, 139; distinguishing
characteristics, 141.
324
INDEX
Theological training, necessity
of, 251; in English lan-
guage, 252 ; abroad, 252,
299 ; place of native religions
in, 298.
Theology, native, rationalistic,
181; desire for, 274; for-
mative stage, 308.
Tidal waves, 13.
Tokaido, most famous road, 16.
Tokyo, the capital, 10, 17.
Tone-gawa, largest river, 14.
"Topsyturvydom," 70.
Treaties, American, 45, 107 ;
English, 170; revision of,
48, 178.
Typhoons, 22.
Vacations of missionaries, sum-
mer, 216; furloughs, 218,
224; argument against, 219;
medical opinions in favor of,
220; from an economic
standpoint, 221; useful to
native and home churches
alike, 222.
Vegetarians, 80.
Verbeck, Rev. Dr. G. F., 171,
.75-.
Visitation, advantages of, 239 ;
and Japanese etiquette, 240.
Volcanoes, 1 1.
Wife, missionary's, health of,
196.
Williams, Rev. C. M. (Bishop),
170, 175-
Work, methods of, 234.
Xavier, St. Francis, first mis«
sionary to Japan, 146.
Yezo, 9; location and climate,
10.
Yoritomo, first shogun, 42.
Yokohama, 11.
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