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DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE
E. E. PRATT, Chief
MISCELLANEOUS SERIES-No. 60
THE GLASS INDUSTRY
REPORT ON THE COST OF PRODUCTION OF
GLASS IN THE UNITED STATES
PRICE, 35 CENTS
Sold by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office
Washington, D. C.
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1917
C ONTENTS.
Page.
Letter of submittal 9
Introduction II
Establishment of the American glass industry 11
Early development 11
Adoption of coal for fuel 11
Introduction and development of tank furnaces 11
Influence of the fuel supply 12
Introduction of machinery 13
Making of bottles 14
Pressed tableware 16
Lighting goods 17
Plate glass 20
Window glass 20
Results of overproduction 22
Specialization in manufacture 22
Effects of the European war 23
Future of the glass industry 24
General statistics of the industry 24
Scope and method of the investigation 31
Group classification of establishments 33
Distribution of industry by States 35
Summary 37
General results of the investigation 37
Materials, machinery, and processes 41
Capital, net sales, and turnover 42
Depreciation 44
Cost and profit by establishments 45
Cost and profit by specified units 46
Industrial conditions 46
Selling expense and conditions 48
Wages and labor conditions 49
Needs of the industry 51
Imports and duties 52
Exports 54
Chapter I. — Materials, machinery, and processes 55
Raw materials used 55
Sand 55
Alkaline bases 56
Metallic bases 57
Cullet 57
Decolorizers 57
Colorants 58
Mixtures for American glass 59
Machinery, tools, and equipment 60
Types of furnaces 60
Blowpipe 62
3
-± CONTENTS.
Chapter I. — Materials, machinery, and processes — Continued.
Machinery, tools, and equipment — Continued. p age .
Molds 62
Blowing machine 62
Paste-mold blowing machine 63
Automatic bottle machine 63
Flowing device 64
Pressing machine 64
Window-glass machine 65
Air-pumping system 65
Reheating furnace 65
Annealing oven, or leer 65
Conveyor devices 66
Manufacturing processes 66
Batches for various products 66
Preparation of the batch 68
Window glass ' 68
Plate glass 70
Rolled figured glass 71
Wire glass 71
Opalescent glass 71
Bottles 71
Tableware 72
Lighting goods 74
Chapter II. — Capital, net sales, and turnover 76
Operating and final profit 76
Percentages of profit on capital and net sales 78
Profit or loss of each establishment 79
Number of establishments showing profit or loss 83
Variations in profits and losses 84
Turnover of capital 85
Chapter III. — Depreciation of plant and equipment 86
Importance of the charges 86
Various methods employed 86
Neglect of charges by glass-making plants 88
Relation to net sales, capital, and investment 90
Effect on profits 90
Chapter IV. — Cost and profit by establishments 94
Cost and profit based on net sales 94
Cost and profit based on sales value of goods produced 99
Method of determining sales value of goods 99
Average production costs by groups 100
Materials 106
Labor 107
Fuel, power, etc 109
Taxes and insurance 109
Salaries 109
Royalty 110
General expense 110
Selling 110
Profit Ill
Depreciation Ill
Interest Ill
Miscellaneous expense and miscellaneous income 112
CONTEXTS. 5
Chapter IV. — Cost and profit by establishments — Continued. Page.
Cost and profit in individual establishments 112
Handmade window glass 112
Machine-made window glass 116
Plate glass 120
Wire and opalescent glass 122
Handmade bottles 124
Machine-made bottles 1 29
Hand and machine made bottles 132
Jars 137
Blown tableware 141
Blown and pressed tableware 143
Lighting goods 146
Lamp chimneys 149
Miscellaneous articles 151
Cost based on total expenses, excluding depreciation and interest 154
Lowest and highest cost establishments 157
Sales in previous years 161
Profits in previous years 166
Chapter V. — Cost and profit by specified units 171
Tabulation of cost and profit by articles 171
Unit cost for window glass 176
Handmade product 177
Machine-made product 180
Manufacturing costs by items 183
Production at a profit and at a loss 186
Chapter VI. — Industrial conditions 187
Fuel as-a factor in location and operation 187
Increase in output of building glass 188
Window glass 189
Effect of selling agencies on prices 190
Number and equipment of hand and machine plants 190
Production affected by machinery 192
Factories operated on part-time basis 192
Effect of machines on glass blowers' earnings 193
Price list and discounts 194
Definition of grades ". 197
Hand production classified by grade, size, and strength 198
Proportion of production by hand and machine 199
Cooperation among manufacturers 200
Increased demand for first grade and for small sizes 200
Manufacturing to fill orders and for stock 201
Conditions outlined by manufacturers 201
The sheet-glass machine 205
Plate glass 205
Increase in production 205
Number and equipment of plants' 206
Trend of prices and sizes 206
BottLea 209
Production affected by machinery 210
Number of establishments and their equipment 211
X umber of automatic machines 212
The problem of standard capacity 214
Localization in the indu.sl ry 215
Pressed and blown ware 216
Number, location, and equipment of plants 216
6 CONTENTS.
Chapter VI. — Industrial conditions — Continued. Page.
Cut tableware 217
Superiority of American cut glass ; 218
Imports and exports 219
Methods of manufacture 219
Imitation cut glassware 221
Incandescent lamps 221
Types of lamps 221
Manufacture of bulbs 222
Chemical glassware 222
Germany former source of supply .■ 223
Imports free of duty for schools, colleges, etc 223
Development of American industry 224
High quality of American product 225
Present conditions in the industry 225
Proposed restriction of free importation 227
Photographic glass. : 229
Comparatively high cost of production 229
Amount consumed — Tariff rates 230
Chapter VII. — Selling expense and conditions 231
Selling expense 231
Selling methods 233
Distribution of goods 233
Views of a bottle manufacturer 234
Imperial Window Glass Co. case 235
European plate-glass trust 236
European watch-crystal selling agreement 237
Selling factors 237
Trade abuses 239
Trade acceptances 239
Economies possible through cooperation 240
Chapter VIII. — Wages and labor conditions 242
General data relating to the industry 242
Wages in glass and other industries compared 245
Employees by sex and age 250
Days worked during year 250
Number of employees in the industry 251
Average working hours and earnings 253
Classification of occupations 289
Window glass 290
Advantages of location 290
Wages and wage scales 291
Labor-union regulations ". 295
Bottles 299
Effect of shop system on labor 299
Piece prices, 1907 to 1917 300
Glass Bottle Blowers' Association 303
Hours of labor 306
Summer stop 308
Apprentices 308
Extension of labor organization control 309
CONTENTS. 7
Chapter VIII.— Wages and labor conditions— Continued. Page.
Tableware and lighting goods 309
Number of union workers 310
Number employed and unemployed 310
Strikes and lockouts 311
Piece and time work 311
Hours of labor 312
The "move " system ' 313
Summer stop and holidays 314
Apprentices and child labor 314
Women employees 315
Chapter IX. — Needs of the industry 316
Lack of efficiency in manufacture and selling 316
Chemistry 316
Machinery 317
Buildings 317
Selling 318
Other desirable improvements 318
Methods of computing costs 319
Ruinous price cutting caused by crude cost finding 319
Advantages of modern cost keeping 320
The per-pound method 321
The shop-hour method 322
Overhead expense in making window glass 326
Predetermined costs 327
General accounting conditions 332
Chapter X. — Imports and the tariff 334
Production, imports, and exports compared 334
Imports compared with rates of duty 335
General imports 336
Value of imports by class of products 337
Imports from principal countries 338
Increases in imports 340
Window glass imported 342
Plate glass imported 344
Other building glass 346
Bottles and jars 346
Pressed and blown ware 347
Statistics of imports for consumption 351
Cylinder, crown, and common window glass 352
Fir.-f three brackets of window glass 356
Plate glass, cast, polished, and unsilvered 357
Bottles, vials, demijohns, and carboys, empty 360
Ornamented articles 366
Other cylinder, crown, and common window glass 368
Other plate glass 369
Bottles, vials, demijohns, and carboys, filled 369
Miscellaneous glassware 370
Tariff classifications 370
Decisions regarding classification of imports 370
Principal branches of the glass industry 373
Classification under tariff act of 1913 374
Suggested classification 375
8 CONTENTS.
Page.
Chapter XI. — Products exported 378
Growth of trade in recent years 378
Total exports by months .' . . . 378
Exports of principal products by months 380
Decline in world trade in 1914 381
Exports of principal products by continents 382
Exports of principal products by countries 383
Effects of European war 390
Establishments in foreign trade 391
Export methods 392
Chapter XII. — Opportunities in the export trade 394
Imports of foreign countries 395
Suggestions for increasing foreign trade 403
Appendixes 405
A. List of references on the glass industry 405
B. Schedules used in the investigation 424
LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.
Department of Commerce,
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,
Washington, May 31, 1917.
Sir: I beg to submit herewith, a report on the conditions in the
glass industry and the cost of production in its various branches.
This report is the ninth of a series of reports issued by the Bureau
of Foreign and Domestic Commerce regarding the cost of production
in different industries. The investigation was begun in January,
1916, and conducted in accordance with the act of Congress approved
August 23, 1912.
The report contains principally cost of production data. In addi-
tion, information is given concerning labor and industrial conditions,
factory equipment, selling methods, and suggestions regarding better
general accounting and more accurate cost-finding methods. The
suggestions are based on interviews with manufacturers and on the
personal observations of the special agents. A comprehensive bibli-
ography, prepared in the Library of Congress, is appended.
The investigation was planned and directed by Walter B. Palmer,
a special agent of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.
In the field work and in the preparation of the report he was assisted
by Special Agents David M. Barclay, Harry Gell, Marion C. Howard,
Frank B. Meador, Thomas Mills, Thomas C. Stewart, Stanley D.
Winderman, and Charles F. Yauch.
E. E. Pratt,
Chief of Bureau.
To Hon. William C. Redfield,'
Secretary of Commerce.
COST OF PRODUCTION IN THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
INTRODUCTION.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE AMERICAN GLASS INDUSTRY.
EARLY DEVELOPMENT.
The manufacture of glass in the United States was begun by the
first English colonists in 1608 or 1609, when they established a glass
plant near Jamestown. Wood was plentiful and potash was made
from wood ashes. The product was probably only bottles, although
the claim is made that window glass also was made. The groat inter-
est in tobacco soon caused glassmaking to be neglected. In 1621
Italian workmen were induced to come to Virginia to make beads
for trade with the Indians, funds having been raised to erect a new
glasshouse.
In 1639 a glass plant was erected at Salem, Mass.; glass was made
in New York during the Dutch regime and in 1747 in Connecticut.
The first factory in New Jersey was established by Wistar at Allo-
waystown between 1760 and 1765, and upon the failure of this plant
in 1775 the workmen went to Glassboro, N. J., and established a fac-
tory which is still in operation. This is the oldest continuously oper-
ated factory in the United States. In 1769 Baron Stiegel, of Ger-
many, established a glass plant at Manheim, Pa., for the manufacture
of richly colored bowls, and goblets. By 1800. other factories had
been established in Philadelphia, New York City, Connecticut, Brook-
lyn, Germantown (Quincy), Mass., Salem County, N. J., Temple,
N. H., Boston, Albany, and Keen, N. H. The product of these fac-
tories was mainly bottles or bottles and window glass.
ADOPTION OF COAL FOR FUEL.
Messrs. Craig & O'Hara established glass works near Pittsburgh hi
1796. This plant was the first to use coal for fuel. Wood had been
the fuel used up to this time. The introduction of coal as fuel was
intentional and not due to any lack of wood. As late as 1810 it was
only the glass plants around Pittsburgh that used coal for fuel. The
plant of Craig & OTIara made window glass, but, like most of the
plants in the early glassmaking days, one or more pots were used for
making bottles, flasks, and other hollow ware. The nearness of coal
and the abundance of excellent sand in adjoining rivers resulted in
the phenomenal rise of the Pittsburgh district as the glass center.
INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF TANK FURNACES.
The desire to increase production and to meet the very keen com-
petition that had sprung up led soon after 1870 to improvements in
furnaces.
11
12 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
In 1861 Siemens introduced, in Germany, the first regenerative
glass furnace. Up to the time of the Siemens furnace direct firing
was the universal rule, that is, the heat of artificially dried wood or
coal was applied directly to the pots. With wood or coal direct firing
only was possible.
In the Siemens furnace the fuel was first converted into gas outside
the furnace and then heated, generally with preheated air, on the
principle of the Bunsen burner. The gas and the air were heated
separately by means of regenerators placed beneath the furnace, which
utilized the waste heat from the gases of combustion. By this method
a great saving was made in the fuel, the melting time was reduced,
the output was increased and the quality of the glass improved. In
the seventies other gas-pot furnaces, such as those of Nicholson and
Gill, were introduced in the vicinity of Pittsburgh.
It was not Siemens' original furnace — a pot furnace — but the tank,
which covers the whole area of the furnace and does away entirely
with the use of pots, that reached its greatest development in this
country. In 1872 the tank furnace was divided into three compart-
ments by means of two transverse floating bridges; the batch was
melted in the first compartment, the glass was refined in the second,
and the third held the purified glass. A later improvement did away
with these floating bridges by substituting refining vessels that were
floated opposite each gathering hole.
The introduction of the tank furnace was made possible only by
the use of gas as fuel, and the commercial utilization of natural gas
greatly stimulated its extension and development. Direct firing
ceased to exist. Because of its size, a tank can not be properly
heated by direct firing. In order to reach the contents effectively, it
is necessary that the flames be forced across the top of the tank and
this is possible only by the use of gas.
In the last 25 or 30 j^ears a large number of the pot furnaces have
been replaced by tank furnaces. The only efficient plants that use
pots at present are plate-glass plants, those that manufacture very
fine qualities of tableware and other goods, and establishments in
which a great diversity of colored glass is made.
The use of the continuous tank enables a plant to work 24 hours a
day. Tanks are more economical, regular, and durable, and produce
a more uniform molten glass. While the first cost of the tank is large,
the tremendous expense for pots, which last but a short time, and
the time lost in removing and setting them make tanks just as cheap
for a permanent investment. The adoption of tanks increased the
production of the blower, due to the possibility of using shorter gath-
ering irons, which skim the glass from the surface of the tank more
rapidly than the long irons formerly necessary to gather glass from
the pot.
Several furnaces have been patented for melting glass by electricity
but none has as yet been perfected so as to make its commercial
introduction possible.
INFLUENCE OF THE FUEL SUPPLY.
The cost of fuel is, exclusive of labor, generally the largest single
expense that enters into the manufacture of glass. It is not surpris-
ing therefore to find manufacturers influenced to a very great extent
INTRODUCTION. 13
in locating their plant- by the sourer of the fuel supply. Fuel is the
prime reason for locating factories at a particular place. The glass
industry in its early days was established along the Atlantic coast,
ihat being i lie firsl settled section of the country. Wood, which was
dried to expel all moisture, was to he had in almost every section of
this territory. With the adoption of coal as fuel in Pittsburgh in
1796, the glass industry moved west of the Alleghenies and centered
in t !ir Pittsburgh district. Wood and coal were used for direct firing.
Since the introduction of the Siemens furnace, however, improve-
ments have been in the direction of substituting gaseous for solid
fuel. ,
The discovery of natural gas and cheap oil in western Pennsylvania
caused factories to locate in the gas and oil regions of that State, and
the discovery of natural gas, first in Ohio and then in Indiana, caused
the glass industry to move farther west. Hundreds of "mushroom"
factories sprang up over night. On the failure of the natural-gas
supply some plants moved to new fields, but the "mushroom " plants
as well as many old-established factories were compelled to quit busi-
ness. In recent years the natural gas of West Virginia has been the
direct cause for the erection in that State of some of the largest fac-
tories in this country. When natural gas failed, oil was substituted
and proved to be an excellent fuel.
Gas, either natural or artificial, is an ideal fuel; it is free from ashes
and dirt, and gives a uniform heat which is essential in the manufac-
ture of glass. It gives an almost perfect combustion, and the flame
is easily applied and controlled. Natural gas is preferred because it
is cheaper than artificial gas and gives a greater heat ; but it is unre-
liable, as the supply is usually uncertain. Oil furnishes an intense
and easily regulated heat, but is as yet too expensive for universal
use. '
In the days when natural gas was the chief fuel because of its low
cost, plants moved about from year to year following the gas supply.
This moving was made possible because of the cheap cost of con-
structing the frame buildings and the absence of any great amount
of machinery. At the present time, however, factories are large, the
buildings are more or less substantial, and, since the machinery and
equipment are costly and not easily moved, the industry is com-
paratively stable. Plants now, as formerly, prefer to use natural
gas, and when this supply is exhausted, generally change to artificial
(producer) gas or oil. Electricity may probably prove to be the ideal
fuel, but as yet has not been used commercially as a glass fuel.
INTRODUCTION OF MACHINERY.
The invention, introduction, and development of machinery in the
flass industry has resulted from the desire to displace the skilled and
ighly paid blower and to increase production and cheapen cost.
The making of glass from earliest history down to recent times was
a handicraft, and much glass is still blown by the breath of a glass
maker. Later molds were invented to assist the blower in shaping
the articles. The machine for pressing the simpler articles in molds,
without the aid of blowing, has been used since 1827. It has been
chiefly in the manufacture of bottles, jars, and window glass that
machinery has been invented and developed.
14 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
MAKIXG OF BOTTLES.
Early nineteenth-century product. — From about 1808 to 1870 an
important branch of the glass industry was the manufacture of fancy
pocket flasks and bottles. These were blown in engraved metal
molds. The early bottles had mouths cut with shears when in a
plastic or soft condition, which resulted in a rimless, irregular edge.
The base has a circular scar made where the bottle was broken from
the punty rod which held it while workmen finished the neck. Later
this scar was removed from the finer products by grinding. In the
fifties a "snap" was used to hold the_ bottle, which came from the
mold with a smooth hollow base. A' rim or beading formed by a
"tool" was also added to the mouth. All the early bottles were
green in color and it was not until 1861 that flint glass was used for
prescription bottles.
Beginning of the shop system. — -In order to increase production there
was introduced in bottle factories about 1870 what is known as the
"shop system." Instead of the single blower, who previous to this
time had produced the entire bottle, three men ("the shop") worked
together, two of them gathering and blowing while the third made the
neck smooth and otherwise finished the bottle. The average output
of bottles for each gang of three men working together in this way is
275 to 300 dozen per day; in the case of especially expert men the
day's work is often much larger. Formerly, the single blower,
working with only the mold-shutting and snapping-up boys' help,
was regarded as having produced a very good day's work when he
made 40 or 42 dozen per day. 1 The "shop system" is still in vogue
in plants where bottles are made by hand.
. Machinery. — Ashleigh, an Englishman, made the first automatic
bottle machine, but it was unsuccessful for narrow-neck bottles,
because only a small percentage of the ware had a good enough neck
to be marketable. In 1882 the process of prepressing a blank, form-
ing the neck in the pressing operation, then transferring the neck to a
blow mold and blowing it into the finished form by compressed air was
invented by Arbogast, of Pittsburgh.
There are three methods of making wide-mouth bottles under the
Arbogast patent. By the first the pressed blank is transferred from
the blank mold to the blow mold and blown by means of a disk with
a handle to which compressed air, controlled by a stopcock, is fed
through a rubber hose. Later, to increase production, the blank and
blow molds were mounted on separate revolving tables. By the
second method the blank mold is telescoped into the blow mold against
the shoulder forming the neck. This system was invented by
Windmill, of England, and was used successfully for fruit jars, but
legal entanglements and litigation caused manufacturers to discard
it. The third method consists in pressing the blank in the blank
mold.
About 1896 a machine was perfected which, though commercially
successful, was somewhat crude and restricted to the making of wide-
mouth bottles and jars. This machine was not automatic. |p
Since about 1900 any number of bottle-making machines that
required one, two, or three skilled operators have appeared on the
1 Twentv-eighth Annual Report, Bureau of Statistics of Labor and Industries of New Jersey, 1905,
p. 201.
INTRODUCTION. 15
market: those, machine- are u-ually designated as one, two. or throe
man machines. In 1900 a two-man machine for making wide-mouth
bottles was invented. vShortly after the automatic machine was
introduced, there appeared on the market the "Johnny Bull,' - or
United, an English throe-man machine for narrow-mouth bottles.
In 1908 there appeared a three-man machine for narrow-neck bottles,
in 1912 a one-man machine for wide-mouth bottles, and in 1914 a
one-man machine for narrow-neck bottles.
Owens automatic machine. — In 1903 the Owens automatic machine,
invented by Michael J. Owens, of Toledo, was introduced com-
mercially. The machine revolutionized the entire bottle-making
industry, and since its introduction has greatly increased the standard
of efficiency in the bottle-manufacturing plants of the United States
and has made possible the gradual reduction in the price of bottles
that has been noted during the years since its invention.
The first Owens machine that appeared on the market had six
arms; the latest type of machine has 15 arms. Improvements have
been made so that to-day practically any kind or shape of bottle from
one-tenth of an ounce to 13 gallons in capacity can be made upon
some one of the four types of Owens machines.
The operating speed of the 15-arm machine is indicated by the fact
that more than 75,000 quart fruit jars are manufactured by a single
machine in a 24-hour day. The machine is entirely automatic,
gathering its own glass and blowing the bottle, and when an auto-
matic conveyor is used, delivering it to the leer without the touch of a
worker's hand. The machine can be run for 24 hours a day and every-
day in the year.
The machine is very costly, and the special equipment necessary
to operate it makes the initial outlay exceedingly large. This fact,
together with a serious doubt as to the machine's competitive ability,
kept manufacturers from installing it generally. Prior to 1908 the
Owens machine was restricted almost exclusively to licensing on a
basis of royalty. In that year, however, the Owens people began the
manufacture of bottles. In a report by President Libbey, of the
Owens Bottle Machine Co., he states that, exclusive of the plants
controlled by the Owens Bottle Machine Co., there are 15 factories
operating 114 machines and having a normal annual production of
over 850,000,000 bottles. 1 There are installed in the United States
at present 6 fifteen-arm, 97 ten-arm, 87 six-arm, and 1 special machine,
making a total of 191 machines. There are 13 machines in Canada.
The Owens European patents were sold in 1907, to a European
combination controlled by German shareholders, for 12,000,000 marks.
The first three Owens machines were sold in Europe in 1908, and
there are now 60 or 70 machines in use. It is significant that Japanese
capitalists, despite the cheap hand labor to be had in that country,
have purchased the Owens Japanese patents and are now installing
the most modern Owens machines.
Flowing device. — From the time of the ancient Egyptian glass blow-
ers up to 1903, when a patent for a flowing device was issued to Homer
Brooke, and the Owens machine, which gathered its own glass, was
commercially introduced, hand gathering was the first step in the
process of glassmaking. Brooke's device consists in permitting the
'National Glass Budget, Apr. 1, 1910, p. 2.
16 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
molten glass to flow continuously and freely from the furnace, and
then severing this flowing stream below its point of exit from the
furnace to obtain the desired unformed molten mass, allowing the
severed mass to fall in the mold and supporting the upper portion of
the stream, which continues flowing from the furnace until another
mold comes into position to receive another mass to be severed.
In hand gathering, which was the universal method up to this time,
the glass gathered is usually more than the amount necessary for the
required ware. The glass is dropped into the mold and the proper
amount has to be cut off by shears or by other means. The Brooke
patent accomplished the gathering and cutting automatically.
Previous to Homer Brooke's invention many attempts had been
made to do away with hand gathering. Haley devised a machine
which manipulated the gathering rod in exactly the same manner as
in the hand operation. In 1885 Rylands patented a device (British
patent) to start and stop the flow of glass by means of a lever. In
1890 came the Schulze-Berge patent, by which desired quantities of
glass were forcibly ejected from the furnace by means of a plunger
acting in the furnace or by means of air pressure in the furnace.
Eunsen (British patent) started and stopped the flow of glass by
means of a revolving cylinder with pockets in its periphery. The
difficulty with all these intermittent start-and-stop devices was that
the glass adhered to the cut-off device or stopper, or congealed and
did not flow. The Brooke patent provided for a continuous flow,
thus preventing the glass from congealing.
The advantages claimed from the use of the Brooke patents are
greatly increased production, uniform quantities, reduced cost of
manufacture, and ability to work throughout the hot months, when
it is difficult to get hand gatherers to work.
It appears that other manufacturers have been working on flowing
or pouring devices since Brooke received his patent, and some claim
to have perfected and to be using such systems. There are 10 or 12
firms making bottles and jars by the flowing method. 1
PRESSED TABLEWARE.
The discovery of a process for pressing glass in 1827 is credited to
a carpenter of Sandwich, Mass. Deming Jarves in that year made
the first pressed tumbler. Up to this time all glassware not cast had
been blown. The shaping of glass to the desired form and size by
means of a mold and pressing was at first used only for the commoner
grades of goods. This discovery revolutionized the industry. It
greatly reduced the cost of production, making it possible for immense
quantities of the same article to be turned out at a low cost, and
permitted the imitation of fine ware. Toward the close of the sixties
goblets and wineglasses were made by the pressed method and were
almost as fine and delicate as those made by blowing and cutting.
Up to 1864 the finer pressed-glass articles were made of flint glass,
composed of the best sand, pearl ash, refined saltpeter, and oxide of
lead, while the cheap tumblers and other common ware were made of
German flint glass composed of soda ash, lime, nitrate of soda, and
sand. About 1864 William Leigh ton, of Wheeling, discovered a
1 D. A. Hayes, president of the Glass Bottle Blowers' Association, in The G lassworker, July 22, 1916,
p. 3.
INTRODUCTION. 17
method of making a clear brillianl glass which revolutionized the
pressed-L:la« business. By his process the batch was made of bicar-
■ of soda, pure -and. lime, and refined nitrate of -oda, and its
cosl was aboul one-third that of the lead-Hint hatch.
LIGHTING GOODS.
Lamps and lamp chimneys. — There was a great depression in the
glass industry from 1850 to 1S60, but this was followed hy a great
ipment in the flint-glass business, due to the making of coal oil
from coal and the later discovery of petroleum. Though lamp chim-
ney- were manufactured about 1S55, it was not until about 1859,
when refined petroleum for lighting purposes was commercially mar-
keted, that their manufacture assumed large proportions. With the
introduction of petroleum the demaud for lamps and lamp chimneys
grew by leaps and bounds until the introduction of gas and electricity
about 1SS5 led the manufacturers to commence the making of modern
lighting goods. Lamp chimneys and oil lamps are manufactured in
the United States in considerable quantities at the present time and
are exported to countries where gas and electricity liave not yet been
introduced. Lamp chimneys were at first blown off-hand and some
with flat sides were made in molds. In recent years lamp chimneys
have been manufactured in a paste-mold machine.
Bulbs for incandescent lamps. — The first glass bulbs used for in-
candescent lamps were made from tubing by manipulating the latter
over a flame. This practice was followed until such time as the in-
candescent lamp began to assume commercial importance, when
the manufacturers began to cast about for a cheaper and more
expeditious method of production.
As far as is known, the first attempts to make bulbs on a blow
iron (i. e., a glassworker's blowpipe) direct from the molten glass
were made in Corning N. Y., in the late seventies. After laborious
experiments with glasses of different composition and with different
methods of manipulation, a process was evolved for making a so-
called ''off-hand" bulb, which was a distinct improvement over the
bulb previously used, in that it was more uniform in shape and
size, was of a satisfactory and fairly uniform thickness, and possessed
other physical properties — correct coefficient of expansion, fusibil-
ity, freedom from visual defects, etc. — necessary to successful use.
This type of bulb moreover was susceptible of manufacture in exist-
ing glass plants by workmen then available. This no doubt was an
important consideration, as it was desired to get bulbs promptly in
what were then considered large quantities.
It will be understood that while these off-hand bulbs were a great
improvement over those made from tubing and temporarily met
the requirements of the lamp manufacturer, the art of lamp making
was then distinctly a hand art, and uniformity was not needed.
As the art of lamp making progressed, attempts were made to ex-
f>edite the process by substituting machinery for hand operators,
n fact, it became obvious that machinery must be substituted if
incandescent electric lighting were to assume the importance hoped
for it.
102511°— 17 2
18 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
With the development of machines for holding and manipulating
lamps in process, the need of greater accuracy in the manufacture
of the bulb became imperative, and the glass manufacturer met the
situation by substituting the "wooden-mold" process for that
previously employed.
In the off-hand process the glassworkor gathered a small ball of
glass on the end of his iron by dipping the latter in the molten
mass and quickly rotating and withdrawing it. He then rolled the
" gather" on a polished iron plate, cooling it and causing it to assume
any approximate cylindrical shape. Then, by a combination of
blowing and swinging, he caused the glass to elongate and distend
to the proper shape. It is needless to say that this was an opera-
tion requiring a high degree of skill and great care. No measuring
tools or gauges could be touched to the plastic glass, and the uni-
formity of the product was strictly dependent on the ability and care
of the operator.
The wooden-mold process had long been in use in the glass trade
for the production of globes, chimneys, and similar articles. Just
why it was not originally adopted for the making of bulbs instead
of the off-hand process is not known. The preliminary steps in
both processes are identical. In the wooden-mold process, however,
the "gather" or blank when only partially distended is introduced
into a hardwood water-soaked mold, whereupon the operator blows
into the iron and at the same time rolls it between the palms of his
hands, thus imparting a rotary motion to the blank, while it assumes
the contour of the mold. As soon as the glass becomes sufficiently
stiff, but before it has entirely lost its plasticity, the mold is opened
and the bulb still attached to the iron is removed. Finally the bulb
is removed from the iron by cracking close to the latter with a wet,
or at least a cold, file or "knife."
This wooden-mold process was a distinct advance in the art.
The product was much more uniform in size and shape, had a high
polish due to the rotary motion of the glass while in contact with
the mold, and could be made faster and more cheaply than previ-
ously. The hand process of bulb making in vogue at the present
time is a direct development of this wooden-mold process, and differs
from it only in the refinement of tools employed.
As the development of machinery for lamp making progressed,
the requirements of the lamp maker became more and more exacting,
and the glass manufacturer soon began to cast about for a more
reliable material than wood from which to make his molds, for it
was found that wooden molds soon warped and burned out of shape,
with resultant inaccuracies in the product. This more reliable ma-
terial was soon forthcoming in the form of cast iron, coated with a
so-called "paste" of linseed oil and charcoal or hardwood sawdust.
As nearly as can be ascertained this new or "paste" mold was de-
veloped in France and introduced here by certain itinerant French
chimney or tumbler blowers. These men traveled from place to
place as suited their whims, carrying their molds with them, and
accepting employment wherever offered or whenever necessity urged
them. They guarded most jealously the secret of their paste and
it was some little time before Americans acquired the secret. How-
ever, in the late eighties American glassmakers did learn how to
properly coat or paste their molds, and from that time until the pres-
INTRODUCTION. 19
cut day practically all incandescent lamp bulbs made in America
have been blown in these iron molds coated with carbonao ous paste.
It is a rather surprising fact that this process was not generally
adopted in European countries and in Japan until very recent years.
Iron molds of great accuracy arc now used by all bulb manufacturers,
and with proper handling these continue accurate through years of
constant use.
Briefly the process of '"pasting" is as follows: The inner surface
of the mold is spread with a thin layer of boiled linseed oil, applied
with a brush like paint. Other substances, such as wax or rosin,
are sometimes dissolved in the oil. The mold is then dipped in
powdered charcoal, in fine sawdust (usually of apple wocd), or more
recently in cork flour, which is powdered cork sifted or bolted to
make it of uniform grain. The mold is then shaken or tapped to
remove the surplus powder and immediately placed in a baking oven,
where it is subjected to sufficient heat to partially carbonize the oil and
coating without warping the mold.
After carbonization has progressed sufficiently, the mold is re-
moved from the oven and allowed to cool. A heavy "gather" or
blank is prepared on a blow iron and introduced into the mold;
the latter is closed and the blank is blown up tight against the coated
surface. The extreme heat of the glass blank serves to complete
the carbonization of the paste, and upon opening the mold its
working surface is found to be coated with an exceedingly thin,
smooth, and closely adhering coating of carbon, almost graphitic
in character.
The mold is then clipped in water and is ready for use. This dip-
ping in water is a vital part of the process and must be repeated each
time before a bulb is blown. Without the water it is impossible
to rotate the blank in the mold, and the resultant article has a rough
or pitted surface. The high polish of a paste-mold bulb is doubt-
less due to the rotation of the glass over the "graphitic" surface
lubricated by water and water vapor.
As already stated, save for the introduction of the paste mold and
the use of semiautomatic devices for opening, closing, and wetting
molds (so-called "dummy mold holders") the process of making
bulbs by hand is much the same as 20 years ago. Recently, however,
a variety of machines have been introduced, both semiautomatic
and automatic, which give promise of both cheapening and improv-
ing the incandescent lamp bulb. Such machines are in use in sev-
eral manufacturing plants and are turning out a satisfactory product.
There is much development work still to be done on these machines,
but it seems probable that within a few years they will largely
supersede the hand process.
These machines have not introduced any really new fundamental
principles in the art of bulb making; the individual steps in the pro-
cess are similar to those in the manual process and the sequence of
steps is the same. The machine simply imitates wit h great precision
the movements of the adept artisan and produces a very uniform
product.
From a small beginning 30 year- ago, the business of bulb making
has grown to considerable importance. There are now in the United
States alone about 4,000 persons, most ly men , employed in the making
of glass bulbs and tubing for incandescent lamps. Throughout the
20 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
world there are probably from 10,000 to 12,000 so employed, though
definite statistics are not available. It is estimated on good authority
that production of incandescent lamp bulbs in the United States is
now going on at the rate of 20,000,000 per month or nearly 1,000,000
for each working day.
Decorated lighting glassware. — The principal items of lighting glass-
ware are incandescent bulbs, lamp chimneys, lamp shades, lantern
globes, arc-light globes, reflectors, and decorated globes and shades.
Decorated globes and shades are made in a variety of shapes and
designs, both for ornamental and practical purposes. They are
pressed or blown, plain or decorated, machine-cut or hand-cut,
needle-etched or acid-etched, and are made from flint, opal, and
colored glass. It is claimed that American lighting goods are now
superior to those made in Germany and, except in fine colors, are
better than the products of Austria and Venice.
PLATE GLASS.
The making of plate glass in the United States was first attempted
in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1852. In 1869 -John B. Ford, after visiting
the Lenox works, where plate glass had previously been made, and
securing all possible information from the imported workmen, estab-
lished a plant at New Albany, Ind., which, though successful in
manufacturing plate glass, was not piofitable financially. This plant
was equipped with imported machines for grinding, smoothing, and
polishing. In 1'872 the newly formed American Plate Glass Co.,
erected a plant at Crystal City, Mo. This plant, like Ford's, was not
financially successful at the outset, though it manufactured a good
quality of glass. Mr. Ford operated two other plants subsequent to
operating the New Albany plant, but it was not imtil 1881, when he
established a large plate-glass factory at Creighton, Pa., that plate
glass was profitably manufactured. This plant is one of the original
works of the present Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.
Previous to 1880 every investment in plate-glass manufacturing
in the United States had resulted in financial failure. The wonderful
progress and development of the plate-glass industry began in 1880
and has continued until the present day, when American plate glass,
it is claimed, is the equal of the European in clearness, finish, and
freedom from flaws and defects. Kegular plate glass is one-quarter
of an inch thick. There are, however, American companies at the
present time that are specializing in the manufacture of a very thin
or a very thick plate glass.
The first process for making commercially successful wire glass was
patented by Frank Shuman in 1892. Since 1890 there has been a
wonderful development in the manufacture of cathedral, opalescent,
and art sheet glass, and all kinds of figured, ribbed, and colored
glass.
WINDOW GLASS.
Crown glass, a variety of blown glass, was the original form of
modern window glass. A bulb of glass was blown, and after the lower
part of the bulb had been opened by shears, the bulb was flared out'
to a sheet by a rapid rotation of the blowpipe. The circular sheet or
INTRODUCTION. 21
disk was cut into two half circles and squared for glazing. From
the crescent shape of the cut halves was derived the term crown glass.
The cylinder process of forming window glass probably originated in
Italy and about 1830 was introduced into England from France.
The great development in window-glass manufacture dates from
1880. Previous to that time American window gla-s was of pool-
quality and was made in the old type of pot furnace, whereas the
English and Belgium window-glass manufacturers had adopted the
tank furnace. It is estimated that fully 25 per cent of the window
flass used in the United States at that time was imported. 1 In 1888
ames Chambers, after visiting the European glass factories and
securing all possible, information, built at Jeannette, Pa., a plant
equipped with tanks, and although opinion forcasted its failure, it
was successful from the start in the continuous and regular production
of clear, faultless glass which was superior to that in which the batch
had been melted in pots.
Cylinder machinery. — In 1854 Loup introduced a device (French
patent) for the mechanical production of cylinders of glass. A "bait
member " drew a cylinder from the molten glass into which it had been
lowered, air pressure forming the cylinder. In 1886 Martin Andreas
Oppermann, a Belgian glass manufacturer, designed and constructed
another machine for the making of window glass in cylinder form.
This machine was so arranged that cylinders of considerable length
could be made, compressed air being used to blow out the cylinder
and mechanical means applied for drawing the cylinder. Opper-
mann stated in his patent that he anticipated using this machine as
a means for drawing such cylinders from a tank or bath of molten
glass, as also from a bath of glass contained within a refractory
receptacle, whereby segregated portions of glass taken from the pot
or tank could be operated upon, so that either cylinders or other
forms of glass could be made.
Numerous other attempts were made between 1890 and the time
that Lubbers (in 1903) brought out his window-glass cylinder machine.
However, the various ideas and designs which had been brought out
by several different inventors were but little developed, owing to the
skepticism of manufacturers and the antagonism of the dominant
labor unions in that branch of the industry.
The Lubbers machine was brought out in 1903 and was taken up
by the American Window Glass Co. and installed at Alexandria, Ind.
It did not, however, reach a stage of commercial utility until approxi-
mately 1905. This machine is used in the plants of the American
Window Glass Co. Several other machines for the making of window
glass have been installed and are now producing large quantities of
commercial glass of high quality, among which is the Healy machine,
owned and controlled by the Consolidated Window Glass Co., and the
Frink machine, invented and owned by Robert L. Frink. The Pitts-
burgh Plate Glass Co. has also several factories operating under
methods which it owns and controls for the production of window
glass, in conjunction with its plate-glass business. Other types of
machines used are the Douchamp, the Douchamp-Henshaw, and the
Okmulgee. It will be seen therefore that machine making of win-
dow glass has to a great extent supplanted the old hand process.
' James Gillinder, in One Hundred Years of American Commerce, Vol. I, p. 281.
22 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
It is claimed that hand-blown window glass is not so apt to break
as machine-made glass because it is better tempered, due to the con-
stant reheating in the blowing process. Machine-made glass is drawn
which, it is claimed, makes it more brittle.
Sheet-glass machinery. — In 1882 Clarke attempted the mechanical
production of sheet glass. Since then numerous inventors have at-
tempted to solve the same problem. About 1908 Irving W. Col-
burn, of Franklin, Pa., perfected a machine that draws continuous
sheets of glass of any desired width and thickness. The width is
regulated by a perfected device that makes it uniform. The thick-
ness of the glass is varied at the will of the worker. It is stated that
single-strength glass can be drawn at a linear speed of 56 inches a
minute and double-strength at 48 inches a minute. The only worker
required is a cutter to cut the sheet into various sizes as it emerges
from the leer. The people who successfully produced the Owens
machine for bottles are now erecting a large plant for the manufacture
of sheet glass by the process which Colburn invented and perfected.
RESULTS OF OVERPRODUCTION.
Until recently, the establishment of a glass factory required a com-
paratively small investment; a cheap frame structure built near a
sand supply or fuel field was the only building necessary. The cheap-
ness of wood and sand was no doubt responsible for the building of
numerous plants. With the discovery of natural gas many towns
offered large bonuses and other inducements, such as free sites and
free or cheap gas, and people entered the business who had neither
the knowledge nor the ability successfully to conduct a glass plant.
The overproduction which followed, together with the general busi-
ness ignorance of many who had recently entered the field as a get-
rich-quick speculation, resulted in a period of price cutting.
In numerous instances manufacturers attempted by purchase or
organization to remedy the evil results of this keen competition and
overproduction. In 1885 almost all the large glassware plants in
New Jersey formed a manufacturers' association for the purpose of
fixing prices, and in 1891 a number of manufacturers formed a stock
company, known as the United States Glass Co., which bought up 15
of the largest and most complete press-manufacturing plants in the
country, located in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia. The
Pittsburgh Plate Glass Conformed in 1895, purchased all the plate-
glass factories in the United States with the exception of three.
Many manufacturers, it is stated, have been deterred from combining
for the purpose of fixing prices by fear of the Sherman Act. At the
present time many window-glass manufacturers market their prod-
uct through the same selling agent, and manufacturers in other
branches of the glass industry are contemplating some such arrang-
ment.
SPECIALIZATION IN MANUFACTURE.
There is a tendency in glass manufacturing, as in most other indus-
tries, toward specialization, and its cheaper cost of production and
improvement of quality. Specialization would, for one thing,
greatly lessen the expense for molds, which is very large. Users of the
Owens machine usually manufacture only a few products and other
INTRODUCTION. 23
manufacturers have also begun to concentrate on one product or one
line of goods. This specialization, probably due to keen competition
;uid the perfection of various machines, is likely to continue.
Following is a brief description of the specialties manufactured by
the leading glass-producing countries of Europe:
England: Beautiful, pure, brilliant, lead flint ware: cut and en-
graved ware and excellent quality of colored ware.
France: Polished plate glass that is considered the standard;
stained fdass windows: enameled and etched fancy ware; lenses;
ware with elegance of shape, lightness of design, and beauty of glass.
Belgium: Window glass of fine quality at a low price.
Germany: Mirrors: cheap tableware; colored vases.
Austria-Hungary (Bohemia): Beautifully cut. engraved, and deco-
rated glassware of beautiful color and purity of glass; glass gems,
beads, pearls, and buttons.
EFFECTS OF THE EUROPEAN WAR.
The war in Europe has had, indirectly, a beneficial effect on the
American glass industry. Manufacturers and inventors hi this in-
dustry, as m others, have been concerned chiefly with increased pro-
duction and lower labor cost, and all their energies, consequently,
have been spent in perfecting the mechanical end of the business and
the invention and improvement of machinery. The batch and the
application of chemical principles, however, have been neglected.
This most important detail of successful manufacturing, a knowledge
of the glass itself, its behavior, the ingredients that go to make up the
batch, was lacking. A manufacturer made glass as his father made
it before him (empirically) or as his competitor made it. At the time
of this investigation the agents found comparatively few plants that
smployed a chemist of any kind and only one that had a chemical
physicist.
With the advent of the war, glass manufacturers faced the same
situation that confronted the users of dyestuffs. They had learned
to depend upon foreign countries for many of the principal ingre-
dients of glass. Shut off from their usual supply, manufacturers
began to grope about for themselves and a great impetus was given
to chemical research. Soda ash has been manufactured in this coun-
try for many years. Since the war started another chemical has been
substituted for pearl ash, heretofore considered indispensable. A
substitution was also made for zinc oxide when its price went up, and
one manufacturer stated that he had discovered a decolorizer to take
the place of manganese. The war has of necessity compelled Ameri-
can manufacturers to shift for themeslves in a field of their business
which they had heretofore neglected. The start has been made, and
it is hoped that American manufacturers will continue the work so
well begun, so that before many years there will be a thorough knowl-
edge of glass chemistry.
Laboratory and chemical glassware was not manufactured to any
extent in the United States prior to the European war, being imported
principally from Germany. With its importation impossible, colleges,
hospitals, laboratories, etc., looked about for American-made goods,
and several manufacturers were quick to take advantage of the oppor-
tunity of the times and began to manufacture the much sought-for
chemical and laboratory ware. For the short time they have been
24
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
engaged in manufacturing these products, remarkable progress has
been made. It is claimed that a new branch of the glass industry
has been established and that it will remain after the war is over.
FUTURE OF THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
There is at present a tendency toward large factories with their
greater production and correspondingly lower overhead cost, greater
opportunity for efficiency, and increased purchasing power. The
profitable factory of the future will probably be a large one. Manu-
facturers are gradually installing modern machines, specializing in one
product or line of goods has been begun, and the manufacture of
chemical glassware has been developed to comparatively large pro-
portions. With the perfection of machines and the elimination of a
large amount of hand labor, it is probable that the annual production
will greatly exceed the domestic demand. This will necessitate some
plants withdrawing from the business or the entrance of the industry
in general into the export trade on a large scale.
American glass of almost every kind equals the foreign product;
in some lines, such as lead cut glass, all forms of pressed ware, and
machine-made fruit jars and bottles, the domestic glass is superior
in purity of glass, pattern, design, utility, and is lower in price. The
demand for glass products is increasing rapidly and should grow to
immense proportions. With the present total absence of foreign
competition of any kind and with the high prices now prevailing,
glass manufacturers have the opportunity to remedy the evils of the
trade, improve their factories, put themselves in sound financial con-
dition, and so put their house in order as to insure future stability and
prosperity regardless of the outcome of the war, its effects or in-
fluences.
GENERAL STATISTICS OF THE INDUSTRY.
General statistics of the glass industry shown in Tables 1 to 10
were furnished by the Bureau of the Census
Table 1.
-Value op Glass Production, by States.
[Data from the Bureau of the Census.]
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Indiana
West Virginia. . .
Illinois
New Jersey
New York
Missouri
Oklahoma
Maryland
Kansas
Virginia
Massachusetts
California
Kentucky
Michigan
Connecticut
New Hampshire.
Iowa
All other States..
United Stales.
$8, 720, 584
1,549,320
790, 781
748, 500
901,343
2,810,170
2,420,796
919, 827
•$17, 179, 137
5, 649, 183
2,995,409
945, 224
2,372,011
5, 218, 152
2,723.019
1,215:329
822,011,130
4,547,083
14, 757, 883
1,871,795
2,834,308
5, 093, 822
2, 756, 978
765, 564
587,000
1,250,
557,
254,315
.110,001)
388, 105
90,000
160,0(10
70,000
3,500
431,437
(a)
(a)
(a)
w
418,458
(a)
§27,671,693
9,026,208
14,706,929
4, 598, 563
5,619,740
6,450,195
4, 279, 766
1,781,026
(o)
589,589
958, 720
549,031
1,011,373
915, 446
,817,
,358,
) 779'
,017,
,961,
, 508,
,992,
(a)
(a)
539, 797. 822
19,191,342
14,881,372
14,631,171
7,680,343
7, 597, 754
5,156,714
3, 8S2, 420
2, 005, 736
1,500,982
728, 681
690, 420
(a)
(?)
41,051,004 56,539,712
123,085,019
Included in "All other States.'
[NTBODUCTION.
25
Table 2. — Proportion* of Production and Rank ok States in Manufacture op
Glass.
■ if iho Census.]
-
Per cent of total production value.
1S79
1 v,0
ISM
L904 L909
1S79
1889
1S99
1901
1909
1914
11.22
7.32
11.85
13.76
2.30
:.. 78
12.71
■
1 r...-.!)
12.09
1 1. 89
•:. 2 !
6. 17
1.19
3.16
1.63
1.22
.59
.56
1
4
s
9
6
2
3
1
2
1
9
6
5
1
4
2
5
3
6
8
1
3
2
6
5
4
7
21
12
10
13
£
1
2
4
6
5
9
"""io
f.
13
Ohio.:
S.04
3.31
5.01
9.01
4.88
1.35
11.34 15.60
18.47 12. mo
5.78 8.43
■>
1. 2''.
V,2<
11.44
4.35
4
Illinois
5.3S
2.24
2.16
2.77
3.06
.99
.74
1.20
L27
1.15
1. 13
2.21
.71
10
7
9
13
10
12
4.04
.66
1.84
.43
.76
.33
.02
1.05
.74
13
11
14
12
15
16
10
14
11
17
16
15
13
11
11
16
is
19
17
20
12
15
16
15
17
14
2. 60
1.64
1.82
3.56
4.34
Table 3. — General Statistics of the Glass Industry.
[Data from the Bureau of the Census.l
Items.
1869
1879
1SS9
1S99
1904
1909
1914
Number of estab-
lishments
154
169
294
355
399
363
348
Persons engaged .
w
(a)
(a)
55, 256
67, 105
72,573
78, 804
Pro prietors
and firm
members. .
(<*)
(«)
(a)
170
96
87
93.
Salaried em-
ployees
Wage earners
(a)
(a)
(a)
2,26S
3,040
3,575
4.209
(aver age
number)...
15,367
24, 177
44, 892
52, 81S
63,969
68,911
74,502
Primary horse-
1,857
S13, 826, 142
5,672
SIS, 804, 599
2S, 241
S40,966,850
52, 943
91, 476
123,132
163, 139
¥61,423,903
S89, 3S9, 151
S129, 2SS, 3S4
8153,92 ,876
Salaries and
29,877,086
2,792,376
41, 228, 441
3,940,293
44, 293, 215
55,204,723
6,548,904
.Salaries
' («•)'
fa)
(a)
4, 993, 591
■Wages
( a )
(a)
(«)
27,084,710
37,288,148
39, 299, 624
18,655,819
Paid for contract
(«)
W
(a)
(a)
56.848
85,864
150,185
Rent and taxes
(including in-
terna! revenue)
(a)
(a)
(a)
w
b 357, 121
506, 533
882, 222
Cost of materials.
5,864,365
8,028,621
12,140,985
16,731,009
20,145,522
32,119,499
46,016,504
Value of prod-
18, 467. 507
21,154,571
41,051,004
56,539,712
79,607,998
92,095,203
123,085,019
Value added bv
manu fact ure
(value of prod-
ucts less cost of
materials)
12,603,142
13,125,950
28, 910, 019
39,808,703
53, 462. 476
59,975,704
77,068,515
« Figures not available.
i> Exclusive of iniernal revenue.
26 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 4. — Per Cent of Increase a in Each Census Period after
[Data from the Bureau of the Census.]
Classification.
1869-1879
1879-1889
«
1899-1909
1904-1914
1909-1914
9.7
74.0
20.7
2.3
31.3
-48.8
57.6
30.5
132.6
110.5
48.3
78.8
45.1
45.6
90.7
92.0
62.9
50.7
-12.8
17.4
- 3.1
38.4
16.5
78.3
72.2
33.9
66.2
30.5
164.2
147.0
76.0
54.6
44.2
8.6
Wage earners (average number)
205. 4
36.0
20.5
397.9
117.9
141.9
17.7
87.5
49.0
35.1
8.1
74.9
Rent and taxes (including internal reve-
74.2
30.9
14.6
4.1
51.2
94.1
120.2
37.8
37.7
37.7
33.6
Value added by manufacture (value of
a A minus sign ( — ) denotes decrease.
Figures not strictly comparable.
Table 5. — Detail of Persons Engaged in The Glass Industry, by States, in
1914.
[Data from the Bureau of the Census.]
Number
of estab-
lish-
Total
employees.
Propri-
etors and
firm
Salaried
officers,
superin-
tendents,
and
managers.
Average
number
of em-
ployees.
Illinois
Indiana
Kansas ,
Maryland
Missouri
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Oklahoma
Pennsylvania
Virginia
'West Virginia . . .
All other states a
United Sta
4,03S
9,804
385
1,259
2,335
6,224
3,334
11,541
1,321
25, 013
624
9,422
3,504
78,804
1,385
3,764
9, 390
364
1,184
2,248
5,784
3,089
10.997
1,270
3,311
74,502
Wage earners.
Number, 15th day of-
Maximum.
month.
Illinois Jan. 4,337
Indiana Feb. 11,278
Kansas Dec. 651
Maryland.... Feb. 1,361
Missouri Apr. 2,690
New Jersey Mar. 7, 040
New York... Feb. 3,823
Ohio Apr. 13,290
Oklahoma I Apr. 1,793
Pennsylvania Mar. 26,391
Virginia Apr. 790
West Virginia May 10,173
All other States « Mar. 4,030
Minimum,
month.
Sept. 2,(
Aug.
July
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
6,116
92
581
1,839
1,883
1,760
7,192
633
July IS, 056
Aug. 79
July 6
Aug. 1
United States .
Mar. 86,461 | Aug. 49,861
Male. Female.
3,859
1,043
2,441
6,620
3,060
1*702
23, 493
618
9,546
3,366
159
802
11
88
35
222
152
951
102
1,448
22
921
1,889
a All other States embrace: California, 3 establishments; Louisiana, 2; Massachusetts, 2; Michigan, 2;
Itnode Island, 1; South Carolina, 1; Tennessee, 1; Texas, 2; Washington, 1; Wisconsin, 1.
INTRODUCTION.
27
Table 6. — Cost of Principal Materials, Wages, and Salaries, Other Expenses,
and Value of Products in the Glass Industry, by States, in 1914.
[Data from the Bureau of the Census.]
Capital.
Expenses for salaries and wages.
Officials. Clerks, etc.
Expenses
for con-
tract
work.
$ll,4s7,
13,566,
349,
Kansas
Mary Ian. 1...
Missouri —
New Jersey.
New York. .
Oklahoma
Pennsylvania...
Virginia
All other
United States.
$194,402 $249,
1,139
23
544
243,0*0
10,040
49, 951
62,273
321,510
151,147
392, 704
883^311
5,976
278,511
190, S23
$2,692,125
5,735,204
367,345
7S2,860
1,588,448
3,770,258
2,157,555
7,052,666
991,958
15,214,434
327, 752
5,672.672
2, 302; 542
$36, 594
8
5,200
10,083
14,332
10,000
47,023
26,460
485
,498 i 2,855,406 48, 655, i
Illinois
Indiana
Kansas
Maryland
New Jersey
irk
Ohio
Oklahoma
Pennsylvania...
i ,
All othi
United States 138,237
Expenses for rent
and taxes.
Rent of
factory.
$1,000
48,000
500
15, 944
3,000
2,718
2,850
12,490
35,972
"9,'S23
Taxes, in-
cluding
internal
revenue.
Expenses for materials.
Value of
Principal ! Fuel md V™ 6 ™^
rent of
power.
materials.
>l,s.30,
5, 573,
128,
272,
1,069,
1,749,
1,299,
5, 369,
645,
11,781.
203,
3,918,
1,221,
*;■•:■'.
73.1
1 45
53'. •
685
159
266
552
137
613
009
023
020 |
$957, 157
1,331,6S8
73,445
127,004
505, 103
385! 551
1,676,125
74,671
3,760,092
55,094
720, 118
486,847
S7,6S0,343
14,881,372
728, 6S1
1,500,982
3,882,420
7,597,754
5,156,714
19,191,342
2,005,736
39, 797, 822
690, 420
14,631,171
5,340,262
743, 9S5 35,0S1,576 10,
123.085,019
Value
added by
manufac-
ture.
$4,872,493
7,975,949
527,091
1,101,439
2,307,632
5,066,562
3,471,897
12,145,665
1,285,928
24,256,117
432,317
9,993,030
3,632,395
Table 7. — Value of Production in Main Divisions of Glass Manufacture, by
States.
[Data from the Bureau of the Census.]
Product and State.
Building glass, total value $17, 096, 234 S21, 697, 861
Illinois 24, 000 ' 281. 559
Indiana ; 5,711,948 j 3,790,618
Kans;i 38LI 184
Mi OUll ' 505,564 1,036,433
Ne w Jersey 271 ,011 201, 922
York 3 16, 790 456, 310
Ohio 671, 422 1, 625, 126
klahoma (a)
Pennsylvania 9,213,545 ! 12,169,013
West Virginia I 101, 242 1, 323, 896
All other States ' 247,712 431,900
648,718
1,616,092
1,131, SOS
1,778,364
(a)
173, 3S7
2,744,513
(«)
14,958,649
2,751,133
505,774
$36,824,069
w
2,356,946
(a)
3,122,793
w
3,805,669
1,181,657
L8. 968, 873
4,410,710
2,977,421
a Included in "All other States" to avoid individual disclosures
28
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 7. — Value op Production in Main Divisions of Glass Manufacture, by
State s — Concluded .
Product and State. .
1S99
1904
1909
1914
$17,076,125
$21,956,158
327,398,445
2,691,787
2,859,087
64,697
46,191
181,559
1,932,524
3,954,660
2,774,128
202, 696
50S, 492
1,019,836
1,926,852
6, 160, 707
(a)
9, S47, 228
4, 306, 528
651, 97S
2, 926, 296
100,000
. 21,300
1,173,784
2, 73S, 289
(a)
(a)
Ohio
6, 490, 498
220, 52a
8,453,550
1, 379, 706
517, 709
9,406,183
2, 620, 665
890,592
6,263,554
21,676,791
33,631,063
36,018,333
(a)
2, 678, 780
6,327,468
855,446
4,949,156
7,213,456
407,868
536, 478
607,383
6,066,714
1,866,245
2,961,727
(a)
5,951,144
549,031 i
602,002 )
1,064,413
873, 434
4,304,795
6,982,378
651,376
528,767
(a)
5, 884, 605
1,884,394
4,717,658
(a)
7,778,787
681,900
646,521
1,083,718
(a)
9, 155, 163
346, 633
260,000
4,452,219
1,058,955
' 759, 627
7, 176, 787
2,343,683-
7,422,402
Ohio
4,162,990
(a)
381,847
812, 623
8,930,255
690, 420
3,777,445.
3, 173, 927
690, 562
2,322,916
2, 369, 987
4,022,932
56,539,712
79,607,998 \ 92,083,203
123, 085, 019'
a Included in "All other States" to avoid individual disclosures.
Table S.— Quantity and Value of Production in the Glass Industry, by
Articles.
[Data from the Bureau of the Census.]
Product.
1899 1904
1909
1914
Building glass:
Window glass-
217,064,100
.$10,879,355
12,526,055
242, 615, 750
$11,610,851
21 . 870. 634
346,080,550
$11,742,959
22,815,946
$1,358,574
60,105,694
47,370,254
$12, 204, 875
205, 690
$37,431
(a)
(a)
la)
(a)
$964,599
400, 998, 893
$17,495,956
43,040,079
Obscured glass, including cathedral and sky-
light-
$732,338 $972,014
21,172,129 34,804,986
16,883,578 | 27,293,138
$5,158,598 S7. 978. 253
$2,417,253
75, 770, 261
Plate glass-
Polished—
60,383,516
$14, 773, 787
Rough, made for sale-
628,684
$75,887
(a)
(a)
17, 784
$3, 529
(«)
(a)
(a)
(a)
131, 492
$25,859
Wire glass—
Polished-
1, 707, S48
$534,322
Rough , made to be sold as such-
13,980,996
$1,056,612
$520, 280
$250,056
S51.133.214
Total value, building glass
$17,096,234 $21,697,861 $26,308,438
836,824,069
Not reported separately.
INTRODUCTION.
29
Table 8.— Quantity
wi> Value of Production - in'
Articles— Concluded.
the Glass Industry, by
Pressed and blown glass:
Tableware 100 pieces. .
Jellies, tumblers, and goblets do/en . .
Lamps do....
oneys do —
Lantern globes do —
n lobes and other electrical goods do —
Shades, globes, and other gas goods do
Blown tumblers, stem ware, and bar goods
.do....
.do....
.do....
<»pal ware
Cut ware
Decorated
Total value, pressed and blown glass...
Bottles and jars:
Prescription bottles, vials, and druggists'
wares gross. .
Beer, soda, and mineral do
Liquor bottles and flasks do
Milk jars do
Fruit jars do
Battery jars and other electrical goods, .do
Patent and proprietary medicine do
Packers' ana preservers' do
Demijohns and carboys dozen . .
Total value, bottles and jars .
All other products, value
< frand total value
8,544,050
807,765
1,044,816
2,673,854
6,127,367
3,750,443
134, 726
§17,076,125
2,423,932
1,351,118
9S5,374
146, 142
789, 29S
(a)
1,290,131
7S4,5S8
S3, 543
§56,539,712
7,346,214
487,017
1,765,247
1,901,415
83,736
821,956,158
3, 202, 5S6
2,351,852
2,157,801
253, 651
1,061,829
19,974
1,657,372
1,237,065
64,450
,o;U,i.m3
b 579,007,
1,286,056
11,687,036
322,482
1,541,449
$27, J
, 14.",
3, 624, 022
2, 345; 204
1,887,344
440,302
1,124,485
9,981
1,637,798
1, 237, 175
122,570
18,030,243
580,196
!
1,363,562
10,461,843
'2,016,800
11,377,310
1,158,077
4,893,410
4,573,610
2,689,022
1,188,891
1, 19S, 952
79,211
1,384,689
3,271,174
160,796
,018,333 \ §51,95S,728
,369,987 j 84,022,
c §92, 095, 203 S123,OS5,019
a No1 reported separately.
b In addition , glassware to the value of 89,663 was made as subsidiary products by establishments engaged
primarily in other lines of manufacture.
c In a ! lit ion , 42,039 gross of bottles and jars, valued at §90,490, were made by establishments engaged
primarily in other lines of manufacture.
Table 9. — Proportion of Glass Production, by Value, in the Main Divisions
of Manufacture.
[Data from the Bureau of the Census.]
Window glass
Obscured glass, including cathedral and skylight.
Plate glass:
Polished
Rough, made for sale
Wire glass:
Polished
Rough, made to be sold as such
All other building glass
Total building glass
Pressed and blown glass
Bottles and jars
All other products
a Less than one one-thousandth of 1 per cent.
Per cent.
19. 25
1.30
9.12
.13
.44
30. 24
3(1.20
38. 34
1.22
r ci ill.
14. 59
1.23
10.02
27.21,
27.58
42.24
Per ant. Per cent.
12.75 14.22
1.4S 1.96
13. 25 i 12. 02
.04 .02
(b)
(b)
1.05
28. 57
29. 75
39.11
2.57
b Not reported separately.
20.92
24.60
42. 21
3. 27
30
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 10. — Increase in Production of Glassware Compared with Increase
in Population in the United States, 1904 to 1914.
[Data from the Bureau of the Census.]
Increase,
1904
to 1914.
Estimated population, continental United States
Window 1 glass:
Square feet
Value
Obscured glass, including cathedral and skylight:
Square feet
Value
Plate glass, polished:
Square, feet
Value
Plate glass, rough, made for sale:
Square feet
Value
All other building glass, value
Pressed and blown ware, value
Bottles and jars, value
All other products, value
Total value
Per cent.
19.62
242,615,750
$11, 610, 851
21,870,634
$972,014
27,293,13S
$7,978,253
17,784
$3,529
$1,133,214
$21, 956, 158
$33, 631, 063
$2,322,916
$17' 495^ 956
43,040,079
$2,417,253
60,383,516
$14,773,787
131,492
$25,859
$2,111,214
$30,279,290
$51,958,728
$4,022,932
$79, 607, {
•$123,085,019
121.24
85. 18
80.3d
37.91
54.50
73.18
54.6
Referring to Table 6, it will be seen that the total value of glass
products in 1914 was $123,085,019, and the amount paid wage earners
was $48,655,819, or 39.53 per cent of the value.
Table 1 shows that during the 35 years from 1879 to 1914, Pennsyl-
vania was the leading State in value of production of glass and glass-
ware. New Jersey changed from second to sixth rank among the
glass-producing States, and New York from third to seventh rank.
The production of glass of all kinds remained practically station-
ary in Indiana during the 15 years from 1899 to 1914. In 1914 the
production in West Virginia was slightly less than it was in Indiana,
but during the 15 prior years it had increased nearly sevenfold in
West Virginia, a greater rate of increase than in any other State.
Cheap gas accounts for the great development of the glass industry
in West Virginia and for the establishment of the industry in
Oklahoma.
Table 7 shows that during the years from 1899 to 1914 the produc-
tion of bottles and jars considerably more than doubled in value;
the production of building glass more than doubled, while the pro-
duction of pressed and blown glass did not increase so rapidly.
Nearly all of the production of glass in New Jersey consists of bottles
and jars. New York, which was seventh among the States in the
S reduction of glass in 1914, produced very little building glass, while
ilinois, which was fifth in order of production, produced practically
no building glass or pressed and blown glass, nearly all of its products
being bottles and jars.
Referring to Table 8, it will be seen that in window glass, obscured
glass, polished plate glass, and polished and rough wire glass there
were large increases in the production from 1899 to 1914. The table
shows that 75,770,261 square feet of plate glass were cast in 1914,
that 60,383,516 square feet were polished and 131,492 square feet
were not polished. The waste, mostly from breakage, appears,
therefore, to have been about one-fifth of the quantity cast.
INTRODUCTION. 31
In pressed and blown glass the largest number of articles pro-
duced were jelly glasses, tumblers, and goblets, and the next largest
number was of blown tumblers, stem ware, and bar goods. During
the years 1899 to 1914 the number of glass lamps and of shades,
globes, and othe] • decreased, the numbor of lamp chimneys
and lantern globes increased slightly, and the number of globes and
other electrical goods increased enormously. The increase in the
number of milk jars was large, which may be accounted for by the
enactment of laws requiring that covered jar- be used for the distri-
bution of milk. The number of prescription bottles, vials, and
druggists' wares doubled during the 15 years, while the number of
bottles for patent and proprietary medicines increased compara-
tively little.
Examining the section of Table 8 referring to bottles and jars, it
wall be noticed that from 1899 to 1914 there was a large increase in
the number of liquor bottles and flasks produced. Though during
that time prohibition was adopted by many States and the saloons
in them were closed, liquor was dispensed in bottles and flasks. It
is also noticeable that there was a large increase in the number of
beer, soda, and mineral bottles and of demijohns and carboys.
There was an increase in the number of fruit jars, but a much
greater increase in the number of packers and preservers, which indi-
cates that a less proportion of the preserved fruits and vegetables
are canned in the homes of the consumers than formerly.
Table 10 shows that the percentage of increase in all kinds of glass
and glassware specified by the Census of Manufactures during the
10 years from 1904 to 1914 was very much larger than the percentage
of increase in population.
SCOPE AND METHOD OF INVESTIGATION.
This investigation of the cost of manufacturing glass and glassware
was undertaken in compliance with the act of Congress approved
August 23, 1912, which created the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic
Commerce, and which contained the following section providing for
investigations of the cost of production of articles dutiable in the
United States:
Those certain duties of the Department of Labor, or Bureau of Labor, contained
in section seven of the act approved June thirteenth, eighteen hundred and eighty-
eight, that established the same, which especially charged it "to ascertain, at as
early a date as possible, and whenever industrial changes shall make it essential,
the cost of producing articles at the time dutiable in the United States, in leading
countries where such articles are produced, by fully specified units of production,
and under a classification showing the different elements of cost, or approximate
cost, of such articles of production, including the wages paid in such industries per
day, week, month, or year, or by the piece; the hours employed per day; and the
f)rofits of manufacturers and producers of such articles; and the comparative cost of
iving, and the kind of living; what articles are controlled by trusts or other combi-
nations of capital, business operations, or labor, and what effect said trusts, or other
combinations of capital, business operations, or labor have on production and prices,"
are hereby transferred to and shall hereafter be discharged by the Bureau of Foreign
and Domestic Commerce, and it shall also be the duty of said Bureau of Foreign and
Domestic Commerce to make such special investigation and report on particular sub-
jects when required to do so by the President or either House of Congress.
The investigation was greatly aided by the very hearty cooperation
of most of the manufacturers visited. The number of. plants that
refused to furnish agents of the Bureau with the desired information
was 19.
32 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The information secured during the investigation was obtained
directly from the manufacturers and from their books. No data
regarding the cost of production were accepted that the agents did
not find recorded on the books of the establishment reporting.
From the data obtained and entered on establishment schedules
were derived the figures that show the various items in the cost of
production and also the percentages of profit on net sales, on sales
value of goods produced, and on the capital employed in the busi-
ness. Other schedules, designated "unit schedules/' were used to
ascertain the cost of manufacturing specified units of glass products.
Copies of the forms used by the agents of the Bureau are reproduced
in Appendix B (p. 424).
In order to obtain permission to examine the books of manufac-
turers, assurance was given that the information would be regarded
as confidential and would not be used in such a way that the estab-
lishment could be identified. The form of the assurance was as
follows :
Department of Commerce,
Bureau op Foreign and Domestic Commerce,
Washington.
confidential.
[One copy of this agreement to be retained by the manufacturer and one copy to be forwarded to the Chief
of the "
The information which has been given to Mr , special agent of the
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, is furnished with the understanding
that neither the name nor the address of the establishment will be written on the
schedule; that the information on the schedule will be considered by the Bureau
and its special agents as absolutely confidential, and that the information will not be
divulged nor published in such a way that the identity of the establishment will be
shown.
This information, which appears on establishment schedule No , has been
obtained from the books and from the officers of the establishment, and, to the best of
our knowledge, is correct.
Special agent's signature :
Manufacturer's signature :
Date: , 191...
Many manufacturers were interviewed by special agents of the
Bureau in regard to subjects relating to the glass industry that were
not included in either the establishment schedule or unit schedule,
and much valuable information regarding general trade conditions
was thus obtained.
The statistics regarding wages and hours of labor which appear
in this report were secured from only those establishments, which,
in the opinion of the agent, maintained accurate labor records.
The period taken was the last full-pay period at the time of the
agent's visit.
The investigation was begun in January, 1916, and the field work
was completed within seven months. Special agents of the Bureau
secured reports from 213 establishments, owned by 189 companies
or firms, operating 245 plants. Of these 245 plants, for which data
were obtained, 69 are located in Pennsylvania and 53 in West Vir-
ginia, where the industry is largely centered. Reports were solicited
from all plants engaged in the manufacture of glass products except
those whose product was specialties or of such character as to make
their classification in the various groups impossible. The establish-
ments varied greatly in size, the amount of capital employed, and
INTRODUCTION. 33
in the amount of business. Of the 213 establishments, 211 reported
capital employed in business amounting to SS9,103,387; two estab-
lishments did not report the amount of capital. The total net sales
of the 213 Bstablishments was $79,918,801. According to the
Census of Manufactures, 1914, the value of the total production of
all kinds of glass was S123, 085,019. Of this total the net sales of
the 245 plants that reported data for this investigation is 64.93 per
cent.
GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF ESTABLISHMENTS.
The 213 establishments for which data were obtained were classified
into 13 groups according to their products and methods of manu-
facture. These groups are as follows:
Group I. — Thirty-seven establishments making hand-blown win-
dow glass.
Group II. — -Twelve establishments making window glass by
machine.
Group III. — Six establishments making plate glass.
Group IV. — Nine establishments making wire and opalescent glass.
Group V. — Twenty-six establishments making hand-blown bottles.
Group VI. — Eighteen establishments making bottles by machine.
Group VII. — Twenty-seven establishments making bottles by hand
and machine.
Group. VIII. — Thirteen establishments making jars. This group
includes plants manufacturing milk jars, fruit jars, and packer's and
preservers' jars.
Group IX. — Eight establishments making blown tableware.
Group X. — Twenty establishments making blown and pressed
tableware.
Group XL — Eighteen establishments making lighting goods.
This group includes plants manufacturing bulbs for incandescent
lamps, lamp shades, headlights, railroad lamps, semaphores, etc.
Group. XII. — Six establishments making lamp chimneys.
Group XIII. — Thirteen establishments making miscellaneous glass
products. This group includes plants manufacturing marbles, nest
eggs, demijohns, chemical ware, milk testers, specialties, novelties, etc.
102511°— 17 3
34
THE GLASS IXDTJSTRV.
The following table shows the number of establishments by groups
and also the business period for which data were obtained.
Table 11. — Establishments, by Groups, Showing Business Period for Which
Data were Obtained.
Group.
Estab-
lish-
ment.
Business year ending—
Classification.
Oct.,
1914.
Dec,
1914.
Feb.,
1915.
May,
1915.
June,
1915.
July,
1915.
Establishments making-
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
37
12
6
9
26
18
27
13
8
20
18
6
13
2
7
1
&
Window glass by machine
1
Wire and onalescent glass
1
2
1
3
4
7
10
2
Bottles by hand and machine
i
5
4
10
3
5
1
Tableware, blown and pressed. . .
1
2
213
1
2
l
3
45
27
Group.
Business year ending —
Classification.
Aug.,
1915.
Sept.,
1915.
Oct.,
1915.
Nov.,
1915.
Dec,
1915.
Feb.,
1916.
June,
1916.
Establishments making-
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
7
5
•
i'
2
4
4
6
7
6
3
6
6
4
9
12
1
11
1
3
4
8
2
4"
1
1
Bottles by hand and machine
1
3
1
Tableware, blown and pressed . . .
1
1
29
14
6
4
79
1
1
INTRODUCTION.
35
Table 12 which follows gives the number of establishments from
which schedules were secured, the number of plants operated, and the
number of firms or companies owning such plants.
Table 12. — Number of Cost Schedules Secured. Number of Companies or
Firms Represented, and Number of Plants Operated, by Groups.
Establishments making-
Group.
Sched-
ules
secured.
Compa-
nies or
firms.
Plants
operated.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
37
12
6
9
26
18
27
13
8
20
18
6
13
35
10
6 1
9
26
11
1
8
15
18
6
38
Plate glass
Tableware, blown
9
27
Total
213
189
245
DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRY BY STATES.
Table 13 that follows shows the location of the 245 plants by States
and also classifies them according to products produced.
Table 13. — Plants Classified by Products and States.
States.
1.
if
.5 =
I
o
5
ill
.. o bi
I
o
m
a
o
o
n
A
a
It
_ o
Tableware,
blown and
_ pressed.
Lighting goods.
2
°i
as
J
o
1
1
1
"3
1
l
2
2
2
3
3
4
...„.
1
1
1
10
2
5
1
2
3
20
1
2
1
1
5
2
2
l
1
1
1
5
3
4
.......
1
2
6
2
2
......
1
1
7
......
1
2
6
16
1
1
1
6
17
Ohio
4
2
9
1
1
5
l
1
4
2 32
6
Pennsylvania.
3
4
9
1
14
7
1
69
1
1
1
1
1
...„.
1
1
1
2
West Virginia. 14
5
2
4
7 6
3
4
2
53
1
6
Total...
38
12
12
26
21
30
14
9 | 26
27
7
17
245
36
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 14 shows the total number and location by States of the
glass plants listed in the Glass Factory Directory for 1916, and also
the number for which cost of production schedules were obtained and
the number omitted from the investigation, with the reason for such
omission.
Table 14. — Number op Plants Listed in the Glass Factory Directory, 1916,
Number Furnishing Cost Schedules, and Number Omitted, with Reasons
for Omission.
Sched-
ules ob-
tained.
Plants
closed.
Schedules not secured because—
Sched-
ules
secured
and can-
celed, c
Plants
omit-
ted.d
Plants
not
visited.
States.
Infor-
mation
refused.
Infor-
mation
delayed.
Less
than one
year.a
Records
incom-
plete.!'
3
17
3
2
3
1
3
1
1
1
9
1
4
1
1
2
5
2
13
14
28
5
60
2
i
l
3
l
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
4
1
1
1
7
1
4
Pennsylvania
6
S
4
7
4
1
1
1
1
46
1
1
1
1
West Virginia
2
1
6
3
5
Total
213
19
19
8
22
15 1 11
18
6
a A full year's schedule could not be secured for the period desired.
b A complete schedule could not be secured because of methods of keeping books of account.
c Schedules were canceled because of abnormal conditions existing in the plant, or period was less than
a year, or equipment of plant was being changed.
d These plants were not visited because of the class of product manufactured, change of ownership, plant
in an experimental stage, or because the product was manufactured as a side line for consumption by the
same compan}' in a different business.
A contemplated investigation by the Bureau of Foreign and
Domestic Commerce of the cost of production of glass products in
European countries was prevented by the war.
SUMMARY.
GENERAL RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATION.
There are several distinct branches of the glass industry, each
different and complete in itself. Of the 331 establishments Listed
in the Glass Factory Directory of 1916, reports were secured from
213 establishments operating 245 plants. The reports cover estab-
lishments manufacturing hand and machine blown window glass,
Elate glass, wire and opalescent glass, hand and machine blown
ottles and jars, blown and pressed tableAVare, lamp chimneys and
other lighting goods, and miscellaneous products. Some plants
visited were found to have suspended operations, and some refused
to furnish the information requested. A few schedules obtained
(not included in the 213 reported) were not used because abnormal
conditions existed in the plants. Schedules could not be secured in
some establishments because the records in their books of account
were incomplete. The investigation was greatly facilitated by the
unreserved cooperation of most of the manufacturers visited.
According to the Census of Manufactures, the value of the total
production of all kinds of glass and glassware in 1914 was $123,-
085,019. Of this total the net sales of the 213 establishments from
which data were secured is 64.93 per cent.
As shown by the census, the value of the production of all kinds
of glass and glassware was $56,539,712 in 1899, $79,607,998 in 1904,
and $123,085,019 in 1914. The increase in production (square feet)
from 1899 to 1914 was 84.74 per cent for window glass and 357.65
per cent for polished plate glass. The increase in value of produc-
tion was 139.7 per cent for bottles and jars and 77.32 per cent for
pressed and blown ware. This great increase in production during
the 15 years is due, primarily, to the general introduction of machin-
ery in some branches of the industry, which has replaced the highly
skilled hand labor previously employed.
The industry is to a great extent localized. Excepting labor, the
cost for fuel is generally the chief item of expense. Manufacturers
have therefore erected plants where cheap fuel (natural gas, coal,
or oil) could be obtained. This localization is shown by the fact
that, according to the census of 1914, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana,
and West Virginia, in each of which cheap fuel in some form is to
be had, ranked highest, and in that order in value of production;
and the value of the production in these four States was $88,501,707,
or 71.90 per cent of the total value of the production in the United
States during that year, $123,085,019.
The introduction of automatic and other machinery has greatly
increased production, lowered cost and selling prices, driven many
highly skilled workers from the industry, and has been a disturbing
factor in the respective branches of the industry where it has been
installed. The automatic bottle machine, introduced about 1903,
was followed shortly by the flowing device, which did aAvay with the
skilled gatherer.
Manufacturers using the automatic machines or flowing device
probably produce more than all other battle manufacturers. Those
38 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
who use other machines, which have been introduced in an effort to
offset the lower cost of the automatic-machine product, or who make
bottles by hand, unless their factories are very advantageously
located, find it difficult .to compete with manufacturers using the
automatics or flowing device, especially on large orders.
The extended use of window-glass machinery, introduced in 1903,
resulted in overproduction. This led about 50 window-glass manu-
facturers in 1909 to form the Imperial Window Glass Co., which
curtailed production and raised prices. The officers and directors
of this company were, in 1910, indicted and fined. In recent years
the prices announced by the company that is the largest producer
of window glass in this country are followed by the other manufac-
turers. At present the entire product of about half of the 51 hand
factories and of a few machine factories is sold through one agent
or broker.
Many branches of the industry operate only a part of the year.
Hand window-glass manufacturers work only about seven months;
machine manufacturers usually average about eight months a year.
Many other branches lose one or more months a year. The reasons
are fear of overproduction, the inability of the men to work around
the furnaces in the great heat of summer, the necessity for replacing
pots, fixing tanks, regulating bad glass, repairs, etc.
Despite the generally improved quality of the ware produced, the
tendency, until the war changed normal business conditions, was
for prices to decline. This decrease was due to the introduction of
machinery, which has considerably lowered costs, and to the very
keen competition that is general in the glass industry.
The prices of all sizes of plate glass have been reduced — in the
size 5 to 10 square feet, from SO. 60 per square foot in 1900 to $0.43
in 1910 and $0.29 in 1915. In March, 1912, the price of the 16 by
24 bracket, single strength, A quality window glass, was $1.74 per
per box of 50 feet, and in January, 1914, $1.58; the same bracket
and strength B quality, $1.63 in March, 1912, and $1.47 in January,
1914. The price of incandescent lamps has decreased from some-
thing over $0,036 per candlepower in 1907 to $0,006 in 1916.
There is much inefficiency in the industry. Until very recently
only a few manufacturers had an essential knowledge of the chem-
istry of glass. In the plants visited not more than one in twenty
employed a chemist. Most plants, except the few large ones erected
in recent years, are poorly constructed and arranged. Accounting,
generally, is not up to the standard expected in an important indus-
try, and, with the exception of a few excellent systems found, there
are no accurate cost-keeping methods or records. Many manufac-
turers do not even attempt to compute costs.
At least two new branches of the industry have been recently
established. Photographic glass, first made commercially in the
United States in 1911, has been developed. Prior to the war only
one American factory manufactured chemical glassware, and its
production was inconsiderable. A number of progressive manu-
facturers have begun to make such ware, and the quality of most
articles produced in the United States is as good or superior to what
was formerly imported. Men in the trade feel that with proper
encouragement these new and necessary products will continue to
be manufactured in the United States after the war.
SUMMARY. 39
Of the 213 establishments from which data were obtained the
business year of 45 ended in June, L915, SO from July to November,
1915, and 79 in December, 1915. The agents endeavored to obtain
data for business periods ending in 1915, because up to late in that
year the prices of raw materials had advanced very little, due to the
practice of purchasing materials under long-term contracts, and
because at that time selling prices were still comparatively stable.
The capital turnover in the glass industry is exceptionally small.
The average ratio of net sales to capital employed for the 21 1 estab-
lishments reporting capital employed is in the proportion of 88 to
100, the ratio varying from 174 to 100 for the highest group to 37 to
100 for the lowest group. This low turnover is due to the unusually
larg ■ capital investment required by a glass plant for its land, build-
ings, and equipment. The average capital for the 211 establishments
122, 291.
The average operating profit, computed after deducting deprecia-
tion and interest on current loans, for the 211 establishments that
reported capital is 4.66 per cent on the capital employed. The
highest percentage of operating profit, 15.48 per cent, is shown by
the miscellaneous group which manufactures novelties, specialties,
etc., and the lowest percentage, an operating loss of 0.15 per cent,
by the blown and pressed tableware group. The average operating
profit on net sales of the 213 establishments, computed after deducting
depreciation and interest, is 5.57 per cent. The average final profit
of the 213 establishments, on the basis of the sales value of goods
produced, is 6.12 per cent.
Four of the 13 groups had greater average sales in 1915 than in
previous years. Eight groups had smaller average sales in 1915
than in either 1914 or 1913. One group had greater average sales
in 1913 and smaller average sales in 1914 than in 1915.
Five of the 13 groups showed a higher average percentage of final
profit (based on the sales of each year) for the year 1915 than for
1914. 1913, or 1912. Five groups showed lower average percentages
of final profit for the year 1915 than for 1914, 1913, or 1912. Three
groups showed lower average percentages of final profit for the year
1915 than for 1914 or 1913 but greater percentages than for 1912.
Of the 211 establishments that owned land, buildings, and equip-
ment only 102. or less than half, made a charge for depreciation. Of
these 102 only 35 had separate depreciation charges for land, build-
ings, and machinery and equipment. Depreciation for the 109 plants
that made no charge for depreciation was computed for tables in this
report at the average percentage of those plants in their respective
groups that made such a charge, After this computed depreciation
was added, 20 plants that had previously shown a final profit showed
a final loss.
Labor constitutes the chief single item of expense. The labor cost
for the 213 establishments is 40.57 per cent of their net sales; three
groups show averages over 50 per cent. The highest percentage is
shown by the hand window glass group, 58.53 per cent, and the
lowest by the wire and opalescent group, 20.95 per cent.
Practically all the skilled labor is on a piece-rate basis; all other
labor is on a time-rate basis. Females are employed only to an
insignificant extent and in only a few occupations in the industry.
40 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Owing to the desire to increase production and to the impractica-
bility of extinguishing furnaces every day, the work in many branches
of the industry, especially where continuous tanks are used, continues
day and night. The skilled workers usually alternate at day and
night work, as do some of those less skilled who assist them. Most
of the unskilled workers do not alternate but are more frequently
either day or night workers only.
In the manufacture of hand window glass and also of blown and
pressed ware, which includes tableware, bar goods, lighting goods,
laboratory ware, vases, and miscellaneous articles, the labor unions
restrict the output of the plants by limiting the maximum production
of workers in each turn of a specified number of hours. This system
decreases production and increases cost.
Wages in the highly skilled occupations are relatively high. The
hours of labor are comparatively short, averaging between 45 and
50 hours a week, and in some cases 45 hours or less. A week's work
in some few of the unskilled occupations is 84 hours in 7 days, but
the usual average for unskilled occupations is a week of 60 hours in
6 days.
Selling expense is exceptionally low in this industry, being only
4.01 per cent on net sales for all the establishments reporting. Due to
the small turnover of capital, manufacturers generally prefer to sell
their output to jobbers and large consumers who usually buy in con-
siderable quantities and on comparatively short terms.
Although the Bureau prepared special forms for obtaining the cost
of specified units in the various branches, it was generally found
impossible to use them. In the groups that made diversified products
it was impossible, generally, to obtain comparable costs. Many
manufacturers had no cost records v/hatever, and even among those
that kept records there was a lack of uniformity in the considera-
tion of the various items of expense. Unit cost data were obtained
from only those plants which, in the opinion of the visiting agent,
had reasonably accurate cost records.
The average cost of each specified item of expense was computed
for a 50-foot box of single-strength window glass, both machine and
hand made. For establishments reporting wage data in detail costs
were also computed for 50-foot boxes, A and B grades, by different
brackets, the items consisting of the cost for materials, fuel, piece-paid
labor, other factory labor, salaries, and all other cost. For all other
units, which consist of bottles and jars, blown and pressed tableware
and stem ware, lamp chimneys, and lighting goods, only the total
cost, net selling price, and profit or loss were obtainable on a com-
parable basis.
Imports for consumption as compared with the domestic produc-
tion have largely decreased. The percentage that imports for con-
sumption (fiscal year) was of the domestic production (calendar
year), as reported by the Bureau of the Census, was as follows: 15.51
per cent in 1879, 18.91 per cent in 1889, 7.58 per cent in 1899, 8.33
per cent in 1904, 5.75 per cent in 1909, and 6.68 per cent in 1914.
The imports for consumption during the fiscal year 1913 (the last
full year of the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act) were $6,436,662. During
the fiscal year 1914 (the Underwood-Simmons Act became effective
Oct. 4, 1913) imports increased to $8,219,112. Since the war began
imports have very materially decreased.
SUMMARY. 41
The general dutiable imports dining the fiscal year ending
30, 1914, were as follows: Cylinder, crown, and common window
56,218; plate glass, cast, polished, and unsilvered, S727
889: bottles, jars, etc., used for containers in transportation, $1,1 18,-
460: articles cut or ornamented, $1,151,876; spectacles, Lenses, and
optical instruments, $721,560; all other, $2,468,128. The five gen-
eral imports were: Plates or disks for optical purposes, $617,703;
white enamel glass for watAh and clock dials. sp_>,970.
Window-glass manufacturers did not complain of the rates of
duty on glass larger than the first three brackets. However, all
those interviewed claimed that the rates on the first three brackets
(3S4 square inches and under) were too low. Manufacturers of plate
glass claimed that in their case also the smaller sizes were inadequately
protected.
The present tariff classification on imports has not been changed
for many years. Xo criticism was made as to the classification of
any kind of building glass. Schedule classifications of other products,
however, were criticised, and suggestions were made that some of
them might be improved by making them more specific and descrip-
tive. A proposed revision of these classifications is presented in
the report.
Glass exports from the United States increased from $2,252,799
during the fiscal year 1905 to $3,729,623 during the fiscal year 1914.
From the fiscal years 1905 to 1913 (the last full year under the Payne-
Aldrich Tariff Act) the ratio of exports to imports increased from
38 to 65 per cent. In 1914, due to the great business depression in
all countries of the world, the ratio of increase fell to 45 per cent.
Prior to the war most of the exports were "all other kinds, " which
includes heavy cut ware of which the exports are considerable and
the imports very little. This ware went largely to Europe. This
classification also includes lamp chimneys, of which a large quantity
is exported. Most of the small amount of window and plate glass
and bottles and jars that were exported went principally to Canada
and Mexico. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, the total
exports of glass and glassware were $12,321,338, an increase of 30.27
per cent over 1914. The largest exports during the fiscal year 1916
went to England, Canada, and Australia.
MATERIALS, MACHINERY, AND PROCESSES.
The raw materials employed in glass making are usually silica,
various alkalies, alkali earths, and metals. Gullet (broken glass)
•in varying amounts is generally added to the batch. Silica in the
form of sand is usually 50 to 75 per cent of the batch. The alkaline
bases usually employed arc soda ash, salt cake, and potassium; the
alkaline earths are lime and (occasionally) barium carbonate; bhe
metallic bases are lead and (occasionally) aluminum, arsenic, and
zinc. Manganese principally, and to some extent selenium, cobalt,
and nickel, is used to neutralize the colors imparted by other ele-
ments. A number of other elements used to color glass are enumer-
ated in the report.
There are two types of furnaces employed, the pot furnace and
the tank furnace (day or continuous). They are heated by natural
or artificial gas or fuel oil. Furnaces employ either the regenerative
42 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
or recuperative system of heating; the regenerative system is more
commonly used. A temperature of about 2,600° F. is necessary to
melt the batch.
An iron blowpipe from 4^ to 5^ feet in length is used for all hand
blowing. Molds are used to facilitate blowing and are employed in
all blowing (hand and machine) except in offhand blowing.
There are automatic, semiautomatic, and other machines for
blowing bottles, and a flowing device which dispenses with the
skilled hand gatherer is installed in a few factories. There are paste-
mold machines for blowing seamless ware such as tumblers, lamp
chimneys, etc. Presses are employed for certain lines of tableware
and are either stationary or rotary. Several types of machines are
in use for blowing cylinders of window glass.
The leer in general use is a long brick structure heated at dimin-
ishing temperatures; the ware is tempered by being passed slowly
through the leer. Various devices are employed for carrying ware
from the blowing room to the leer and conveying boxes of packed
ware.
The cylinders from which window glass is made are blown either
by hand or by machine. After it has been blown the cylinder is
split lengthwise, flattened, and cut to size.
Plate glass is cast on a smooth, highly polished table. A heavy
roller passes over it. The glass is then ground and polished.
Bottles are blown by hand or by automatic, semiautomatic, or
other machines.
Tableware is blown, made in a paste-mold machine, or pressed.
Lighting goods are blown (offhand, in a mold, or in a paste mold)
or pressed. The ware is often decorated by sand-blasting, etching,
cutting, painting, or a combination of these methods. Bulbs for
incandescent lamps are blown in a paste mold or by a machine.
CAPITAL, NET SALES, AND TURNOVER.
Of the 213 establishments for which data were obtained, 211
reported capital employed in business amounting to $89,103,387, or
an average of $422,291 per establishment.
In tabulating the data, the establishments were divided into 13
groups, according to the kinds of glass and glassware manufactured,
as shown in the following table, which gives, for each group, the
number of establishments, the number having operating profits and
the number having losses on net sales, the average per cent of such
profits or losses on the capital employed in business and on net sales
(depreciation and interest on current loans considered in each case),
and the ratio of net sales to capital:
BUMMAKY.
43
Table 15. — Operating Profits and Losses. Depreciation and Interest Con-
sidered, by Groups of Establishments.
Establishments making —
Group.
Estab-
lish-
ments.
Establishments
lm\ in? profits
or losses on net
sales.
Ter cent of profit—
Eatio of
net sales
Profits.
Losses.
■
ployed.
On net
sales.
to capital.
I
n
in
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
37
12
6
9
26
IS
27
13
8
20
IS
6
13
31
7
3
6
16
16
14
10
8
12
14
6
5
3
3
10
2
13
3
8
4
7.22
2.14
.08
1.85
a 3. 26
7.39
2.27
4.97
10.30
b.16
c9.64
4.91
15.48
5.33
1.99
.16
4.99
2.2s
10.79
1.98
5.04
9.29
6.15
9.59
2.91
S.90
1.35
Window glass by machine
1.08
.51
W ire and opalescent glass
Dottles by hand
.37
a 1.40
.69
Bottles by hand and machine . .
1.15
.98
Tableware, blown
Tableware, blown and pressed..
1.11
1.06
c.91
5 1
13 1
1.68
1.74
All establishments re-
213
155
58
d4.66
5.57
d.88
a Competed on the basis of 25 establishments, 1 not reporting capital.
b Operating loss.
c Computed on the basis of 17 establishments, 1 not reporting capital.
d Computed on the basis of 211 establishments, 2 not reporting capital.
With the exception of Group X, all of the groups show an operating
profit on both capital and net sales, depreciation and interest on
current loans considered, this profit averaging only a fraction of 1
per cent in Group III. The highest average percentages of profit on
capital are shown by Groups XIII and IX. The average operating
profit for all groups was 4.66 per cent on capital and 5.57 per cent on
net sales.
Capital is not turned over so rapidly in the glass industry as in
many other industries. The net sales of the 211 establishments
reporting capital amounted to 88 per cent of the capital they
employed. The net sales of 8 of the 13 groups w r ere larger, and of 5
groups smaller, than their capital.
A comparison of Groups I and II shows that the percentages of
profits of establishments making window* glass by hand averaged
considerably more than the average percentages of establishments
making window glass by machinery. Comparing Groups V and VI,
it is seen that the converse is true, the percentages of profits of estab-
lishments making bottles by machine averaging considerably more
than the average percentages of establishments making them by
hand. The turnover was greater in the cases of both window glass
and bottles made by hand than of those made by machinery.
Detailed tables in Chapter II show, by establishments, as well as by
groups, the operating profit when depreciation and interest are not
considered, and operating and final profits w r hen theso items are
considered. The final profit was obtained by adding to the operating
profit (depreciation and interest considered) items of income ana
deducting items of outgo not strictly connected with manufacturing.
As shown by Table 16, the number of establishments having
final profits on net sales was 155 and the number having final losses
was 58, depreciation and interest on current loans considered, but
44
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
reference to the tables in Chapter II shows that when these items
are not considered the number having operating profits was 189 and
the number having operating losses was 24.
Reference to these tables shows also that, when depreciation and
interest oti current loans are considered, the greatest percentage of
operating profit on capital was 251.71, earned by an establishment
in Group XIII ; and the greatest percentage of operating loss on capital
was 30.89, by an establishment in Group X; also that the greatest
percentage of operating profit on net sales was 32.3, earned by an
establishment in Group XIII ; and the greatest percentage of operating
loss on net sales was 33.19 by an establishment in Group V.
DEPRECIATION.
Of the 213 establishments reporting data, 109 did not provide for
depreciation charges, while 2 manufacturers rented plants. Of the
102 plants charging depreciation, only 35 had separate amounts for
buildings, machinery, and other equipment; the others charged lump
sums on the total value of the property.
In tabulating the schedules secured from these 109 establishments,
depreciation was calculated on the average percentage of depreciation
reported by the other establishments in their respective groups. The
total depreciation both charged and thus estimated amounted to
$2,970,021, or 6.38 per cent of the total value of land, buildings, and
equipment, $46,576,584. The number of establishments having
final profits or losses as reported, and the number after the estimated
depreciation for the remainder is deducted, is shown in the following
table:
Table 16.-
-establishments having flnal profits or losses, wlth and without
Depreciation.
Having
final
profit.
Having
final
loss.
Total.
87
a 88
15
23
102
elll
a 175
a 155
38
58
«213
a 213
a Includes 2 rented plants; no depreciation charged.
Excluding all depreciation, the total final profit of the 213 estab-
lishments amounted to $7,844,111. The extent to which profits are
affected by depreciation is shown by the fact that a deduction of
$2,970,021, the depreciation charged by 102 establishments and aver-
age estimated depreciation for the remaining 109, reduces the final
profit to $4,874,090.
SUMMARY.
45
COST AND PEOFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
The <lat;i secured from the 213 establishments showed that the
average sales value of goods produced per establishment was 596;
average operating profit without depreciation and interest, $38,035,
and with depreciation and interest, $20,199; average final profit, de-
preciation and interest considered, $22,200. Wh bis included
it is interest on current loans. Ln Table 17, which follow
iduced, cost of goods produced,
excluding and including depreciation and interest, and the profits, by
establishing
Table 17. — Average Sales Value op Goods Produced, Average Cost of Goods
Produced, and Average Operating and Final Profits, by Groups of Estab-
lish M
Establishments making— Group.
Average
sales
lish- value of
goods
produced
Average cost of
goods produced—
Exclud-
ing depre-
ciation
and
interest.
Includ-
ing depre-
ciation
and
interest.
Average operating
profit-
Without ' With
depreeia- deprecia-
tion and tion and
interest, j interest.
Average
profit,
deprecia-
tion and
interest
con-
sidered.
Window glass, by hand . .
Window glass, by ma-
chine
Plate glass
Wire and opalescent goods
Bottles, by hand
Bottles, by machine
Bottles, by hand and ma-
chine
Jars
Tableware, l >lown
Tableware, blown and
i
Lighting goods
I. ami) chimneys
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
XI
X
XI
XII
XIII
37 $164, S51
12 285,325
6 800,985
9 250,587
26 j 175,493,
All establishments.
2!S,225
481,497
235, 4S3
408, 519
648,711
204,314
22S, 876
3149,620
259, 518
707, 325
225, 463
166, 3SS
675, 157
327,448
437, 248
205, 672
387,637
558,251
193,607
199,671
3156,027
279, S19
804,069
240. 694
171,740
711,629
341,069
457,699
213, 406
40S.368
588,342
198, 446
815,231
25, 807
03,660
25,124
9,105
129, 931
20,777
44,249
29,811
90, 4 CO
10,707
29. 205
562, 596
321,561
13,084
3, 753
93,459
2, 156
23, 798
22,077 22,
89,256
7,668
2,308
11,875
4,475
97,826
9,709
151
60,369
5,868
19,647
20, 199
1,188
64,451
5, 813
19, 857
22, 200
a Operating loss.
The figures in the above table, when reduced to percentages based
on the sales value of goods produced, show that the total cost of goods
produced, excluding depreciation and interest, ranged from 83.86 per
cent in bottles made by machine, Group VI, to 94.89 per cent in blown
and pressed tableware, Group X; including depreciation and interest.
the cost ranged from 88.37 per cent in bottles made by machine,
Group VI, to 100.39 per cent in plate glass, Group IV.
The average operating profit for all establishments, computed with-
out depreciation and interest, was 10.49 per cent ; computed with
depreciation and interest, 5.57 per cent; final profit, depreciation and
interest considered, 6.12 per cent. The establishments in Group III,
plate glass, showed an average operating loss of 0.39 per cont after
depreciation and interest were deducted. The highest average profit,
11.61 per cent, was found in Group VI, bottles made by machine.
In Table 18, which follows, percentages, based on stiles value of
goods produced, are showm for the total cost of goods produced,
excluding and including depreciation and interest, and for the profits,
by groups of establishments.
46
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 18. — Percentages of Total Cost of Goods Produced, Operating Profit,
and Final Profit,' Based on Total Sales Value of Goods Produced, by
Groups of Establishments.
Est al ilishments making-
Group.
Estab-
lish-
ments.
produced
Per cent cost of
goods produced
was of sales value.
Exclud-
ing de-
preciation
Includ-
ing de-
preciation
Operating profit.
Without
deprecia-
tion and
interest.
tion and
interest.
Final
profit,
deprecia-
tion and
interest
consid-
ered.
Window glass by hand. . .
Window glass by machine
Plate glass I
Wire and opalescent goodsj
Bottles by hand
Bottles by machine
Bottles by hand and ma-
chine
Jars
Tableware, blown
Tableware, blown and
pressed
Lighting goods
Lamp chimneys
Miscellaneous articles
All establishments
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
loo. (H)
100. 00
100.00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00
00. 76
90. 96
8S.31
S9.97
94.81
S3. 86
94.03
90. 81
87.34
94.64
98.07
100. 39
96.05
97.86
88.37
95.06
90.63
86. 06 90. 70
94. 76 97. 13
87.24 91.41
9.24
9.04
11.69
10.03
5.19
16.14
5.97
9.19
12.66
5.11
13.94
5.24
12.76
5.36
1.93
a. 39
3.95
2.14
11.61
2.06
4.94
9.37
.04
9.30
2.87
8.59
5. 62
"'.29
4.74
2.55
12.15
2.79
6.06
9.41
2^85
100.00
(0.
5.57
a Operating loss.
COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS.
The average cost and profit or loss in making a 50-foot box of single-
strength window glass are shown by data furnished by 35 hand facto-
ries and 1 1 machine factories. The costs of window glass of different
grades and various sized brackets, single and double strength, are
shown by data furnished by 18 hand factories and 3 machine factories.
Data obtained from 29 establishments show the total cost, net sell-
ing price, and profit or loss in making 259 different units, including
different kinds of bottles, jars, stem ware, tumblers, tableware, and
lamp chimneys. Lack of uniformity in the records and cost systems
employed by these establishments made it impossible to obtain in
detail the cost of materials, labor, and overhead expense.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS.
The glass industry is located mainly west of the Alleghenies and in
districts, such as West Virginia and Oklahoma, where cheap natural
gas can be obtained. The glass factories in the East use producer gas
or oil for fuel, and the high cost of the fuel is an offset to the market
advantage. The manufacture of building glass, that is, of window
glass, plate glass, etc., more than doubled in the United States
during the period 1899 to 1914. In 1916 there were 51 hand window-
glass plants in the United States, with 1,737 pots and 25 machine
plants with 296 machines. The production by hand has decreased,
being only about 40 per cent of the entire production in 1915-16.
The American Window Glass Co. operated 116 of the 296 machines
in the United States in 1916.
The average value per box of window glass produced decreased hi
the period 1899 to 1909 from 82.51 to $1.70. This decline is not
attributable to the Dingley tariff act, which was in force during this
SUMMARY. 47
period, but to intense competition among domestic manufacturers,
which greatly increased after the manufacture of window glass by
machinery began on a commercial basis in 1903. Prices again
increased after the formation of a combination of manufacturers to
control production and price. Since 1904 the increase in the number
of machines has depressed prices. The union has shortened the time
covered by its agreements with manufacturers making window glass
by hand, in some years to only seven months, while machine window-
glass factories average about eight months a year. Sheet-glass
machines are expected further to revolutionize the industry when
thev are successfully operated on a commercial basis.
The production of plate glass in the United States has increased
much more rapidly than the production of window glass, although
the number of factories manufacturing polished plate glass (15) is
small compared with the number of window-glass factories. The
trend of prices has been downward. There has been an increased
demand for plate glass of the smaller sizes for use in place of window
glass.
The production of bottles and jars is not only larger but more
widely distributed than the production of other varieties of glass and
glassware. The automatic bottle-blowing machine and the flowing
process which require no skilled labor to operate them, have caused
great changes in the bottle industry since 1903. Their production is
probably much in excess of the production by hand and by hand
machines. Nearly all the establishments that succeed by the older
methods are favorably located with reference to cheapness of fuel or
accessibility to markets. Recently the tendency toward the standard-
ization of shapes and sizes has been increased by the greater produc-
tion of bottles by machinery and has resulted in lower prices. The
Glass Bottle Blowers' Association has endeavored to secure more
uniformity in State laws regarding the capacity of containers.
The American public generally considers the heavy cut tableware
manufactured in the United States superior to similar ware made in
Europe. Before the war it was sold in all parts of Europe.
The duty on ornamented glass, including cut glass, has been reduced
from 60 to 45 per cent ad valorem under the present tariff act; still
the imports have been decreasing and are now very small.
Among the reasons for the cheaper production of heavy cut-glass
tableware in the United States than in Europe are: Differences in the
methods of cutting glass and in machinery and tools used; the use of
blanks with pressed designs, which reduces the amount of cutting;
and larger sales of each design in America than in Europe. Manu-
facturers of high-grade cut glassware have made much complaint
about imitation cut glassware, with which many people are deceived.
In 1880 the regular manufacture of incandescent lamps was begun.
By 1885 electric lighting became general and the manufacture of
lighting good became an important branch of the glass industry.
The number of electric lamps for domestic use produced in the United
States in 1915 was about 125,000,000. In 1907 the tungsten lamp
appeared and nearly revolutionized the industry. The Mazda lamp
is the most recent development in high-efficiency illuminants. Glass
bulbs for incandescent lamps are made in only five plants in the
United States. About two-thirds of the total number produced are
blown by hand. From 1892 to 1915 electric lighting was one of
48 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
the few well-known commodities to show a marked decrease in cost,
and this reduction was due to the higher efficiency of the lamps
produced.
The development in the manufacture of chemical glassware in the
United States since the war in Europe began is analogous to the
development in the manufacture of dyestuffs. Formerly few chem-
ists in Amercia acknowledged that any chemical glassware made in
the United States was equal to German or Bohemian ware. The
war having caused a great reduction in imports, the serious shortage
led in 1915 to a greatly increased domestic production. The product
was soon recognized as of the highest quality. Beakers and flasks
now made in America are better than even Jena ware.
Glassware used for educational or scientific purposes has been
admitted free of duty under various tariffs. Manufacturers inter-
viewed regarding the duty on chemical glassware consider it much
more important that there should be some duty on apparatus for
educational or scientific use than that the rate of duty on the remain-
der of such imports should be raised above 45 per cent ad valorem
the present rate. Some college professors agree that apparatus
imported for educational or scientific use should pay a duty.
The manufacture of photographic glass, which is thinner than
window glass, is a new industry in the United States. Manufac-
turers claim that the rate of duty on photographic glass should be
higher than on window glass, because of the very much greater
labor cost, and the greater loss from breakage. There is at present
no tariff distinction between photographic glass and window glass
and no separate statistics of imports are kept.
SELLING EXPENSE AND CONDITIONS.
The glass industry in general, compared with other industries, has
a small selling expense. The total selling expense for all the estab-
lishments reporting, based on the net sales, was 4.01 per cent.
Goods are usually sold in large quantities, generally to the jobber,
large consumer, or distributor. About 30 window-glass manufac-
turers sell their entire output through one sales agent.
In 1909, 50 or more window-glass manufacturers organized the
Imperial Window Glass Co. Following the formation of this com-
pany, prices greatly advanced. In 1910 the officers and directors of
the company were indicted and fined.
The cost for packing material, owing to the fragile nature of the
product, is a very large item of expense. The losses due to bad
debts are very small. The seasons have some effect on the indus-
try. Although goods are usually manufactured long in advance, the
tendency is for the size of orders to decrease. There are but few
job lots. Trade abuses are not very serious, although there are
some unjust claims, unwarranted cancellations, etc. No branch of
the glass industry has as yet adopted the trade acceptance, although
its use has been emphatically urged.
It has been suggested that if manufacturers would cooperate,
selling costs could be reduced. Such cooperation would include a
uniform cost-finding system, standard contract, standardization of
shapes, styles, etc., a credit and information bureau, a central sell-
ing or show room, and a cessation of "dumping" in one another's
regular selling territory.
SUMMARY. 49
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
Labor cost is very high in the u r li-> industry. Table 36 of this
report shows that the average labor cost based on sales value of
product was 41. OS per cent; in one lamp-chinmoy establishment it
was 71.69, and in one machine bottle plant it was 18.2 per cent.
In none of the industries for which a cost of production report has
been made by this Bureau, nor in the cotton and wool reports made
by the Tariff Board was the proportion of labor to the sales value of
product (Bureau reports) or to the cost of manufacture (Tariff
Board reports) so large as in glass. Of 334 industries reported by
the Census of Manufactures for 1914, glass ranked thirteenth in
labor cost based on the value of product. Its proportion was 39.53
per cent. In 33 of these industries, each having a value of product
exceeding $150,000,000, the average percentage of labor cost, based
on the value of product, was 7.92.
Data from various Government reports show the rates of wages
to be very much higher in the skilled occupations of the glass indus-
try than in the higher-paid occupations of other trades and
industries.
The total number of employees in 208 factories during the busy
season of their last business years was 60,375, the average being
290.3. Of the total, 2.48 per cent were under 16 years of age.
Females constituted 8.15 per cent of the total. More women were
employed in the tableware and lighting goods groups than in any
of the others; in four groups none were employed.
Fewer days were worked in the last business year than the average
for the three preceding years, in all but three groups.
According to the Bureau of the Census, 36,668 out of a total of
68,911 employees in the glass industry worked 54 hours or less per
woek in 1909, and 51,250 out of a total of 74,502 in 1914. The
largest increase in number of employees was in West Virginia.
rolls for 19,092 employees, 18,235 male and 857 female, were
furnished by 132 of the glass establishments visited. Of the total
male workers 2,772 were emplo}^ed in plants making window glass,
1,049 in plate-glass plants, 6,716 in bottle plants, 1,895 in plants
making jars, 2,566 in tableware plants, 3,063 in plants making
lighting goods and lamp chimneys, and 174 in plants making mis-
cellaneous articles of glass. Of the total female workers, 135 were
omployed in bottle plants, 398 in tableware plants, and 324 in plants
making lighting goods and lamp chimneys.
The following table shows the lowest and highest average earnings
per hour and the average full-time weekly hours and earnings, for
male workers in some of the more skilled occupations.
102511°— 17 4
50 THE GLASS INDUSTEY.
Table 19. — Male Workers in Some op the More Skilled Occupations.
Estab-
lish-
ments
report-
ing.
Average earnings per hom\
Full-time week.
Groups and occupations.
ees. '
Lowest.
Highest.
Average
hours.
Average
earnings.
Window glass:
7
24
21
22
25
27
3
3
2
3
3
3
22
29
5
6
2
12
4
4
5
15
22
17
18
2
8
10
12
7
14
7
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
50
601
459
422
172
276
11
75
152
87
44
14
9
756
1,370
12
10
95
164
95
S2
307
532
219
266
7
83
87
419
39
714
104
14
25
12
7
12
8
11
$0. 25-SO. 30
.35- .40
.45- .50
.20- .25
.45- . 50
.25- .30
.2.5- .30
.20- .25
.15- .20
.15- .20
.15- .20
.20- .25
.20- .25
.20- .25
.25- .30
.25- .30
.25- .30
.60- .65
.25- .30
.15- .20
.2.5- .30
.15- .20
.3.5- .40
.20- .25
.25- .30
.35- .40
.50- .55
. 15- . 20
.20- .25
.30- .35
.20- .25
.15- .20
.30- .35
.30- .35
.15- .20
.25- .30
.35- .40
.40- .45
.50- .55
.40- .45
.40- .45
$0. 65-SO. 70
1.50 and over.
1.50 and over.
.65- .70
1.50 and over.
1. 25- 1. 50
.35- .40
.30- .35
.35- .40
.30- .35
.30- .35
.30- .35
.40- .45
1. 00- 1. 25
1. 25- 1. 50
.85- .90
.65- .70
1. 00- 1. 25
.55- .60
1. 00- 1. 25
.85- .90
.95- 1.00
.90- .95
.70- .75
1. 00- 1. 25
.85- .90
.75- .80
.45- .50
.60- .65
.90- .95
.75- .80
.65- .70
.70- .75.
.60- .65
.40- .45
.40- .45
1. 00- 1. 25
.85- .90
.65- .70
.65- .70
.60- .65
48.1
43.6
43. 5
43.8
55.8
59.0
67.6
68.8
61.3
61.9
71.5
63.4
61.3
48.6
46.3
45.2
50.2
53.0
53.3
46.1
46.3
55.4
45.2
45.0
44.9
44.6
44.6
50.9
52.1
49.9
50.6
50.8
45. S
45.4
55.0
49.5
46.0
49.5
54.0
54.0
49.5
$21.02
35.06
15.55
45.79
Plate glass:
19.48-
16.72
14.34
13.18
16.02
19.27
21.21
Bott'es:
29.06.
27.87
23.50
24. 85
49.13
21.05
Jars:
27.01
23.01
23. 10
Tableware:
B lowers
27.57
17.64
24.02
25.78
29. 93
19.65
22.04
Lighting goods and lamp chim-
neys:
27.25
27.32
19.56
23.31
23.5ft
16.94
Miscellaneous articles:
17.97
28.06
Gaffers
33.91
32.40
31.27
24.95
The average hourly earnings of workers other than those shown in
the foregoing table ranged in the various plants as follows : Window
glass, male, 15-20 to 65-70 cents; plate glass, male, 10-15 to 35-40
cents; bottles, male, 10-15 to 65-70 cents, female, under 10 cents to
35-40 cents; jars, male, 10-15 to 40-45 cents; tableware, male, 10-15
to 80-85 cents, female, under 10 cents to 40-45 cents; lighting goods
and lamp chimneys, male, 10-15 to 60-65 cents, female, under 10
cents to 25-30 cents; miscellaneous product, male, 15-20 to 25-30
cents.
The skilled workers in hand window-glass factories earn more than
those in the skilled trades of any other branch of glass manufacturing,
but their season is very short— about seven months.
In spite of the effect on labor produced by the hitroduction of
machines for window-glass making, the skilled operatives in hand-
made window glass, through the efforts of a strong labor union, have
been able to maintain a high scale of wages. In some years from
SUMMARY. 51
1904 to 1913 they were forced to accept lower piece price rate-, bul
in the seasons of 1914-15, 1915-16, and 1916-17 very substantia]
increases were given.
There are three labor organizations connected with window-glass
manufacturing. The oldest and strongest is the National Window
Glass Workers. It had a membership of 4,301 in 1915-16. It meets
annually with the manufacturers' association to adopt a wage scale
and to dispose of other matters coming up for settlement.
Labor in bottle manufacturing was greatly benefited by the in-
creased production that resulted from the establishment of the
"shop" system in 1S70, and later from the substitution of the tank
for the old-style furnace
Bottle machines were first commercially successful in 1896, but it
was not until 1903, when the Owens automatic machine was intro-
duced, that the remarkable production by machines began to have a
serious effect on labor. In factories using these machines skilled
labor is not necessary, and in factories that competed with them
piece rates for many years remained the same or were reduced.
The first increase in many years was granted for the season 1916-17.
The Glass Bottle Blowers' Association of the United States and
Canada is the only labor organization connected with bottle manu-
facturing. It originated in 1847 and adopted a wage scale in 1861.
It is one of the oldest labor unions, and its record presents one of the
best examples of successful collective bargaining between labor and
its employers. There has not been a national strike in the glass-
bottle industry since 1884.
The American Flint Glass Workers' Union, the only labor organi-
zation connected with tableware or lighting goods, takes in the skilled
workers of the various departments. Its membership has increased
but slightly in several years; in 1916 it was 9,430. The number of
members unemployed during the season of 1914-15 was 1,075 and
during 1915-16 it was 218. This branch of the business has been seri-
ously affected by strikes; in very few years has it been entirely free
from strikes and lockouts.
NEEDS OF THE INDUSTRY.
There is need in the glass industry for extensive chemical re
and experiment; the buildings should be improved and modernized,
so as to facilitate production and lower manufacturing cost- machin-
ery and labor-saving devices should be investigated and installed ;
accounting conditions should be improved and accurate cost-keeping
methods adopted.
There is perhaps no industry in which a good cost-keeping system
is more needed than it is in dass manufacturing. Not only have
American glass manufacturers had to meet sharp foreign competion
in several lines, but there is probably no industry thai has suffered
more from intense competition among doniesl ic manufacturers. The
increased use of and improvements in machinery have made radical
changes in the methods of manufacturing glass and glassware during
recent years. Hand manufacturers have s1 ruggled des perately againsl
the competition of those using machines, ami often the market was
demoralized in consequence. Ruinous competition is usually the re-
sult of trying to fix [trices without a knowledge of the im.il costs of
production.
52 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
A large proportion of the establishments that were visited during
this investigation had crude cost-finding methods and poor general
accounting systems. It is more difficult to determine the costs of
units in manufacturing glass than in some other industries, and some
manufacturers express tlie opinion that it is impossible to devise an ac-
curate method that is adapted to this industry. This, however, is erro-
neous. No association of glass manufacturers has approved any cost-
finding system, but the subject has been discussed in association meet-
ings, and in the last few years some of the more enterprising, of the
manufacturers have employed cost accountants to study their meth-
ods of production and to install cost-finding systems. Articles ex-
plaining improved methods of cost accounting, prepared by manufac-
turers that have given special attention to the subject, are embodied
in the report.
IMPORTS AND DUTIES.
During the fiscal year 1913, the last full fiscal year under the Payne-
Aldrich Tariff Act, the imports for consumption of glass and glassware
into the United States were valued at $6,436,662; during the fiscal
year 1914 they increased to $8,219,112. Since then they have de-
clined greatly on account of the war in Europe. In the fiscal year
1889 the imports were 18.91 per cent of the production of the calendar
year 1889. This was more than twice as large as the proportion in
1899 or 1904 and about three times as large as the proportion in 1909
or 1914.
In 1872 the duties on the principal commodities were reduced 10
per cent. Tariff acts, since that of 1872, were passed in 1883, 1890,
1894, 1897, 1909, and 1913. The duty on glass and glassware aver-
aged highest in 1894. In 8 of the 38 years it was over 60 per cent.
Other statistics are given in tables in the chapter on general imports
(p. 334), showing increases and decreases by months and imports by
kinds of glassware and by exporting countries.
While the imports of glass and glassware in general increased about
one-fourth in the fiscal year 1914, as compared with the fiscal year
1913, imports of plate glass more than doubled and imports of window
glass and bottles increased more than one-third.
The general imports of cylinder, crown, and common window glass
were $977,211 during the fiscal year 1913 and $1,356,218 during the
fiscal year 1914, or 5.59 and 7.75 per cent, respectively, of the pro-
duction during the calendar year 1914 as reported by the census,
$17,495,956.
Of the imports of window glass, more than 80 per cent was of the
smaller sizes (of the first three brackets) during the fiscal year 1906 to
1914. From 50 to 60 per cent of the domestic consumption is of
single-strength glass of these sizes.
The rates of duties have been lower on the smaller than on the larger
sizes for 20 years. No manufacturer interviewed complained of the
duties on glass larger than the first three brackets, and some admitted
that these duties might be somewhat reduced. All, however, claimed
that the rates on the first three brackets were too low.
Imports of window glass before the European war came mostly from
Belgium . Few of the imports go to interior points. Before the Euro-
pean war some imports went by ocean freight to Pacific coast points
and as far east as Salt Lake City.
SUMMARY. 53
Prices in the United States have at times been lower than the total
of the Belgian price with the freight and duty added. The -
competition among American manufacturers was caused largely by the
introduction of machinery for making window glass; this Jed to reduc-
tions of wages in the hand factories,s »me of which were driven out of
business.
General imports of plate glass, cast, polished, and unsilvered,
amounted to $321,605 m the fiscal year L913 and $727,889 in the
fiscal year 1014, or 2.18 and 4.93 per cent, respectively, of the pro-
duction of polished plate glass in the calender year 1914 as reported
by the census, 814,773,787. The plate glass imported consists mainly
of the finer and more expensive grades; its value averaged $0,224 per
square foot in the fiscal year 1914.
Most of the imported plate glass is used for mirrors and is of first
quality. Most of the imports of plate glass, as of window glass, go to.
Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf ports and near-by points.
Imports of other building glass are small. Rough plate glass is
probably made cheaper in the United States than anywhere else in
the world. Our manufacturers compete successfully in Canada with
English manufacturers who enjoy a preferential tariff. Most of the
wire class and opalescent and cathedral glass used in the United States
is of domestic manufacture; nearly all the antique glass, however,
was imported before the war from Germany and England.
The pressed and blown glass imported for consumption in the fiscal
year 1913 amounted to $3,006,621, and in the fiscal year 1914 to
$3,387,858, or 9.93 and 11.19 per cent, respectively, of the production
during the calendar year 1914 as reported by the census, $30,279,290.
With lower duties on pressed ware, less of it was imported than of
blown ware. All manufacturers of blown ware interviewed com-
plained of foreign competition. Yet the group of eight establish-
ments, as a whole, that manufactured blown ware exclusively had an
operating profit (charges for depreciation and interest considered) of
9.29 per cent on net sales, while the group of 20 establishments, as a
whole, that manufactured both blown and pressed ware had an oper-
ating loss of 0.15 per cent on net sales.
Glassware of different colors is not made extensively in the United
States. Though the wages of workers are higher in the United States
than abroad, the import of cut glass is small; it consists largely of
novelties.
The general imports of bottles, jars, etc., during the fiscal year 1914
amounted to $1,148,460, or 2.21 per cent of the production of bottles
and jars during the calendar year 1914 as reported by the census,
$51,958,728.
Extensive tables are also given in the chapter on imports to show
the quantity, value, duty, etc., for the principal classes of glass en-
tered for consumption. Other tables show for years during which
the last three tariff acts were in force the imports of glass and glass-
ware for consumption and the computed ad valorem rate of duty for
specified classes.
The duty on "glassware composed wholly or in chief value of glass,
blown, either in a mold or otherwise, " is now higher (45 percent) than
the duty on glassware made by pressing (30 per cent). A court de-
cision made in 1916 permits much blown stem ware to bo imported at
the lower rate. Manufacturers claim that this does not give them
the protection Congress intended in the tariff act of 1913.
54 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
EXPORTS.
The exports of glass and glassware from the United States amounted
to $2,252,799 during the fiscal year 1905 and to $3,729,623 during
the fiscal year 1914. The exports increased more rapidly than the
imports during this 10-year period, which closed a month before the
war in Europe began. The ratio of exports to imports increased
from 38 per cent during the fiscal year 1905 to 65 per cent during the
fiscal year 1913, the last full year under the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act.
It fell to 45 per cent during the following fiscal year, the Underwood-
Simmons Act having gone into effect October 4, 1913. The decline
in exports may be attributed to a business depression in the leading
countries of the world, indicated by figures in Table 134, showing
the decrease in the foreign trade of these countries in July, 1913, as
compared with July, 1914.
Before the war most of the small amount of the window glass, plate
glass, bottles, and jars exported went to North American countries,
principally Canada, Mexico, and Cuba. On the other hand, the
exports of "all 'other" kinds (pressed tableware, lighting goods,
optical goods, etc.) went largely to Europe, where their superiority
was recognized over European-made goods, and such exports increased
annually.
During the two fiscal years ending June 30, 1916, the total exports
of glass and glassware increased 230 per cent. The largest increases
in value were in exports to Europe, and second to North America.
Of the 213 establishments for which data were obtained, 68 reported
exports to 39 countries during 1915, and 41 reported $1,550,883 as
the total of their exports. The largest exports went to England,
followed by Canada and next by Australia. Nearly all the manufac-
turers reported large increases in foreign shipments in 1916, notwith-
standing lack of shipping space and freight rates that were often pro-
hibitive ; some sold products even to countries that have preferential
tariffs.
An embargo on imports of window glass, plate glass, and tableware
into the United Kingdom went into effect August 21, 1916. Ameri-
can manufacturers, however, expect to do a still larger business with
other parts of the world during the war and to do a larger foreign
business after the war than they did before it began. The usual
method employed has been to sell through American export com-
mission houses.
CHAPTER I.
MATERIALS, MACHINERY, AND PROCESSES.
RAW MATERIALS USED.
Commercial glass is a fused mixture of silica, usually in the form of
sand, in combination with at least two bases, one of which is an alkali.
t a high temperature is fluid and at lower temperatures is
semifluid and solid. In its semifluid, plastic state it is ductile and
capable of being cast, pressed, rolled, blown, or otherwise manipu-
lated. ■
The raw materials that enter the batch for the making of glass are
usually silica, various alkalies, alkali earths, and metals. The pro-
portion of the ingredients varies with the kind of glass desired, the
type of furnace, the custom of the plant, and the knowledge or lack
of knowledge of the individual under whose supervision the mixing
is performed.
Silica in the form of sand comprises the chief ingredient of the
batch, usually from 50 to 75 per cent of the mixture. The sources of
the alkaline ingredients were originally the ashes of plants and sea-
weed. At the present time the source is the natural deposits and
other compounds of sodium, potassium, and lithium. The alkaline
earths usually employed are calcium, barium, strontium, and mag-
nesium. The metallic sources are lead, zinc, and aluminum. Of
all these elements, sand, sodium in the form of sodium carbonate
(soda ash), sodium sulphate (salt cake), potassium in the form of
potash, calcium, and lead form the basic ingredients for nearly all
the glass made.
SAND.
Sand that is usually acknowledged to be superior to the foreign is
found in abundant quantities in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Illi-
nois, Missouri, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Ohio, Indiana, hew York,
Maryland, and many other States. In the States enumerated the
sand is found practically pure in the form of rocks and stones, which
are quarried and crushed. This sand is used for the finer grades of
glassware. For cheaper products, like insulators and some fruit
jars, the sand employed is often dredged from rivers.
The sand is thoroughly washed to remove as much alumina,
organic matter, and other foreign substances as possible, and is then
dried. One glass chemist who has done much experimental work
has suggested the use of unwashed sand , thus not only saving the
cost of washing and drying but preserving the otherwise washed-out
alumina, which he considers one of the most valuable constituents
of the sand in making glass. When over 75 per cent of sand is intro-
duced the batch increases in refractoriness to such an extent as to
make working very difficult.
55
56 THE GLASS INDUSTBY.
ALKALINE BASES.
Soda ash (sodium carbonate, Na,C0 3 ) is now manufactured from
common salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) by the Solvay process, which
decomposes the sodium chloride by means of ammonium bicarbonate.
Soda ash is an active flux and reduces the melting point of the batch
to a lower temperature than an equal amount of potash and when
mixed with the proper proportion of lime makes an easily worked
glass.
Salt calce (sodium sulphate, Na 2 SOJ, d erived by decomposing sodium
chloride by sulphuric acid, is not used so extensively as soda ash. It
is used principally in window glass and green bottle glass. It is not
so desirable as soda ash, because it is necessary to introduce with it
carbon in some form, usually coal, to decompose it. Although salt
cake is cheaper than soda ash, it requires extra time and excess heat
in the furnace and its use tends to produce stony glass.
Potassium is introduced into a glass batch generally in the form
of the carbonate, which is known as pearlash or potash. Potash,
like soda, acts as a flux in a glass batch. It is not used extensively,
as it is always considerably more expensive than sodium salts. It
is a desirable flux, however, in optical glass or other glasses where a
high brilliancy of color is desired. Lithium is sometimes used for
optical glass, but its cost is too high for general use.
Other alkali salts introduced occasionally for their oxygen are the
nitrates of soda and potash and soda as borax. These salts are also
more easily decomposed than the carbonates. An excess of alkali in
glass causes it to undergo what is known as "fading," which results
from the chemical action of the atmosphere and moisture upon the
free alkali, soda, or potash that has not been satisfied by the silica.
Such a chemical process causes a deliquescence of the alkali salt and
produces minute crystals that give to the glass an iridescent appear-
ance. Sometimes this iridescence will cover but small areas and at
other times it will appear throughout the entire .glass, depending
upon the care with which the glass has been made or its homogeneity.
ALKALINE EAETH BASES.
Lime in the form of calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ) or slaked lime
(Ca(OH) 2 ), when used as the other basic constituent, hardens the glass,
giving it stability and permanency, and facilitates melting and refin-
ing. An excess of lime prevents chords but increases the tendency
to devitrification. Where limestones containing very little iron are
hard to obtain the better grades of burnt lime are sometimes used.
The limestone rock is preferable, however, as the evolution of the
carbon dioxide gas assists in the melting process. In many cases
dolomitic limestones containing a considerable portion of magnesium
carbonate are being used satisfactorily. The magnesium decreases
the tendency to devitrify but makes the glass more refractory.
Barium carbonate, when substituted in small amounts for lime, is
said to increase the strength and brilliancy of the glass. Experience
seems to show, however, that when more than 3 per cent of barium
carbonate is used the glass is increasingly difficult to work.
MATERIALS, MACHINERY, AND PROCESSES. 57
METALLIC BASES.
Li ad in the form of litharge (PbO) or red lead (Pb 3 4 ) imparts to
the glass a brilliant color and increases its weight. Although red
lead would seem most desirable because of its greater content of
oxygen, litharge is used to a greater extent because of its constancy
of composition and very small content of metallic lead. Lead is a
very active flux and is used in all glasses which must have a low soften-
ing point, and where it is desired to weld a metal to the glass.
Other metallic bases are aluminum, arsenic in the form of white
arsenic (As 3 O s ), zinc oxide, and carbon (nonmetallic).
Arsenic is used chiefly to act as an oxidizing agent in removing
carbonaceous material and to assist in freeing the glass from gas
bubbles.
Carbon is employed with salt cake to provide a reducing agent to
in the decomposition of the sulphate, thereby reducing the
deleterious and erosive effect on the furnace walls and flues. Car-
bon is also used in amber glass as a coloring agent. It may be
used in the form of coal or charcoal.
Of the principal aforementioned substances the following are
obtained in the United States: Salt cake, lime, red lead, litharge,
soda ash, arsenic, and manganese. The following are imported:
Nitrate of soda from South America, arsenic from England and
British Columbia, manganese from Saxony and Russia, and potash
from Germany.
In the making of glass there is usually added to the batch some
cullet" (broken glass) of the same composition. The amount of
cullet added varies from a small quantity up to about one-half the
bulk of the batch as a maximum. Cullet is used for two reasons:
First, because of the economy in remelting the broken glass about
the plant, and, second, in tank furnaces because it provides a foun-
dation in the molten bath whereby the batch or raw materials are
maintained more compact and more positively in that portion of the
furnace where the temperature gives the best melting conditions,
for as soon as the cullet becomes plastic the batch constituents
adhere to it and in that manner are to a degree cemented together
until they have undergone sufficient temperature to carry out the
complete melting process. The cullet also assists in removing the
gas bubbles. Too much cullet is said to make the glass brittle and
difficult to work.
DECOLORIZERS.
Practically all the raw materials used in glass contain some iron as
an impurity. This iron, whon present in small amounts, imparts to
the glass a pale green color, which increases in intensity as the con-
tent of iron increases. When a colorless glass is desired this green
color must be removed, which is done by usin» decolorizers. If
the total percentage of iron in the ordinary soda limo glass exceeds
0.05 per cent, a slight green color will be imparted to the glass. If
the amount of iron exceeds 0.2 per cent the color is too intense to be
destroyed.
58 THE GLASS INDTJSTKY.
Manganese, selenium, cobalt, and nickel are the chief decolorizing
agents used. Manganese, selenium, and nickel act as decolorizers
because of their chromatic action on the green color of iron by the
complementary pink color they produce. Manganese is most com-
monly used, because it permits easy control of the color. In using
selenium and nickel the quantity used must be very carefully con-
trolled. These latter substances are desirable in window or plate
glass, as glass decolorized with manganese changes to a pink color
when exposed to light a great length of time.
Cobalt in the form of powder blue is used in conjunction with
manganese or selenium to destroy any pink color produced by an
excess of the decolorizer.
COLORANTS.
There is no definite knowledge as to the cause of color in glass.
What is known is that certain chemicals, such as metallic compounds
of manganese, nickel, selenium, etc., added to and melted with
various batches will produce glass of a certain color. Glass made
from sodium, potassium, lime, and lead, with silica and the other
necessary ingredients, has no color unless a large amount of iron is
present as an impurity. The coloring agents are generally metallic
oxides. While a very few elements produce a definite color, as the
blue of cobalt, the color produced is generally uncertain. The same
oxide may produce different colors with different batches and differ-
ent oxides of the same element may also produce different colors.
Following is a brief description of the effects produced on glass by
the various coloring agents employed. Tne coloring agents are
arranged in the alphabetical order of the elements:
Aluminum.. — Certain compounds of aluminum impart a white
opacity to glass, such glass being known as opal glass. Aluminum
sodium fluoride (cryolite) produces an opal glass, but is objectionable
because it injures the pots.
Antimony. — Antimony in large quantities produces white opacity.
Antimony sulphide (SbS) exerts an uncertain color effect due to its
volatility. In some cases it produces a fine yellow color.
Arsenic- — Arsenic used in excess produces milkiness.
Barium. — The sulphur compounds of barium produce deep green
and yellow colors.
Cadmium. — Cadmium sulphide (CdS) produces rich yellow colors.
Carbon. — Carbon, when introduced for coloring purposes, produces
a color ranging between straw yellow and a dark amber. Finely
divided vegetable charcoal gives a yellow color. Carbon also affects
the color of glass by reducing other substances that may be present.
Chromium. — Chromium oxide produces a grass-green color and is
used considerably. In the form of potassium bichromate it pro-
duces a bright green color. Chromium with iron gives a cold blue
color; with copper, a sea green.
Cobalt. — Cobalt produces all shades of blue and is generally used
in the form of oxide of cobalt.
Copper. — Copper or copper oxide (Cu0 2 ) produces a peacock blue
which becomes emerald green if the proportion of copper oxide is
increased. When full oxidation of the copper is prevented by the
MATEBIALS, MACHI2STEBY, AND PROCESSES. 59
presence of a reducing agent and the glass is cooled slowly or rel i
suiting color is an intense crimson-ruby. Qnpric silicates pro-
duce intense green to greenish-blue colors.
Gold. -Gold produces a brilliant ruby which, though less crimson
than the copper-ruby color, is more regular and uniform.
Iruu. Ferrous oxide produces an olive green or pale blue according
composition of the batch. Ferric oxide gives a yellow color.
Lead. — Lead gives a pale yellow color. Lead increases the color-
ing effect of other chemicals present in the batch.
Manganese- The compounds of manganese, when other coloring
ingredients are absent, produce colors between pinkish purple and
violet according to the chemical nature of the glass. Man-
dioxide (Mn0 2 ) develops a pink tint which neutralizes the green
color due to the presence of iron compounds in the sand. Used in
excess manganese gives an amethyst tint. Manganese u~ed in
svith the oxide of iron or cobalt produces black. The violet of
manganese, if neutralized by the oxides of copper or iron, results in a
gray color.
Nickel. — Nickel with a potash-lead glass gives a violet color; with
a soda-lime glass, a brown color.
Phosphorus. — Calcium phosphate (Ca 2 P0 4 ) produces an opalescent
glass. It is, however, rarely used.
Selenium . — Selenites give glass a pale pink or pinkish yellow color,
and a ruby red under conditions of reduction.
Silver. — Silver oxide (Ag 2 0) mixed as a paint and spread on the
surface of glass which is then heated results in a permanent yellow
color. Silver is never applied to the batch but is used as a surface
stain and gives a color from a delicate lemon to a deep orange in
proportion to the quantity used.
Sulphur. — Sulphur gases are very apt to produce a yellowish
milkiness.
Tellurium.— Tellurium appears to give glass a pale pink tint.
Thallium. — Thallium is introduced to increase the coloring effect
of other substances.
Tin. — Tin in conjunction with copper produces a copper ruby.
Tin oxide in a finely suspended state produces opalescence and in
large quantities white opacity.
Vanadium. — Vanadium produces vivid yellow and greenish tints,
but is too rare to be introduced in the batch.
Uranium. — Uranium, though costly, is sometimes introduced in
small quantities in the form of a chemical compound and produces
a beautiful fluorescent yellow. Uranium okide will produce a
greenish yellow opalescent effect.
MIXTURES FOR AMERICAN GLASS.
The following typical mixtures for American glass have been taken
from the New International Encyclopaedia. These recipes are not
intended as standardized batches to be strictly followed by manu-
facturers. It has been pointed out that the batch will vary with
the kind of furnace, the temperature, and numerous other factors,
and the following formulas are intended only to indicate, in a very
60
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
broad and general way, the ingredients and the proportions of ma-
terials that enter the batches for various kinds of American glass:
Recipes for American Glass.
Materials.
Window glass.
Plate glass.
Green bottles.
Lead flint.
100.0
44.0
100.0
40.0
4.0
&0
100.0
42.0
' "40.'6"
6.0
100.0
100. 00
100.0
40.0
"38.'6"
4.0
2.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
3a
100.0
100.00
30.0
24.0
1.0
36.00
24.00
.75
1.00
38.0
24.0
35.0
22.0
26.0
4.0
34.0
.5
.15
5.0
Potash
36.0
40.0
5.0
.3
34.00
48.00
Niter
6.00
.06
.02
MACHINERY, TOOlS, AND EQUIPMENT.
TYPES OF FURNACES.
The oldest furnace for melting glass was a fire-brick box in which
stood the pot with the fire of wood or coal on either side. Two
general types of furnaces are now used for melting glass, pot furnaces,
and tank furnaces. They are heated by natural or artificial (pro-
ducer) gas or by fuel oil, and the usual temperature required to
melt the batch is about 2,600° F. A temperature of about 2,000° F.
is maintained at the gathering holes or working-out end of the furnace.
These temperatures are not absolute; they vary with the size of the
furnace, the use of the pot or tank, the composition of the batch,
and numerous other factors.
Pot jumace. — Pot furnaces are either conical, circular, elliptical,
rectangular, or square, and usually have huge chimneys, the upper
tapering half of which is usually above the roof of the building.
The size of the furnace varies with the shape and the number of pots
used, and the pots usually number from 6 to 12. Plate-glass furnaces
employ the largest' pots, usually about 20 in number, and have an
opening opposite each pot to permit its hurried removal for casting.
The walls are about 18 inches thick, with a number of openings at
intervals, which are arched over. At the base of the chimney is
the central fire, about which, in all but square and oblong furnaces,
the melting pots, varying in number and size with the establishment
and the ware produced, are arranged in the arched-over openings.
In oblong-shaped furnaces the pots are usually placed in two rows,
one on either side of the fire, and the furnace is provided with a
door at each end for removing and replacing broken pots. The
heat from the central fire, forced outward by drafts, envelops the
pots and heats the batch until it is in the proper state for gathering.
In rectangular furnaces the flame travels from one end of the furnace
and by a manipulation of the draft is made to completely fill it.
A covered pot is used for melting flint glass. In the manufacture
of window and plate glass, bottles, and other glassware, open pots
are used. Covered pots are usually used in a circular furnace and
open pots in a rectangular furnace. The closed pot is beehive-shaped
and has a hooded opening on one side near the top. This opening
.MATERIALS, MACHINERY, AND PROCESSES. 61
projects to the wall of the furnace; through it the batch is charged
and the molten glass extracted. Open pots are open tru
cones, the smallest diameter being at the bottom, and the batch is
charged through openings in the side of the furnace.
Pots are made oi fire day and tneir manufacture is a Long, careful,
tedious process, requiring many months for completion. They are
costly and their life is comparatively short, closed pots lasting
several months, open pots about six weeks, and the pots for plate
glass only about 25 days. The installation and removal of po
laborious task. Pots have a limited capacity: continuous tanks have
ei-t, Borne being built to hold up to 500 tons of glass. When pots
axe used the work ceases when the pot has been emptied of the melted
hatch, and it is resumed again only after many lours, during which
time a new batch has been melted. When a continuous tank is
used the work is never interrupted.
Tank furnace. The tank furnace has generally displaced the pot
furnace. The advantages claimed for it are increased production,
continuous operation, regularity of work, more efficient utilization
of the heat and flame of the furnace, greater durability, and better
glass production, in that the molten glass in a tank can be main-
tained at or near a constant level, which makes gathering easier.
Tank furnaces are generally oblong in shape, the width being about
one-fourth or one-fifth of the length, the depth from 3 to 6 feet;
they contain about 6 to 20 ring holes. Tank furnaces hold the glass
on the hearth of the furnace; the flame sweeps across the furnace
and above the batch. Tank furnaces are of two types, the day
tank and the continuous tank, and are usually constructed of the same
material as are pots.
The day tank, intermittent in its action, is practically a large pot,
in which the batch is charged, melted, and then extracted, in some-
what the same manner as in working the pot. It may be considered
a pot furnace in which the one large open pot is square or rectangular.
The continuous tank permits charging the batch at any time and
continual extraction of the molten glass, irrespective of the time the
batch is charged. The tank is always full or nearly full. The tank
covers the whole area of the furnace and is divided, by means of two
transverse floating bridges or partitions, into three compartments.
The batch is charged into the first or melting compartment, and the
flames, entering at one side or end of the furnace and escaping at the
other, melt the batch. The released gases and acid vapors are carried
off through the stack, thus preventing injury to the furnace. The
molten glass flows into the second compartment, where, by means of
a higher temperature, it is. freed of its impurities, and it then Hows
into the last compartment, where a reduced temperature prepares
it for gathering. Many tank furnaces have only two compartments,
one for melting and one for gathering the glass.
The more modern tanks dispense with the floating bridges. When
the glass is melted it sinks and travels toward the gathering holes at
the other end. A refining vessel, floated opposite each gathering
hole, gathers the molten glass at the lowest deptli in the tank, raises
it to the surface, where it is completely refined in a compartment
prepared for that purpose; then, on sinking, the glass flows only into
the working-out ond. The working-out end of the tank usually
projects into the shop, is usually semicircular or crescent shaped,
62 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
and contains a varying number of ring holes or openings through
which the blowers or gatherers extract the glass. Furnaces employ-
ing gaseous fuel use either the regenerative or the recuperative system
of heating. Both systems employ the waste heat of the furnace
gases to heat air for combustion. Tne regenerative system is the
one generally used.
Tne regenerative system employs two chambers, called regener-
ators, one on each side of the furnace, which contain loosely stacked
fire bricks. When the bricks in one regenerator have become hot
from contact with the waste gases of combustion, the direction of the
flames is reversed, and the air for combustion passes through the hot
regenerator, while the waste gases now pass through the regenerator
on the other side of the furnace. Reversing the direction of the flame,
usuahy about every 20 minutes, results in heating the air before it
enters the furnace proper while the waste gases are heating the other
regenerator preparatory to the air passing through it.
Tne recuperative system does not employ a reversal of current.
The incoming air absorbs the heat, which has penetrated the thin
walls as the waste gases pass through the flues.
BLOWPIPE.
The blowpipe which is used to blow all glassware that is neither
blown nor pressed by machine, is an iron pipe or steel tubing from 4^
to 5^ feet in length, and from about three-fourths of an inch in the
smallest part up to 1J inches in diameter. A hole about one-fourth
of an inch or more runs lengthwise through the pipe. At one end is a
mouthpiece for blowing; the other end, upon which the glass is
gathered, is slightly enlarged and somewhat funnel-shaped.
MOLDS.
Molds are used to facilitate the work of blowing. Molds that are
not used in machines rest upon or above the floor, depending upon
the height of the foot bench, or in pits.
Tne joint open-and-shut mold in common use consists of two hol-
low cast-iron pieces fastened together by heavy hinges. The mold
opens and closes horizontally by means of two short handles. The
parts of the mold which are cast in separate pieces can be removed
and others, for ware of a different size and shape inserted. Each
half of the top of the mold is indented so that when the mold is
closed the top fits around the blowpipe and, in bottles, forms the
long, narrow neck.
BLOWING MACHINE.
A ' ' gob " of glass, the proper amount cut off by shears as the molten
glass is dropped from the gathering iron, is deposited in the first or
press mold, and a descending plunger presses the neck of the bottle.
The partially formed bottle is then transferred to the second or blow
mold, and the bottle is then blown by means of compressed air.
The latest machines have a revolving framework containing a series
of molds. This machine is used for wide-mouth ware.
One type of machine in use for wide-mouth and semiwide-mouth
jars turns out 16 jars a minute. A greater speed is not possible, it
MATERIALS, MACHINERY, AND PROCESSES. 63
is claimed, because the glass would not then have time to settle and
would cave in. The machine requires a gatherer and a turn-out hoy.
hut if a flowing device is employed, only a turn-out hoy is necessary.
Tiii- blowing machine is generally employed only for wide-mouth
hoi i les and jar-.
In some bottle-blowing machines, the plunger is raised t<> the proper
point in the blank mold, after which the necessary amount of glass
is dropped in the blank mold, sheared off, and forced down around
the plunger by compressed air to form the neck of the bottle. The
partially formed bottle is then inverted, and compressed air blows
the bottle in a second mold.
PASTE-MOLD BLOWING MACHINE.
Seamless ware like lamp chimneys ov tumblers can not be made in
an ordinary mold but requires a mold (paste mold) coated with a
carbon or other paste. Since 1898 a machine has been successfully
producing this class of ware.
The machine consists of a series of revolving paste molds. The
blowpipe with its gather of glass, which has been shaped on the marver
and slightly blown, is clamped perpendicularly into a socket exactly
above the mold and so arranged that the bulb of glass just fits into
the mold. The upper end 01 the pipe is connected with the valve
controlling the compressed air. The revolving mold opens and
receives its gather of glass; after it closes the connected pipe supplies
the compressed air for blowing. The constant mechanical rotation
of the pipe and its bulb of glass while the compressed air is blowing
prevents the formation of seams on the ware. After the machine
has revolved halfway, during which time the ware has been com-
pletely blown, the mold opens and, after the pipe and attached blown
ware has been removed, dips into water. This bath is necessary to
keep the paste lining wet.
One such blowing machine, in use for making light tumblers in
paste molds, has five molds to the machine, and, with one tumbler
to each mold, produces 12 to 14 tumblers a minute. Some machines
have two tumblers to the mold. Not only does this machine produce
ware much cheaper than when hand blowing is emplo}^ed, but it is
superior in that it blows articles of considerable length with the sides
and walls absolutely uniform in thickness.
AUTOMATIC BOTTLE MACHINE.
The automatic bottle machine consists of a series of arms, radiating
from a perpendicular axis, each terminating in a combination mold.
The glass is melted in the furnace and flows to a refiner and then to a
specially constructed revolving pot or tank, which supplies the hot
glass that is Constantly used. Tlie arms, one after another, dip, and
as the blank mold on the end of the arm projects into the molten
metal in the revolving tank, it sucks up its capacity of glass. As the
arm rises from the tank, the mold forms the neck of the bottle and
gives the glass a general shape, cooling it so that it will not run. As
the first mold withdraws, a second or finishing mold, rises and closes
around the still red-hot glass form, and, when this mold is closed,
compressed air which is turned on forces the glass to take the shape
of the mold.
64 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The process is continuous and uninterrupted, the forming of the
bottle taking place while the molds are in motion. The arm having
completed its circuit, the mold opens and the bottle drops out.
When an automatic conveyor is used, the bottle drops onto the
conveyor.
This machine makes the bottle automatically from the gathering
of the glass to the completed bottle that is to be put in the leer. It
puts the same amount of glass into every bottle, and makes each
exactly the same length, weight, finish, shape, and capacity, which
is almost impossible by the hand method, even with the most skilled
labor. The machine wastes no glass and can be operated con-
tinuously.
FLOWING DEVICE.
There are a number of machines which, with the application of a
flowing or pouring device that doe? away with the gatherer, are
practically automatic. It will be sufficient to describe one such flow-
ing device to illustrate the general principle and processes involved.
As the revolving molds of a machine pass below a specially built
projection of the tank, a stream of glass flows down vertically into
it. A cup-shaped cutter from the left of the down-flowing stream,
and a blade from the right, are mechanically made to come together
like the blades of a pair of scissors. The stream of glass is cut off,
but continues to flow into the cup-shaped cutter instead of flowing
into the mold. The cup-shaped device is then turned part way over,
but still receiving the stream of flowing glass from the tank. As the
next mold is brought into position, the cup-shaped device spills its
accumulated glass into the mold, and the stream of glass from the
tank then flow? directly into this new mold. This operation is
repeated as each mold comes into position. With the filling of the
mold with the exact amount of glass required the work of the flowing
device is completed.
Flowing devices, it is claimed, have been successful only with wide-
mouth bottles and jars. One manufacturer, however, claims to have
a flowing device which he has successfully used for manufacturing
narrow-neck bottles.
PRESSING MACHINE.
Presses for tableware are either stationary or rotary. In the
stationary machine the mold is filled with molten glass and, as the
side lever is pulled, the overhanging plunger descends into the mold,
pressing the plastic glass into the desired shape. The stationary
machine is equipped with either one or two molds, which rest upon a
stand and are removed by hand. The rotary machine consists of a
series of revolving molds, usually four or eight in number. The
gatherer fills the passing molds and the glass is then pressed.
The kind of ware that can be made on a pressing machine is limited
to that class in which the opening tapers downward, thus permitting
the plunger to be easily withdrawn. When a solid or block mold is
used the outer surface of the articles, as smooth tumblers, smooth
nappies, etc., must be of a downward tapering shape to permit
removal after pressing. For ware with outer surfaces of other shapes,
a joint mold is used, which is opened when the ware is to be removed
MATERIALS, MACHINERY, AND PROCESSES. 65
One of the rotary tumbler presses in use employs 8 molds and
produces about 18 tumblers a minute. This press is semiautomatic;
with the aid of the flowing device, which one company uses in con-
junction with this machine, it is practically automatic.
W I N DOW-GLASS MAC II I N E .
A ring is dropped for a moment into the surface of the molten glass,
and the glass adheres to it by molecular attraction. The ring is
pulled upward and draws a cylinder of glass as it ascends. The rate
of draw is from 1 to 2 feet per minute depending on the thickness, size,
and temperature of the glass and on the type of machine. The
diameter of the cylinder is regulated by compressed air, introduced
in some machines through the bait to which the ring which draws the
glass is attached, and in another through an aperture in the center of
the pot. The thickness of the glass is regulated by the speed with
which the ring is elevated. Cylinders 25 feet or even 35 feet long
may be drawn. The machine operator occupies a tower, 12 or 15
feet above the floor, and is called a towerman or a blower. Each
towerman operates the electrical mechanism which draws two, and
in some cases three, cylinders simultaneously, and controls the air
pressure and speed.
AIR-PUMPING SYSTEM.
Most factories have an air-pumping system, which forces a current
of cool air upon molds and machines, preventing them from becoming
so heated that the plastic molten glass would adhere to them. Where
no such system is employed, the molds are cooled by playing a stream
of cold water upon them. The air system also serves to cool the
workers.
REHEATING FURNACE.
In addition to the furnace in which the batch is melted, bottle
plants emptoy a reheating furnace, called a "glory hole," and table-
ware factories use one usually called a warming-in furnace. These
furnaces are used for partially reheating the ware, which facilitates
the manipulation necessary to shape it to the desired pattern during
the process of manufacture.
ANNEALING OVEN, OR LEER.
Practically all glassware must be annealed, or gradually cooled,
immediately after it has been blown or pressed. Glass can not be
annealed by exposure to the air, as this generally causes some of the
pores, usually those in the exterior, to close more quickly than others,
which results in an internal strain and a brittle glass, easily cracked
or broken. One form of annealing is to place the ware in a heated
furnace, box, or other receptacle, and gradually diminish the heat
until it equals the temperature of the outside air. This method con-
sumes much time and is rarely used at the present time, the kiln
having been displaced by the leer.
The leer is a long, narrow, tunnel-like, brick structure, closed on
all sides but open at both ends. The heat is kept at about 1,200° F.
at the end called the "mouth," in which the ware is first put. The
102511°— 17 5
66 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
ware is placed in iron pans resting on the bottom of the leer, which
are pulled very slowly, by means of a moving-belt arrangement,
through the leer's entire length. The heat, high at the mouth, is
maintained at a gradually decreasing temperature throughout the
length of the leer, and. the ware, traveling very slowly through these
various zones, is thoroughly annealed when it reaches the end. The
length of time, necessary for thorough annealing depends upon the
kind of product, and grade of goods manufactured. The pans are
brought back from the rear of the leer to the front by means of
pulleys swung from an overhead track.
CONVEYOR DEVICES.
In order that the ware may not chill after it is made, it is necessary
that it be transferred to the leer as quickly as possible. Where
conveyors are not used, bottles or jars, immediately after being blown,
are carried to the leer on handled trays. Other ware is placed on a
sliding tray in a warming stove, and the tray when full is carried to
the leer.
In some factories mechanical conveyors are used to carry bottles
or jars to the leer. An overhead track circles the shop and passes
the leer door. Suspended cars are pushed around the shop and the
ware is gathered therein as the car passes the various shops. When
the sliding tray on which the ware is placed is full, the car is pushed
to the leer and the ware transferred.
Some factories have installed automatic conveyors which operate
on the principle of the endless belt. The belt carries the bottles
singly and runs from the shop to the leer, where the bottles are
transferred by hand, or in some cases mechanically.
In a few factories conveyors are in use which carry packed boxes,
barrels, etc., from the packing room to the warehouse, where they are
stored, and thence to the freight car on the siding. On a decline the
package descends by gravity over a series of rollers, but on an incline
power is applied, the package being lifted by an endless chain. These
conveyors are comparatively cheap to construct and the packed ware
is not injured or broken in transit.
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES.
The manufacturing processes described on the following pages are
not given as standardized processes in the glass industry or to inform
manufacturers as to the best possible method of production. They
are intended to indicate in a very general way how the various
products are manufactured and the sequence of operations. All the
descriptions omit annealing or tempering the ware, a description
of which has been given. A description of packing and storing
of the ware after it has come from the leer and been examined has
also been omitted, as these operations are not strictly manufacturing
processes.
BATCHES FOR VARIOUS PRODUCTS.
Glass may be divided into the five following classes: (1) Lime-flint
glass, (2) lead-flint glass, (3) plate glass, (4) window glass, and (5)
optical and special glasses. These are again subdivided according to
tne ware made from the glass under each of these classifications.
MATERIALS, MACHINERY, AND PROCESSES. 67
Lirra fiini is the glass which is used in manufacturing tableware,
novelties, bottles, lamp chimneys, lighting goods, and globes. In
the making of lime-flint glass, the compositions \ary greatly, and
until a few years ago each manufacturer or glassmaker had his own
particular formula From which be made bis glass. The composition
often contained as many as 20 ingredients, of which sand was tin'
principal one, and in addition to which there was used burned lime,
soda ash, pearlash, magnesium carbonate, barium carbonate, anti-
mony oxide, antimony sulphide, arsenic, feldspar, cryolite, fluorspar,
borax, manganese, and cobalt, or "blue" (cohalt silicate). Of late
years, however, the manufacturer lias to a great extent dropped the
use of many of the expensive chemicals last enumerated, and in the
making of a lime-flint glass confines himself to the use of sand, soda
ash, and burned lime, with antimony, arsenic, or manganese as a
decolorizer, or other chemicals like nickel, selenium, or cobalt, or
combinations of these metals.
For many years burned lime was supposed to be the only alkali
earth which could be successfully used in making flint glass, and lime
obtained from certain localities was assumed to be particularly
adapted to its manufacture, for the reason that it contained a con-
siderable quantity of magnesia. In recent years, however, particu-
larly in tank-furnace operation, raw lime has come into successful
use, from which a glass has been produced equal in brilliancy and
stability to that produced from burned lime. In pot furnaces burned
lime is still preferable, inasmuch as the increased boiling action pro-
duced by the raw lime causes the melting material to boil excessively
and does not permit of as great a charge being made at any one time,
and therefore increases the attention and labor necessary to obtain
a full pot of glass.
Lead flint is used for making cut glass, goblets, the better grade
of tableware, etched ware, and novelties. This batch consists prin-
cipally of sand, red lead (minium), and litharge in combination with
soda ash, pearlash, and other alkali salts, and, as in lime-flint
glass, with antimony, arsenic, borax, and manganese as decolorizers.
More recently nickel, cobalt, and selenium, either separately or in
combination with manganese, have been used as the decolorizing
agents. Lead has also been used in combination with or partially
replaced by lime, magnesia, or barium.
Plate glass is melted in pots, cast, ground, and polished. The batch
is usually made up of sand, soda ash, and lime. Sometimes salt cake
replaces a portion of the soda ash, and with it some of the above-
mentioned decolorizers are also used as required.
Window glass is made by the hand-blown or machine method in
cylinder form, being subsequently flattened into sheets and cut, but
not ground and polished. This batch is composed of sand, salt cake,
and lime, with a small amount of powdered coal or charcoal, although
in some instances soda ash replaces a portion of the salt cake.
Optical and other special glasses vary in composition, according to
the uses for which they are intended and the respective physical prop-
erties which are desired. Chemical glassware and special glasses will,
of course, have formulas for their batches to meet the physical
properties required of the finished product.
The preparation of the batch for each of the foregoing classes or
subclasses is largely dependent upon its composition and upon the
68 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
procedure necessary to melt and refine it to the degree that will
insure the product desired.
PREPARATION OF THE BATCH.
Sand contains iron, lime, alumina, and other impurities, to remove
which it is first washed by stirring it in large volumes of water and
allowing it to settle. The sand is then burned by playing flames
directly upon it, to expel the moisture and remove the organic and
extraneous matter, and is then sifted. The sand and other ingredi-
ents that make up the batch are then weighed out according to the
formula of the plant. The amounts are actually weighed in many
establishments, but in some are only an approximation on the part of
the mixer. The batch is then mixed. This may be done by hand, by
hand and machine, or entirely by machine. Hand mixing is usually
employed for small quantities. The various substances are mixed on
a clean floor by turning them over with a wooden shovel. The
machine for mixing consists of a hollow drum with revolving paddles
which beat and mix the batch. The mixing machine has generally
displaced the hand-manipulated wooden shovel, because its use
results in a better and more uniform mixture.
Gullet (broken glass), which aids fusion, is then added to the batch,
which is then carted to the pot or tank on wheelbarrows, or in modern
plants is mechanically shot through tubes. When a pot or day tank
is used, the batch is generally charged in the morning before work
commences or at night when work is over. When a continuous tank,
which is always at about the same temperature, is used, the charging
goes on continuously so as to keep the glass at a constant level.
During the melting of the batch there is a loss of material, due to
evaporation and volatilization, which will generally average, it is
claimed, about one-sixth the weight of the batch.
The temperature necessary to melt the batch can not be stated
positively. It depends on the use of furnace or pot and the com-
position of the batch. The average actual temperature generally
required is about 2,600° F. and in some few instances as much as
2,850° F. (glass temperature).
The molten glass is worked into commercial products by three
methods — blowing, pressing, and casting.
WINDOW GLASS.
Window glass is made by the cylinder process, blown by hand or
machine, and by the automatic sheet method. In the cylinder
method the difference is only in the blowing of the cylinder, either
by the blower or by a machine. The subsequent treatment of the
cylinder is practically the same.
In making hand-blown window glass the gatherer uses a blowpipe —
an iron tube about 50 inches long, one end enlarged to approximately
3 inches in diameter — which, being previously heated, he dips into
the mass of glass contained in the pot or tank furnace. Rotating
the pipe permits a film of glass to adhere to the enlarged head. The
gatherer removes the head from the furnace and cools the pipe by
immersing it in water or allowing water to flow upon it, cooling it
and the glass gathered upon the head. By repeated gatherings
and coolings in the cooling "buck" or tub, the gatherer obtains a
MATERIALS, MACHINERY, AND PROCESSES. 69
sufficient quantity of glass of spherical form upon the pipe bead ;is
will in his judgment make a cylinder of the desired size and thick-
lie B, after which he places tits in what is known as the "block,"
a concave iron receptacle so fashioned as to give the glass a pear-
shaped form when it is rotated therein.
Tnc blower takes the blowpipe, and by blowing enlarges the glass
bulb into the form of a huge cylinder. In doing this he swings his
blowpipe through an opening or pit in the floor, and when the glass
cools, reheats and softens i1 in the furnace so that the cylinder can
be easily elongated. The material is evenly distributed by the
blowing and the glass is made single or double strength, or heavier,
by the amount of molten glass that is gathered, the size of the cylinder
originally formed in the iron mold, or block, the speed or rapidity
witli which the blower swings or elongates the cylinder, and the
amount of air he puts into it. (A description of tin- machines that
blow the cylinder of glass mechanically is given on page 65.)
When by intermittent blowing and swinging a cylinder of proper
length has been formed and the glass has sufficiently cooled, the blower
biings it into a horizontal position upon a crane support. He then
introduces the lower or closed end of the cylinder into an opening
in the furnace known as the ''blow furnace," or into an opening of
the tank known as the "blow ring," permitting the heat of the
furnace to come in contact with the small area of this closed end,
so manipulating the cylinder as to have the more intense heat in
the exact center of the closed end of the cylinder. When the end
has become sufficiently heated he blows into the cylinder with con-
siderable force, places his thumb over the open end of the blowpipe,
and then by introducing a considerable portion of the cylinder into
the hot gases of the furnace causes the air within the cylinder to
expand. The plastic glass is forced out over the intensely heated
closed end of the cylinder and bursts an opening therein. A high
temperature is again applied to this bursted opening until it becomes
quite soft and plastic. The blower then removes the cylinder from
the horizontal position, drops it into the pit or "swing hole" and by
careful rotation and manipulation enlarges or opens up the hole to
the full diameter of the cylinder proper.
The snapper then lifts the cylinder from the swing hole or pit
and places it in a horizontal position upon wooden supports known
as the "horse" (usually made of wood filled with sawdust). He
touches the neck, or that portion next to the head of the pipe, with
a moist iron, which starts a check or crack in the glass, and by
gently tapping the blowpipe he severs the cylinder from the blowpipe.
He then, with a small iron rod, gathers a few ounces of molten glass
and with a pair of pincers draws it out into a thin thread which he
wraps around the cylinder, thereby heating a narrow zone to a tem-
perature considerably in excess of the temperature of the main body
of the cylinder. By applying a cold or moist iron to this heated
zone, he separates from th<3 body of the cylinder that portion which
is known as the "cap." When required, a portion of the lower or
hole end of the cylinder is also severed from the main' body of the
cylinder in like manner, thereby preparing the cylinder for flattening.
When the cylinder has been blown by machinery it is usual to employ
an electrically heated wire instead of a thread of glass.
70 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The splitter, or opener, then splits the cylinder longitudinally or
lengthwise by means of an iron rod heated at one end to a bright-red
heat; he draws the rod back and forth through the cylinder and
then touches this heated zone with a moist glove.
The roller boy wheels the cylinder to the flattening oven, and the
cracked cylinder is placed on a large, smooth, circular, stone table
inside the oven. As the heat softens the glass and it begins to wilt,
the flattener by means of a long-handled wooden block quickly
flattens out the cylinder until it is a flat sheet. The stone on which
the flattened glass rests is turned and the glass is then sent through,
the leer where it is tempered.
Due to the fact that window glass made by flattening cylinders
can not be flattened perfectly, it usually has a slight bend or bow
Such glass also has a possible variation in thickness due to the
blowing, though how the blower blows a practically uniform cylinder
of glass is one of the wonders of the glass industry. These defects,
however, are accepted by the trade.
It is claimed that window glass made from hand-blown cylinders
is generally of better quality than that made from machine-blown
cylinders, although some manufacturers assert that good glass blown
by machine is of better quality than the hand-blown product. (As
mentioned on page 205, a factory is being erected for the manufac-
ture of window glass in sheet form, so that flattening will be
unnecessary.)
PLATE GLASS.
As the door of the furnace is opened, the pot, usually containing
about 1 ton of molten glass, is removed from the furnace by means
of wrought-iron tongs attached to an electrically operated traveling
crane, which, after the surface impurities have been skimmed off,
carries it to the casting table.
The casting table is made of iron with a smooth, highly polished,
trued surface, and is from 12 to 16? feet in width and from 20 to 274
feet in length. The pot is tipped, and, as the molten glass is poured
or cast upon the table in front of it, a heavy roller attached to the
table quickly passes over the glass, rolling it into a sheet of uniform
thickness. The roller is of cast iron and hollow, about 18 inches in
diameter, covers the entire width of the table, and rolls over its entire
length. Both the table and the roller are water-cooled by means of
water circulating through them during the casting operation. The
roller travels on adjustable strips or iron tracks on each side of the
table, and the thickness of the glass depends on the thickness of
these strips. When the glass has been rolled out and the sheet
which has sufficiently hardened by cooling is pushed into the leer
and by means of mechanical appliances, it is made to successively
travel from one position in the leer to another, thus passing through
a gradually diminishing temperature.
After the glass has been removed from the leer it has a rough,
opaque appearance. This is rough plate glass. The sheet is care-
fully inspected, the rough edges are cut off, and the glass cut to the
desired size.
The glass is then ground. It is secured to a revolving iron table,
25 or more feet in diameter, by means of plaster of Paris, and in some
cases is further secured by wooden blocks. As the table revolves
water and sharp river sand are applied to the glass and revolving
MATERIALS, MACHINERY, AND PROCESSES. 71
iron runners begin to grind. The table revolves slowly at first, but
the speed is gradually increased as the grinding continues. The
revolution of the table and the constant rotation of the runners
insure the whole surface being evenly ground. After the sharp
sand, emery is used in a similar manner. Formerly, after grinding
one side, it was necessary to turn the glass and grind the other
side before polishing. At the present time one side is ground and
polished before work on the other side is begun.
The glass, after being ground, is placed on a special polishing table.
Rouge and water are applied and felt-covered oscillating blocks or
disks polish the glass. After it has been -ground and polished, the
glass is about one-half the thickness of the original rough plate,
one-fourth being usually lost on each side of the plate during the
processes of grinding and polishing.
ROLLED FIGURED GLASS.
The process of making rolled figured glass is similar to that of
making plate glass, except that it is not ground and polished. The
pattern which, it is desired to produce is engraved on the roller
which passes over the glass, these designs being known in the trade
as ribbed, pyramid, etc. Sometimes the patterns are cut in the sur-
face of the casting table.
WIRE GLASS.
Wire glass is manufactured by three different methods: (1) A
sheet of glass is rolled and, while the glass is still soft, the wire is
pressed in and embedded in the glass, which is then smoothed; (2)
the wire mesh is placed over a thin sheet of glass which has been
rolled and another sheet is simultaneously poured and rolled over it;
(3) a wire netting is mechanically crimped, placed on the casting
table and a sheet of glass is then poured upon it and rolled.
OPALESCENT GLASS.
The colorless glass is ladled out of the pot, and poured upon that
part of the machine called the table. One or two workers (according
to the size of the sheet) stand at the machine and turn this colorless
glass over once or twice with a two-pronged iron shaped like a tuning
fork. The colored glass is then ladled out and put on the glass al-
ready on the table. The two glasses are mixed together by turning
the glasses over several times. A worker then turns the crank (in
some plants this is now done by electric power) which moves the table
under and against a stationary roller which is part of the machine.
The table runs along tracks. As the crank is turned, a boy pushes
the glass against the roller, distributing it evenly. The roller flattens
out the glass, after which it is lifted, by means of a padle, to a swing-
ing pan suspended from an overhead track and moved to the leer,
where it is pushed in to be annealed. After annealing, the sheets are
cut up for decorative glass, window work, lamp shades, etc.
BOTTLES.
The blower or gatherer inserts his blowpipe into the tank or pot
and a small lump, or "gob," of the molten glass adheres to the end
of it. Sometimes it is necessary to return to the furnace two or more
72 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
times to gather sufficient glass for the size of the bottle desired. By-
blowing gently, the bulb of glass is slightly enlarged and it is then
rolled on a flat plate of iron or stone called a marver, until it assumes
a symmetrical pear shape, and on being reheated to the proper tem-
perature the glass is ready to be blown. The work up to this point
may be performed by a gatherer who does no blowing, or by the
blower himself.
A mold boy opens the iron mold into which the slightly enlarged
ball of glass is lowered. When the boy has closed the mold the blower
blows into the blowpipe sufficiently to force the glass to take exactly
the shape of the mold. In some cases the mold is opened and closed
by a treadle operated by the blower's foot. The bottle shows seams
where the two halves of the mold join. Circular, seamless bottles are
blown in a paste mold by twirling the blowpipe during the blowing
process.
Some ware, such as carboys (large bottles of several gallons capac-
ity for mineral waters, chemical liquids, etc.), are blown offhand
without the use of a mold, but aided by an arm arrangement upon
which the heavy weight of a carboy can be supported without hinder-
ing the blower in his work. This, the earliest method of blowing
bottles and other ware, is seldom used at the present time.
Continued blowing after the glass has taken the shape of the mold
causes the glass above the top of the mold to break. After the mold
has been opened and the bottle removed, a snapper-up seizes it
with a pair of pincers and places it neck upward in a "snap," a sheet-
iron can with an iron handle about 3 feet long, which is of the same
size and shape as the bottle.
The snapper up rubs the jagged neck of the bottle on a piece of
sheet iron and then inserts the bottle, still in the snap, into the u glory
hole," or reheating furnace, the neck of the bottle just touching the
flame.
When the neck has been heated sufficiently to make it workable,
the bottle is taken out of the glory hole. With his left hand the
finisher rolls the handle of the snap on the horizontal arm of his
bench, and with his right hand he finishes the neck of the bottle by
means of a tool, one part of which, inserted in the neck, opens it out
and the other part, a pair of hinged jaws, makes the lip as the bottle
is turned.
Three men, constituting "a shop," usually work together, two of
them gathering the glass and blowing the bottle and the third finishing
the neck. The three may interchangeably perform these operations.
The carry-in boy then takes the bottles to the leer for annealing.
In some factories the bottles are taken to the leer by a mechanically-
operated, or automatic, conveyor.
(For a description of the blowing machine and the automatic
bottle machine see p. 63. For a description of the flowing device,
which does away with hand gathering and which is employed in the
manufacture of bottles and jars, see p. 64.)
TABLEWARE.
Though a large quantity of tableware is blown or made in paste-
mold machines, a great portion of the production is made by a pressing
process, in which the article takes its form from a mold under the
MATERIALS, MACHINERY, ANT>% PROCESSES. 73
pressure of a plunger, the exterior surface modeled by the mold, the
interior surface by the plunger. Sometimes ware is ground and
polished in order to enhance its appearance. -«4
Pressed tableware. In making pressed tumblers, dishes, nappies,
jugs, tankards, goblets, vases, etc. (these article- may also be blown),
the gatherer gathers his "moil" of glass jusl as in hand blowing and
suspends the lump of glass immediately above the mold of the sta-
tionary press or the revolving mold of the rotary press, which is of
the pattern of the desired article. As the soft glass drops into the
mold the presser cuts off the exact amount with shears. The presser
then pulls down the lever, which causes the plunger to descend and
pre— the plastic glass to the pattern of the mold. The descent of
the plunger is sometimes automatic.
The ware is then lire polished by being put into the glory hole (on
an iron pontee) w where it is heated sufficiently to melt out the mold
marks on the surface of the glass article, after which it is buffed into
shape again by a finisher using wooden tools. The finisher either
restores the article to its original shape as given by the mold, or he
rubs the top out to form a bell shape or rubs it in to form a barrel
shape. After this process the article is annealed.
Plain jelly tumblers, commonly designated "unfinished/' are an-
nealed at once after removal from molds. Such articles are used
mostly for packing purposes.
In many of the better grades of pressed ware the rough and uneven
bottoms are ground down on a flat revolving stone to remove the
marks of the pontee rod. This process follows annealing. (For a
description of the pressing machine see p. 64.)
Blanks for cut glass are pressed for the cheaper grades and hand
blown for the better grades. Cheap pressed glass is made to imitate
good cut glass by molding the facets instead of cutting them and
sharpening the angles.
Paste-mold blowing. — Practically all blown tableware is blown in a
paste mold, an iron mold coated on the inside with a paste of carbon
or other greasy coating, which is kept moist so that the glass when
blown will not touch the mold itself. Such contact would result in
roughening or crinkling of the glass. The blower gathers his "moil"
of glass and proceeds as in ordinary blowing, except that as he blows
he constantly rotates his pipe, so that the ridges formed where the
two halves in the mold come together and other mold irregularities
will not make an impression on the ware. The mold is opened and
closed mechanically by the blower's foot. Only ware of a round
shape, which can be rotated in the mold, can be made in a paste mold.
Paste-mold ware, it is claimed, is much better than iron-mold ware
and can be made finer and more delicate.
The blown ware is then taken out of the mold and a helper knocks
it off the pipe. It is then carried to the leer for annealing, after which
it goes to the finishing department. In the case of a tumbler,
finishing consists in cracking off the top of the tumbler, where it has
been broken from the pipe, by means of a special flat blowpipe (lame
or electrically heated wire, and grinding and glazing the top of the
tumbler. Some ware is ground without glazing and other ware is
only glazed.
In the making of cheap wine glasses and goblets, the body is blown
in a paste mold. After the body of the glass has been knocked off
74 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
it goes to the finisher, who, receiving from a boy a thread of hot
glass on a pipe, attaches one end of the thread to the body and cuts
off the other end from the pipe with shears. With a tool he works
this thread into the stem, to the free end of which is attached another
"moil" of glass, which he works, with tools, into the foot or base.
(For a description of machine paste-mold blowing see p. 63.)
LIGHTING GOODS.
Lighting glassware is divided, as to qualities, into translucent,
semitranslucent, and opaque glass. Translucent glasses in general
use include ordinary crystal glass and plain, decorated, and colored
glasses of all colors, shades, and tints. Semitranslucent glass is glass
in which the opacity is given by visible particles of opaque matter
seemingly suspended in a crystal glass. This class .of glass is repre-
sented by a series of trade-named glasses, of which the "Alba" glass
was the first. Opaque glasses are either opal, plated opal, or opal
with a dense colored covering. Lighting glassware is made either by
blowing or by pressing.
Blown glass. — -In blown goods the articles are either handmade
(blown offhand) or are blown in a mold, the mold being either an
iron mold or a paste mold. In all blown glassware the blowpipe is
used as a gathering rod.
The gatherer gathers the requisite amount of glass on the head of
the blowpipe by dipping it into the molten metal through the mouth
of the pot. The treatment after the first gathering depends upon
the method of blowing that is to be employed. If the article is
handmade (blown offhand), it is manipulated entirely by hand,
without the use of a mold, by the gatherer, blocker, and finisher.
If the article is blown in an iron mold, there is usually no additional
glass gathered, but after the gather has been uniformly distributed
it is placed just above an iron mold, which is of the design of the glass
desired, and the glass is blown usually by the blower and not by com-
Eressed air. If the article is to be blown in a paste mold, a small
all of glass is gathered on which a sufficient additional quantity is
gathered to make the article desired. Generally only plain articles
that can be turned in the mold are blown in a paste mold.
Pressed glass. — Pressed glass is stamped out by a machine operated
either by power or by a hand lever.
Decoration.— Lighting glassware is ornamented by sand blasting,
etching, cutting, paintmg, or by a combination of these methods,
some of which are very expensive. In the decalcomania process the
desired design is printed on paper, and, after it has been put on the
glass, the paper is rubbed off, leaving on the glass only the design
traced in acid-resisting ink. The part of the glass not included in
the design is then covered with paraffin to resist the acid when the
ware is given an acid bath. The acid attacks the uncovered design.
Lamp chimneys. — Lamp chimneys are blown offhand without the
aid of molds, in a paste mold, or made by machine.
Incandescent lamps. — Glass bulbs for incandescent lamps are blown
either in a paste mold or by a machine. The principal parts of an
incandescent lamp are the glass bulb, the base, the filament, the
inside stem upon which the filament is mounted, and the leading-in
wires passing through the stem and connecting the filament with the
MATERIALS, MACHINERY, AND PROCESSES. 75
Some 50 different and distinct operations, with an equal
number of additional handlings for inspection, are necessary in the
practical manufacture of lamps.
The first step in the manufacture of an incandescent lamp is the
E reparation of the bulb. As received from the glass works, the bulb
as considerable superfluous glass at the neck, which has to be cut off.
The process of making the lamp consists first of melting a hole in the
rounded end of the bulb. The exhaust tube is then welded to the
bulb at this point, care being taken to maintain a free air passage
so that later the air may be pumped out through this tube.
C3 The tubulated bulb is then placed over the completed mount, both
being held in their proper relative positions. JBunsen flames are
applied at the neck of the bulb, and both the bulb and mount are
rotated slowly until the neck of the bulb is "welded to the flare of the
stem tube. The seal thus formed at the neck of the bulb must be
absolutely air-tight.
[ The exhaust tube is then connected to a vacuum pump and all
air exhausted from the lamp. At the same time this is done the lamp
is inclosed in an oven heated to a high temperature. After the air
is exhausted the tube is removed and the lamp is sealed, this operation
forming the tip which everyone has noticed on incandescent lamps.
The lamp is then based. One of the leading-in wires is brought
down through and soldered to a cap at the end of the base. This
cap is insulated from the shell by black glass. The other leading-in
wire is soldered to the brass shell, and the lamp is completed.
In a newer type of lamp the bulb, after being exhausted, is filled
with an inert gas, such as nitrogen. The presence of this gas retards
the evaporation of the filament and permits its operation at a much
higher temperature and hence with much greater efficiency.
CHAPTER II.
CAPITAL, NET SALES, AND TTJENOVEE.
While data regarding the cost of pruduction in the glass industry
were obtained from 213 establishments, capital employed in business
is shown, in the following tables, for only 211 establishments, as 2
did not report this item.
OPERATING AND FINAL PROFIT.
Table 20, which follows, shows the amount of capital employed in
business by each group of the 211 establishments reporting, the net
sales and their ratio to capital, the operating profit when deprecia-
tion and interest on current loans are considered and when not con-
sidered, and the final profit when these items are considered.
The operating profit was found by adding the cost of goods pro-
duced, the selling expense, and the cost of finished goods purchased,
and from this sum. deducting any increase in the stock of goods
during the year or adding any decrease in the stock of goods; the
deduction or addition of the difference in inventories, in each in-
stance, gave the cost to the manufacturer of goods sold, which figure
subtracted from the net sales gave the operating profit. The opera-
ting profit with depreciation and interest not considered was, of
course, larger than with these items taken into account.
Of the 213 establishments, only 102 charged off depreciation, 109
did not show depreciation on their books, and 2 plants were rented.
Before final profit or operating profit with depreciation and interest
on current loans charged was arrived at, the average rate of deprecia-
tion of establishments that actually charged depreciation in each
group was applied to establishments in that group which did not
charge depreciation.
What is called the final profit was found by adding to the operating
profit (computed with depreciation and interest on current loans
considered) the miscellaneous income from real estate, bank bal-
ances, or investments outside the manufacturing business and
deducting miscellaneous expenses.
Salaries of active officers and the drawing accounts of individual
owners or partners were included in the cost of production before
profits or losses were figured. Also, before profits or losses were
computed, all expenses for selling were included in the cost of pro-
duction.
Each of the 13 groups shows an operating profit when deprecia-
tion and interest on current loans are not taken into consideration;
when they are considered, Group X, embracing 20 establishments
manufacturing blown and pressed tableware, shows an operating
loss.
76
- -
CAPITAL, NET SALES, AND TURNOVER.
1
77
Jss
i S3 - -* - .■
gg
o
r='-fi:2fe = 55S£355
2r 2 =
g&ll
I* -a —
5-3.- !
3iS
^^i^~
r r r r. - r — - .-. -m - -
- - - : : s. — ■ - • - -z. m m '^ ? - <
. re — ■ '-'. j- re r — x — ~ ei -
: re -r e- i <*? » e cT -c" — ' x * c" — :
^^^jr-^y >. — irr i —
< »e -r x c. x r- re -r -.c
iitoocow
-:»-: = x/-:
~ r: 2 -
° >.;>■.>.
s ~ — - -
SsSB
^h:>
g p
«?«r 1, 1 °
0/ O 6/ .5 o
33u3S
fe & C ° —
o a ••(3 — ~
ooo£«s._-:-
a
I
3 5
c 5
Sg
osro
78 XB3 5LASE ILITSrZT.
pes - ::: : :aPITal a:
2 -
of dep:
- I both on
: a - sales . sh : _ ~ in tl
groups ?tab]i=
Tabis 2L — Average 7z: :: :: 7 i ? ' :-z ::. 45i 7::\-.i Phopfs : Zawtas,
& :i.vy: .-.: rx : L~z: ; ^::^ by Shocks :j ^s:^:z;i:
•-
- -.-
"
- --
- "
Z. 7t
.
*M
g
_ .:
: - i
1 -:
Z. -.-
-
SB. 19
■ -
•
- :.:
-
■ -
-
- "
.
_ -
-- --■■
'
D
--
::.:;
.
i
5. ! a
; ok -r
As the capital tnraovei varies - t.
different groups :: V- - -
based ! cmrltjrt in :=: =s :tt: :rt :"_ -
varies j Urns _ ting de-
tion and interest on cun
>... — - : : 211 - - andonn:
hshnxiiets. _"_ :ed be-
tween the final profit - capital employee in " 15 per cent,
- 5.1 per cent,
op \ I i I establishments mannfacturing misceHaneons pre
r c-ett: :: ~:: - - S
ss. !■: ! : ent folio 1 IX I wn I
" - 1 lighting g Is with 10.34 pel I - I - "
VI, bottles made by maehir r -
highest per cent jfit based on net sales. 11.3 t :
by Grot XJ ghting goods
. .19 per ceni a. :tt_:
roups I and II shows that the average per-
jes of profits n siderably higher for handmade window
CAPITAL, NET SALES, AND TURNOVER.
79
than for machine-made window glass. On the other hand, a
comparison of Groups V and VI shows the converse to be true, the
establishments making bottles by machinery showing considerably
average percentages o( profits than those in which bottles are
blown by hand. However, 3 s q by Table — . the hand plants.
in both window gla<s and bottle, show a greater capital turnover
than the machine establishments in these lines.
PROFIT OR LOSS OF EACH ESTABLISHMENT.
Table 22, which follows, shows for each individual establishment,
as well as for each of the 13 groups, operating profit, when deprecia-
tion and interest on current loan- are considered and when not consid-
ered, on capital employed in business and on net sales: and final
protit, when depreciation and interest on current loans are considered,
on capital and on net sales.
Table 22. — Percentage of Operating~and Final Profit on Capital Employed
and on Net Sales, by Groups and by Establishments.
Establishments.
Operating profit.
Computed without
depreciation and
On On
capital, net sales.
Computed with
depreciation and
interest.
Final profit,
depreciation and
interest considered.
On On On On
capital, net sales, capital, net sales.
Group I.— Window glass by
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
N0.6 -^....
No. 7
No. 8
No. 9
No. 10
No. 11
No. 12
No. 13
No. 14
No. 15
No. 16
No. 17
No. (8
No. 19
No. 20
No. 21
No. 22
No. 23
No. 24
No. 25
No. 26
No. 27
No. 28
No. 29
No. 30
No. 31
No. 32
No. 33
No. 34
No. 35
No. 36
No. 37
24.63
4.13
ao.33
39.19
11.27
6.23
13.44
1.05
14.24
12.48
10.42
15. 07
25. 56
15. 52
34.14
5.74
2S.09
12.00
a 2. 92
13.33
-.71
6.69
12.09
1.64
8.SS
10.32
8.06
11.79
5.62
14.25
14.34
7.47
14.73
5.74
10.50
«9.74
a 13. 15
35.04
7.44
1.22
7.91
. 1.)
25.56
9.06
29.70
.76
25.24
26. 53
5.11
a 29. 11
o7.22
11.92
5.75
1.31
7. 12
olO.Ol
5.96
5.19
3.68
7.55
5.62
13.23
4.92
9. 84
o9.74
O13.02
35.04
7.44
1.22
7.91
a 6. 39
9.55
6.01
4.76
9.65
26.49
9.06
29.70
.76
26. 2S
26. 53
4.79
o29.ll
o7.15
11.92
5.75
1.31
a 10! 01
5.96
4.97
7! 55
5. S3
S.32
12. 48
13.77
4.92
Average.
30. 24
4.97
7.64
1.25
7.64
1.25
4.61
2.91
a. 96
a. 60
o.96 ,
a. 60
10.69
6.31
2.12
1.25
2.12
1.25
37. 72
12.65
28.60
9.59
2S.60
9.59
19.27
14. 55
13.00
9.82
13. OS
9.88
13.27
8.87
4. 38
2.93
4.38
2. 93
11.50
"- •
6.13
4.26
7.69
5.33
1.63
1.30
.05
.04
1.42
1.13
7.41
4.57
o7.99
4.91
o7.21
4.43
11.39
7.95
5.97
4.16
11.68
8.15
21.07
15.36
18.66
13.60
19.21
14.00
12.32
4.S9
2.48
4.89
21.10
14.82
17. 85
16.55
16.13
11.62
16.05
16.72
16.30
11.71
17.93
16.22
10.39
3.65
8.12
a 2. 85
o8.12
7.96
9.93
4.44
5.54
4.44
5.54
21.16
11.98
12.94
7.33
13.18
7.46
14.40
7.13
11.07
5.48
11.07
5.48
12. 3s
10.37
9.92
S.30
10.14
8.49
12.65
9.34
7.22
5.33
7.59
5.60
80
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 22. — Percentage of Operating and Final Profit on Capital Employed
and on Net Sales, by Groups and by Establishments — Continued.
hsliiblislm.cnl.v
Operating profit.
Computed without Computed with
depreciation and depreciation i
interest. interest.
On On
capital, net sales.
Pinal profit,
depreciation and
interest considered.
On On
capital, net sales.
On On
capital, net s
Group II.— "Window uhiss by nwcliin."
No. 38
No. 39
No. 40
No. 41
No. 42
No. 43
No. 44
No. 45
No. 46
No. 47
No. 48
No. 49
Average
Group III.— Plate glass:
No. 50
No. 51
No. 52
No. 53
No. 54
No. 55
Average
Group IV.— Wire and opalescent glass
No. 56 ,
No. 57
No. 58
No. 59 ,
No. 60
No. 61
No.6?
No. 63
No. 64
Average
Group V.— Bottles by hand:
No. 05
No. 66
No. 67
No. 68
No. 69
No. 70
No. 71
No. 72
No. 73
No. 74
No. 75
No. 76
No. 77
No. 78
No. 79
No. 80
No. SI
No. 82
No. 83
No. 84
No. 85
No. 86
No. 87
No. 88
No. 89
No. 90
Average
a 15.
a 20.
a 3.
oil.
a 15.
6.48
3.32
12.69
2.64
8.32
6.15
4.14
24.97
5.11
12.09
13.SU
4.62
a 6. 01
6.00
o2.36
2.76
a 1.34
6.05
11.93
2.09
a 7. 75
21.73
20. 95
15.73
37.95
a 6. 44
7.88
a 18. 45
28.88
11.08
23.47
18.66
o 12. 90
16.71
11.19
a 10. 18
20.45
15.23
13. 83
30.73
a 8. 17
14.17
1.12
10.29
1.85
2.22
9.72
1.73
a 19. 03
1.7S
4.08
a 8. 38
8.55
7.71
9.07
7.35
17.55
15.28
34.51
a 1.76
2.88
12.94
25.00
22.47
(*)
7.55
a 3. 73
6.01
14.29
15.38
7.47
14. 08
1.13
a 27. 42
1.03
2.10
a 6. 35
6.17
5.52
13.99
4.41
8.21
11.89
10.84
a 1. 39
1.14
4.60
13.90
6.65
5.97
5.25
8.24
8.47
4.39
a. 45
a. 13
a 3. 24
123.03
a. 20
a 1. 94
i 12. 96
3.50
4.32
6.78
.65
16.35
13.65
34.51
a 6. 54
ol.41
6.87
21.83
14.43
( b )
1.30
a 13. 51
3.74
11.33
9.24
2.77
a4.40
20.02
a 3. 14
6.55
14.58
4.91
10.25
16.53
2.33
2.37
a 2. 15
9.45
2.97
O7.50
11.80
o4.55
4.00
4.62
i6.01
6.00
tl.90
3.04
o.83
4.14
a 14. 63
24.22
27.18
8.05
20.64
15.11
ol6.37
13.31
4.37
o3.86
o 10. 18
20.45
15.23
14.42
30.73
a 7. 98
14.17
1.42
2.11
a 1. 53
o.l8
a 2. 11
a 33. 19
a. 11
a 1.00
o9.83
2.53
3.09
10.46
.39
7.65
10.62
10.84
a 5. 17
a.56
2.44
12.13
4.27
o.95
1.14
o4.94
3.26
6.53
5.09
2.66
o.45
o.l3
o 3. 24
» 22. 79
.61
a 1.94
U2.70
3.85
8.43
6.78
.65
23.93
14.11
34.51
o4.18
a 1.41
5.14
21.83
14.43
CO
1.30
a 13. 51
3.69
12.81
9.52
3.26
2.1
<=3.
a LOSS.
Capital not reported. • e Exclusive of 1 establishment not reporting capital.
CAPITAL. NET SALES, AND TURNOVER.
81
Table 22. — Percentage of Operating and Final Profit on Capital Employed
and on Net Sales, by Groups and by Establishments — Continued.
Operating profit.
Establishments.
Computed without
depreciation and
interest.
Computed with
depreciation and
interest.
depreciation and
interest considered.
On
capital.
On
net sales.
On
capital.
On
net sales.
On
capital.
On
net sales.
Group VI.— Bottles by machine:
No. 91
a. 76
15.01
12.61
15.93
.59
10.13
4.20
a 4. 31
19.18
14.76
17.81
20.94
21.30
12.33
15.77
4.59
8.90
10.07
a. 54
8.02
17.45
22.96
3.83
11.41
29.03
a 1.82
24.51
13.31
17.90
19.12
24.39
13.13
24.76
16.63
21.88
8.41
all.73 o8.31
1.81 2.5S
6.52 9.02
<■.. H 9. 27
.36 2.35
1.70 1.91
33. 45 23. 13
13.94 05.90
11.71 14.97
7.24 6.53
14.89 14.97
12.37 • 11.30
18.18 20.82
10.11 in 77
011.73
4.81
6.52
6.44
o.l5
1.70
33. 45
ol5. 87
11.91
8.78
14.97
14. 26
18.93
11.19
9.91
4.09
8.46
7.67
8.31
2.58
No. 92
No. 93
No. 94
9.27
a.97
1.91
23.13
No. 95
No. 96
No. 97
No. 98
No. 99
No. 100
No. 101....
No. 102
No. 103
No. 104
No. 105
9.91
4.25
8.52
6.15
15.55
15.39
20.96
5.13
15.55
No.106....
No. 107....
10.32
15.07
7.39
10.79
7.74
Group VII.— Bottles by hand and machine:
No. 109
19.88
11.07
7.13
13.50
10.37
a 8. 76
10.61
2.16
.55
19.18
.10
3.18
2.27
.68
a 7. 69
16.84
25.24
a 17. 78
8.83
5.98
!20
o 18. 53
14.86
29.94
14.72
- 6.87
10.73
4.56
9.68
7.78
12.74
a 10. 41
7.73
2.94
.61
9.22
«.19
2.73
.74
1.05
O7.01
6.13
13.36
o7.58
5.62
8.55
13. 35
.19
a 14. 14
9.15
15.58
16.76
7.21
8.34
a 4. 23
o.47
10.07
5.68
4. 36
3.29
O2.20
12.50
08. 62
a 5. 36
a.4S
02. 65
10. 17
10.83
15.18
28. 96
2. S3
1.10
19.58
ol. 96
O27.90
1.94
25.66
12.57
4.50
a 1.74
o.63
5.80
ols!61
3.17
o4.47
o2.41
6.01
ol6.21
04. 61
a.16
Q4.09
o9.26
3.94
8.03
a 12. 35
1.58
7.98
al.S6
a 21. 29
7.36
13.36
14.31
5.65
8.31
a 4. 23
a.25
10.07
5.68
15. 61
4.36
o2.33
ol.7o
12.50
a 5. 00
04. 98
a. 48
o2. 65
0. 72
10.83
15. 42
25.22
2.83
1.10
21.91
o.94
O21.00
12.11
27.48
12.57
4.64
No. 110
No. 111.
No. 112
No. 113
6.98
No. 114
o IS. 53
No. 115
3.18
o3.17
No. 117
"1.93
No. 119
9.41
No. 120. .
No. 121
a.16
No. 122
"4.09
No. 123
a. 65
No. 124
3.94
No. 12.">
No. 126....
al0.75
No. 127
1.S0
No. 128
No. 129
1.58
8.93
No. 130....
No. 131
16. 02
7.46
No. 133....
14.30
No. 134
14.31
4.87
6.55
5.71
2.27
1.98
3.07
2.68
Group VIII.— Jars:
No. 136
7.71
34.60
4.26
8.27
6.94
31.20
13.76
6.15
9.15
13.95
a2.51
13.37
10.01
8.50
22.20
15.99
10.46
4.62
14.74
7.17
3.83
14.71
9.85
a 2. 03
11.34
12.87
3.00
29.85
a4.90
.97
.66
27.94
9.67
.15
3.27
6.07
o5. 56
10.71
7.88
3.31
19.14
ol. 84
1.23
o.44
13.20
5.03
.33
5.26
4.29
Q4.49
9.08
10.14
3.00
29.85
a 4. 46
2.98
0.66
27.94
9.67
2.55
4.86
6.07
o4.65
11.62
8.79
3.31
No.137
19.14
. No. 138
a 1.68
No. 139
3.76
No.140
a. 44
No. 141
13.20
5.03
No.143
5.74
No. 144
7.81
No. 145
4.29
No. 146
o3.75
No. 147
9.85
11.31
9.02
9.16
4.97
5.04
6.04
6.13
102511°— 17-
82
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 22. — Percentage op Operating and Final Profit on Capital Employed
and on Net Sales, by Groups and by Establishments — Continued.
Operating profit.
Establishments.
Computed without
depreciation and
interest.
Computed with
depreciation and
interest.
depreciation and
interest considered.
On
capital.
On
net sales.
On
capital.
On
net sales.
On
capital.
On
net sales.
Group IX.— Tableware, blown:
No. 149
3.87
8.02
37.12
11.99
11.00
9.05
9.88
23.88
5.28
6.11
16.86
6.24
8.82
10.70
11.49
21.50
.86
3.86
30.43
1.05
7.19
5.62
6.55
21.60
1.18
2.94
13.82
.54
5.77
6.65
7.61
19.45
.86
3.87
30.43
1.05
7.19
5.78
6.58
21.60
1.18
No. 150
2.95
No. 151
13.82
No. 152
.54
No. 153
5.77
No. 154
6.84
No. 155
7.65
No. 156....
19.45
14.06
12.69
10.30
9.29
10.34
9.33
Group X.— Tableware, blown and pressed:
No.157
11.85
5.67
a 3. 28
7.66
a 3. 18
5.95
14.' 45
6.20
9.78
33.76
a 2. 07
25.36
13.26
3.80
3.17
11.50
1.04
5.31
5.34
10.33
9.71
a 6. 76
7.21
5.81
6.17
a 12. 99
11.38
3.60
9.44
11.35
2.01
20.81
7.19
4.34
2.61
10.89
1.80
2.58
3.91
7.70
i.75
a 9.91
4.44
a 10.95
4.26
a 30. 89
10.38
a 2. 93
2.53
29.26
a 7. 56
14.67
8.75
2.09
a 2. 86
7.31
a 5. 65
1.83
1.34
6.71
a 1.29
a 20. 43
4.18
a 20. 04
4.41
al7.54
8.18
a 1.70
2.45
9.83
o7.34
12.04
4.74
2.39
i2.36
6.92
19.72
!98
7.70
o.75
o9. 91
10! 95
4.26
o 30. 89
6.71
No. 158
ol.29
No. 159
1 20. 43
No. 160
5.06
No. 161
a 20. 04
No. 162
4.41
No. 163
17. 54
No. 164
10.80
8. 50
No.165
. 06 1 . 03
No. 166 ,
2.53 | 2.45
No. 167
29. 26 : 9. 83
No. 168
1 7. 56 o 7. 34
No. 169 ,
14.77 1 12.13
No.170
9.58 ! 5.19
No.171
2.33 2.67
No. 173
8.23 1 7.80
No. 174
No. 175
1.83 j .89
No. 176
1.98 1.45
5.23
4.96
a. 16
o.l5
.11 .11
No. 177
.34
17.85
7.38
27.30
3.87
9.97
18.92
29.66
20.24
9.07
8.35
32.94
3.46
1.53
(P)
40.37
21.34
15.46
.15
9.80
10.89
11.02
4.75
14.45
14.54
18.76
16.79
10.72
2.51
10.70
4.86
6.29
9.75
21.42
24.44
13. 67
a 10. 61
3.26
1.40
14.11
a 7. 39
7.62
15.68
23.88
17.20
5.64
3.71
21.47
1.42
a.08
(6)
38.02
18.07
11.14
a 4. 80
1.79
2.07
5.70
i9.06
11.05
12.06
15.11
14.27
6.67
1.11
6.97
2.00
a.31
i2.86
20.18
20.70
9.85
6. 67
3.26
2.04
14.11
17.39
7.86
16.21
o3.02
No. 178
1.79
No.179
3.01
No. 180
5.70
No. 181
o9. 06
11.40
No. 183
12 46
No. 184
24.67 j 15.61
No. 185
No. 186
6.42 | 7.59
No. 187
3.71 1 1.11
No. 188
23.09 7.50
No. 189
1.42 2.00
No. 190
. 08 . 35
No. 191 ,
(&) 12.86
No. 192
40. 10 21. 28
No. 193
18.47
12.63
21.15
No. 194
11.17
c 13. 19
14.05
<=9.64
. 9.59
c 10. 25
10.19
Group XII.— Lamp chimneys:
No. 195
29.94
a 13. 11
31.44
20.38
24.43
4.52
7.20
10.88
15.54
5.27
11.07
3.22
27.51
o 19. 27
27.07
18.82
15.52
1.20
6.62
15. 99
13.38
4.87
7.03
.85
27.51
19. 27
27. 18
18.82
15.95
1.07
No. 197
13.43
No. 198 ,
4.87
No. 199
7.23
No. 200
8.88
5.27
4.91
2.91
4.86
2.89
b Capital not reported.
Exclusive of 1 establishment not reporting capital.
CAPITAL, NET SALES, AND TURNOVER.
83
Table 22. — Percentage of Operating an t d Final Profit on Capital Employed
and on Net Sales, by Groups and by Establishments —t'micluded.
Operating profit.
Establishments.
Computed without
depreciation and
interest.
Computed with
depreciation and
interest.
depreciation and
interest considered.
On
capital.
On
net sales.
On
capital.
On
net sales.
On
capital.
On
net sales.
Group XUL— Miscellaneous articles:
No. 201
22.61
13. 74
10.01
22.13
40.45
4.21
10.58
17.11
18.05
11.42
6.73
19.08
23.38
251. 71
25.69
2.86
15.04
18.76
19.14
16.12
13.45
32.30
3.50
7.11
14.75
9.80
18.64
5.87
3.05
15.37
16.37
6.12
9.34
5.88
18.05
11. 12
7.22
19.09
23.38
251. 71
3^24
15.06
18.76
19.64
16.12
13. OS
No. 202
No. 203
No. 204
3.50
7.63
14.76
No. 205
34.48 14.44
263. 20 19. 49
38.31 , 8.75
10.23 10.92
17.22 17.59
20.81 18.15
22.61 7.23
23.49 13.61
26.84 11.52
9.80
No. 206
18.64
No. 207
5.87
No. 208
3.46
No. 209
15.38
No. 210
No. 211
No. 212
16.37
6.28
9.34
No. 213
5.98
Average
22.52 f 12.84
15.48
8.90
15.64
S.98
NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS SHOWING PROFIT OR LOSS.
The following table is a summary of the preceding table and shows
for each group of establishments the number having operating profits
and the number having operating losses (depreciation and interest
on current loans considered and not considered) on capital employed
in business and on net sales, and also the number having final profits
or losses (depreciation and interest on current loans considered).
Table 23. — Number of Establishments Having Operating and Final Profits
or Losses.
Establishments making-
Groups.
"BdSjSBK" After allowance lor clepreciation and
and interest. interest.
Operat-
ing
profit.
Operat-
ing
loss.
Operat-
ing
profit.
Operat-
ing
loss.
Final
profit.
Final
loss.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
35
9
6
7
22
16
22
12
8
16
18
5
13
2
3
2
4
2
5
1
4
1
31
3
6
16
16
14
10
8
12
14
5
13
6
5
3
3
10
2
13
3
8
4
1
31
7
3
6
16
15
It
10
g
12
11
13
6
Window glass by machine
5
3
Wire and opalescent glass
3
10
3
Bottles by hand and machine. .
13
3
Tableware, blown and pressed. .
8
4
1
Total. .
189
24
155
58
154
59
The preceding table shows that of 213 establishments Reporting,
depreciation and interest not considered, 1S9 had operating profits
84
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
and 24 operating losses. When depreciation and interest are consid-
ered, 155 establishments had operating profits and 58 operating losses
and 154 establishments had final profits and 59 final losses. Over 27
per -cent of the 213 establishments from which data were secured
showed a final loss.
Group IX, blown tableware, and Group XIII, miscellaneaous arti-
cles, are the only groups which do not include establishments showing
losses.
Of the establishments making bottles by hand, Group V, over 38
per cent had a final loss; of those making bottles by machine, Group
VI, over 16 per cent; and of the establishments making bottles by
hand and machine, Group VII, over 48 per cent.
A much higher percentage of establishments in Group II, window
glass made by machine, show a final loss than is shown by establish-
ments in Group I, window glass made by hand.
VARIATIONS IN PROFITS AND LOSSES.
Of the establishments in the 13 groups, depreciation and interest
on current loans considered, the highest percentage of operating profit
on capital employed (251.71 per cent) is shown by an establishment
in Group XIII, making miscellaneous articles of glass, and the great-
est percentage of operating loss on capital employed (30.89 per cent)
is shown by an establishment in Group X, making blown and pressed
tableware.
Depreciation and interest on current loans considered, the highest
percentage of operating profit on net sales (32.34 per cent) was also
made by an establishment in Group XIII, manufacturing miscella-
neous articles of glass, and the greatest percentage of operating loss
(33.19 per cent) was made by an establishment in Group V, manufac-
turing bottles by hand.
The following table shows, in percentages, the highest final profit
and greatest final loss by any establishment in each group and the
average profit for the group based on capital employed and on net
sales, depreciation, and interest on current loans considered and mis-
cellaneous income and outgo included:
Table 24. — Highest and Average Percentage of Final Profit and Greatest
Percentage op Loss on Capital Employed and on Net Sales, by Groups of
Establishments.
Establishments making-
Window glass by hand
Window udass bv machine
Plate glass
Wire and opalescent goods
Bottles by hand
Bottles by machine
Bottles by hand and machine . .
Jars
Tableware, blown
Tableware, blown and pressed..
Lighting goods
Lam [i chimneys
Miscellaneous articles
Group.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
On capital.
Highest Average Greatest
profit. profit. loss.
35.04
16.53
6.00
30.73
34.51
33.45
27.48
29.85
30.43
29.26
40. 10
27.51
251.71
2.97
4.14
2.11
3.82
7.74
3.07
6.04
10.34
.11
10.25
4.86
15.64
13.02
20.02
6.01
10.18
22.79
15.87
25.22
4.65
a. 86
30.89
7.39
19.27
a 3. 24
Highest Average Greatest
profit. profit. loss.
16.22
10.21
11.80
27.18
12.13
23.13
14.31
19.14
19.45
12.13
21.28
13.43
32.30
5.60
2.76
.82
5.68
2.65
11.30
2.68
6.13
9.33
.11
10.19
2.89
29.11
15.36
7.50
24.22
32.84
8.31
18.53
3.75
a. 54
20.43
9.06
15.99
a 3. 46
a Lowest profit; no establishments in this group shows a :
CAPITAL, NET SALES, AND TUENOVER. 85
TURNOVER OF CAPITAL.
Capital in the various branches of the glass industry is not turned
over rapidly. In the 211 establishments for which capital employed
in business was reported, 'Fable 20 shows that the average turnover,
or the ratio of net sales to capital, was as S8 to 100. In other words,
the capital was I nine. I over less than once during the course of a year's
business. The table indicates that the amount of capital required to
finance some glass factories is greater than the amount of net sales.
Comparing Group I with Group II, it is seen that the average turn-
over of ban I window-glass factories was greater than in the case of
machine window-glass factories. A comparison of Groups V with VI
shows, likewise, that the average turnover of hand bottle factories was
greater than in the case of machine bottle factories.
The greatest average turnover by groups in order was in the manu-
facture of miscellaneous articles: lamp chimneys; bottles by hand;
window glass by hand; bottles by hand and machine; tableware,
blown; window glass by machine: and tableware, blown and pressed.
In all of these groups the average sales exceeded the average capital
employed. Groups in which the net sales were less than the capital, in
the order of the largest turnover to the smallest, was in the manufac-
ture of jars, lighting goods, bottles by machine, plate glass, and wire
and opalescent glass.
The 1914 Census of Manufactures of the United States gives the
value of the product of 348 establishments in the glass industrv as
$123,085,019 and the capital invested as $153,925,876, a ratio of prod-
uct to capital as 80 to 100.
CHAPTER III.
DEPRECIATION OF PIANT AND EQUIPMENT.
IMPORTANCE OF THE CHARGES.
The importance of considering depreciation as an element of cost
to be charged to operating expense or deducted from income is recog-
nized by practically all accountants. Many establishments believing
that they were conducting a profitable business have found themselves
facing financial ruin because the importance of providing for a depre-
ciation reserve was not recognized.
The invention of new and more efficient machinery necessitates
the scrapping of obsolete equipment. Very frequently glass plants
are compelled to move to different locations on account of a shortage
off natural gas. These elements of hazard are incidental to industry
and must be guarded against by reserves or sinking funds. Unless
they are taken into consideration, no cost or accounting system is
scientifically accurate or safe.
The amount or percentage and the method to be employed in
charging depreciation is a mooted question. Little doubt exists,
however, that systematic provision must be made for it in order to
arrive at the accurate state of affairs of any manufacturing business.
The value of buildings, machines, and other equipment deteriorate
from many causes — from use, abuse, accident, obsolescence, etc. In
an article on the subject of depreciation appearing in the new American
Handbook for Electrical Engineers, written by Wm. A. Del Mar,
some of the factors that affect depreciation are defined as follows:
Deterioration. — Any change in a property due to wear and tear or the ravages of the
elements which tends to impair either its usefulness or its life.
Loss of useful association. — Any change in the associations of a property •which tends
to impair its usefulness or its life.
Obsolescence. — A loss of commercial ability in any property due to the advent of
superior substitutes.
Inadequacy. — Loss of commercial utility in a property due to its inability to meet
increased business conditions.
While it is possible to estimate quite accurately how much should
be charged for wear and tear, it is impossible to do so for the elements
of obsolescence and the like. It requires an "insurance" or reserve
fund to overcome this industrial hazard.
VARIOUS METHODS EMPLOYED.
There is no uniform practice as to the percentage of original cost
to be charged off for depreciation. The "straight-line depreciation"
consists of estimating the expected life of a machine and charging
depreciation each year according to the percentage found by dividing
the original cost by the number of years estimated. Estimating a
certain percentage of depreciation each year, figuring this amount
every year after the first on the depreciated or net value of the
machine, is also frequently employed. Another method is that of
charging the amount of depreciation to a reserve account or sinking
fund.
The crude and inaccurate method of lumping all property and
machinery and charging a uniform percentage of depreciation is
DEPRECIATION OF PLANT AND EQUIPMENT. 87
absolutely incorrect and can only lead to a false statement of values.
Some machinery and equipment must necessarily be treated dif-
ferently than others. The amount to be charged is largely a matter
of experience and sound business judgment. The hazardous element
of competition enters into the life of machinery and equipment as it
does in all branches of business and industry, and the wise business
man will insure himself against this factor.
To arrive at the proper amount of depreciation it is essential to
provide for a detailed inventory of the value of buildings, machinery,
and equipment. It must also be recognized that no amount of
maintenance, repairs, or renewals can prevent depreciation. To argue
that such charges cover depreciation is inaccurate. The time will
arrive when a machine or even a building, regardless of the repairs
and renewals, will have to be scrapped, either because it is worn out
or obsolete or because of any of the other causes mentioned above.
Many manufacturers are in the habit of showing charges for depre-
ciation when profits are exceptionally high, neglecting to do so wnen
the business year shows a loss or only a small profit. This is fre-
quently done in order to show the business in a better light, when
applying for loans or commercial ratings. This method can not be
too strongly condemned. An accumulated charge for depreciation
covering several years should not be charged against the cost of
manufacturing or against surplus account of a single business year.
Depreciation differs in the different departments and therefore
should not be charged at a common rate for the whole establishment,
but the charge should be made at a proper rate for each department
separately.
Most manufacturers visited during this investigation paid little
attention to this subject. The books of many did not provide for
depreciation accounts. Out of 102 establishments reporting such
charges, only 35 charged depreciation separately on buildings and
machines and on different types of machines. The others charged
off lump sums without regard to the classification of the property.
In one instance an establishment charged off almost 50 per cent of
the value of the plant and equipment for one business year, an amount
which represented the accumulated depreciation for eight years.
Some of the statements made by manufacturers in answer to the
inquiry concerning depreciation are as follows :
We usually charge for depreciation, but profits must warrant it.
Five per cent annually if profits warrant; if not, no depreciation is charged for the
business year but is doubled in the following year.
Repair account is sufficient to cover depreciation.
Several of the establishments from which data were obtained pro-
vided accurate methods of charging depreciation. One of these classi-
fied its annual depreciation charges as follows:
Buildings: Percent.
Brick 4
Frame 4
Concrete 2$
Machines and tools:
Ordinary 10
Clay mixing, etc 20
Equipment (blowing rods, etc.) 10
Gas producers 10
Furniture and fixtures 10
Molds 10
88 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Of the 213 establishments reporting data, 109 did not provide for
depreciation charges, but in tabulating the schedules secured from
these 109 establishments depreciation was calculated on the average
percentage of depreciation reported by establishments in their
respective groups. This percentage was based on the total value of
the plant, including the land, which in some cases was not reported
separately from the buildings and equipment.
NEGLECT OF CHARGES BY GLASS-MAKING PLANTS.
The following table shows in detail the number of establishments
that charged and that did not charge depreciation, and the amounts
charged and estimated, by groups :
Table 25. — Value op Plants, Number of Establishments Charging Deprecia-
tion and Amount Charged, and Number Not Charging Depreciation, with
Estimated Amount, by Groups.
Establishments
manufacturing-
Group.
Number of establish-
Charg-
ing
riepre-
rial ion
Not
charg-
ing
depre-
ciation
Total
value of
land,
buildings,
and equip
Depreciation.
Charged.
Esti-
mated.
Per
cent of
value.
by
Window
hand .
Window glass by
machine
Plate glass
Wire and opalescent
Bottles by hand —
Bottles by machine.
Bottles "by hand
and machine
Jars
Tableware, blown. .
Tableware, blown
and pressed
Lighting goods
Lamp chimneys
Miscellaneous arti-
cles
II
III
rv
v
VI
VII
VIII
IX
x
XI
XII
1,815,956
6,176,876
2,707,412
2,221,981
! 10, 696, 556
3,506,898
2,971,069
786,030
4,314,405
7,425,008
431,794
1,118,199
Total.
80,313
392,430
89,772
32, 896
535, 459
130,959
17C, 501
28,538
137,251
336,593
3,600
64,351
$129,816
74,252
116,933
13,32S
44,905
19,093
125,259
7,357
18,170
233, 117
77,138
16,089
$172,249
154,565
509,303
103,100
77,801
554,552
256,218
183, S58
46,708
370,368
413,731
107,5
46,576,584
8.51
8.25
3.50
5.18
7.31
6.19
5.94
8.58
5.57
4.56
9.64
6.38
a One plant is rented; no depreciation charged.
b Two plants are rented; no depreciation charged.
DEPRECIATION OF PLANT AND EQUIPMENT.
89
One defect of the accounting systems used in many glass factories
was shown by answers to Inquiries as to whether there were reserves
for bad dedts and for depreciation or whether an amount for depre-
ciation was charged agamsl the capital account. The answers to
these inquiries are tabulated below:
Table 26. — Establishments Which Charge Off Depreciation and Which Have
Reserves for Depreciation and Bad Debts, by Groups.
Establishments manufacturing-
Window glass by hand
Window glass by machine
Hate glass
Wire and opalescent glass
Bottles by hand
Bottles by machine
Bottles by hand and machine.
Jars
Tableware, blown
Tableware, blown and pressed.
Ligbtine goods
Lamp chimneys
Miscellaneous articles
Total.
Croup.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
vn
VIII
IX
x
XI
XII
XIII
Estab-
lish-
ments.
Deprecia-
tion
charged.
Yes. No.
6 213 102 6 109
Reserve tor
deprecia-
tion.
5 32
5 7
2 7
Reserve for
bad debts.
1 30
1 11
6
9
a Includes one rented plant; no depreciation charged.
6 Includes two rented plants; no depreciation charged.
The preceding table shows that of 213 establishments, 158 had no
reserve account for depreciation; 109 (not including 2 that rented
factories) made no charge for depreciation against capital account,
and 180 had no reserve for bad debts (though some stated that they
had no bad debts). Probably all glass manufacturers realize that
there is a shrinkage in the values of their buildings and equipments
outside of repairs and additions from year to year, yet over half of
those that reported in this investigation- did not charge off deprecia-
tion in making up their profit and loss statements. Some charged
off depreciation only after several years, and then in insufficient
amounts; others only in years when they made an unusually large
profit. Many establishments do not charge off depreciation every
year for the reason that they wish to make favorable showings in
regard to capital and profits to bankers and commercial agencies.
If proper charges for depreciation are made, some establishments
that show final profits by their annual profit and loss statements are
found to have had final losses when depreciation is deducted. This
is illustrated by Table 28. As reported, 175 of the 213 establish-
ments earned final profits and 38 had final losses, but when allow-
ances were made for depreciation in the reports of those that did
not charge off depreciation on their own books (this allowance being
at the average rate of those that did charge off depreciation), the
number that earned a final profit was reduced from 175 to 155, and
the number that had a final loss was increased from 38 to 58.
90 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
RELATION TO NET SALES, CAPITAL, AND INVESTMENT.
The following table clearly illustrates the relation between the net
sales, capital employed in business, and the amount invested in land,
buildings, and equipment. It will be noticed that the amount of
plant value is over 50 per cent of the total capital invested.
Table 27. — Amount of Net Sales, Capital Employed, Value or Plants, and
Amounts of Depreciation Charged by Establishments and Estimated, by
Groups.
Establishments manufac-
turing-
Group.
Estab-
lish-
Capital
employed
in
Invest-
ment,
land,
buildings,
and
equipment
Depreciation.
Charged
bv estab-
Esti-
mated.
Window glass, by hand
Window glass, by machine .
Hate glass
Wire and opalescent glass...
Bottles, by hand
Bottles, by machine
Bottles, by hand and ma-
chine
Jars
Tableware, blown
Tableware, blown and
pressed
Lighting goods
Lamp chimneys
Miscellaneous articles
VTI
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
$5,918,686
3, 368, 242
4,930.141
2,586; 970
4,969,281
15,359,396
9,856,970
6,464,708
1, 820, 229
8,125,077
12, 136, 579
1,230,578
3,151,944
$4,370,347
3,129,343
9, 720, R29
6,968,167
o3,402,5l6
22,416,423
8,593,877
6,563,943
1,642,881
7,691,784
al2,062,347
730,454
1, 810, 676
$2,404,400
1,815,956
6,176,876
2,707,412
2,221,981
10,696,556
3,506,898
2,971,069
786,030
4.314,405
7,425,008
431,794
1,118,199
$42, 433
80,313
392, 4^0
89, 772
32, 896
535,459
130,959
176,501
137,251
336,593
3,600
64,351
$129,816
74,252
116,933
13,328
44,905
19,093
125, 259
7,357
18, 170
233, 117
77, 138
16,089
43,468
Total.
79,918,801
46,576,584
2,051,096
3,925
a One establishment in this group did not report capital.
6 Two establishments did not report capital.
EFFECT ON PROFITS.
That depreciation materially affects the operating cost and the
profit is clearly shown in the following series of tables. Table 28
shows the number of establishments having final profits and losses
with and without charged and estimated depreciation. It also shows
that after including an estimated amount for depreciation on plants
that did not charge any, the number of plants showing final losses
increased from 38 to 58.
DEPRECIATION" OF PLANT AND EQUIPMENT.
91
Table 2S. — Number op Establishments Charging and Not Charging Depre-
ciation, and Showing a Final Profit or Loss, by Groups. ^-,
As reported.
Total,
with de-
Establishments manufacturing-
Charging
depre da-
tion.
Xot charg-
ing depre-
ciation.
Total.
preciation
charged
or
estimated.
Window glass, by hand:
9
I
a 25
2
a 34
3
a 31
6
Total
10
a 27
a 37
a37
Window glass, by machine:
Profit
5
2
5
10
2
7
5
Total
7
5
12
12
Plate glass:
3
1
1
1
4
2
3
3
Total
4
2
6
6
Wire and opalescent glass:
4
2
2
3 8
6
3
Total
5
4
9
9
Bottles, by hand:
Profit
6
2
a 13
5
a 19
7
ol6
10
Total
8
a 18
a 26
a 26
Bottles, by machine:
15
1
15
3
15
2
3
Total
16
2
18
18
Bottles, bv hand and machine:
Profit
9
3
12
3
21
6
14
13
Total
12
15
27
27
Jars:
Profit
10
2
1
11
2
10
Loss
3
Total
12
1
13
13
Tableware, blown:
Profit
5
3
8
8
Loss
Total
5
3
8
8
Profit
5
1
9
5
14
6
13
Loss
7
Total
6
14
20
20
Lighting goods:
Profit
10
1
5
2
15
3
14
Loss
4
Total
11
7
18
18
Lamp chimneys:
Profit
2
3
1
5
1
5
Loss
1
Total
2
4
6
6
Profit
4
9
13
13
Total
4
'.'
13
13
All groups:
Profit
87
15
23
b 175
38
6 155
58
Total
102
6 111
6 213
6 213
o Includes one rented plant; no depreciation charged.
6 Includes two rented plants; no depreciation charged.
92
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The following table shows the final profits, excluding charges for
depreciation reported, including such charges and including reported
and estimated charges. These profits are based on the net sales.
The table shows to what extent profits are affected by depreciation.
In two groups, viz, plate glass and blown and pressed tableware,
profits of -1549,572 in the first case and $379,036 in the second are
reduced to profits of $40,209 and $8,668, respectively.
Table 29. — Amount op Net Sales, Final Profits With and Without Deprecia-
tion Charged, and Amounts op Depreciation Charged and Estimated, by
Groups.
Establishments rr
factoring—
Ksliih-
lish-
ments.
Final profit.
Without
any
charges
for de-
precia-
tion.
Depreciation.
With charges for
depreciation.
Charged
As bv estab-
lish-
ed ments.
As
charged
by estab-
lish-
es! i-
Esti-
mated.
Window glass, by hand
Window glass, by ma-
chine
Plate glass
Wire and opalescent
glass
Bottles, by hand
Bottles, by machine...
Bottles, by hand and
machine
Jars
Tableware, blown
Tableware, blown and
pressed
Lighting goods
Lamp chimneys
Miscellaneous articles...
Total ,
S504,022
308,2)2
930, 141
586, 970
(Kin, :s i
359, 390
125, 077
136,579
230,578
151,911
520
580;
216,
379,
1,650,
55,
167,
157,
160,
176,
1, 755,
241
1,313,
51
92,936
40, 209
146,945
131,912
1, 736, 115
263, 858
396,368
169,882
1,230,786
35,524
283,114
80,313
392, 430
89, 772
32, 890
535,459
130, 959
170,501
28,538
3,600
64,351
$129,5
74, 252
116, 933
13,328
44, 905
125, 25!)
7,357
18,170
233,117
77, 138
16, 089
43, 468
5,793,015 4,874,090 2,051,01)0
731
(,89
819
970, 021
103,
77,
554,
256,
183,
46,
370,
413,
19,
107,
o One plant rented; no depreciation charged.
Two plants rented; no depreciation charged.
The amounts shown in the preceding table are given in the form
of percentages in the table which follows:
Table 30. — Per Cent op Final Profit, With and Without Depreciation
Charged, Based on Net Sales, by Groups.
Group.
Estab-
lish-
ments.
Per cent of final profit
on net sales.
Establishments manufacturing-
Without
any charges
for de-
preciation.
With charges for
depreciation.
As charged
by estab-
lishments.
As charged
and esti-
mated.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
a 37
12
6
9
a 26
18
27
13
8
20
18
6
13
8.52
7.35
11.15
9.67
4.22
14.91
1L90
4.67
13.60
4.49
12.40
7.80
4.96
3.19
6.20
3.56
11.43
3.95
6.25
10.33
2.98
10.83
4.19
10.36
5.60
2.76
.82
5.68
2.65
11.30
2.68
6.13
9.33
.11
10.19
8.98
Total
6 213
9.82
7.25
6.10
a Includes one rented plant; no depreciation charged.
b Includes two rented plants; no depreciation charged.
DEPRECIATION OF PLANT AND EQUIPMENT.
93
Table 31, which follows, is similar in form to Table 29, except that
operating profits arc shown in place of final profits, the latter in-
cluding miscellaneous income and outgo items. The operating
profits shown in this table differ from operating profits in other
tables in that interesl charges have been included in the operating
outgo.
Table 31. — Amount of Net Sales, Operating Profits With and Without
Depreciation Charged, and Amounts of Depreciation Charged and Esti-
mated, by Groups.
Establishments manu-
facturing—
Estab-
lish-
ments
Operating profit.
Without
any
charges
for de-
precia-
tion.
With charges for
depreciation.
As
charged
byes-
tal >lish-
ments.
As
charged
and
esti-
mated.
Depreciation.
Charged
by es-
tablish-
ments.
Esti-
mated.
Window glass by hand.
Window glass by ma-
chine
Elate glass
Wire and opalescent
Bottles by hand
Bottles by machine . . .
Bottles by hand and
machine
Jars
Tableware, blown
Tableware, blown and
Lighting goods
Lamp chimneys
Miscellaneous articles.
s37
12
$5,918,686
3,368,242
4,930,141
2,586,970
4,969,281
15,359,396
9, 856, 970
6, 464, 708
1,820,229
8,125,077
12,136,579
1,230,578
3, 151, 944
221, 557
517,218
232, 208
190,933
2, 212, 062
451, 150
509, 972
215, 898
358, 296
1,577,037
55, 540
3ss,200
S445, 567
141,244
124,788
142,436
158,037
1, 676, 603
320, 191
333, 471
187,360
221,045
1,240,444
51,940
323, 849
8315,751
l'.)4,932
326,114
b 12,072
1,163,306
35, 851
280,381
§42,433
80,313
89, 772
32, 896
535, 459
130, 959
176,501
28,538
137, 251
336,593
3,600
64,351
-5129,816
74, 252
116,933
13,328
44,905
19,093
125, 259
7,357
18, 175
233,117
77, 13S
79,
7,418,071
5,366,975
4,448,050 2,051,096
$172,249
154,565
509,363
103, 100
77, 801
554,552
256,218
183,858
46, 708
370,368
413,731
19,689
107,819
a One plant rented; no depreciation charged.
t> Loss.
Two plants rented; no depreciation charged.
The amounts shown in the preceding table are given in the form
of percentages in the table which follows:
Table 32. — Per Cent of Operating Profit, With and Without Depreciation
Charge, Based on Net Sales, by Groups.
Group.
Number
of estab-
lish-
ments.
Eer cent of operating profit on net
sales.
Establishments manufacturing-
Without
any
charges
for depre-
ciation.
With charges for
depreciation.
As charged
by estab-
lishments.
As charged
and esti-
mated.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
a37
12
6
9
a 26
18
27
13
8
20
18
6
13
8.25
6.58
10.49
8.98
3.84
11.10
4.58
7.89
11.86
4.41
12.99
4.51
12.32
7.53
4.19
2.53
5.51
3.18
10.92
3.25
5.16
10.29
2.72
10.22
4.22
10.27
5.33
1.99
.16
4.99
2.28
10.79
1.98
5.04
9.29
b. 15
8.90
Total
«213
9.28
6.72
5.57
a One plant rented; no depreciation charged.
: Two plants rented; no depreciation charged.
CHAPTER IV.
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
The 213 establishments for which data were obtained have been
divided into 13 groups. The 64 establishments in Groups I to IV,
inclusive, produced goods used in the building trades; the 84 estab-
lishments in Groups V to VIII, inclusive, produced prescription bot-
tles, beer, soda, and whisky bottles, packers, preservers, jars, etc.; the
28 establishments in Group IX and X produced tableware, blown,
pressed, and cut; the 24 establishments in Groups XI and XII pro-
duced all varieties of lighting goods, including such articles as in-
candescent bulbs, gas and electric globes, bowls, lantern globes, lamp
chimneys, etc.: the 13 establishments in Group XIII produced a
great variety of articles, such as marbles, nest eggs, advertising nov-
elties, specialties, chemical goods, and other articles which could not
be assigned to one of the other groups.
It must not be assumed, because an establishment was assigned
to a certain group, that it produced exclusively goods of the kind
described in that group. As an illustration of the method used in
determining the group to which an establishment manufacturing
goods of a different character should be assigned, we may take an
establishment producing both tableware and lighting goods, which
was not uncommon, in such a case the establishment as a whole
was assigned to the group which most fairly represented the product
of the establishment.
COST AND PROFIT BASED ON NET SALES.
In presenting the data secured from the 213 establishments, actual
amounts are not shown by individual establishments, because by
such figures it might be possible to identify establishments. The
items of expense, sales value of goods produced, and the profits or
losses are shown by percentages for individual establishments and by
amounts, averages, and percentages for groups. In Table 33, which
follows, total amounts for the various items are shown for all estab-
lishments and for each group.
For the 213 establishments, the net sales amounted to $79,918,801;
operating profit without charges for depreciation and interest,
$8,247,016; total labor and royalty on bottle machines, $32,420,970;
and total materials, $17,527,264. These figures, taken in conjunction
with census figures for 1914, which gave the value of glass products
as $123,085,019, show that about 65 per cent of the industry was
covered in this investigation.
In Table 34 the amounts in Table 33 have been reduced to per-
centages.
94
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
95
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THE GLASS INDUSTRY
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98
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 99
COST AND PROFIT BASED ON SALES VALUE OF GOODS PRODUCED.
The percentages in the preceding table will not correspond to the
percentages shown in Table 36, which also shows percentages of cost
and profit for all establishments and by groups. In Table 34 the per-
centages are based on net sales and in Table 36 they are based on the
sales value of goods produced. While at first glance the base used in
each table appears to be the same, it is different, as explained below.
The same general conditions applying to both tables, no discussion is
made of the former.
METHOD OF DETERMINING SALES VALUE OF GOODS.
Up to this point the items of cost have been shown as they appear
on the books of the various establishments. Table 33 gives actual
returns for all establishments and for establishments in the various
groups. Table 34 shows in the form of percentages the relation of
each item to the total net sales.
It is necessary now to go a step further and segregate the items of
cost pertaining to the goods produced. In order to accomplish this
certain adjustments are necessary. The original returns show for
example the selling expenses, the loss from bad debts, and the operat-
ing profit. All of these items are strictly speaking dependent on the
amount of goods sold rather than the amount of goods produced.
To get the amount properly chargeable to goods produced, it is
necessary to increase proportionately the selling expenses, bad debts,
and profits, when the amount of goods produced exceeds the amount
sold, and to decrease proportionately these items, when the amount
of goods sold exceeds the amount of goods produced.
From the books of the establishments are ascertained the cost of
the goods produced within the business year, the cost of the goods
purchased, and the increase or decrease in the stock of goods on hand
(unsold) at the end of the period as compared with the beginning of
the period. Goods produced and goods purchased, increased or
decreased by the change in the inventory, gives the cost of the goods
sold. If the stock has increased during the business year, more
goods have been produced than have been sold and accordingly the
difference must be subtracted. If, on the other hand, the inventory
shows a decrease in stock, more goods have been sold than were pro-
duced within the period under consideration, and accordingly the
difference must be added.
Since selling expense and bad debts are incurred on the total
amount of goods sold and the profit is obtained on the entire amount
of goods sold, it is fair to adjust these figures in the ratio of goods
produced to goods sold. The process can be made much clearer by
an illustration. The data are hypothetical, but correspond more or
less closely to returns from a number of establishments. The figures
printed in roman typo are obtainable directly from the books of the
establishments, while derived figures are printed in italics. The
problem is to ascertain from the original returns the amounts charge-
able to goods produced during the business year.
100
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Manufacturing and
administrative cost.
Sales
value.
Goods produced
Goods purchased
Increase in inventory
Goods sold
Dollars.
1,056,000
15, 000
-50,000
1,021,000
Per cent.
103.43
1.47
-4.90
Dollars. Dollars.
31,029 103,430
441 1,470
-1,470 -4,900
100. 00
30,000 100,000
Dollars.
1,190,479
16,920
151,000
In this particular case the cost of the goods produced exceeded
the cost of the goods sold by 3.43 per cent. The selling expenses,
bad debts, and profit, as taken from the books, have therefore been
increased in the same proportion.
If the stock on hand had decreased $50,000 instead of increased
by that amount — or, in other words, if $50,000 worth of goods more
had been sold than were purchased or produced— the total value
of goods sold during the business year would have been $1,121,000.
In that case the cost of the goods produced would represent only
94.2 per cent of the cost of the goods sold, and accordingly the sell-
ing expenses, bad debts, and profits would have to be reduced 5.8
per cent.
The adjusted items for the establishments in each group were
added to obtain the group averages shown in Table 35.
AVERAGE PRODUCTION COSTS BY GROUPS.
In Table 35, which follows, data are presented in the form of
averages for all establishments and for groups of establishments.
Examination of this table shows that the average sales value of goods
produced per establishment was over $500,000 in only three groups,
being $800,985, $805,088, and $648,711, respectively, in factories
making plate glass, Group III, those making bottles by machine,
Group VI, and in those making lighting goods, Group XI. Of the
remaining groups, two had an average of $400,000 to $500,000, one
between $300,000 and $400,000, five between $200,000 and $300,000,
and two between $100,000 and $200,000.
The average operating profit with charges for depreciation and
interest was $20,199 for all establishments. Group III, plate glass,
with next to the largest average sales value of goods produced,
showed an average loss per establishment of $3,084. Group VI,
bottles made by machine, with $93,459, showed the highest average
profit per establishment. Elsewhere in this report are tables showing
percentages based on sales value of goods produced and on invest-
ment, which are better guides to the amount of profit earned in the
various groups or in individual establishments.
In the series of 14 tables, 36 to 49, inclusive, the sales value of goods
produced is used as the basis. As has just been explained, this figure
is derived by adding to the actual cost of goods produced the selling
expenses and bad debts properly chargeable to such goods and also
the profit attributable to such goods. This basis has a distinct
advantage over that used in previous reports of the cost of pro-
duction division — the cost of goods produced. According to the
new basis, the value rather than the cost of the output is the criterion.
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 101
The sales value is obviously substantially the same, quality for qual-
ity, in different establishments, while the cost may differ widely.
The new basis, therefore, makes it possible to show riot merely the
relative outlay for different items of expense but also differences in
total cost for the various establishments.
Table :;G shows percent ages based on the sales value of goods
produced for the various items of cost, for the operating profit com-
puted without and with depreciation and interest, and for the final
profit by establishments grouped according to the character of the
goods produced.
102
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
103
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104
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
105
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106 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
MATERIALS.
An interesting feature brought out by the above table is the
differences in the percentages for total cost of materials in the
different groups. In four groups — factories making window glass
by hand, Group I; window glass by machine, Group II; blown
tableware, Group IX ; and blown and pressed tableware, Group X —
the percentages show relatively low costs for materials, which reflects
a natural condition, inasmuch as the establishments in these groups
produced light-weight goods as compared with the establishments
m the other groups, and for every pound of glass used they obtained
proportionately a greater number of units than those establishments
producing heavier goods. This was especially true of blown table-
ware group, and would be true in Group XII, lamp chimneys, were
it not for the exceptionally high cost of packing materials.
Of the groups showing relatively high percentages of cost for
materials, those making jars, Group VIII, with 40.07 per cent, and
wire and opalescent goods, Group IV, with 29.97 per cent, showed
the highest percentage of cost and were the only groups in which the
percentage of cost for materials was greater than the percentage of
cost for labor. An examination of the items of materials in Group
VIII will show that this high cost was due principally to the large
amount of metal trimmings, rubber rings, etc., and packing materials
required by establishments producing this class of goods, and in
Group IV it was due to the high cost of batch, which in some estab-
lishments included wire. Other groups showing relatively high
gercentages of cost for materials were those making plate glass,
rroup III, and bottles by machine, Group VI. These groups showed
relatively low percentages of cost for labor, and as materials assume
greater importance in those establishments producing heavy-weight
goods than in those producing light-weight goods, it follows that
the percentages for materials must be higher and the percentages
for other items must be lower.
Of the different items under materials the percentages for batch
were more than one-half the total cost of materials, except for
establishments making jars, Group VIII, and lamp chimneys,
Group XII. Attention has already been called to the high per-
centages for packing materials in these two groups and for metal
trimmings, rubber rings, etc., in Group VIII. In wire and opalescent
goods, Group IV, the percentage for batch was considerably above
the average for all groups, being slightly more than twice the average.
This high percentage of cost is due largely to the heavy character of
the goods produced and partly to the inclusion by some establishments
of wire with batch materials.
The next item after batch in importance was packing, with an
average of 7.38 per cent of the total sales value of goods produced
and a range of 2.73 per cent for plate glass, Group III, to 16.24 per
cent for lamp chimneys, Group XII. When the difference in the
manner of packing plate glass and lamp chimneys is taken into
consideration, this wide variation presents no unusual feature.
The remaining items under materials were relatively of little
importance, but the item of freight requires some explanation. In
some establishments the books did not show freight separately and
it became part of the cost of the materials. In other establishments
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 107
distinction was made only between incoming freight and outgoing
freight, and no attempt was made by such establishments to charge
the different materials with their proportion of freight. The per-
centages for freight as reported in this table and the tables which
follow therefore represenl only that portion of incoming freight which
was not distributed to other items under materials.
In tables showing percentages for the various items of cost, whether
based on the total cost of manufacture, net sales, or value of product,
perhaps no item receives more attention than that of labor. When
it is taken into consideration that only about 2.7 per cent of the
industries in the United States, producing slightly over 3 per cent
of the total value of products, show a labor cost, based on the value
of products, of over 40 per cent, and that the glass industry is
included in the above group, one fully realizes the important part
that labor takes in the costs of this industry.
In previous reports on cost of production issued by the Bureau of
Foreign and Domestic Commerce, the percentages of costs for labor,
based on net sales, were: 23.14 per cent in the knit-underwear
industry: 22.07 per cent in the women's muslin-underwear indus-
try; 25.77 per cent in the hosiery industry; 30.69 per cent and
27.05 per cent, respectively, for collars or shirts and collars, and for
shirts, in the shirt and collar industries; and 31.23 per cent in the
men's factory-made clothing industry. In the pottery industry,
the labor cost was 58.81 per cent of the total manufacturing cost,
including decorating but excluding packing and selling expense,
50.49 per cent of the aggregate cost, and 46.03 per cent of the net
value of the product. These percentages would be somewhat higher
were packing labor- included as part of the manufacturing labor.
It was not thought necessary to show labor by departments, and
the only division made is between supervisory labor and other
factory labor. Other factory labor includes direct and indirect,
{xroductive and nonproductive, skilled and unskilled — in fact, all
abor which could not be assigned to supervision. In addition,
other factory labor in making bottles by machine, Group VI, bottles
by hand and machine, Group VII, and jars, Group VIII, includes
royalty on machines. The principal reason for including royalty
with labor was to avoid the possibility of disclosing the identity of
individual establishments usmg certain automatic machines. The
item "Superintendent and foremen" includes in some instances only
part of the salaries of officials who devoted only a part of their time
to the factory end of the business, provided an equitable basis for
the distribution of salaries of such officers was furnished.
Excluding royalty from the total labor cost the percentages would
read: 40.26 per cent for all establishments reporting; 25.04 per cent for
bottles by machine, Group VI; 48.04 per cent for bottles by hand
and machine, Group VII; and 28.91 per cent for jars, Group VIII.
In other words, the percentages for royalty on machines were, respec-
tively, 1.72, 7.53, 0.23, and 1.17 of the sales value of the goods pro-
duced for all establishments and the groups specified above.
Another method of presenting data relating to royalty on machines
without violating any confidences or disclosing the identity of estab-
108 THE GLASS INDUSTBY.
lishments is to show the percentage that royalty on machines is of
total labor, including ro3^alty. If based on actual figures, the per-
centages would be for all establishments reporting, 3.66; for Group
VI, bottles by machine, 23.12; for Group VII, bottles by hand and
machine, 0.47; for Group VIII, jars, 3.9.
The difference in the labor costs between handmade and machine-
made goods is strikingly brought out by the percentages for window
glass, Groups I and II. In Group I, handmade, the labor cost was
56.8 per cent of the selling value of goods produced, and in Group II,
machine made, 47.74 per cent. This difference is even more strikingly
shown by the percentages for bottles, Groups V to VII, inclusive.
The percentages showing labor costs decreased inversely in propor-
tion to the extent that automatic machines were employed in the
production of bottles, the percentages being 53, 48.27, and 32.57,
respectively, for bottles by hand, bottles by hand and machine, and
bottles by machine. Should the percentages for royalty be deducted
from the two machine groups, the variation in the labor costs would
be more marked. The low labor cost in Group VIII, jars, was also
due partly to the use of automatic machines.
Another interesting comparison is that between those branches of
the industry employing a comparatively large amount of skilled
labor and those branches employing a comparatively small amount
of skilled labor. Included in the" former mention may be made of
factories making window glass by hand, bottles by hand, blown
tableware, and lamp chimneys, with percentages for total labor of
56.8, 53, 53.68, and 52.4, respectively; and included in what may be
termed the unskilled labor groups are factories making plate glass,
wire and opalescent goods, bottles by machine, and jars, with per-
centages for total labor of 33.76, 24.03, 32.57, and 30.08, respectively;
leaving in between the pronounced skilled and unskilled labor groups
the factories making window glass by machine, bottles by hand and ma-
chine, blown and pressed tableware, lighting goods, and miscellaneous
articles, with percentages for total labor of 47.74, 48.27, 48.01, 40.15,
and 44.85, respectively. At first glance it would seem that the lower
percentage for labor depended almost entirely upon the use of auto-
matic machines. This, however, was not true, for certain types of
machines used can not be classed as automatic, and the lower labor
costs in plate glass, Group III, wire and opalescent goods, Group IV,
and lighting goods, Group XI, must be ascribed to the unskilled
character of the work and not to the use of automatic machines.
The labor cost was found to be highest in window glass made by
hand, Group I, 56.8 per cent; lowest in wire and opalescent goods,
Group IV, 24.03 per cent; and the average for all establishments
reporting was 41.98 per cent of the sales value of goods produced.
Eight groups showed a higher labor cost than the average for all
establishments, four of them having a labor cost of more than 50
per cent of the sales value of the goods produced, and five groups
showed a lower labor cost than the average.
In no group was the percentage for superintendent and foreman
above 3.05, and it is interesting to note that this occurred in Group
IV, wire and opalescent goods, which had the lowest total labor cost.
The average for all establishments was 1.69 per cent; the lowest was
0.58 per cent, in Group I, window glass by hand, which had the
highest total labor cost.
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 109
FUEL, ETC.
The item fuel, power, light, and water, next to materials and labor.
showed the greatest percentage of cost based on the sales value of
goods produced, except in establishments making wire and opalescent
goods, Group IV, in which the item general expense was about 2.5
per cent higher.
The variation in percentages for fuel, power, light, and water may
be due to several reasons, chief among which may be mentioned:
(1) Difference in cost of natural gas ; (2) character of glass produced —
that is. the plate-glass branch of the industry may require more gas
per unit for the fusion of materials than another branch; (3) use of
tanks or pot-, the fusion of the materials being accomplished in the
former by direct contact with the flame of the gas, while in the latter
the combustion is outside the pot and the heat must radiate through
the pot to accomplish the fusion of materials; and (4) whether pro-
ducer or natural gas is used.
The average for all establishments was 8.45 per cent; the highest,
13.24 per cent, was in Group III, plate glass, and lowest, 5.26 per
cent, in Group XII, lamp chimneys. Four groups were above the
average for all establishments and nine below.
TAXES AND INSURANCE.
Taxes and insurance were relatively unimportant items. The
average expenditure for taxes by all establishments was 0.58 per cent,
with a range for the different groups from the lowest, 0.25, in jars,
Group VIII, to the highest, 1.05, in wire and opalescent goods,
Group IV. For insurance the average was 0.65 per cent, the per-
centages in the groups ranging from the lowest, 0.34, in blown and
pressed tableware, Group X, to the highest, 1.45, in window glass
made by machine, Group II.
SALARIES.
It has been previously explained that salaries of officials have in
some instances been partly assigned to superintendent and foremen,
under labor. A further distribution was made of salaries of officials
in establishments where some of the officers devoted their whole
time or part of their time to selling, provided such salaries were
charged to selling in the books of the establishments, or in case where
not so charged an equitable basis for distribution was furnished by
the officials themselves. Also, in some establishments no charge
was made by officials for services rendered by them, in which case
an estimated amount for their services, if furnished by the officials,
was charged and then the amount distributed according to the char-
acter of the work performed. The percentages for salaries of officials,
therefore, do not represent the complete charge, but examination of
the percentages for superintendent and foremen and for selling in
the individual establishments in the different groups will to a cer-
tain extent explain the variation in the percentages for salaries of
officials.
The average for total salaries for all establishments reporting was
3.51 per cent, being about equally divided between salaries of officials
110 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
and office force. A similar equal division was not found in the differ-
ent groups or in individual establishments, as examination of the per-
centages will clearly demonstrate. In no group was the percentage
for total salaries in excess of 5.04 per cent of the sales value of the
goods produced, being in one group as low as 1.77 per cent.
ROYALTY.
In only two groups was royalty, other than on bottles and jars, a
part of the charge of the cost of production. In window glass made
by machine, Group II, the cost was 3.68 per cent, and in lighting goods,
Group XI, 0.78 per cent, the former representing royalties paid on
machines and the latter royalties on batch.
GENERAL EXPENSE.
General expense includes a great variety of charges which could
not be assigned to other items in the schedules, among which may be
mentioned factory supplies, office expenses other than office salaries,
repairs, legal expense, welfare work, etc. Notwithstanding the num-
ber of items included with general expense, the percentages for the
various groups are not remarkably high. In only wire and opalescent
goods, Group IV, was this expense over 10 per cent of the sales value
of goods produced. The average for all establishments was 7 per
cent, and the lowest, 3.26 per cent, was in blown tableware, Group IX.
SELLING.
Chapter VII, page 231, is devoted to selling methods employed in
the different branches of the glass industry and should be read in con-
nection with the percentages for selling in this and the following tables
for a better understanding of the variations in the selling expenses
for the different groups.
Establishments making tableware, Groups IX and X, and lighting
goods, Group XI, showed comparatively high percentages of cost for
selling, and those making window glass, Groups I and II, and bottles
by hand, Group V, showed comparatively low percentages of cost for
selling. Plate-glass factories, Group III, had the remarkably low
selling cost of 0.25 per cent, nearly evenly divided between salesmen
and other selling expense.
For all establishments reporting, the average for total selling
expense was 3.92 per cent, of which 3.01 per cent, or over three-fourths
of the total selling expense, was for salesmen.
Loss from bad debts was remarkably low in this industry. In no
group was the loss equal to 1 per cent of the sales value of goods pro-
duced, or, in other words, for every $100 selling value of goods pro-
duced in Group VIII, jars, the amount recovered through sales was
only 98 cents less. In establishments making window glass by hand,
Group I, and plate glass, Group III, the loss from bad debts was less
than 0.05 per cent, or, expressed in dollars and cents, the loss suffered
through bad debts was less than 5 cents on every SI 00. For all estab-
lishments the average loss from bad debts through converting goods
produced into cash was 44 cents on every $100 sales value of goods
produced.
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. Ill
The margin between the total cost and sales value of goods produced
constitutes the profit, the aim and incentive of all business. The
wider the margin between these items, the greater the profit, and as
competition in the main iixes prices on the one end, it is the desire of
the manufacturer to keep the other end, his costs, as low as possible
and t bus secure for himself a margin between the total cost and selling
value. The. question naturally arises, What items are properly
chargeable to costs? Perhaps on no items more than depreciation
and interest is there such a wide difference of opinion as to whether or
not they are proper charges to cost; especially is this true of interest.
For this reason it was thought advisable to show total cost of goods
produced without charges for depreciation and interest and to show
operating profit computed both without and with depreciation and
interest.
The tables are so constructed that one can easily determine the total
cost including either depreciation or interest, or both, by simply
adding the percentages for these items to the total cost. For one who
believes that depreciation is a proper charge to costs and that interest
is not, and who wishes to know what the operating profit would be if
depreciation were charged and interest were not, all that is necessary
for him to do is to add the amount shown opposite "Interest paid"
to the profit shown immediately below, or in case there was a loss
reduce the amount of the loss by the amount of interest paid.
Operating profit on goods produced computed without deprecia-
ciation and interest showed for all establishments an average of 10.49
per cent on the sales value of goods produced, ranging from 5.11 per
cent in blown and pressed tableware, Group X, to 16.14 per cent in
machine-made bottles, Group VI. Six groups, or one less than half
of all the groups, showed profits of more than 10 per cent. Of the
remaining groups four showed profits between 5 and 6 per cent and
three betweem 9 and 10 per cent.
DEPRECIATION.
Chapter III, page 86, is devoted to depreciation, and it is believed
that a discussion of the subject in this part of the report would be a
needless repetition.
The average rate of depreciation based on sales value of goods
produced was 3.85 per cent for all establishments. The highest
average rate of depreciation was found in plate glass, Group III, 10.6
Ser cent, and the lowest in lamp chimneys, Group XII, 1.61 per cent.
»f the remaining groups, none showed an average rate in excess of 5
per cent.
INTEREST.
Interest paid excludes interest on investment, bonds, mortgages,
and other borrowed capital in all establishments reporting such
charges.
Examination of the percentages will show that the average interest
paid in all establishments on the total sales value of goods produced
was 1.07, the highest, 2.6, in window glass made by machine, Group
112 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
II, and the lowest, 0.54, in tableware, blown and pressed, Group X.
In five groups the average was less than 1 per cent; in seven groups
considerably below 2 per cent, in only one group was the average
over 2 per cent.
MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSE AND MISCELLANEOUS INCOME.
Miscellaneous expense and miscellaneous income are composed of
such items as could not properly be charged or credited to the cost
of operating. By taking these items into consideration,' the average
profit or loss forborne groups is slightly modified.
COST AND PROFIT IN INDIVIDUAL ESTABLISHMENTS.
HANDMADE WINDOW GLASS.
The following 13 tables show percentages of cost and profit based
on the sales value of goods produced, by individual establishments in
the different groups. In Table 37, which follows, these percentages
are shown for establishments making window glass by hand, Group I.
Data were secured for 37 establishments, the greatest number in
any one group. These establishments were located in West Virginia,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kansas, Indiana, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and
Texas, more than 60 per cent of the establishments being located in
West Virginia and Pennsylvania.
The total cost of materials varied from 7.11 per cent to 22.72 per
cent with an average of 15.39 per cent for all establishments in this
group. Batch was the principal item of cost, although in 10 estab-
lishments the cost of packing exceeded that of batch.
Owing to the large amount of skilled labor required in the various
operations, the establishments in this group showed high percentages
for total labor, the average being higher than in any other group.
In no establishment was this item less than 50 per cent of the sales
value of goods produced, and it was as high as 65.98 per cent in estab-
lishment No. 2. It will be seen by an enumeration of the percentages
that there were 12 establishments with percentages for total labor
ranging between 50 and 55 per cent, 17 between 55 and 60 per cent,
7 between 60 and 65 per cent, and 1 over 65 per cent.
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
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116 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Superintendent and foremen carried a small percentage of the sales
value of goods produced, due to several causes, chief among which
may be mentioned (a) cooperative establishments in which the own-
ers received no salaries, but wages as workmen; (b) officials of the
company acting as superintendents, but charging no part of their
salaries to factory supervision; (c) officials acting as superintendents,
but receiving no salaries and furnishing no estimates as to the value
of their services.
The percentages for fuel, power, light, and water were affected
more by the location of the plant than were the percentages for other
items. The establishments located in those States where gas is cheap
had a decided advantage over those in other States where the natu-
ral-gas supply is giving out or where producer gas is used. To
localize any individual establishment, even by State, might disclose
the identity of that establishment, but it can be generally stated that
the establishments located in West Virginia, Oklahoma, and Louisi-
ana had an advantage over those in other States, although some of
the establishments in the States named had higher percentages than
the lowest in other States.
Of the remaining items of cost, general expense, with an average
of 4.33 per cent, was next in importance, followed by total salaries,
2.74 per cent; total selling expense, 1.46 per cent; insurance, 1.39
per cent; taxes, 0.53 per cent; and bad debts, 0.04 per cent. Losses
from bad debts were remarkably small for establishments in this
group, only three establishments showing such losses.
Of the 37 establishments in this group, only 2 showed operating
loss, computed without depreciation and interest, one showing a loss
of 12.35 per cent and the other 2.92 per cent. Of the 35 establish-
ments showing profits, 16 had profits of over 10 per cent and 6 less
than 5 per cent. The average operating profit for all establishments
was 9.24 per cent; the highest was 17.85 per cent, in establishment
No. 32, and the lowest 1.3 per cent, in establishment No. 26.
Allowing charges for depreciation and interest, six establishments
showed operating losses ranging from 0.21 per cent to 19.1 per cent,
while all establishments showed an average operating profit of 5.36
per cent. A number of the establishments showed expenses and
income which could not be correctly charged or credited to the cost
of production, and the final profit or loss in some establishments will
vary from the operating profit to the extent that these items were
found in the accounts of the various establishments.
MACHINE-MADE WINDOW GLASS.
Table 38, which follows, is like the preceding one in that it deals
with the cost of producing window glass, but with the machine-
made product instead of the handmade. The percentages are based
on sales value of goods produced.
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
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THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 119
Data were secured for 12 establishments, located in West Virginia,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Oklahoma. Nearly 84 per cent of the estab-
lishments were in the first two States named.
Generally speaking, the average percentages for this group were
somewhat nigner than they were for the group making window glass
by hand, with the exception of total labor. Since the percentages
for all items of cost and profit or loss must add to 100 per cent, it fol-
lows that if for some reason the percentages for one or more items
were lower in one group than in another, the other items must neces-
sarily be higher. For example, take Group I, which showed 56.8 per
cent for total labor, and Group II, 47.74 per cent; the difference of
9.06 per cent must be taken up by other items in Group II.
Although in this group the average for batch was over 2 per cent
greater than for packing, four establishments had a higher percentage
for packing than for batch. The average cost of all materials was
18.26 per cent, highest in establishment No. 45, 22.76 per cent, and
lowest in establishment No. 49, 16.4 per cent.
The total cost for labor in this group fell below 50 per cent in the
average for all establishments and in seven of the individual estab-
lishments, being as low as 36.86 per cent in establishment No. 43.
The highest percentage for labor was 57.84, in establishment No. 49.
In certain operations the machine-made window glass requires the
same kind of skilled labor as in the handmade product, but the lower
labor cost in the machine-made product must be ascribed to the use
of automatic machines, which do away with the highly skilled labor
in blowing.
The discussion of the item fuel, power, light, and water in the pre-
ceding table attempted to bring out the effect that location of estab-
lishments had upon the cost of fuel. In that discussion it was pointed
out that establishments in certain States in which natural gas was
abundant had a decided advantage over those establishments located
in other States where natural gas was not so abundant or where pro-
ducer gas was used. This in general is true. However, because an
establishment is located in a natural-gas State, it does not necessarily
follow that it can secure cheap gas, for it may be located in a district
in which the supply is giving out, or it may be entirely outside a nat-
ural-gas district, in which case it would have to pay a higher rate
than other establishments more favorably located or be compelled
to produce its own gas.
Two establishments, Nos. 3S and 39, with 21.78 and 19.95 per cent,
respectively, had exceptionally high costs for fuel, power, etc., as com-
pared with other establishments in this group. and with the average
for all establishments, their costs being more than twice as much as the
average and over five times as much the lowest cost, 3.72 per cent in
establishment No. 49. It is interesting to note that these two estab-
lishments were operated at a loss, and that if they were more nearly
on a par with other establishments in regard to fuel they could greatly
reduce their losses or operate at a profit.
Taxes, insurance, and salaries were relatively of little importance,
the percentages for all establishments being 0.38, 1.45, and 1.77 per
cent, respectively.
Royalty, being a payment for the use of certain automatic machines,
was not found in the handmade window-glass group, and in compar-
120 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
ing the labor costs in the two window-glass groups one must not lose
sight of the fact that the lower labor cost in the machine group was
somewhat offset by the payment of royalty. The average for roy-
alty for the group was 3.68 per cent; three establishments showed
no payments for royalty.
General expense showed an average of 6.17 per cent for all estab-
lishments, ranging from the highest in establishment No. 39, 13.72
per cent, to the lowest in establishment No. 45, 1.56 per cent.
Selling and bad debts accounted for 2.14 per cent of the 90.96 per
cent comprising all costs in manufacturing, administration, and sell-
ing. In no establishment was the total selling in excess of 3.31 per
cent of the sales value of goods produced, nor bad debts in excess of
thirty-eight one-hundredths of 1 per cent. Eight establishments
showed no losses from bad debts.
A greater percentage of the establishments in the machine-made
window-glass group were operated at a loss than in the handmade
window-glass group. Three establishments showed operating losses
when computed without depreciation and interest and two other
establishments showed losses after charging depreciation and inter-
est, making in all five establishments, or over 40 per cent of the num-
ber reported, operating at a loss. No establishment showed an oper-
ating profit as great as 10 per cent after charging depreciation and
interest, and in contrast one establishment suffered a loss slightly
over 15 per cent of the sales value of the goods produced, or, in other
words, there is a difference of 24.9 per cent in the cost of production
between establishments No. 39 and No. 42, which showed the great-
est loss and the greatest profit.
PLATE GLASS.
Table 39, which follows, presents cost data in the form of percent-
ages for plate glass, a branch of the industry whose product, like that
of the two preceding groups, is used in the building trades. The per-
centages are based on the sales value of goods produced.
Data were secured for six establishments, one-half being located
in Pennsylvania and one each in Ohio, Michigan, and Illinois.
This branch of the glass industry requires an exceptionally large
amount of supplies, such as grinding sand, rock and lime, felt, emery,
copperas, and muriatic acid for use in the grinding and pohshing
department, and for this reason a separate fine was given to such
supplies under materials, although they are not materials in the sense
that they are constituent elements of the product.
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
121
Table 39. — Percentages of Costs, bt Specified Items, and Profits or Losses,
Based on Total Sales Value of Goods Produced, by Establishments Manu-
facturing Plate Glass.
Aver-
age.
No. 52. No. 53.
Materials:
Batch
Grinding and polishing materials.
Packing
Total materials.
Labor:
Superintendent and foremen.
Other factory labor
Fuel, power, light, and water
Taxes, State, corporation, etc
Insurance and workmen's compensation.
Salaries:
Officials
Office force
Total salaries
General expense
Total manufacturing and administration.
Selling:
Salesmen
Other selling expense
Total selling expense
Bad debts
Total cost of goods produced
Operating profit on goods produced, com-
puted without depreciation and interest . .
Operating loss on goods produced, computed
without depreciation and interest
Total sales value of goods produced.
Depreciation .
Interest paid .
Operating profit on goods produced, com-
puted with depreciation and interest
Operating loss on goods produced, computed
with depreciation and interest
Miscellaneous income.
Final profit, depreciation and interest
considered ,
Final loss, depreciation and interest
considered
11.3S 11.85
12.67 10.02
2.73 2.17
12.54
9.96
2.28
5. OS 14.05
7. 12 16. 03
2.47 2.01
24. 78 14. 07
2.39
31.37
5. 49 2. SO
37. 81 32. 32
12 02
19.89
2.60
2.20
30.70
13.24
1.03
.73
14.55
1.07
1.82
19.28
.72
1.18 .36
4.23
1.09
12.87
.60
.79
10.19
.45
.46
7.31 17.28
93.85
0.15
95.86
4.14
75.03
24.97
100.00 100.00
11.96
10.12
3.49
1.00
31.71
32.71
11.68
2.10
.48
86.11
13.89
18.36
1.65
6.12
1.70
Grinding and polishing materials were 12.67 per cent of the sales
value of goods produced by all establishments, which was greater
than the percentage for batch, the principal item under materials
in all other groups with the exception of Group XI, lighting goods.
In three of the establishments the cost of batch was greater than
grinding and polishing materials.
Total materials, with an average of 26.78 per cent for all establish-
ments, ranged from 14.67 per cent in establishment No. 52 to 34.51
per cent in establishment No. 54, or in other words there was a
difference of nearly 20 per cent between the lowest and highest cost
of materials.
122 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The cost of labor for all establishments in this group was 33.76
per cent of the sales value of goods produced, of which 2.39 per cent
was for supervision and 31.37 per cent for other factory labor.
Three groups showed a lower total labor cost and eight a higher cost
than the average for the group. The low labor cost in this branch
of the glass industry as compared with other branches must be
ascribed partly to the comparatively small amount of skilled labor
required and partly to the higher percentage of cost for materials.
In establishment No. 53 the percentage for total labor was 27.69
per cent, the lowest, and in establishment No. 51, it was 43.3 per
cent, the highest.
Fuel, power, light, and water, with 13.24 per cent for all establish-
ments and ranging from 10.19 to 19.28 per cent, was higher in this
branch of the glass industry than in any other.
Of the remaining items in the total cost of goods produced, exclud-
ing depreciation and interest, general expense was the only one that
showed a percentage of any great importance. When it is taken
into consideration that this item is so general and is composed of
all items that could not be assigned to other headings, it is not sur-
prising that the percentages should be rather high and that they
should vary considerably in the different establishments. The
average for all establishments was 9.92 per cent, and ranged from
3.36 per cent in establishment No. 51 to 19.28 per cent in establish-
ment No. 53.
Operating profit on goods produced, computed without deprecia-
tion and interest, was 1 1 .69 per cent for all establishments and ranged
from 4.14 per cent in establishment No. 51 to 24.97 per cent in
establishment No. 52. The high percentage of profit in the latter
establishment was due to its remarkably low cost of materials.
Allowing depreciation and interest as part of the cost of produc-
tion, the establishments as a whole were operated at a loss, due
princiaplly to the heavy charge for depreciation, which in this group
amounted to 10.6 per cent, being more than twice that shown for
other groups. Three establishments were operated at a loss and
three at a profit.
WIRE AND OPALESCENT GLASS.
Table 40, which follows, presents cost data in the form of per-
centages for establishments manufacturing wire and opalescent
goods, the last of those groups whose products are used in the build-
ing trades. The percentages are based on the sales value of the
goods produced.
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
123
tawj rtaoefl of (osts, by specified items and profits or losses,
- Value of Goods Produced, by Establishments Manu-
mng WiuE and Opalescent Glass.
Items.
Aver- No.
age. 50.
No.
57.
No.
58.
No.
No.
60.
No.
• 1.
No.
62.
No.
No.
64.
U
Batch and wire
24.74 U.
;- 7. 19
13.88
5.97
19.10
5.91
13.82
G. 15
27. ."
3.20
33.70
5.55
22. 53
■1. 76
25.77
5.17
included in
3.95
20.97 17.74 20.57 19.85
25.01
23.92 30.77 39.25 27.29
30.94
Labor:
•it and foremen
3.05 3.09
20.98 19.47 3-1.55 1S.SG
3.28
22.27
2.9S 1.23
15. 21 IS. 23
2.69 1.61
27. 91 23. 71
4.35
L8.78
24.03 19.47
Total labor
37.64
18.86
25.55
IS. 19 19. 40
30.00
2.3. 32
23.13
;ht, and water..
Taxes tion.etc.
Insurance and workmen's com-
pensation
Salaries:
Officials....
Office torce.
Total salaries.
General expense —
Total manufacturing and
administration
Selling:
Salesmen
Other selling expense '.
Total selling expense
Bad debts
goods pro-
Total cost
Operating profit on goods pro-
duced, computed without
i>n and interest ...
Operating I<js.s on goods pro-
( without
ion and Interest ...
3.52
1.52
14. 1-.
.70
5.07
IS VI
.78
S.74
.17
Total sales value of goods
produced 100.00
Depreciation 4.57
Interest paid 1.51
Operating profit on goods pro-
iJuced, computed with de-
est
Operating loss on goods pro 1
dueed, computed with de-
ind interest
Misctllaneousexpenso.
Miscellaneous income.
profit, deprecia-
tion and interest con-
sidered ,
Final loss, depreciation
and interest considered
10.5S
11.64
6.72
1.07
2.',s
SI. 34
18.66
3. OS
1.15
13.01
.51
2.79
.43
Data were secured for nine establishments located in Pennsylvania,
Indiana, Illinois, West Virginia, and Ohio. Three were in Pennsyl-
vania, two each in Indiana and Illinois, and one each in West Vir-
ginia and Ohio.
K
124 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The total cost of materials was higher and the total cost of labor
was lower in this group than in any other. It has been pointed out
before that all items of cost and profit must add to 100 per cent, and
if some items bear, comparatively, a high percentage of cost/ then
other items must bear a correspondingly low percentage of cost.
This, however, does not account entirely for the high and low per-
centages of cost for these items, and other reasons must be assigned.
In the case of materials, this high cost was partly due to the inclu-
sion of materials not common to other branches of the glass industry;
especially was this true of those establishments producing goods in
which wire was part of the cost of materials. In the case of labor,
the low cost was partly due to the relatively small amount of skilled
labor required.
The average cost of materials for all establishments was 29.97 per
cent of the sales value of goods produced and ranged from 17.74 per
cent in establishment No. 56 to 39.25 per cent in establishment
No. 62. Batch and wire, on the average, constituted about 80 per
cent and packing materials about 20 per cent of the total materials
used.
Total labor, with an average of 24.03 per cent, varied from IS. 19
er cent in establishment No. 60 to 37.64 per cent in establishment
"o. 57. Three establishments had a labor cost of less than 20 per
cent and two over 30 per cent of the sales value of goods produced.
This group, next to the plate-glass group, showed the highest per-
centage of cost for fuel, power, light, and water, the average being
10.13 per cent. Four of the establishments showed a higher per-
centage of cost than the average, one establishment, No. 59, having
18.8 per cent, the highest shown.
Of the remaining items constituting total sales value of goods pro-
duced, general expense, with an average of 14.28 per cent for all
establishments, was by far the most important. Selling expense
showed a wide variation, being as low as 0.58 per cent and as high as
28.22 per cent, the average being 3.72 per cent. The other items,
with the exception of salaries, 5.04 per cent, were relatively of little
importance and need no comment.
Examination of the percentages for operating profit on goods pro-
duced, computed without depreciation and interest, will show that the
establishments in this group were either very successful or very unsuc-
cessful. In no establishment was the profit on the sales value of goods
produced less than 10 per cent, and in establishment No. 58 the per-
centage of profit was 28.88 per cent. After charging depreciation
and interest, six establishments showed operating profits ranging from
2.27 per cent to 27.13 per cent, and three establishments showed losses,
the loss in each establishment being over 10 per cent and as high as
25.03 per cent in establishment No. 57.
HANDMADE BOTTLES.
Table 41, which follows, is the first of four tables that treat of the
bottle and jar branch of the glass industry.
COST AND PBOFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
125
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THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
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128 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Data were secured for 26 establishments, located in Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, Indiana, Illinois, New York, Maryland, Virginia, West
Virginia, and Louisiana. About one-third of the establishments
were in Pennsylvania and about one-fourth in New Jersey, no other
State having more than three of the establishments reporting.
The total cost of materials for the establishments in this group,
like the preceding groups, is composed almost entirely of the cost of
two items, batch and packing, although a new factor, that of metal
trimmings, etc., enters into the cost of materials in a few of the estab-
lishments.
Apparently it is not the custom for the manufacturers of hand-
made bottles to furnish metal trimmings, etc., for in only six of the
establishments were such materials reported. One, however, must
take into consideration the different kinds of bottles produced; that
is, whether prescription, beer, soda, whisky, or cologne bottles, and
whether fancy or plain, some of which may be equipped with patented
stoppers, to suit the demands of customers. Even in those estab-
lishments reporting such data it does not follow that the whole
product of that establishment was equipped with trimmings.
Batch, with an average of 11.22 per cent for all establishments and
with a range from 22.01 per cent in establishment No. 67 to 5.21 per
cent in establishment No. 86, was with few exceptions, the most
important item in the total cost of materials.
Packing, with an average of 6.85 per cent, varied from 15.47 per
cent in establishment No. 88 to 0.43 per cent in establishment No.
85. This variation was due principally to the amount of packing
required and the kind of bottles produced. An establishment which
manufactures, say, soda bottles, may be located in the same city
as a bottling concern and a great part of its product disposed of to
that concern, in which case the cost of packing would be of little
importance, whereas, if the greater part of the product were disposed
of to outside concerns, the cost of packing would be mcreased on
account of the extra and better materials required in packing the
product for safe shipment.
As indicated by the title given to this group, the product was hand-
made and required a highly skilled class of labor, especially in blow-
ing. It is only natural, then, that the percentages for total labor
for this group are high, being on the average more than 50 per cent
of the sales value of goods produced. In 15 establishments the
total labor cost was more than 60 per cent, in 13 establishments it
was between 50 and 60 per cent, in 7 establishments between 40 and
50 per cent, and only in 1 establishment was the labor cost less than
40 per cent.
Fuel, power, etc., salaries, and general expense, with averages of
8.13, 4.67, and 5.16 per cent, respectively, were items of expense
which carried nearly 18 per cent of the sales value of goods produced,
and together with materials and labor accounted for over 90 per
cent of the cost, so that other items of expense, after taking into con-
sideration operating profit of 5.19 per cent, constituted less than 5
per cent of the sales value. In 5 establishments the percentage of
cost for fuel, power, etc., was over 10 per cent, being 18.79 per cent
in establishment No. 71.
Of the 26 establishments in this group, 22 showed operating profit
computed, without depreciation and interest, ranging from 1.03 per
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMEN Id. 129
cent to 1 1.08 per cent, and 4 showed losses with a range from 1.36 to
MM' •■«'llt.
After charging depreciation and interest, the operating profit for
iblishmenta was reduced from 5.19 per cent to 2.14 per cent,
making a charge of 3.05 per cent for these items. This charge varios
in the different establishments, according to the manner in
which the owners look upon depreciation; tho amount so charged
I determined in many instances until the company found its
earnings would warrant a charge for depreciation.
M U II INK-MADE BOTTLES.
Table 12 presents cost data in the form of percentages for those
establishments manufacturing machine-made bottles. The per-
.M. ■ based on the sales value of goods produced.
were secured for 18 establishments, located in Ohio, West
- Indiana. Illinois, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin,
lahoma. About SO per cent of the establishments were located
in the firsl four States named.
Tli<' .1 v erage cost of materials for all establishments in the machine-
made botl le group was somewhat higher than in the handmade bottle
group, being 25.4 per cent in the former and 20.63 per cent in the
latter.
Of the different items under materials, two, metal trimmings, etc.,
and packing, showed a wide variation in the percentages and account
principally for the variation in the total cost of materials. The
variation in metal trimmings, etc., was due partly to the demands of
the irade: that is, some customers prefer to secure such trimmings
from concerns other than the manufacturers of bottles, while others
depend entirely upon the bottle manufactures for such supplies. The
variation in packing materials depended largely upon how the bottles
were packed. If in carload lots, the cost of packing materials will be
small hut if packed in crates, the cost of such materials will be
greatly increased.
102511°— 17 9
130
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
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132 THE GLASS INDUSTEY.
A comparison of the labor costs for the handmade product and the
machine-made product will show a difference of about 20 per cent in
favor of the machine-made product. The average for the former
group was 53 per cent and for the latter 32.57 per cent. This, how-
ever, was not true in individual establishments, for there were some
establishments in the machine group which had high percentages for
labor cost. An enumeration of the percentages for total labor will
show that one establishment had a cost of 56.6 per cent, four between
40 and 50 per cent, nine between 30 and 40 per cent, three between
20 and 30 per cent, and one less than 20 per cent of the sales value of
goods produced.
Fuel, power, light, and water, with an average of 9.92 per cent for
all establishments and ranging from 2.47 to 20.09 per cent; salaries,
with an average of 3.01 per cent and ranging from 0.80 to 6.96 per
cent; general expense, with an average of 8.12 per cent and ranging
from 0.46 to 19.54 per cent; and selling expense, with an average of
3.08 per cent and ranging from 0.24 to 5.07 per cent were the only
other items constituting total cost of goods produced that showed an
average cost of over 1 per cent of the sales value of goods produced.
The items, taxes, insurance, and bad debts for all establishments were
less than 1 per cent, although in some individual establishments the
percentages were above 1 per cent, but in no establishment did they
reach 2 per cent of the sales value of goods produced.
Operating profit on goods produced, computed without depreciation
and interest, for all establishments was 16.14 per cent, which was
reduced to 11.61 per cent after charging depreciation and interest,
and after taking into consideration miscellaneous expense and income
the final profit was 12.15 per cent.
Two establishments showed losses both before and after charging
depreciation and interest, and three a final loss, the inclusion of the
third establishment being due to miscellaneous expense in establish-
ment No. 45.
The greatest loss suffered by any establishment after charging
depreciation and interest was 8.07 per cent in establishment No. 91,
and the greatest profit was 23.13 per cent in establishment No. 97.
Two other establishments had operating profits, after charging
depreciation and interest, of over 20 per cent, seven had profits
between 10 and 20 per cent, and five less than 10 per cent, only one
of the latter in excess of 5 per cent.
On the whole, the establishments manufacturing bottles by
machine were more successful than those manufacturing bottles by
hand.
HAND AND MACHINE MADE BOTTLES.
Table 43, which follows, presents cost data in the form of percentages
for establishments manufacturing bottles by hand and machine.
The percentages are based on the sales value of goods produced.
COST AND PKOF1T 1!V F.STA IJI.ISIIMENTS.
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134
THE GLASS INDUSTBY.
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COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
135
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136 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Data were secured for 27 establishments in this group, and next
to Group I handmade window glass is the largest group in point of
number of establishments included. These establishments were
located in 10 States, mainly in Pennsylvania, Ohio, New Jersey, In-
diana, and Now York.
The wide variation in the percentages for metal trimmings, etc.,
and in packing found in the establishments of the two preceding
groups was also found in the establishments of this group, and the
reasons previously given for this variation need not be repeated, as
they also account for the variations in this group.
Total cost of materials, with an average of 19.4 per cent, was lower
than in either of the other bottle groups. The very high cost of mate-
rials in establishment No. 110 was due to the large amount expended
for metal trimmings and packing material, and this was one of the
establishments in which the cost of materials was greater than the
cost of labor.
Labor was higher in this group than in the machine group but less
than in the hand group, the average for all establishments being
48.27 per cent as against 32.57 per cent in the machine group and 53
per cent in the hand group. Three establishments had a labor cost
of over 60 per cent of the sales value of goods produced, 10 had a
cost between 50 and 60 per cent, 1 1 between 40 and 50 per cent, and
3 loss than 40 per cent.
Fuel, power, light, and water, with an average of 7.83 per cent for
all establishments and a range from 3.51 per cent in establishment
No. 110 to 14.01 per cent in establishment No. 120, was an item of
considerable magnitude and one over which an establishment has
little control. Some plants were favorably located in respect to
fuel and had the benefit of cheap gas, while other plants were not so
favorably located in this respect.
Salaries, general expense, and selling, with averages of 4.62^, 7.19,
and 4.63 per cent, respectively, and varying considerably in the differ-
ent establishments, were items of expenses more or less under the
control of the management. A study of the percentages for these
items in the different establishments will to some extent indicate those
which were operated economically. However, an unfavorable con-
clusion should not be drawn against those establishments whose per-
centages appear to be high, as conditions affecting these items can
not be given without the possibility of identifying establishments.
Of the 27 establishments in this group, 22 showed an operating
profit, computed without depreciation and interest, ranging from 0.19
to 16.76 per cent, and 5 snowed losses ranging from 0.19 to 14.14
per cent. After charging depreciation and interest, the number oper-
ating at a profit was reduced from 22 to 15 and the number operating
at a loss was increased from 5 to 12. Establishment No. 134 had a
profit of 14.84 per cent and establishment No. 131 had a loss of 21.39
per cent. In the matter of profit the establishments in the hand
group and the hand and machine group were, on the average, about
on an equality, but both groups are at a considerable disadvantage
when compared with the machine group.
An examination of the percentages paid for interest discloses that
two of the five establishments which showed no charges for interest
paid were operated at a loss, and the loss in these two establishments
must be ascribed to reasons other than the lack of sufficient working
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 137
capital. Establishments Xos. 111,1 19, and 120 showed comparatively
high percentages for interest and two were operated at a loss.
Tabic 44, which follows, presents cost data in the form of percent-
ages for establishments manufacturing jars, and is the last of the four
tables relating to the bottle groups. The percentages are based on
the sales value of goods produced.
Data wnc obtained for 13 establishments, of which 6 were located
in Pennsylvania, 3 in West Virginia, and 1 each in New York, Ohio,
Illinois, and Oklahoma.
138
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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140 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
This group and the one making wire and opalescent goods, Group
IV, were the only groups which on the average showed a higher per-
centage of cost for materials than for labor. The average for materials
in all establishments in this group was 40.07 per cent, being exceeded
by the percentages in establishments Nos. 138, 140, 146, and 148. The
high average for materials in this group and the high percentages
in the individual establishments were due to the exceptionally large
expenditures for metal trimmings, etc., or packing, or both. A
perusal of the percentages for these items will indicate the extent
to which metal trimmings, etc., were furnished by the establishments
and the amount of packing material required.
Royalty paid for the use of automatic machines has been included
with labor. This was found necessary to avoid disclosing the identity
of establishments and to offset the objections of the owners of the
machines, who thought that if such data were shown separately it
would disclose confidential information. On page 210 of this report
there is a discussion of the relation between labor proper and royalty
for the different groups but not for individual establishments.
The total labor cost for all establishments in this group was 30.08
per cent of the sales vaLue of goods produced and in only one estab-
lishment was the cost more than 50 per cent. Of the remaining estab-
lishments one had a cost of 41.27 per cent, five a cost between 30 and
40 per cent, and six between 20 and 30 per cent.
Six establishments were above and seven below the average cost of
7.81 per cent for fuel, power, light, and water. In establishment
No. 144 the cost of this item was more than twice the average for all
establishments and more than eight times the cost for establishment
No. 38.
Taxes and insurance combined did not in any establishment amount
to as much as 1 per cent, the average for all being 0.61 per cent, of
which 0.25 per cent was for taxes and 0.36 per cent for insurance.
The remaining items composing the total cost of goods produced
were salaries, with an average of 2.37 per cent and ranging from 1.68
to 3.98 per cent; general expenses, with 5.59 per cent and varying
from 1.23 to 8.69 per cent; and bad debts, with 0.98 per cent and
ranging in establishments reporting bad debts from 0.38 to 1.70 per
cent.
Before charging depreciation and interest, one establishment was
operated at a loss of 2.03 per cent, while the others were operated
at a profit ranging from 1.60 to 22.20 per cent. After charging
depreciation and interest, four establishments were operated at a
loss ranging from 0.05 to 4.51 per cent and 9 at a profit ranging from
1.21 to 20.12 per cent.
The average for depreciation was 2.94 per cent and for interest paid
1.31, the former ranging from 1.1 to 11.77 percent and the latter from
0.16 to 2.67 per cent. Establishment No. 137 was the only one in
which no interest charge was found, and it is interesting to note that
it showed the highest percentage of profit.
COST v>I» PBOFIT BY BSTABU9HMENTS.
BLOWS TABLED kRE.
141
Table 15, which follows, presents eosl data in the form of der-
or establishments manufacturing blown tableware. The
percentages are based on the sales value of goods produced.
i ["AGES OS < !08T8, BY SPECIFIED ITEMS AND PROFITS AND LOSSES,
S i E8 Value of Goods Produced, by Establishments Manu-
v n Tableware.
1
it included in above
Labor:
atendent and foremen.
« uner facton labor
'
. light, and water
j. oration, etc
I :iid workingmen'scompcn-
Salaries:
OfTi
Offl
I>ense
and ad-
ministration
Selling:
• e "cpcnse .
lolling expense.
oods produced
profit on goods produced
1 without depreciation and
lis value of goods pro-
i
I
ofll on goods produced
''n d -'ill Ion and
IflsceUanea
roflt, depreciation, and
interest considered
4.08
.20
12.23
1.99
51.69
6.04
.55
:;.:■
3.26
79.76
6.81
7.09
87.34
12.66
100.00
8.13
.60
7.41
.29
1.06
.44
1.37 2.60
Mo.
151.
No.
152.
4.29
.89
2.07
1.01
5.17
.30
5.47
83.14
16.86
7.34
.28
2.55
1.03
No.
153.
No.
154.
No.
155.
No.
156.
7.16
1.08
14.03 11.99 J 9.52 12.2
3.57
50.90
6.40
.33
7.12
.16
1.84
42. C9
5. 04
.42
8.13 9.67
.95
10.62
88. 51
11.49
,19 | .03
6.43
.51
.71
3.59
2.33
69.64
7.59
7.59
1.27
78.50
21.50
100.00
2.02
Data were secured for eight establishments, of which six were
located in West Virginia and one each in Maryland and Pennsylvania.
This group showed the smallest percentage of cost for materials,
the average being 12.23 per cent, the highest 18.22 per cent, and the
142 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
lowest 9.52 per cent. Batch was more than one-half of the cost of
materials, except in two establishments, in which the cost for packing
materials was greater than for batch.
The average for total labor for the establishments in this group was
53.68 per cent and, except that for handmade window-glass factories,
Group I, was the highest shown. In only one establishment was the
percentage of cost under 50 per cent of the sales value of goods pro-
duced, and in two establishments the cost was over 60 per cent. The
establishments in this group employed relatively a large amount of
skilled labor, especially in forming and cutting the ware, which in a
large measure accounts for the high percentage of labor cost.
The percentage of cost for fuel, power, light, and water for all estab-
lishments was 6.04, and in this respect they have a comparatively
low cost. As about 75 per cent of the establishments were located
in West Virginia, where cheap gas prevails, the low cost for fuel must
be ascribed to the advantage of location.
Taxes and insurance together amount to 1.16 per cent of the sales
value of goods produced, of which 0.55 per cent was for taxes and
0.61 per cent for insurance. Taxes varied from 0.28 to 1.06 per cent
and insurance 0.21 to 1.47 per cent.
Salaries, with an average of 3.39 per cent and ranging from 1.94
to 5.17 per cent, and general expense, with 3.26 per cent and ranging
from 0.98 to 7.44 per cent, present no unusual features and require no
comment.
Total selling expense, with an average of 7.09 per cent, was highest
in this group. Four establishments were above the average and four
below. Elsewhere in this report (p. 233) is an article which shows the
selling methods employed by the different groups of establishments
and in a measure accounts for the differences in percentages for this ■
item.
Each of the establishments in this group was operated at a profit,
even after charging depreciation and interest, and of only one other
group, miscellaneous goods, can the same be said. This group
ranked fourth in the per cent of profit earned, computed without
depreciation and interest, and third after depreciation and interest
were deducted. The average operating profit on goods produced,
computed without depreciation and interest, was 12.66 per cent,
and when computed with depreciation and interest was 9.37 per cent.
After charging depreciation and interest, only two establishments
showed a profit in excess of 10 per cent, one having 13.78 and the
other 19.48 per cent.
COST AND PROFIT II \ KSTA I ; 1 .1 SI I M F.NTS.
143
BLOWN AND PRESSED T ABLE W ABE.
Table 46, which follows. presents cost data in the form of percentages
for establishments manufacturing both blown and pressed tableware.
The percentages are based on the sales value of goods produced.
Tabu 16 Percentages of Costs, by Specified Items and Profits or Losses,
^ales Value of Goods Produced, by Establishments Manu-
facti ring Tableware, Blown and Pressed.
Aver
ago.
No. , No.
158. ! 159.
iluded in above
Items
.54
I 12
.77
x. Hi
1.20
.55
6.38
2.46
2.12
3.85
9.25
U.77
Total in itt'rials.
Superintendent and foremen.
tv labor
45.73
1.25
42. 94
.65 3.49 2.82 3.
.35 15.08 49.39 41.
1.57
02 .32.SU
Total labor.
50.00 IS. 57 .52.21 45. 4S
Fuel, power, liu'lit, and water
i] poration, etc ...
Insurance and workmen's com-
ma
Offld ds. .
Office I'M
2.07
1.56
1.28
3.32
1.27 1.43J 1.23
2.11 3.91 2.01
General •
7.17J 5.031 8.77
:mif:vUiring and
administration
. 65| 90. 54 97
Belling:
Total selling expense.
Bad debts
.45 1.29 1.
.30 5.60 .
6.66
. 2i ;
6.21
.77
,75| 6. 89 1 1.97
. 25i . 22
Total cost of goods pro-
:
profit on goods pro-
duoe i. ■■ .| uted without dc-
I interest
Operating loss on goods produced,
computed without depreciation
and interest
89. (57
10. 33
. 29 106. 76
.71
... 6.76
lea value of goods
produced
100. 00 100. 00
D
I
4. 53
.54
1.55
1.77
.35 15.32
.20 1.31
Operating profit on goods pro-
duced, computed with de-
■ ind Interest
Operating loss on goods produced,
computed with depreciation
and Interest
Miscellaneous expense.
Miscellaneous income..
w
.25
Final profit, depro-iation and
Interest considered
Final loss, depro iation and
interest considered
92.79
7.21
100.00100.00
3.
65. 16
2.84
43. S2
SS. 62
11.38
12.99
100. 00
24.02
1.78
40.57
.64
1.36
82.58
1.45
7.74
.24
90.56
9.44
10:1.00 UlO.OO 100. 00
2.92 13.
1.
40 1. 70
25 .07
3.55
1.15
2. 62 5. 34 5. 96
.10 1.24
o Less than one one-hundredth of 1 per cent.
144
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 46.— Percentages of Costs, by Specified Items and Profits or Losses,
Based on Total Sales Value of Goods Produced, by Establishments Manu-
facturing Tableware, Blown and Pressed — Concluded.
No.
176.
Materials:
Batch
Decorating
Metal trimmings, etc
Packing
Freight not included in above items.
:.. 1 1
1.72
3.42
10.47
5. til
1.25
3. 78
5. 02
.97
5.15
Total materials.
Labor:
Superintendent and foremen .
Other factory labor
2. 74
IS. 72
1.78
38. 67
3.08
15. 84
1.43
34.0s
Fuel, power, light, and water
Taxes, State, corporation, etc
Insurance and workmen's compensation
Salaries:
Officials
Office force.
51.46| 64.11
7.
;■;. 77
1.48
Total salaries.
General expense
Total manufacturing and adminis-
tration
Selling:
Salesmen
Other selling expense .
Total selling expense.
Bad debts
4.50
Total cost of goods produced
Operating profit on goods produced,
computed without depreciation and
and interest
Operating loss on goods produced, com-
puted without depreciation and in-
terest
88. 65
11
Total sales value of goods produced.
Depreciation .
Interest paid.
Operating profit on goods produced,
computed with depreciation and in-
terest
Operating loss on goods produced,
computed with depreciation and in-
terest
Miscellaneous expense.
Miscellaneous income..
Final profit, depreciation and in-
terest considered
Final loss, depreciation and in-
terest considered
0. 7'. I
.05
.25
45. 55
8.23
.38
.19
48.92
7.29
.55
35.51
8.31
!l8
3. I 1
4.94
1.70
3.52
2.18
10.76
1.00
5.70
11.76
.2-
.2S
79.19
20.81
92.81
7.19
Sir,.
4.34
1.32
1.26
.35
97.39
2.61
4.
.41
.62
8.25
'.). 21
1. 34
1.52
5.9'
9.14
"9."i7
18.31
3.52
4,s. 53
.36
44.52
2.93
46.59
7. Ml
.36
.24
.31
.25
1. 15
6.29
4.46
2.26
7. 71
.25
6.72
.17
97.89
2.11
97.42
2.58
100. 00 100. 00
11.00
1.29
10.18
* '.'04
2.21
.11
Data were secured for 20 establishments, of which 11 were located
in Pennsylvania, 4 in Ohio, 3 in West Virginia, and 2 in Indiana.
Batch and packing were the two principal items under materials.
While percentages are shown for decorating and metal trimmings,
etc., these items were not common to all establishments nor were
they of great importance, as the percentages for each of the items in
the establishments showing such data were less than for either batch
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 145
or packing materials. However, batch in some establishments
included decorating material- and metal trimmings, the accounts of
these establishments being kept in such a manner as not to permit
a segregation of materials. Total materials for the establishments
in this group averaged IS. 81 per cent of the sales value of goods
produced ami ranged from 28.88 per cent in establishment No. 161
to 11 per cent in establishment No. 168.
Total labor for all establishments in this group was 48.01 per
cent of the sales value of goods produced. In 7 establishments
total labor amounted to 50 per cent or over, and in 2 it was over
60 per cent. In 12 of the remaining establishments labor cost was
between 40 and 50 per cent, and in 1 it was less than 40 per cent.
Fuel, power, light, and water averaged 8.12 per cent. Of the 20
establishments in this group, 12 had a higher and eight a lower
percentage of cost than the average. The highest cost was found in
establishment No. 159, with 17.09 per cent, and the lowest in estab-
lishment No. 173, with 4.68 per cent.
Taxes and insurance amounted to 0.84 per cent, of which 0.5 per
cent was for taxes and 0.34 per cent for insurance. In only 2
establishments were taxes and in only 1 establishment was insurance
over 1 per cent of the sales value of goods produced.
Salaries amounted to 3.63 per cent, of which 2.07 per cent was for
officials and 1.56 per cent for office force. In only three establish-
ments did the total expenditures for salaries exceed 5 per cent, and
in no establishment was it as high as 7 per cent.
The percentage for total selling expense was comparatively high
in this group, being exceeded by only two other groups. The aver-
age for the group was 6.66 per cent. The highest percentage was
found in establishment No. 171, with 11.76 per cent, and the lowest
in establishment No. 165, with 1.1 per cent.
Losses from bad debts were not found in four establishments. Of
the establishments which had such losses, the highest was found in
establishment No. 173, with 0.96 per cent, and the lowest in estab-
lishment No. 165, with 0.07 per cent.
On the average the establishments in this group had the lowest
percentage of operating profit when computed without depreciation
and interest. The average for the group was 5.11 per cent as
against 10.49 per cent for the 213 establishments. Establishment
No. 169, with 20.81 per cent, showed the highest profit, and, exclud-
ing the establishments that showed losses, establishment No. 174,
with 2.11 per cent, the lowest. Four establishments showed losses
ranging from 12.99 per cent in establishment No. 163 to 2.01 per
cent in establishment No. 168.
After charging depreciation and interest, eight establishments
showed losses, in two of which the loss was over 20 per cent. On
the average the establishments in this group, after charging depre-
ciation and interest, were barely operated at a profit, the average
for the group being only 0.04 per cent.
Depreciation and interest amounted to 5.07 per cent, of which
4.53 per cent was for depreciation and 0.54 per cent for interest.
Depreciation ranged from 15.32 per cent to 1.1 per cent and interest
for those establishments reporting such data from 1.77 per cent to
0.07 per cent.
102511°— 17 10
146
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
147
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148 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Data were secured for 18 establishments, located in New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, Ohio, and
Indiana. There is no marked centralization of the establishments in
any State.
While in a few of the establishments decorating and metal trim-
mings, etc., formed a considerable part of the total cost of materials,
it can not be said that it was the general custom for manufacturers of
lighting goods to decorate the ware or to furnish the metal trimmings.
The average for materials was 20.05 per cent of the sales value of
the goods produced. Six of the establishments were above the
average and 12 below. The highest establishment, No. 188, had a
cost for materials of 31.56 per cent, due largely to decorating and
metal trimmings, and the lowest establishment, No. 182, had 14.85
per cent, due to the comparatively low cost of packing materials.
The labor employed by the establishments in this group may be
said to be between the highly skilled labor employed in the handmade
and blown ware groups and the unskilled labor in the machine-made
ware groups. The average for all establishments in the group was
40.15 per cent. Two establishments, Nos. 177 and 187, with 60.09
and 55.21 per cent, respectively, were exceptions to the comparatively
medium labor costs in the group. Of the remaining establishments,
five had costs of between 40 and 50 per cent, ten between 30 and 40
per cent, and only one less than 30 per cent.
An examination of the percentages for fuel, power, light, and water
will show that the highest cost, in establishment No. 185, was over
three times as much as the lowest cost, in establishment No. 184.
The percentages of cost for the other establishments were between 5
and 14 per cent, centering around 7 per cent.
The variation in the percentages for taxes and insurance was due
partly to the laws of the various States in which the factories were
located and partly, in the case of insurance, to the policy of the com-
pany. The average for taxes was 0.52 per cent and in only one estab-
lishment was it greater than 1 per cent. The average for insurance
was 0.39 per cent, and in three establishments it was over 1 per cent
but not greater than 1.65 per cent.
Of the remaining items entering into the total cost of goods pro-
duced, selling amounted to 6.72 per cent, general expense 5.91 per
cent, salaries 4.29 per cent, royalty 0.78 per cent, and bad debts
0.33 per cent. Owing to a peculiar condition existing in establish-
ment No. 191 , no selling expense was reported. Royalty was reported
in four establishments and, unlike royalty in other groups, was a
payment for the use of a batch formula and not for machines.
The establishments in this group had an average operating profit
when computed without depreciation and interest of 13.94 per cent,
an operating profit when computed with depreciation and interest of
9.3 per cent, and a final profit of 9.93 per cent. Two establishments,
before charging depreciation and interest, showed an operating loss
and four establishments showed a loss after charging depreciation
and interest. Of the establishments operating at a profit after
charging depreciation and interest, two had a profit of over 20 per
cent, four between 10 and 20 per cent, four between 5 and 10 per cent,
and four less than 5 per cent; and of those operating at a loss one had
a loss of 9.22 per cent and three under 5 per cent.
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
149
Depreciation and interest together amounted to 4.64 per cent, of
which 3.54 per cent was for depreciation and 1.1 per cent for interest
paid. The two establishments having the greatest percentage of
profit had no charges for interest.
LAMP CHIMNEYS.
Table 48, which follows, presents cost data in the form of per-
centages for establishments manufacturing lamp chimneys. The
percentages are based on the sales value of goods produced.
Table 48.— Percentages of Costs, by Specified Items and Profits and Losses,
Based on Total Sales Value of Goods Produced, by Establishments Manu-
facturing Lamp Chimneys. .
Items.
Aver-
age.
Materials:
Ratch
Decorating
Metal trimmings, etc.
Packing
7.40
.46
.06
10.24
Total materials .
24.16
Labor:
Superintendent and foremen.
Other factory labor
2.30
50.10
Fuel, power, light, water
Taxes, State, corporation, etc
Insurance and workmen's compensation.
Salaries:
Officials
Office force
2.13
1.06
Total salaries
General expense
Total manufacturing and administration
Selling:
Salesmen
Other selling expense
Total selling expense
Bad debts
Total cost of goods produced
( iperating profit on goods produced , computed
without depreciation and interest
Operating loss on goods produced, computed
without depreciation and interest
94. 70
5.24
Total sales value of goods produced.
Depreciat ion
Interest paid
Operating profit on goods produced, computed
with depreciation and interest
Operating loss on goods produced, computed
with depreciation and interest
Miscellaneous expense.
Miscellaneous income..
Final profit, depreciation and interest
considered
Final loss, depreciation and interest
considered
1.61
.76"
5.75
.18
4.12
.12
3.67
.41
3.00
68.09
3.60
.11
.55
4.87
.24
.70
2.42
.18
.53
5.69
2.55
2.79
.97
1.05
.41
2.56
.64
2.39
.64
92.80
7.20
84.46
15.54
94.73
5.27
100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00
9.17
.64
.10
18.64
28.55
3.44
44.17
47.61
6.87
2.05
1.26
3.31
4.75
92.01
.58
4.67
.10
96.78
3.22
150 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Data were secured for six establishments, of which four were
located in West Virginia and one each in Ohio and Oklahoma.
Cost of materials for all establishments in this group averaged
24.16 per cent of the sales value of goods produced. This compara-
tively high percentage was due largely to the packing cost, which
amounted to 16.24 per cent for all establishments and ranged from
8.21 per cent in establishment No. 196 to 18.64 per cent in estab-
lishment No. 200.
Lamp chimneys, generally speaking, are packed for both the
domestic and export trade with more care than any other of the
glass products. The chimneys are generally wrapped in paper,
placed in individual tubes or partitioned cardboard, and then placed
in wooden cases, so that the comparatively high packing cost is dis-
tinctive of this branch of the industry.
This group ranked fourth in labor cost, the average being 52.40
per cent. In establishment No. 196 the labor cost was 71.69 per
cent and in establishment No. 198, 67.21 per cent. Of the remaining
establishments three had a labor cost over and one under 50 per
cent of the sales value of goods produced.
Fuel, power, light, and water was lowest in this group, the average
being 5.26 per cent. The highest cost was in establishment No. 200,
6.87 per cent, and the lowest in establishment No. 198, 1.92 per cent.
This low cost was due to the location of the factories in districts where
natural gas is cheap.
On the average, taxes and insurance showed about the same
percentage of cost, being 0.46 per cent for the former and 0.43 per
cent for the latter, although an examination of the percentages for
the establishments, at first glance, would not indicate this relative
position of these two items. Because of the effect of establishment
No. 200, the averages do not reflect the actual relative position of
taxes and insurance in the other five establishments.
In establishment No. 195 no salaries were reported, nor was any
estimate given as to the value of the services rendered by the owners.
The average of 3.19 per cent would be somewhat higher if the per-
centage had been computed for only the five establishments reporting
salaries.
General expense amounted to 4.03 per cent and was lowest in
establishment No. 195, with 0.85 per cent, and highest in establish-
ment No. 196, with 6.75 per cent.
Selling expense showed no regularity and depended almost entirely
upon the course pursued by the different establishments. The
average was 4.52 per cent, the highest 8.97 per cent, and the lowest
1.69 per cent. Bad debts were not found in two establishments
and in those reporting such losses the range was from 0.1 per cent
to 1.45 per cent.
One establishment was operated at a loss of 10.88 per cent when
computed without depreciation and interest, the charges for these
items increasing the loss to 15.99 per cent. One establishment was
barely operated at a profit after charging depreciation and interest,
the profit being less than 1 per cent. Of the remaining establish-
ments, after charging depreciation and interest, one had a profit of
13.31 per cent, two between 5 and 10 per cent, and one less than 5
per cent.
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 151
! depreciation and interest paid amounted to l'.:!7 per cent, of which
1.61 per cent was for depreciation and 0.76 per cent for interest
paid. The former varied from 0.33 to 2.74 per cent, and the latter
from 0.18 to 2.37 per cent.
MISCELLAX EOUS ARTICLES.
Table 49 presents costs data in the form of percentages for es-
tablishments manufacturing a variety of articles that could not be
1 to any one of the preceding groups. The percentages are
based on the sales value of goods produced.
152
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
153.
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154 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Data were secured for 13 establishments located in Massachusetts*
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana?
and Illinois. As is indicated by the number of States, there is no
centralization of this branch of the glass industry.
The establishments in this group, producing a variety of articles
from glass marbles to chemical goods and using different grades and
varieties of materials, showed a wide variation in the total cost of
materials. The highest percentage of cost was found in establish-
ment No. 202, which was twice the average of 21.51 per cent and
almost six times the lowest cost of 7.63 per cent in establishment
No. 204.
While undoubtedly some of the establishments, on account of their
product, require a greater amount of skilled labor than others, yet
the variation in the percentages are not so marked as in materials.
In two establishments the percentage for labor was over 50 per cent,
in five establishments between 40 and 50 per cent, and in six estab-
lishments less than 40 per cent.
Fuel, power, light, and water also shows a wide variation in the
percentages, the average being 5.57 per cent, the highest 10.55 per
cent, and the lowest 1.09 per cent. Owing to the diverse products
of the establishments in this group, the variation in the percentages
did not depend entirely upon the location of the factories, but to
some extent upon the difference in the amount of fuel consumed for
the proper fusion of the materials.
Taxes and insurance amounted to 1.07 per cent, of which 0.58 per
cent was for taxes and 0.51 per cent for insurance. The highest
percentage for taxes was found in establishment No. 212, with 1.49
per cent, and for insurance in establishment No. 208, with 1.24
per cent. In othor establishments neither of these items amounted
to as much as 1 per cent.
Of the other items included in cost of goods produced, salaries
ranged from 1.2 to 8.81 per cent, general expense from 0.95 to 13.1
per cent, selling from 0.48 to 11.97 per cent, and bad debts from
0.02 to 2.07 per cent in those establishments reporting such data.
Although the average operating profit, computed without depre-
ciation and interest, was exceeded by the average profit in machine-
made bottles, Group VI, and lighting goods, Group XI, yet a greater
percentage of the establishments were operated at a profit of over
10 per cent than in either of the other two groups. One of the estab-
lishments was operated at the remarkable profit of 40.45 per cent,
but it so happens that this establishment has little effect on the
average. Four establishments were operated at a profit between
15 and 20 per cent, five between 10 and 15 per cent, and three at
less than 10 per cent. After charging depreciation and interest, the
average profit was 8.59 per cent, no establishment being operated at a
loss. Depreciation ranged from 0.66 to 6.47 per cent and interest
paid from 0.03 to 1.51 per cent in the establishments reporting such
data.
COST BASED ON TOTAL EXPENSES, EXCLUDING DEPRECIATION AND
INTEREST.
The preceding percentage tables in this section of the report were
based on net sales or sales value of goods produced. The percentages
for the items of cost based on the total cost of goods produced are
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS. 155
different from those based on net sales or sales value of goods produced.
If based on net sales or sales value of goods produced, profit is a
part of the divisor, and in that case the percentage for each item of
cost is smaller than when the computation is based on the total cost
of goods produced; when there is a loss, the divisor is correspond-
ingly smaller and the resulting quotients or percentages are larger.
Perhaps the most striking way to call attention to the difference
between other percentage tables in this section and Table 50, which
follow-, is to state that the percentages in the former are based on
receipts, or income, and those in Table 50 on expenditures, or outgo,
whicn, however, excludes depreciation and interest. In the following
table percentages are basea on the total cost of goods produced,,
excluding depreciation and interest.
156
THE GLASS INDUSTKY.
XIII.
Miscel-
laneous
articles.
l "
CO
o
=
ri
CD'O
cmo6
3
f-
cc
s
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co>o
CO
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t
8
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§
8
XII.
I amp
chim-
neys.
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cc-ro
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s
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XI.
Light-
ing
goods.
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Table-
ware,
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and
pressed.
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s
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IX.
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ware,
blown.
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Jars.
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VII.
Bottles,
hand
and ma-
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Bottles,
ma-
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V.
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hand.
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s
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Wire
and
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goods.
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Plate
glass.
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C
c
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
157
Since the same general conditions apply to all tables showing
percentages by groups, it does not seem necessary to discuss the
above table, in view of the fact that these condition- have already
been discussed on pages 106 to 112.
As ihr lifferenl bases have been used in computing percentages
for the tables in this section of the report, it may be of interest to
compare the percentages for certain items when computed on the
different bases. Table 51, which follows, shows percentages for five
items of expense when based on net sales, sales value of goods pro-
duced, and total cost of goods produced, excluding depreciation and
interest.
Tab£e 51. — Comparative Summary of Percentages for Five Items of Expense
Computed on Different Bases.
Cost of
goods pro-
Sales value
duced , ex-
rtems.
Net sales.
of goods
cluding
produced.
deprecia-
tion and
interest.
21.93
22.70
25.36
Total labor
40.57
41.98
46.90
Fuel
8.15
8.43
9.42
3.39
3.51
3.92
4.01
3.92
It will be seen in the above table that the percentages when com-
puted on net sales are lower than when computed on either the sales
value or cost of goods produced; that is, total net sales for all estab-
lishments were greater in amount than either of the other bases.
LOWEST AND HIGHEST COST ESTABLISHMENTS.
Because of their location in natural-gas fields, some establishments
had a decided advantage in fuel. Others had to produce their own
gas from coal or pay a high rate for natural gas brought from distant
fields.
To bring the various establishments to a more comparable basis
and confine the expenses to manufacturing and administration, the
items of fuel, power, etc., selling expense, and bad debts were de-
ducted from the total cost of goods produced. Percentages were
then computed on this new base for the different groups and for
establishments which' showed the lowest and highest percentage of
cost in each group. In Table 52, which follows, are given the per-
centages based on the total cost, excluding fuel, etc., selling expense,
bad debts, depreciation, and interest for the various groups and for
the lowest and highest cost establishment- in each group.
158
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 52. — Average Percentages op Costs by Groups, and Establishments
with Lowest and Highest Percentage op Cost in Each Group, by Specified
Items, Except for Fuel, Power, Light and Water, Selling, and Bad Debts.
Group L-
-Window glass, hand.
Group II.—
Window glass, machine.
Items.
Average
for group.
Lowest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 14.
Highest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 2.
Average
for group.
Lowest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 45.
Highest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 40.
Total materials for product
18.90
9.98
20.12
22.99
31.21
21.05
Labor:
Superintendent and fore-
.71
69.25
1.34
69.08
2.07
58.02
Other factory labor
75.08
53.29
57.35
Total factory labor
69.96
75.08
70.42
60.09
53.29
57.35
Taxes, State, corporation, etc. .
Insurance and workmen's
.05
1.71
1.15
1.40
1.35
2.22
.48
1.82
.40
2.77
.76
2.14
Salaries:
Officials
1.90
1.4S
5.04
.94
.58
1.64
1.80
2.14
1.84
2.77
3.38
5.98
2.14
2.22
1.84
4.57
4.64
7.76
8.35
2.14
6.32
5.34
6.41
3.75
7.81
Total manufacturing cost
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Grou]
> III.-Plate
glass.
Group IV
—Wire and
glass.
opalescent
Items.
Average
for group.
Lowest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 52.
Highest
cost estab-
lishrr 'nt,
No. 63.
Average
for group.
Lowest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 58.
Highest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 62.
Total materials for product . . .
35.81
24.49
40.80
39.70
34.92
37.48
Labor:
Superintendent and fore-
3.20
41.94
4.77
53.94
2.56
31.37
4.05
27.82
2.57
Other factory labor
33.18
26.65
Total factory labor
45. 14
58.71
33.93
31.87
33.18
29.22
Taxes, State, corporation, etc.
Insurance and workmen's
1.37
.98
.60
.74
.96
1.34
3.54
1.34
.54
1.09
Salaries:
1.99
1.45
2.03
1.00
1.27
1.13
4.67
2.02
11.82
2.95
5.47
1.62
3.44
3.03
2.40
6.69
14.77
7.09
13.20
12.19
21.17
18.95
12.25
24.58
Total manufacturing cost
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHED
159
Table 52. —Average Percentages of Costs by Groups, and Establishments
with Lowest a\d Highest Percentage ok Cost in Each Group, by Specified
Items, Except for Fuel. Power. Light and Water. Selling, and Bad Debts —
Continued.
Group V.— Bottles, hand.
Group VI.— Bottles, machine.
[terns.
Average
for group.
Lowest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 74.
Highest
cost estab-
lishment,
for group.
Lowest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 97.
Highest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 98.
Total materials for product... .
24.33
26.46
24.09
3r>. 12
39. 52
39.09
Labor:
Superintendent and fore-
1.78
GO. 73
3.07
00.94
1. 69
44. 62
2.40
40.83
1.32
Other factory labor
55.82
48.00
Total factory labor
62. 51
G4.01
55.82
46.31
43.23
49.32
Taxes, State, corporation, etc.
Insurance and workmen's
.59
.70
.65
.30
1.92
1.10
.66
.81
.51
.37
.63
Salaries:
3.28
2.22
1.7S
2.50
.SI
2.94
1.70
4.47
.75
1.62
5.50
4.47
.75
4.28
3.75
3.32
6.09
3.71
17.06
11.53
12.18
7.27
Total manufacturing cost
100. 00
100.00
lllll.O'l
100.00
100.00
100. 00
Total materials for product —
Labor:
Superintendent and fore-
men
Other factcry labor
Total factory labor
Taxes, State, corporation , etc. .
Insurance and workmen's
compensation
Salaries:
Officials
Office force
Total salaries
General expense
Total manufacturing cost
Group VII.— Bottles, hand and
machine.
I Lowest
Average ; cost estab-
for group, i lishment,
No. 133.
24.01
1.22
5S.53
5.93
4.04
Highest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 131.
1.21
60. IS
Group VIII.— Jars.
Lowest : Highest
Average cost estab- ; cost cstab-
for group. | lishment, < lishment,
Mn 1/13 I Vn i«
2.09
59.35
7.10 |
3.70
100.00
160
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 52. — Average Percentages of Costs by Groups, and Establishments
with Lowest and Highest Percentage of Cost in Each Group, by Specified
Items, Except for Fuel, Power, Light and Water, Selling, and Bad Debts —
Continued.
Group IX.— Tableware, blown.
Group X.-
-Tableware,
pressed.
blown and
Items.
Average
for group.
Lowest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 156.
Highest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 150.
Average
for group.
Lowest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 169.
Highest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 163.
Total materials for product
16.59
19.44
12.83
23.57
17.69
30.65
Labor:
Superintendent and fore-
2.70
70.12
2.97
66.60
5.32
70.57
2.86
57.26
3.61
65.52
2.61
Other factory labor. „
50.74
Total factory labor
72.82
69.51
75.89
60.12
69.13
59.35
Taxes, State, corporation, etc. .
Insurance and workmen's
.75
.82
.80
1.22
.50
.63
.43
.28
.53
.08
.37
Salaries:
3.16
1.44
4.56
1.12
3.72
2.20
2.58
1.96
1.19
3.87
2.65
4.60
5.68
5.92
4.54
5.06
2.65
4.42
3.69
3.64
10.71
7.31
6.90
Total manufacturing cost
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Group :
CI.— Lightin
g goods.
Group XII.— Lamp chimneys.
Items.
Average
for group.
Lowest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 183.
Highest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 177.
Average
for group.
Lowest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 197.
Highest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 196.
Total materials for product
27.81
27.13
17.35
28.54
21.52
13.90
Labor:
Superintendent and fore-
3. 63
52.06
1.92
51.72
2.72
59.17
2.02
63.47
2.95
Other factory labor
60.53
67.49
Total factory labor
55.69
53.04
66.53
61.89
65.49
70.44
Taxes, State, coropration, etc. .
Insurance and workmen's
.72
.55
.77
1.24
1.16
1.21
.54
.51
.22
.67
.24
.69
Salaries:
Officials
2.40
3.55
6.64
5.48
3.41
3.61
2.51
1.25
3.52
1.22
5.59
2.50
5.95
12.12
7.02
3.76
4.74
8.09
1.08
8.20
5.10
6.73
4.76
7.36
6.64
Total manufacturing cost
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
161
Table 52. — Average Percentages op Costs by Groups, and Establishments
with Lowest and Highest Percentage of Cost in Each Group, by Specified
Items. Except for Fuel. Power, Light and Water, Selling, and Bad Debts —
Concluded.
Group XIII.— Miscellaneous
articles.
Items.
Average
for group.
Lowest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 201.
Highest
cost estab-
lishment,
No. 202.
27.65
23.04
46.48
Labor
2.9S
54.67
2.42
69.06
43.27
57.65
69.06
45.69
.72
.65
.4-1
1.3S
.09
.48
Salaries:
2.77
1.99
4."l4'
*
4.76
4.14
8.57
1.93
100.00
100.00
The above table shows wherein the lowest cost estabHshment was
operated at a lower percentage of cost than the highest cost estab-
lishments or the average for the group and also wherein it was
operated at a higher percentage of cost.
As an illustration, take the group making window glass by hand.
Group I. The lowest cost establishment had a lower percentage of
cost for materials, taxes, and insurance, but had a higher percentage
for labor, salaries, and general expense than the highest cost estab-
lishment. The greatest difference in cost was in materials, which in
the main accounts for making establishment No. 14 the lowest cost
establishment in this group. This difference in the cost of materials
may be due to several reasons, among which may be mentioned
(a) nearness to source of supply of materials, (b) quality of materials
used, (c) greater efficiency in buying, (d) other items of expense
relatively high.
SALES IN PREVIOUS YEARS.
Sales were obtained not only for the year covered by the report
but for previous years in as many establishments as possible. The
object was to compare the sales in previous years with those of the
last business year, 1915. In Table 53, which follows, percentages
that sales of previous years were of 1915 sales are shown by estab-
lishments and groups.
102511°— 17 11
162
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 53. — Percentages that Sales in Previous Years Were op Sales in 1915,
by Establishments and Groups.
GROUP I.— WINDOW GLASS, HAND.
Establishments.
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
No. 4
77.01
60.55
82.33
80.84
71.56
96.72
87.16
92.17
77.83
159. 59
111.49
139. 95
72.77
135. 74
54.51
78.22
123.63
128. 11
57.12
101.92
92.03
94.31
60. 90
103. 57
39.10
89.20
76.22
58.09
138. 32
80.08
94.06
11.61
89.87
72.57
100. 85
76.45
92.29
70.49
92.79
91.60
80.39
109. 95
85.50
82.52
86. 02
65.38
83.24
126. 55
82.30
121.60
74.09
129.46
102. 78
95. 38
106. 69
122.21
127.54
116.99
70.49
127.44
90.71
71.24
145.37
103. 13
94.63
128. 55
110. 89
130. 88
78.75
118. 91
100. 08
98.19
113.05
125. 73
127.45
114.30
96.86
143. 79
80.69
69.14
92.84
91.17
110.80
151. 18
102. 26
82.13
100. 00
No. 16
100. 00
No. 17
100. 00
No. 15
100. 00
No. 5
100. 00
No. 28
100. 00
No. 25....
100.00
No. 24
100. 00
No. 32
100. 00
No. 35
100. 00
No. 7
100. 00
No. 13
100. 00
No. 29
100. 00
No. 8
100.00
No. 36
100. 00
No. 9
100. 00
No. 12
100.00
No. 26
100. 00
No. 21
100. 00
No! J 27
100. 00
No. 34
100. 00
No. 30
100. 00
Average:
77.01
60.55
76.30
71.56
86.39
87.80
77.83
118.65
123. 85
108. 99
57. 12
86.57
88.46
76.88
81.88
11.61
63.02
72.25
80. 73
82.64
80.74
83.24
96.81
102. 86
105. 93
103. 92
103.42
103.81
94.63
112. 57
117.04
110. 86
110. 39
108.41
105. 04
105. 53
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
1
100. 00
100. 00
GROUP II.— WINDOW GLASS, MACHINE.
No. 46
79.30
102. 53
23.59
41.55
27.90
103.99
20.80
122. 17
182.99
65.12
82.23
53.02
118. 26
194. 78
57.84
84.74
76.60
94.21
203. 81
42.27
52.95
100. 00
No. 45
100. 00
No. 38...
100. 00
No. 40
100. 00
No. 42
100. 00
No. 49
100. 00
No. 39
Average:
79.30
102. 53
48.25
41.55
32.16
103.99
46.79
71.13
70.09
82.23
62.14
84.11
79.58
84.74
79.14
95.99
86.74
78.94
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
GROUP III.— PLATE GLASS.
No. 51
56.62
82.04
90.79
82.07
115.41
74.05
95.10
131.78
71.56
103. 88
124.25
88.03
115.81
132. 86
91.10
100. 00
No. 55....
100. 00
No. 50....
100. 00
No. 52
100.00
Average:
56.62
82.04
90.79
82.07
105.41
74.05
88.79
96.64
71.56
94.18
99.67
88.03
107.47
112.11
107.26
100. 00
100.00
100.00
100. 00
1
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
163
Table 53. — Percentages thai Saj.es ix Phj coi a Yi \ i:s Were of Sales in 1915,
bt Establishments and Groups — Continued.
GROUP IV.— WIRE AND OPALESCENT GLASS.
Establishments.
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
L912
1913
191)
1915
177.04
243. 47
186.15
99.53
195.34
129.84
106.42
107.08
87.76
117.38
No. 56 . . .
177 18
100 00
No. 64....
114.68 1J4.61
100.00
No. 58
125.12
123.92
102. 79
111.04
100. 00
No. 60....
105. 2S
100. 00
No. 59
100.00
Average:
177.04
243.47
107.23
207.07
119.79
220.00
147. 51
195.34
110.42
109. 10
109.46
100.00
100. 00
119.28
144.14
142.69
100.00
100. 00
GROUP V.— BOTTLES, HAND.
75
79
73
B5
81.05
95.83
100. 77
83.56
96.15 112.97
91.04 100.49
105.48 102.09
83. 92 87. 09
116.90
106. 61
64.22
105. 70
95. 00
103. 15
100. 67
107.43
83.03
12.3. 38
138. 36
103. 65
133. 07
82.44
91.62
125. 61
102. 51
112.55
89.64
111.95
108. 45
110. 89
138. 11
120. 55
132. 54
82.43
124. 71
97.51
10S. 67
129. 3S
125. 05
114.53
121. 25
137. 20
112.19
173. 97
165. 95
60.92
132.54
110.21
120. 26
123. 95
US. 08
171.87
120. 03
96.19
116.16
122. IS
120. 45
200.31
110.41
96.87
123.56
97.67
Average:
2 establishments . . ] 90. 28
4 establishments
5 establishments
6 establishments
10 establishments
11 establishments
14 establishments
16 establishments
95. 53
85.41
87.44
88.46
.99 100.41
35.55 101.55
94.97
SS. 17
100. 54
102.49
97.92
110.42
111.34
101.27
104.07
104. 82
113.55
118.74
118. 15
121.49
US. 61
120. 9S
120.50
138. 76
122. 80
122. 59
122. 32
121.48
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100.01)
100. 00
100.00
GROUP VI.— BOTTLES, MACHINE.
No. 100
i
63.44
72.82
77.41
139.92
103. 19
53.24
120. 34
63.90
95.91
122. 41
60.69
111.35
106.35
145. 12
55.97
153. 73
90.88
94.26
130. 49
184. 37
79.25
139. 18
114.16
189. 67
86.51
204. 82
109. 83
209. 38
78.05
91.82
107. 70
142. 53
158.06
96.56
133. 21
10S. 08
212. 45
133. 60
220. 38
127.91
160. 66
104. 59
120. 07
100. 00
No. 103
I
100. 00
No. 106....
1
100. 00
No. 104
i
100. 00
No. 107
j
100. 00
No. 92
100. 00
No. 93...
100. 00.
No. 94
!
100. 00
No. 102....
100. 00
No. 105
100. 00
No. 91
100. 00
No. 98
100. 00
No. 108....
100. 00
Average:
,
63.44
72.82
77.41
97.40
63.90
94.28
94.26
128. 01
132. 96
116. 94
107.70
127.55
138.44
130.86
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
164
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 53. — Percentages that Sales in Previous Years Were op Sales in 1915,
by Establishments and Groups — Continued.
GROUP VII.— BOTTLES, HAND AND MACHINE.
Establishments.
No. 113.
No. 124.
No. 130.
No. 122.
No. 131.
No. 109.
No. 116.
No. 119.
No. 128.
No. 120.
No. 126.
No. 123.
No. 132.
318. 10
47.45
75.47
221.93
39.92
83.64
130. 01
80.47
250. 17
55.42
104. 77
137. 29
87.09
155. 66
133.04
237.23
1S2. 89
25(1. 15
66.30
112.52
141.54
83.65
129. 50
163.86
151. 53
157. 96
50.10
121.48
12.".. OS
210.52
58.55
110.72
135. 49
10s. 31
162. 06
133. 27
152. OS
1S3.60
142. 43
125.41
13S.22
2119.50
43.65
107. 16
121.45
84.37
153. 92
139. 76
141.66
97.07
122. 87
124. 59
12S..52
100. 07
Average:
1 establishment . .
3 establishments .
5 establishments .
9 establishments .
12 establishments
13 establishments
31S.10
190. S3
221. '13
90.57
256. 17
112.00
IDS. 03
133. 7.s
250. .).",
118. 73
111.70
126. 26
120. 91
23.'. 47
120. 55
115. 14
121.02
124. 84
117.88
210.52
114.21
115.37
132. 20
132.60
12.1.69
200.5U
100.29
100. 61
107. 56
111.86
110.27
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
UROUP VIII.— JARS.
75. 77
102. 71
69.94
69. 44
101.27 ' 39.48
128.88 ! 108.24
84.84 | 91.75
70.77 ■ 77.12
91.22 98.47
81.69 89.65
68. 62
113.54
103.51
93.27
119.57
82.50
60.26
121. 30
79. 41
91.95
100. 00
100. 00
No. 147
100. 00
No. 148
100. 00
100. 00
No. 145
100. 00
No. 138
100. 00
100. 00
No. 143 .. .
100. 00
No. 144
100. 00
Average:
77.97 91. 5S 85.89
96! 62
100. 00
90.41 i 86.96
100. 00
100. 00
| !
GROUP IX.— TABLEWARE, BLOWN.
No. 150.
No. 154.
No. 149.
No. 156.
Average:
1 establishment . .
2 establishments.
3 establishments .
4 establishments .
85.51
105.47
85.51
99.64
92. 19
87. 03
92.19
88.96
73.92
114. 56
79. 69
116. 11
43. 40
7o. 69
105. 4S
96.31
110.60
89. 40
61.09
102. 52
100. 50
114.53
1 12. 25
108. 57
89.56
102. 65
84.19
91.40
80. 56
98. S3
96.67
94.28
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
100. 00
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
165
Table 53.
■Percentages that Sales in Previous Years Were of Sales i.v 1915,
by Establishments and Groups — Concluded.
P X.-TABLEWARE, BLOWN AND PRESSED.
Establishments.
1906
1907
1908 1 1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
No. 167
No. 171
No. 158
76.26
92.98
95.49
106. 79
120. S6
111.20
120.63
146. 33
112. 62
110.11
108.13
112.62
107.97
L54.64
124. 39
169. 25
161.09
123.01
108. 7-1
129. 15
Ho. 17
68.50
64.00
100.01
1)2.77
152. 16
126. M
190. 57
158.70
128. 85
110.93
136. 74
100.84
93.92
76.31
97.38
107. 72
125. 19
126. 91
117.22
117.10
123. 62
134. 36
119. 30
10S.32
130. 94
55.05
71.23
93.02
119.82
116.44
118.42
157. 1 1
135. 45
111.74
93.71
122. 50
93.31
112. 25
100.09
74.99
76. 50
84.79
73. 15
126. 05
118. 75
125. 57
129. 51
143.69
142. 83
97.86
118.25
84.69
94.36
113.54
74.65
107. 92
97.67
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
No. 161
No. 168. ...
100.00
100.00
100.00
No. 170
No. 1:1
No. 163. ...
100.00
100.00
100.00
No. 172
No. 173
No. 169
100.00
100.00
100.00
No. 166
::::::::
100.00
100.00
Average:
S7.71
103.23
111.11
109.43
124. 73
108. 4S
108. 75
128. 26
114.49
104. 47
124. 42
122.85
115. 22
111.38
116.24
112. 31
107. 74
106.84
109.39
114.87
110.43
107. 63
107.24
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
!
GROUP XL-LIGHTING GOODS.
No. 183 . .
33.06
39 7"
58.06
190. 69
77.91
99.00
72.22
119.51
86.68
100. 99
90.63
61.39
95. 7S
145. 50
72.84
90.00
150. 39
91.16
106. 14
10S.02
90.47
124. 51
122. 44
90.51
157.08
87.50
116.25
81.34
107.65
109. 74
102. 54
138. 35
123. 12
96. S8
126.93
100.00
No. 181 .. .
186,68
196. 17
75.95
9S.62
100. 00
No. 193
100. 00
No. 186
100. 00
No. 179
100. 00
No. 184
100. 00
No. 187 ..
100. 00
No. 177
100. 00
No. 188
100.00
No. 192
100. 00
Average:
33.06
39.72
94.51
54.44
107.28
85.19
58.06
107. 50
86.60
72.22
89.85
89.34
86.48
90.00
112.51
97.39
99.15
111.63
87.50
98.22
S8.35
96.37
102.96
100.00
100. 00
100.00
100.00
100.00
1
GROUP XII.— LAMP CHIMNEYS.
No. 197.
No. 199.
No. 200.
No. 195.
Average:
3 establishments .
4 establishments.
49. 87
72.24
99.52
(IS. 79
90.66
84.71
84. 09
93.57
S6.02
S6.30
GROUP XIII.— MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
No. 20S.
No. 206.
No. 210.
No. 211.
No. 207 .
No. 205.
No. 201.
Average:
4 establishments.
5 establishments .
6 establishments .
7 establishments .
51.67
54.61
118.20
100. 58
50.56
61.97
117.21
67.79
97.96
61.45
77. G7
132. 00
88. 66
76.00
101.18
68. SI
82.19
119.04
S9.00
79.45
60.30
96. .12
95.46
94.46
94.47
166
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
An examination of the above table shows that all groups are repre-
sented in only the years 1912, 1913, and 1914. The average sales in
Groups II, VIII, XII, and XIII were greater in 1915 than in the years
1912, 1913, and 1914. The average sales in the other groups were
less in 1915 than they were in the other years.
PROFITS IN PREVIOUS YEARS.
Profits in previous years were also obtained from as many estab-
lishments as possible. In Table 54 percentages are shown for the
Srofits of previous years based on the sales of that year, by estab-
shments and groups.
Table 54. — Percentages op Final Profit, Based on Sales op Each Year, 1906
to 1915, by Establishments and Groups.
GROUP I.— WINDOW GLASS, HAND.
Establishments.
1906
1907 1908 1 1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
0.40
8.30
11.61
7.50
3.18
a 2. 34
28.54
20.70
16.71
22.98
6.70
6.54
23.60
a 1.35
a 8. 11
12.77
6.98
a 2. 67
8.52
a. 79
a 18. 98
4.90
al.99
ol.96
17.79
a 8. 25
8.22
a 16. 17
5.06
9.92
5.26
6.77
a. 12
5.24
8.01
2.42
d.35
o5.33
2.54
5.35
a5.55
5.07
13.58
13.76
26.66
21.15
16.37
26.30
16.84
9.20
18.46
13.52
12.75
12.95
a %. 75
17.43
30.92
4.75
12.70
19.04
12.41
11.23
16.56
16.08
14.58
11.80
6.48
16.04
14.36
10.13
12.38
21.09
a 1.84
8.43
32.75
5.37
2.27
12.67
.55
9.99
10.81
12.95
No. 16
5.02
7.46
7.47
No. 17
14.53
No. 15
::::::::
12.03
No. 5...
l ..
8.08
No. 28
f
10.97
No. 25
7.72
No. 24
::::::::i::::::::
6.36
No. 32
15.77
No. 35
i
7.35
No.7
::::::::::::::::
10.59
No. 13...
5.62
No. 29
13.58
No. 8
»3. 67
No. 36
5.13
No. 9
8.17
No. 12
10.57
No. 26
i
2.16
No. 21 . . .
4.35
No. 27
o.72
No. 34
8.57
No. 30 .
7.20
Average: _
3.05
.38 .40
5.22 7.97
3.18
11.03
13.70
13.31
a8.ll
6.71
4.26
1.07
2.70
o 16. 17
6.49
6.07
4.05
3.48
3.19
13. 5S
18.44
19.22
16.15
14.81
14.02
13.90
19.04
13.29
14.19
13.57
14.04
12.57
12.36
11.62
12.95
11.87
7.86
11.91
10.30
10.36
9.09
8.71
1
8.13
1
GROUP II.— WINDOW GLASS, MACHINE.
No. 46
4.54
6.46
13.55
a 6. 95
a 4. 99
ol. 04
a 43. 92
18.71
6.90
1.29
3.38
24.56
8.35
18.29
1.35
12.75
17.39
o.42
14.88
1.41
o.57
1.94
No. 45...
No. 38
ol. 46
No. 40
No. 42
9.57
No. 49
7.84
Average:
4.54
6.46
8.84
o6.95
o5. 78
a 1.04
a 14. 15
ol.31
3.38
15.81
13.70
12.75
15.84
12.93
9.45
1.94
2.46
2.46
4.41
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
167
Table 54.
Percentages op Final Profit, Based on Sales of Each Year, 1906
to 1915, by Establishments and Groups — Continued.
GROUP III.— PLATE GLASS.
Establishments.
1906 '; 1907
190S
L909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1911
1915
No.51
5.18
6.33
21. 19
8.58
8.54
"4.11
10.36
21.49
a 12. 41
11.25
19.24
3.39
a 1.19
15.12
12.17
1.57
a 2. 46
6.15
No. 52
11.80
Average:
a 5. IS
6.33
21.19
8.58
8.54
a4.ll
6.74
10.25
a 12. 41
5.91
8.95
3.39
". 07
3.22
4.98
1.57
a 1.25
.10
2.80
GROUP IV .-WIRE AND OPALESCENT GLASS.
No. 57
17.99
25.69
18.04
5.92
20.09
18.42
6.67
29.33
21.96
8.06
a9.09
28! 79
31.96
4.17
8.05
oil. 88
14.34
24.23
23.21
5.63
O21.06
No. 56
a 14. 56
No. M
5.52
28.88
No. 60
21.51
No. 59
10-04
Average:
17.99
25.69
8.17
20.09
7.99
9.61
8.06
9.40
10.97
10.74
8.05
13.14
14.06
13.67
a 21. 06
3.99
6.01
6.18
GROUP V.-BOTTLES, HAND.
No.75
3.71
.66
5.92
4.48
3.15
9.97
15.58
2.17
8.28
14.67
16.45
o.06
9.27
15.38
5.73
o6.79
.73
4.44
9.44
3.74
13.27
1.10
5.19
6.35
4.12
9.54
6.76
4.67
ol2.93
o2. 80
3.27
8.15
6.76
10.72
5.02
1.31
4.46
11.42
04. 76
3.66
8.32
3.81
10.31
6.62
1.09
7.50
11.50
o3. 76
15.28
6.77
0.68
o.31
8.65
4.43
3.24
1.29
2.03
7.64
10.91
ol.l9
11.56
o3.82
16.34
3.84
No. 79
o2.07
No. 73
6.78
No. 77
10.91
No. 89
6.78
No. 72
2.62
No.87
3.20
No. 90
3.11
No. 88
7.25
No. 67
a. 18
No. 86
o3.41
No. 74
12.27
No. 66
a. 18
No. 78
10.83
Average:
2 establishments . .
3 establishments. .
1.69
3.05
3.67
5.71
7.59
7.79
9.60
6.04
7.07
9.06
7.64
1.79
2.65
4.30
4.09
5.98
5.74
5! 19
06. 36
2.74
4.17
5.25
3.48
3.19
3.35
4.55
4.19
3.29
3.70
3.18
2.45
1.62
3.30
3.91
2.82
3.31
3.39
3.70
.15
2.12
4.24
5.37
4.08
4.43
3.83
4.37
168 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 54. — Percentages of Final Profit, Based on Sales of Each Year, 1906
to 1915, by Establishments and Groups — Continued.
GROUP VI.— BOTTLES, MACHINE.
Establishments.
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
No. 100
a 1.93
i8.34
o 3. 68
10.62
29.80
6.70
33.30
03.86
21.05
26.75
17.34
30.50
4.90
17.47
30.35
18.46
29.93
11.21
10.49
21.87
13.84
26.34
23! 23
17.84
21.15
42.85
a 2. 23
o4. 78
9.45
8.92
10.67
22.93
18.30
28.02
7.85
25.75
30.88
21.68
40.89
4.80
a 4. 28
5.69
No. 103
20.36
No.106
13.32
No. 104
No. 107
No. 92
No. 93
No. 94
No.102
No. 105
24.66
No. 91
No. 98
No. 108
4.31
Average:
22! 26
a 3. 86
23.82
23.53
11.21
20.13
23.05
18.35
8.92
21.05
24.14
17.23
7.92
14.58
GROUP VII— BOTTLES, HAND AND MACHINE.
No. 124 .
10.40
10.60
17.07
4.90
10.26
7.31
11.29
8.60
4.92
5.18
7.08
8.97
4.11
16.28
9.45
6.86
7.06
3.32
5.37
6.79
o5.83
10.74
<*S. 89
4.23 :
2.66
10.13
9.47
8.25
2.43
5.66
8.90
1.55
7.86
o4.24
.51
2.58
13.91
4.18
7.45
a. 84
2! 03
8.36
1.12
2.39
9.49
a. 60
a. 19
2.61
9.29
5.14
2.30
5.23
1.45
3.09
11.45
4.51
a 1.00
6! 88
o3. 67
2.61
8.91
10.06
No. 130.. .
No. 122
.96
No. 131
oH.74
No. 116 ...
.87
No. 119
1.54
No. 128
4.84
No. 120 .
No. 126 ...
a 10. 60
No. 123
.99
No. 113
9.38
No. 132 . .
7.30
Average:
10.55
7.08
7.88
9.13
7.13
9.06
7.41 i
6.27
6.03
5.12
9.59
7.33
6.88
5.21
5.71
.77
1.57
3.94
3.07
3.65
4.77
1.86
2.83
2.30
3.68
1.66
o2.62
o.51
ol.50
.05
GROUP VIII.-JARS.
No. 142
10.90
10.62
.99
o3.47
17.57
2.99
13.76
3.66
6'.42
2.96
.99
15.13
10.17
5.25
8.16
0.06
02. 65
14.51
10.57
6.34
1.15
1.83
8^58
8.58
5.03
No. 146
4.49
No. 147
9.85
No. 14S .
11.31
2.05
No. 145
4.29
No. 138
0I.68
No. 139 ...
3.-76
No. 143
5.74
7.81
Average:
5.94
7.35
7.23
8.49
8.24
12.53
11.32
10.65
15.83
14.05
11.99
COST AND PROFIT BY ESTABLISHMENTS.
169
Table 54.
-Percentages op Final Profit, Based on Sat.es of Each Year, 1900
to L915, by Establishments and Groups — Continued.
GROUP IX.— TABLEWARE, BLOWN.
Establishments.
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
No. 150
No. 154
0.92
6.28
3.40
15.06
10.87
3.91
10.87
8.09
1 12. 49
8.31
5.70
ol.68
10.14
17.17
0.17
12.54
.05
18.67
5.26
10.65
No. 149
1.16
18.92
Average:
1 establishment...
2 establishments. .
.92
6. 28
3.40
6.62
a 5.06
7.53
3.91
9.34
15.37
a 12. 49
4.63
4.77
ol.68
7.14
6.89
11.37
.17
9.27
8.08
12.74
5.26
9.07
7.90
12.90
GROUP X.— TABLEWARE, BLOWN AND PRESSED.
No. 171 2. 88
10.02
2.74
9.22
16.37
3.32
10.34
3.08
18.05
5.26
7.42
8.86
5.82
3.95
10.20
4.49
11.24
3.93
9.26
9.41
14.42
5.92
17.28
10.98
15.80
1.08
15.03
2.89
20.61
2.38
a 8. 19
1.73
14.24
7.39
14.87
10.13
16.28
5.02
18.28
4.09
18.33
.44
o4. 65
8.78
10. SI
1.80
.21
4.73
11.86
11.56
16.77
ol.35
18.53
6.44
19.24
4.82
15.07
3.72
4.91
8.35
6.26
.58
4.84
19.99
10.68
16.94
o.63
20.65
- 5.16
21.74
2.55
10.39
5.61
30.85
5.81
5.87
2.61
No.158
8.50
No. 160
7.89
No. 161
O7.03
No. 159
07. 84
No. 16S
o3.22
No. 170
5.05
No.162
6.10
oil. 38
No. 172
2.03
No. 166
8.23
No. 169
20.90
No. 165
5.12
Average:
2. 88
10.02
10.47
5.26
7.59
8.34
5.92
9! 85
12! 14
10.39
9.75
4.73
11.66
9.46
9.25
8.97
4.84
12.51
10.50
11.27
11.08
2.61
.99
1.82
f 3.60
3.67
1
GROUP XL-LIGHTING GOODS.
No. 183
o24.37 on. 88
10. ss
03. 83
9.54
23.23
8.13
5.73
21.94
6.15
o7.57
25.31
04.88
19.17
.74
o.48
2.63
4.63
o2.92
23.64
0I.68
13.36
4.55
o4.77
6.32
19.44
9.52
1.94
24.31
07. 08
13.42
.16
2.23
6.84
13.75
14.92
No. 181
04. 63
No. 193
No. 179....
20.38
No. 184
15.06
No. 187
::::::::::::::::
1.11
No. 177
No. 188....
7.50
No. 192
21.28
Average: _
o24.37 011.88
4. 88
03. 83
5.29
18.04
8.13
6.54
17.57
6.15
o.65
19.34
13.84
4.63
.87
17.68
13.00
15.10
9.52
6.18
19.63
12.86
13.12
14.92
::::::::::::::::
7.63
17.53
13.67
15.44
■1
GROUP XII.-LAMP CHTMNEYS.
No. 197
4.56
.03
a 1.14
10.29
-4.00
6.63
8.22
14.34
4.83
4.26
8.03
14.31
No. 199
7.05
No. 200
.
2.47
No. 195
6.73
Average:
o.59
C.73
6.75
5.78
5.S7
4.67
4.75
170
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 54. — Percentages op Final Profit, Based on Sales op Each Year, 1906
to 1915, by Establishments and Groups — Concluded.
GROUP XIII.— MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
Establishments.
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
No. 208
13.63
8.14
16.05
6.12
9.45
1.17
16.87
6.01
5.80
2.53
4.11
11.05
4.44
a 1.70
17.17
2.48
4.77
18.73
7.94
5.38
17.34
29.68
9.6
No. 206
No. 210
No. 211
6.28
No. 207
No. 205
No. 201
32.30
Average:
10.34
9.22
8.83
5.86
4.88
5.50
9.71
9.14
9.58
9.61
12.68
12.05
12.09
12.15
A study of the above table shows the irregularity of profits, not only
in individual establishments but of the average profit in each group as
well. This irregularity, in some establishments at least, is due partly
to whether or not depreciation was charged. Some establishments do
not charge depreciation regularly, but only in those years which show
a substantial profit. In some years, then, depreciation may or may
not have been considered in computing the rate of profit. No attempt
was made to go behind the figures, the percentages being based on the
profits and sales as shown on the books of the various companies.
Five of the thirteen groups showed a higher and eight a lower average
profit in 1915 than in 1914. Groups III, IV, and X reached their high-
est average profit in 1914, Groups I, II, VI, and XII in 1913, and Group
VII in 1912.
CHAPTER V.
COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS.
The manufacturers who furnished data respecting their total pro-
duction and net sales were requested to supply also data as to the
cost of production of the specific articles of glassware that formed the
major portion of the ware produced. Great difficulty was found in
obtaining accurate cost data, not only because of the great variety
of articles produced but more particularly because most of the
establishments used very crude cost-finding systems, which in many
cases were obviously inaccurate.
Data were secured only from plants that had a reasonably accurate
cost-finding system, based on actual records of unit production.
Wherever possible cost and prices were obtained as they were before
they were affected by the war in Europe.
Lack of uniformity in the systems and records of those plants that
furnished cost data makes it impossible to present the detailed items
of cost of materials, labor, and overhead charges. For this reason
only total cost, net selling price, and the profit or loss are shown. In
a number of instances where splendid records were kept the agents
could not use the data without divulging the identity of the estab-
lishments. Such was the case in several plants manufacturing glass
bulbs for the incandescent lamp industry.
TABULATION OF COST AND PROFIT BY ARTICLES.
Data were obtained for 259 separate units from 29 establishments
that manufactured bottles, jars, stem ware, tumblers, other table-
ware, and lamp chimneys. The total cost of producing and selling
these articles, the prices at which they were sold, and the profits 01
losses are shown in the following series of tables.
The number of establishments reporting, the number of units of
each class reported, and the number of units manufactured at a profit
or loss are shown in Table 55, which follows:
Table 55.
-Number of Establishments Reporting and Number or Units Show-
ing Profits and Losses, by Class of Ware.
Class of ware.
Establish-
ments
reporting.
Unit s
reported.
Units
shoving
profits.
i nits
showing
losses.
Units sold
at cost.
11
7
9
6
10
4
66
28
62
16
49
3S
54
24
52
16
45
30
12
4
8 1 2
4 ..
7 1 1
Total
29
259
221
35
3
In the above table the figures in the column showing the number of
establishments reporting do not add to the total for the reason that
in some of the establishments more than one class of ware is made.
172
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 56. — Cost and Profit per Dozen in the Manufacture of Lime-Glass
Tumblers.
Establish-
ment.
Description.
Blown or
pressed.
Net
selling
price.
Total
cost.
Profit.
Loss.
No. 162
Table tumbler. 10 ounces
Bressed . . .
$0.50
SO. 40
$0.10
No. 164
do
...do
.33
.30
.03
No. 176
Table tumbler, 10 ounces, straight ■
Blown
.23
.20
.03
No. 188
Table tumbler, 10 ounces, colonial tapered.. .
Pressed . . .
.22
.23
SO. 01
No. 171
Table tumbler, 9 ounces, blown light
Blown a...
.33
.31
.02
No. 165....
Pressed . . .
...do
.40
.33
.27
.29
.13
.04
No. 1.58
Table tumbler, plain
No. 188
Table tumbler, plain, cut star bottom
...do
.28
.32
.04
No. 171
Table tumbler
...do
.13
.12
.01
No. 182
Ice tea tumbler, 12 ounces
...do
.67
.60
.07
No. 176
Ice tea tumbler, 9 ounGes
...do
.14
• .12
.02
No. 182
Soda tumbler, 12 ounces, optic
...do
.60
.51
.09
No. 162
Soda tumbler, 12 ounces, bell
...do
.52
.36
.16
No. 164
do
...do
.40
.38
.02
No. 188
do
Blown
.38
.31
.07
No. 176
do
...do
.34
.23
.11
No. 176
do
Pressed . . .
.28
.18
.10
No. 162
Soda tumbler, 10 ounces, bell
...do
.47
.33
.14
No. 164
do
...do
.37
.34
.03
No. 176
do
Blown
.30
.22
.08
No. 166
do
...do
.28
.25
.03
No. 176
do
.25
.16
.09
No. 162
Soda tumbler, 8 ounces, bell
...do
.42
.28
.14
No. 182
do
...do
.37
.59
.22
No. 164
do ..
...do
.32
.31
.01
No. 176
do
Blown
.27
.21
.06
No. 176
do
.23
.15
.08
No. 162
Soda tumbler, 7 ounces, bell
...do
.41
.26
.15
No. 164
do
...do
.32
.28
.04
No. 176
do
Blown
.27
.48
.20
.37
.07
.11
No. 158
No. 164
Whisky tumbler, 3 ounces, plain
...do
.25
.17
.08
No. 176
do
...do
.18
.11
.07
No. 176
do
Blown
.18
.16
.02
No. 158
Whisky tumbler, 2 ounces, heavy bottom. ..
Pressed . . .
.33
.30
.03
No. 164
Whisky tumbler, 2 ounces, plain
...do
.23
.17
.06
No. 176
Whisky tumbler, 2 ounces, fluted
...do
.18
.09
.09
.18
.15
.03
No. 164
Whisky tumbler, 11- ounces, plain
.22
.14
.08
No. 176
Whisky tumbler, U ounces, fluted
...do
.18
.10
No. 176
.18
.15
.03
No. 176
Whisky tumbler, 1 ounce, plain
...do -..
.18
.14
.04
No. 174
Pressed . . .
...do
.26
.53
.24
.40
.20
.80
.24
.45
.22
.34
.15
.72
.02
.08
.02
.06
.05
.08
No. 162
No. 174....
.do
Blown
Pressed . . .
Blown
No. 162
No. 166
do
No. 162
Beer glass, 12 ounces, heavy
No. 166
Blown
.31
.27
.04
•■ Made of lead glass.
Table 57.
-Cost and Profit per Dozen in the Manufacture , of Lime-Glass
Stem Ware, Pressed.
Establish-
ment.
Description.
Net
selling
price.
Total
cost.
Profit.
No. 170
SO. 30
.86
.70
.69
.40
.26
.18
.43
.35
.53
.19
.16
.13
.59
.37
3.00
SO. 28
.72
.52
.65
.36
.24
.16
.32
.29
.41
.17
.15
.12
.42
.30
2.10
SO. 02
No. 171
.14
No. 176 .. .
.18
No. 182
.04
No. 164
.04
No. 170 .. .
.02
No. 170
.02
No. 182...
.11
No. 182
.06
No. 182
.12
No. 170
.02
No. 164
.01
No. 170
.01
No. 182
.17
No. 164
.07
No. 162
.90
COST AND PKOFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS.
173
Table 5S. — Cost and Profit per Dozen in the Manutactuiik op Lamp < 'himneys.
Gas Globes, and Lantern Globes. Blown.
Establish-
ment.
Description.
Kind of glass.
selling
price.
Total
cost.
Profit.
Loss.
No. 200
No. 200
No. 197
Lamp chimney, Rochester, No. 3, paste
mold.
Lamp chimney, student, Rochester, No.
3, 10 inches, paste mold.
Lamp chimney, Rochester, No. 2, flint,
in cartons.
Lamp chimney, Rochester, No. 2, 10
inches, paste mold.
Lamp chimney, Rochester. No. 2. offhand
Lamp chimney, Rochester, No. 2, paste
mold.
Lamp chimney, Rochester, No. 1, paste
mold.
do
One-half lead.
do
$1.00
.45
.:.!
.50
.45
.45
.45
.40
.40
.45
.35
.35
.34
.31
.30
.30
.26
.59
.50
.50
.50
.45
.50
.50
1.53
'.99
1.24
.94
.84
.65
.33
.33
.38
.22
.3,
.28
.28
$0.94
.42
.41
.48
.37
.38
.37
.33
.27
.50
.31
.32
.44
.30
.28
.41
.26
.46
.37
.55
.49
.37
.41
.47
1.04
.81
.81
.85
.71
.63
.45
.40
.47
.40
.15
.28
.22
.24
SO. 00
.03
.13
.02
.08
.07
.08
.07
.13
""'.oi'
.03
.01
.02
No. 200
No. 200
One-half lead.
No. 200
No. 200
No. 200
do
One-half lead.
No. 200. .
Lamp chimney, Rochester, No. 0, paste
mold.
Lamp chimney, Sim, No. 2, plain
do
One-half lead.
No. 200
No. 197 ...
SO. 05
No. 200
No. 200
No. 200
Lamp chimney, Sun, No. 2, plain, off-
hand.
Lamp chimney, Sun, No. 2, crimp top,
offhand,
.do
do
One-half lead.
.10
No. 200
No. 200
No. 200....
Lamp chimnev, Sun, No. 1, plain top,
offhand.
Lamp chimney, Sun, No. 1, crimp top,
offhand.
. do
do
One-half lead..
.11
No. 197
No. 200
No. 200
Lamp chimney, Phoenix, No. 2, flint,
. ed, in tubes.
Lamp chimney, Phoenix, No. 2, offhand.
do
do
One-half lead..
do
.13
.13
"~~.~6i"
.OS
.09
.03
.49
.48
.18
.39
.23
.21
.20
.07
.03
.06
.04
::::::::
.05
No. 200
No. 200
Lamp chimney, B. & H., No. 2, paste
mold.
Lamp chimney, B. & H., No. 2, offhand.
Lamp chimney, electric, No. 2, flint, in
tubes.
Lamp chimney, Belgian, No. 1, 10|
inches, paste mold.
es, C. R. I., ball, 7 inches
: .es, C. R. I., ball; 6 inches
lobes, C. R. I., ball, 5 inches
Gas globes, tungsten, 8 inches, C. R. I...
bes, tungsten, 7 inches, O. R. I...
ies, tungsten, n inches, C. R. I...
Gas globes, 6f-inch air hole, iron mold,
opal.
Gas globes, 5 inches, upright, paste mold.
Gas globes, 4J inches, inverted, frosted,
paste mold.
Gas globes, 5J inches, inverted, mission,
paste mold"
Gas globes, 3} inches, inverted, half-
frosted apple.
Lantern globe, Junior, cold blast, No. 2,
iron mold.
. .do
No. 197
No. 200
No. 184
One-half lead..
do
No. 184
No. 184
No. 184
No. 184
No. 1S4
No. 200
No. 200
No. 200
No. 200
No. 188
do
.....do
do..,
do
do
One-half lead..
do
do
.07
.14
.02
No. 200
No. 200
do
.do
No. 200
Lantern globe, tubular, iron mold
do
174 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 59. — Cost and Profit per Dozen in the Manufacture of Lime-Glass
Tableware, Pressed.
Establish-
ment.
Description.
Net
selling
Total
$1.60
SI. 31
1.59
1.65
1.50
.88
1.50
1.18
.72
.62
.70
.67
.60
.43
.60
.48
.50
.47
.75
.79
.85
.60
.80
.65
.76
.62
.60
.64
.68
.66
.45
.54
.44
.36
.38
.28
.30
.24
.25
.25
.22
.20
.22
.22
.15
.14
.12
.11
.11
.10
.85
.65
.80
.49
.80
. 93
.68
.54
.65
.48
.60
.36
1.21
1.39
.75
.85
.72
.58
.65
.50
1.35
1.05
.90
.79
.80
.62
.80
.53
2.40
1.75
2.50
2.00
1.10
.99
.75
.57
.90
.54
2.97
3.52
2.20
1.73
2.20
1.85
2.19
1.80
6.64
5.00
2.54
1.40
.48
.38
.45
.35
.40
.25
.35
.29
.37
.34
.80
.50
.60
.50
.42
.34
.50
.40
.44
.37
.40
.30
.30
.24
Profit. I Loss.
No. 174....
No. 182....
No. 165....
No. 162
No. 170....
No. 188
No. 170....
No. 170....
No. 176 ... .
No. 164
No. 162....
No. 165....
No. 174....
No. 164....
No. 182....
No. 182....
No. 174....
No. 162....
No. 165....
No. 164....
No. 170....
No. 188....
No. 170....
No. 170....
No. 176... .
No. 162....
No. 165....
No. 182....
No. 174....
No. 164....
No. 188....
No. 182....
No. 164....
No. 170....
No. 188....
No. 162....
No. 165....
No. 174....
No. 174....
No. 174 ... .
No. 162....
No. 188....
No. 176....
No. 176....
No. 182....
No. 174....
No. 162....
No. 182....
No. 182....
No. 182....
No. 188....
No. 162....
No. 165....
No. 188....
No. 166....
No. 162....
No. 174....
No. 170....
No. 164....
No. 174....
No. 162....
No. 165....
Nappy,
do..
....do..
....do..
N'appy,
Nappy,
N'appy,
Vappy,
Nappy,
Nappy,
Nappy,
'.'.'.'.do.
do.
Nanpy.
N'appv.
do.
....do.
8 inches, finished, joint mold
8 inches, imitation cut
8 inches, unfinished, block mold.
8 inches, unfinished, joint mold .
8 inches, joint mold
7 inches
6 inches
5 inches.
4 inches.
....do.
....do.
....do.
....do.
Nappy,
Nappy,
Nappy.
4 inches, unfinished, joint, mold . .
4 inches, unfinished, block mold .
4 inches
Sugar bowl and cover, handled.
Sugar bowl and cover
'.do.
Sugar bowl and cover, star bottom .
Sugar bowl, no cover
do
.do.
Sii-ut bowl and cream set
Jug, ice, tea, 73 ounces
Jug, ice tea, 65 ounces ,
Jul;, ice tea, 3 pints, imitation cut
Jug, ice tea, 3 pints
Jug, ice, 12 ounces, handled (blown)
('a nl> ard, .', gallon.
Tankard, 63J ounces
Tan kard, 3 pints (blown)
Water bottle, 1 quart
Decanter, 26 ounces, pressed stopper
Cruet, oil or vinegar, 6 ounces, pressed stopper
Cruet, oil, 7 ounces, art neck, cut star bottom.
Egg cup, 4 ounces
do
....do
Egg cup, double cup . . .
Fintier bowl, 11 ounces,
.do.
Finger bowl, 11 ounces, finished.
Finger bowl, 10 ounces
Plate, 6 ounces
do
do
SO. 29
$0.06
.62
.32
.10
.03
.17
.12
.03
.04
.25
.15
.14
.04
.02
.09
.08
.10
.06
.02
.01
.01
.01
.20
.31
.13
.14
.17
.24
.18
.10
.14
.15
.30
.11
.18
.27
.65
.50
.11
.18
.36
.55
.47
.35
.39
1.64
1.14
.10
.10
.15
.06
.03
.30
.10
.08
.10
.07
.10
.06
COST AND PROFIT BY SPKCIF1I.D UNITS.
175
Table 60.-
■Cost and Profit in ran Manufacture of Machine-Made Milk Jars,
I im it Jars, and Packing and Preserving Tumblers.
Establish-
ment.
Description.
Unit.
Nel
selling
price.
Total
cost.
Profit.
Loss.
No. 112
Milk- jar. 1 quart . flint
Gross
$4.20
$4.00
$0.20
No. 141
do
do....
3. 45
3.27
.18
No. 142
Milk i:ir. 1 pint, flint
do....
2.90
2.75
.15
No. Ml
do
do....
2.25
2.21
.01
No. 140
Mason jar. 32 ounces
do....
2.99
3.12
$6.13
No. 140
Mason jar, 26 ounces
do....
2.95
2.91
.04
No. 140
Mason iar. 20 ounces
do....
2.67
2.55
.12
No. 140
Mason jar. 10 ounces
do....
2. 15
2.10
.05
No. 188
Packer, J gallon, glass ears, wooden handle. .
Dozen
.57
.44
.13
No. 140
Gross
do
3.12
1.9S
2.60
1.70
.52
No. 140
igon.jam
• 28 |
No. 140
Preserver, dl ounces
do
1.67
1.52
.15
No. 140
Preserver, 8 ounces, octagon, pickle
6 ounces, Bat, pickle
do
1.91
1.66
No. 140
do
1.81
1.47
.34
No. 110
Preserver, •" ounces, mustard jar
do
1.46
1.22
.24
No. 140
Preserver, 4 1 . ounces, cvlinder. olive
do
1.39
1.34
.05 1
No. 140
Tn miliar. Hi ounces, lonu
do
2. 95
2.76
.19
No. 140
Tumbler, 12 ounces, lone
do
2.43
2.24
.19
No. 174
Dozen
do
.25
.19
.22
.17
.03
.02
No. 174
Tumbler. 12 ounces, iellv
No. 174
Tumbler. 10 ounces, iellv
do
.18
.16
.02
No. 162
.50
.47
.03
No. 176
Tumbler, 8 ounces, jellv.no cap
do
.09
.10
01
No. 140
Tumbler. 7J ounces, jellv
do
.11
.12
.01
No. 174
Tumbler. 7 ounces, jellv •
do
.12
.11
.01
No. 174
do...
do
.10
.08
.02
No. 188
Tumbler, 6 ounces, jellv, crvstal
do
.11
.09
.02
No. 176
Tumbler, 6 ounces, jelly, no cap
do
.08
.09
.01
Table 61. — Cost and Profit per Gross in the Manufacture of Bottles.
Estab-
lish-
ment.
Description.
Contents.
Weight
in
ounces.
Hand or
machine
made.
Net.
selling
price.
Total
cost.
Profit.
Loss.
No. 132...
No. 79...
No. 87....
No. 119...
No. 90....
No. 132...
No. 79....
No. 119...
No. 87....
No. 90....
No. 82....
No. 130...
No. 132...
No. 119...
No. 87....
No. 90....
No. 113...
No. 82....
No. 130...
No. 132...
No. 119...
No. 87....
No. 90....
No. 113...
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, flint.
Prescription, round, wide
mouth, flint.
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, flint.
do
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, green.
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, flint.
Prescription, round, wide
mouth, green.
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, flint.
Prescription, oval", narrow
neck, green.
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, flint.
do
do
do
do
Prescription, oval, narrow
nock, green.
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, flint.
do
Prescription, ammonia, long
neck, flint.
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, flint.
do
do
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, green.
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, flint.
32 ounces .
do
do
do
do
16 ounces..
do
do
do
do
do
10 ounces.
8 ounces...
do
do
do
do
do
6 ounces...
4 ounces...
do
do
do
do
20
20
20
19
20
12
12
11*
12
12
12
11
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
4
<
4
4
4
Hand...
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
Machine
Hand...
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
Machine
Hand...
...do
...do
...do
...do
$5. 50
5.00
4.92
4.92
4.61
3.65
3.25
3.24
3.24
3.04
2.70
2.35
2.66
2.24
2.24
2.10
2.00
1.85
2.00
1.S5
1.72
1.72
1.61
1.53
S4.59
4.15
4.19
4.08
3.16
3.35
3.02
3.06
2.85
2.28
2.30
2.05
2.02
2.06
1.91
1.44
1.63
1.87
1.56
1.43
1.50
1.42
1.30
SO. 91
.77
.73
.53
.49
.18
.19
.42
.05
.61
.22
.18
.19
.56
.22
.13
.31
.29
.22
.19
.23
SO. 30
.10
176 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 61. — Cost and Profit per Gross in the Manufacture of Bottles. — Con.
lish-
ment.
No. 82..
No. 132.
No. 119.
No. S7-.
No. 90..
No. 113.
No. 82..
No. 99..
No. 134.
No. 87..
No. 79..
No. 90..
No. 134.
No. 134.
No. 132.
No. 128.
No. 99..
No. 90..
No. 99..
No. 132.
No. 79...
No. 90..
No. 87..
No. 132.
No. 90...
No. 87...
No. 82...
No. 130.
No. 79...
No. 113.
No. 87...
No. 90...
No. 132.
No. 132.
No. 113.
No. 87...
No. 90...
No. 87...
No. 90...
No. 87...
No. 90...
No. 90...
Description.
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, flint.
do!
....do
do
Perscription, oval, narrow
neck, green.
Prescription, oval, narrow
neck, flint.
....do
Beer, bulb neck, export, am
ber.
Beer, bulb neck, export, green
Beer, bulb neck, export, flint
do
Boer, bulb neck, export, am-
ber.
Beer, taper neck, amber
Beer, bulb neck, export, am-
ber.
do
Beer , bulb neck, export, greer
do
Beer, bulb neck, export, am-
ber.
Soda,bulb neck, export, green
do
Brandy, green
Brandy, amber
Brandy; flint
Brandv, amber
....do'. /
Brandv, flint
....do
Whisky, amber
Wine, flint
Nursing, round, flint
....do
....do
do
Nursing, flat, flint . . .
....do:
....do
.do.
Ink, square, flint
Ink, square, green
Ink, cylindrical, flint..
Ink, cylindrical, green.
Ink, cone, green
Contents.
4 ounces.
2 ounces.
....do...
....do...
....do...
....do...
1 quart.
....do..
1 pint . .
do..
....do..
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
...do.
pint . .
1 pint .
J pint .
..do..
..do..
..do..
..do..
8 ounces.
....do...
....do...
....do...
....do...
....do...
....do...
....do...
2 ounces.
....do.-..
....do...
....do...
....do...
Weight
Hand or
machine
Hand . . .
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
Machine
...do
Hand...
...do
...do
Machine
...do
...do
Hand . . .
Machine
Hand...
Machine
...do
Hand...
...do
...do
Machine
Hand...
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
..do
..do
...do
...do
..do
..do
..do
..do
..do......
..do !
..do
..do
price. | ^ osz -
1.38
1.21
1.24
1.16
1.00
3.75
3.55
3.50
3.40
2.50
2.50
2.38
2.33
2.25
3.15
2.25
2.78
6.00
4.25
4.25
3.75
4.50
4.50
3.80
5.00
4.75
2.00
l!<55 i
2.30
2.25
2.00
1.65
1.65
1.52
1.42
1.48
1.39
1.39
1.28
1.18
1.22
1.15
2. 84
3.24
4.06
2.83
2.25
2.25
2.11
2.35
1.89
2.40
2.92
4.13
4.75
3.70
4.79
5.84
1.77
1.88
2.07
2.04
1.90
1.76
1.72
1.86
1.32
1.33
1.33
1.30
1.30
Loss.
UNIT COST FOB WINDOW GLASS.
Available data from which unit costs could be derived were ob-
tained from a considerable number of window-glass establishments
visited by the agents during this investigation. Such data were
reported by 1 8 establishments manufacturing window glass by hand
and 3 manufacturing by machine. These establishments are fairly
representative and are located in West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio,
Kansas, Indiana, and Texas.
Information was secured as to the total number of 50-foot single-
strength boxes of window glass produced during the business period.
All boxes were reduced to a uniform basis of single-strength glass.
Double-strength glass was reduced in the proportion of 8 to 5
The method employed in deriving the cost of various brackets of
window glass from the data obtained was briefly as follows: The
amount of piece-paid labor was deducted from the total factory labor
cost. Piece labor includes the following occupations: In the hand
plants, blower, gatherer, nattener, and cutter; in the machine fac-
COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS.
177
tories, blower, flattener, ring man. snapper, capper, cracker open,
and cutter. These occupations are paid according to a piece-price
scale for the different brackets and grades and are charged directly
to the cost of the unit.
The items of cost, except piece-paid labor, are practically the same
for all cylinders produced in a factory, as the grades and sizes are not
determined until the glass reaches the cutting department. An
average cost, therefore, for general expense, administration, fixed
charges, and time labor was properly applied to the cost of the unit.
This was derived by dividing the total of these charges by the number
of boxes produced. This method is employed practically by all
window-glass factories and serves as a fairly accurate basis for deter-
mining the cost of specific brackets and grades.
HANDMADE PRODUCT.
The following table is derived from the wage scale agreed upon by
the National Window Glass Workers and the National Association
of Window Glass Manufacturers. These piece prices were in effect
from March 15, 1916, to May 27, 1916.
Table 62. — Rates of Piece-Price Labor for a 50-Foot Box of Handmade
Window Glass, by Brackets, A and B Grades, Single and Double Strength.
[Gatherers are paid 80 per cent and flatteners 27 per cent of blower's rates.]
Blower.
Gatherer.
Flattener.
Cutter.
Total.
Brackets.
A.
B.
A.
3.
A..
B.
A and
B.
A.
B.
SINGLE STRENGTH.
8 by 10 to 10 by 15 inches
$0,250
$0,235
SO. 200
SO. 188 SO
06S
$0. 063
SO. 127
SO. 645
SO. 613
11 by 15 to 14 bv 20 inches . . .
.290
.270
.232
.216
078
.073
.127
.727
.686
14 by 21 to 16 by 24 inches . . .
.325
.305
.260
.244
088
.082
.127
.S00
.758
16 by 25 to 20 by 30 inches . . .
. 355
.320
.284
.256
096
.086
.127
.862
.789
21 by 30 to 24 bv 30 inches . . .
.335
.304
.268
103
.090
.127
.914
.S20
24 by 31 to 24 bv 36 inches . . .
.390
.350
.312
.280
105
.095
. 127
.934
.852
25 by 36 to 30 by 41 inches . . .
.435
.380
.348
.304
117
.103
.127
1.027
.914
All above 30 by 41 inches
.455
.405
.364
.324
123
.109
.127
1.069
.965
DOUBLE STRENGTH.
6 by 8 to 16 by 24 inches
.355
.320
.2S4
.256
096
.086
.166
.901
.828
16 by 25 to 24 by 36 inches . . .
. 515
.460
.412
. 3<is
139
.124
.166
1.232
1.118
24 by 37 to :j ; i by 40 inches . . .
. 560
.500
.448
.400
151
.135
.166
1.325
1.201
30 by 41 to 36 by 51 inches . . .
.620
.560
.496
.448
167
.151
.166
1.449
1.325
36 by 52 to 33 bv 60 inches . . .
. 750
.665
.600
203
.180
.166
1.719
1. 543
40 by 60 to 40 by 78 inches . . .
1.250
1. 145
1.000
.910
:■;:; <
.309
.166
2.751
2.536
All above 40 by 78 inches
2.305
2.150
1.844
1.72H
622
.5S1
.166
4.937
4.617
The following series of tables is presented to show costs of various
brackets and grades of single and double strength window glass.
Table 63 shows the cost of production in 18 establishments of a
50-foot box of hand mad e'single-strength' glass, bracket 6 by 8 to 10
by 15 inches, and illustrates the method employed in computing the
total cost of the various brackets as given by separate establishments
in Tables 64 and 65 on following pages.
102511°— 17 12
178
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 63. — Cost op Producing a 50-Foot Box op Handmade Single-Strength
Window Glass, Bracket 6 by 8 to 10 by 15 Inches, A and B Grades, with
Additional Cost for Depreciation and Interest on Current Loans, by
Establishments.
Establishment.
Piece-paid
labor.
Other
fac-
tory
]'ii. or.
Sala-
ries.
All
other
cost.
Inter-
est.
No. 2.
No. 3.
No. 5.
No. 6.
No. 8.
No. 11
No. 13
No. 15
No. 17
No. 18
No. 19
No. 20
No. 22
No. 24
No. 29
No. 31
No. 34
No. 35
$0. 174
.097
.129
.285
.238
.170
6.169
.157
.149
.158
.144
.183
.154
.160
.169
.118
.155
$0. 328
.259
.107
.179
.190
.209
.122
.089
.062
.176
.242
.203
.114
.215
.063
.073
.0S3
.177
SO. 6 15
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.645
.613
.613
.613
.613
.613
.022
.058
.079
.059
.041
.014
.021
.019
.056
.045
.054
.075
.018
.017
.052
1.747
1.459
1.666
2.055
1.657
.230 I 1.634
. 184 \dl. 544
. 156 j 1. 465
.224
.144
.065
.23(1
.130
.146
.188
.178
.128
!l86
.139
.136
.176
1.63S
1.837
L516
1.756
1. 550
1.442
>l.:-;57
1.715
1.427
1.634
2.023
1.625
1.602
<U. 512
1.433
1.606
1.S05
1.767
1.484
1. 724
1.51S
1.410
1.507
1. 571
3.119
.070
.054
.050
.159
.058
(<0
.032
.067
.073
3.003
.007
.005
.001
.004
.00S
.009
.025
.053
<«>
.023
.020
.015
a Exclusive of depreciation and interest.
b Including 2.2 cents (total, 4.4 cents) for undistributed freight.
c No depreciation charge; plant is rented.
d Includes 0.003 cent for undistributed freight.
« Less than 0.001 per cent.
Table 64 shows costs for eight different brackets, A and B grades,
made in the 18 establishments. It will be observed that the piece-paid
labor is identical for all the establishments, but the other costs vary-
considerably, ranging from $0,797 to $1.41. These differences are
due to a variety of causes, chief among which are more efficient man-
agement, advantages of location as to raw materials, freight, and
fuel cost, and also to the ability to operate at maximum capacity
throughout the blast.
COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS.
179
Table 64 • a 50-Foot Box of Handmade Single-Strength
Window Glass. A and B Grades, b"y Brackets, Without Additional Cost
for Depreciation and Interest <>n Current Loans.
All
brack-
ets.
Establishment.
Cost,
except
piece-
paid
labor.
No.2 S1.244
No.o 1.102
No.5 814
No.6 1.021
No.8 1.410
No. 11 1.012
No.13 989
No. 15 899
No. 17 820
No.18 993
No. 19 1.192
No.20 1.1.54
No.22 871
No.24 1.111
No.29 905
No.31 797
No.34 1 .894
No.35 958
8 by 10 to 10 11 by 15 to 14 14 by 21 to 16 16 bv 25 to 20
by 15 inches. by 20 inches. by 24 inches. by 30 inches.
Total cost, including piece-paid labor, at rate of—
80.645 SO. 613 SO. 727 S0.6S6 SO. 80 SO. 758 SO. 862 SO
?l.s-:i
1.747
1.459
2. 055
1.657
1.634
1.544
1.465
1.638
1.837
1.799
1.516
1.756
1.550
1.442
1.539
1.603
SI. 857
1.715
1.427
1.6S4
2.023
1.625
1.(502
1.512
1.433
1.606
1.805
1.767
1.484
1.724
1.518
1.410
1.507
1.571
SI. 971
1.829
1.541
1.748
2.137
1.739
1.716 I
1.626
1.547
1. 720
1.919 !
1.881
1.598
1.838
1.632
1.524
1.621
1.685
1.500
1.707
2.096
L.698
1.675
1.585
1.506
1.679
1.S78
1.840
1.557
1.797
1.591
1. 483
1.580
1.644
•82.044
1.902
1.614
1.821
2.210
1.812
1.789
L620
L992
1. 954
1.671
1.911
1.705 !
1.597
1.694 I
1.758 I
$2,002
1.860
1.572
1.779
2.168
1.770
1.747
1.657
1.578
1.751
1.950
1.912
1.629
1.869
1.663
1.555
1.652
1.716
SO. 862
SO. 789
S2. 106
S2.033
1.964
1.891
1.676
1.603
1.883
1.810
2.272
2.199
1.874
1.801
1.851
1.778
1.761
1.688
1.682
1.609
1.855
1.782
2.054
1.981
2.016
1.943
1.733
1.660
1.973
1.900
1.767
1.694
1.659
1.586
1.756
1.683
1.820
1.747
All
brack-
21 by 30 to 24
by 30 inches.
24 by 31 to 24
by 36 inches.
25 by 36 to 30
by 4'l inches.
All above 30
by 41 inches.
A.
B.
A.
A.
A.
B.
A.
B.
Establishment.
Cost,
except
piece-
paid
labor.
Total co
st, inclu
ling piec
e-paid la
bor, at r
ate of—
SO. 914
SO. 820
SO. 934
SO. 852
SI. 027
SO. 914
SI. 069
SO. 965
No.2
SI. 244
1.102
.814
1.021
1.410
1.012
.989
.899
.820
.993
1.192
1.154
.871
1.111
.905
.797
!958
S2. 158
2.016
1.728
1.935
2.324
1.926
1.903
1.813
1.734
1.907
2.106
2. 068
1.785
2.025
1.819
1.711
1.808
1.872
S2.064
1.922
1.634
1.841
2.230
1.832
1.809
1.719
1.640
1.813
2.012
1.974
1.691
1.931
1.725
1.617
1.714
1.778
S2. 178
2.036
1.748
1.955
2.344
1.946
1.923
1.833
1. 754
1.927
2.126
2.088
1.805
2.045
1.839
1.731
1.828
82.096
1.954
1.666
1.873
2.262
1.864
1.841
1.751
1.672
1.845
2.044
2.006
1.723
1.963
1.757
1.649
1.746
1.810
S2.271
2.129
1.841
2.048
2.437
2.039
2.016
1.926
1.847
2.020
2.219
2.181
2^138
1.932
1.824
1.921
1.985
S2. 158
2.016
1.728
1.935
2.324
1.926
1.903
1.813
1.734
1.907
2.106
2.068
1.785
2.025
1.819
1.711
1.808
1.872
S2. 313
2.171
1.883
2.090
2.479
2.081
2.058
1.968
2! 062
2.261
2.223
1.940
2.180
1.974
1.866
1.963
2.027
S2. 209
No.3
2.067
1.779
No.6
1.986
No.8
No. 11
1.977
No.13
No. 15
1.954
1.864
No. 17
No. 18
No. 19
1.785
1.95S
2.157
No.20
2.119
No. 22
1.836
No.24
No. 29
2.076
1.870
No.31
1.762
No.34
1.859
No.35
1.923
Table 65 is similar in form to Table 64 and shows costs for seven
brackets of double-strength glass. In derivino- all other cost except
piece-paid labor for a box of double-strength glass, the cost of a
single-strength box was increased in the proportion of 5 to 8 or the
number of single-strength boxes were reduced to double-strength
basis in the ratio of 8 to 5.
180
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 65. — Cost of Producing a 50-Foot Box of Handmade, Double-Strength
Window Glass, A and B Grades, by Brackets, Without Additional Cost
for Depreciation and Interest on Current Loans.
All
brack-
ets.
6 by 8 to 16 by
24 inches.
16 by 25 to 24 by
36 inches.
24 by 37 to 30 by
40 inches.
Establishment.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
Cost,
except
piece-
paid
labor.
Total cost, including piece-paid labor, at rate of—
$0,901
$0,828
$1,232
$1,118
$1,325
$1,201
No.2
$1,980
1.763
1.302
1.634
2.256
1.619
1.582
1.438
1.312
1.589
1.907
1.846
1.394
1.778
1.448
1.275
1.430
1.533
$2. 881
2.664
2.203
2.535
3.157
2.520
2.453
2.339
2.213
2.490
2.808
2.747
2.295
2.679
2.349
2.176
2.331
2.434
$2. 808
2.591
2.130
2.462
3.084
2.447
2.410
2.266
2.140
2.417
2.735
2.674
2.222
2.606
2.276
2.103
2.258
2.361
S3. 212
2.995
2.534
3.' 488
2.851
2.814
2.670
2.544
2.821
3.139
3.078
2.626
3.010
2.680
2.507
2.662
2.765
$3,098
2.881
2.420
2.752
3.374
2.737
2.700
2.556
2.430
2.707
3.025
2.964
2.512
2! 566
2.393
2. 548
2.651
$3,305
3.088
2.627
2.959
3.581
2.944
2.907
2.763
2.637
2.914
3.232
3.171
2.719
3.103
2.773
2.600
2.755
2.858
No. 3
No. 5.
No.6
No. 8
No. 11..
No. 13
No. 15
No. 17
No. 18
No. 19
No. 20
3.047
No. 22
No. 24
No. 29
No.31
No. 34 . .
No. 35
All
brack-
ets.
30 by 41 to 36 by
51 inches.
36 by 52 to 39 by
60 inches.
40bv60to40bv
7S inches.
All abo\'e40 by
78 inches.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B -
Establishment.
Cost,
except
piece-
paid
labor.
Total cc
st, including piec
e-paid labor, at r
ate of—
$1,449
$1,325
$1,719
$1,543
$2,754
$2,536
$4,937
$4,617
No.2
$1,980
1.763
1.302
1.634
2.256
1.619
1.582
1.438
1.312
1.589
1.907
1.846
1.394
1.778
1.448
1.275
1.430
1. 533
$3,429
3.212
2.751
3.0S3
3.705
3.068
3.031
2.887
2.761
3.03S
3.356
3.295
2.843
3.227
2.897
2.724
2.879
2.982
$3,305
3.088
2.627
2.959
3.5S1
2.944
2.907
2.763
2.637
2.914
3.232
3.171
2.719
3.103
2.773
2.600
2.755
2.858
$3,699
3.482
3.021
3.353
3.975
3.338
3.301
3.157
3.031
3.308
3.626
3.565
3.113
3.497
3.167
2.994
3.149
3.252
$3,523
3.306
2.845
3.177
3.799
3.162
3.125
2.981
2.855
3.132
3.450
2. 937
3.321
2.991
2.818
2.973
3.076
$4,734
4.517
4.056
4.388
5.010
4.373
4.336
4.192
4.066
4.343
4.661
4.600
4.118
4.532
4.202
4.029
4.184
4.287
S4.516
3! 838
4.170
4.792
4.155
' 4.118
3.974
3.848
4.125
4.443
4.382
3.930
4.314
3.984
3.811
3.966
4.069
$6,917
6.700
6.239
6.571
7.193
6.556
6.519
6.375
6.219
6.526
6.844
6.783
6.331
6.715
6.385
6.212
6.367
6.470
$6,597
No. 3
6.380
No. 5
5.919
No. 6...
6.251
No. 8
6.873
No. 11....
6.236
No. 13
6.199
No. 15
6.055
No. 17
5.929
No. 18
6.206
No. 19
6.524
No. 20
6.463
No. 22
6.011
No. 24
No. 29
6.395
6.065
No. 31...
5.892
No. 34
6.047
No. 35...
6.150
MACHINE-MADE PRODUCT.
The following series of tables showing wage and unit cost data for
machine-made glass are similar to the preceding tables for handmade
glass. It will be observed that the piece-paid occupations in this
group differ from those of the hand group, as do the rates of wages.
In the hand group blowing is a highly skilled occupation, but in the
machine group it is not classified as such.
The rates of wages as shown in this group are those agreed upon
by manufacturers using the Consolidated or Healy machines at the
beginning of the blast, October 28, 1915.
COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS.
181
!
I r
It
41
2
ii
8 s
= -
pis
So
II
IS
g'S
o 3
o
•
?: - -; - V; - = -
— ■-..-.; _
S
£££££-££
iC •* >-t i~ •" ■" '" •■'
O G ~ C =: C c: 3
s
^ r^ ^- re r: ^ i.-? «c
c : i : '-' 'd = 3
o
V,
liiiilii
o ■
60
OMONt-r- /•. X
§
49
• / n — -. ri —
osssaioc
O-HHHHM-
o> — aosa c
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182
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS. 183
.MANUFACTURING COSTS BY ITEMS.
The following tables show by establishments the average cost
and profit or loss in manufacturing a 50-foot box of single-strength
glass, by hand and by machine. Costs for 35 hand and 11 machine
establishments are presented in these tables. The .percentages of
cost for the various items are fully discussed in connection with
Tables 37 and 38.
184
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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COST AND PROFIT BY SPECIFIED UNITS.
185
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186
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 71. — Average Cost of Each Specified Item of Expense in Manufacturing
a 50-Foot Box of Single-Strength Window Glass, Machine Made, and Aver-
age Operating Profit or Loss, With and Without Consideration of Depre-
ciation and Interest on Current Loans, Based on the Selling Value, by
Establishments.
All es-
tablish-
ments.
No.
49.
Materials:
Batch...
Packing.
Freight .
Total materials
Total factory labor
Fuel, power, light, and
Taxes and insurance .
Total salaries
Total selling expense.
Royalty
General expense and 1
debts
Total operating cost
Operating profit com-
puted without deprecia-
tion and interest
Operating loss computed
without depreciation
and interest
Selling value of one
box produced . . .
Depreciation
Interest
Operating profit com-
puted with deprecia-
tion and interest ...>..
Operating loss computed
with depreciation and
interest
SUIs
.111
.001
si I. !.",:>
.146
si 1. 1:::;
.138
si i. 21:;
.118
SO. 1S2
.155
sn. Id
.125
$0. 141 $0.
. 146 . 112
so. 21s
.146
SO. ISO
.120
.012
$0. 169 SO. 129
.128 .086
.132
.025
.046
.343
.040
.046
. 270
.035
.901
.106
.046
.072
.01*
.2871 .271
.543
.087
.025
.047
.026
.121
.042
. IMO
1.276
.155
1.454
.172
.064
.044
. 055 . 049
. 028! . 040
.364
.021
.318
.910
.231
.020
.053
.203 .070
.064
. 022 . 030
. 039; . 050
.196
.014
.025
.031
.013
.138
.045
.215
.759
.049
.017
.013
.027
PRODUCTION AT A PROFIT AND AT A LOSS.
The following table, derived from data shown in Tables 70 and 71,
presents in summary form the number of establishments reporting
data and the number of single-strength 50-fcot boxes produced at
an operating profit or loss, with and without charges for deprecia-
tion and interest.
Table 72. — Number of Establishments Producing Single-Strength Window
Glass, Machine and Hand Made, and Number of Boxes Produced at a
Profit or Loss, With and Without Consideration of Depreciation and
Interest on Current Loans.
Establishments showing-
Number of establishments.
Number of 50-foot boxes produced.
Total.
Hand.
Machine.
Total.
Hand.
Machine.
Operating profits computed without
41
5 |
33
2
8
3
4, 588, 550
344, 610
2,829,259
65,821
1, 759, 291
Operating losses computed without
278, 789
Operating profits computed with
depreciation and interest
Operating losses computed with
38 |
8 i
31
4
7
4
4,181,300
751, 800
2, 701, 116
193, 964
1,480,184
557,896
46
35
11
4,933,160
2,895,080
2,038,080
CHAPTER VI.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS.
FUEL AS A FACTOR IN LOCATION AND OPERATION.
The States in which different varieties of glass and glassware are
most largely manufactured are shown below.
Window glass: Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Kansas, Okla-
homa, and Texas.
Plate glass: Pennsylvania. Ohio, Michigan, and Illinois.
Wire and opalescent glass: Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri.
Tableware: Pennsylvania,- Maryland, West Virginia, Ohio, and
Indiana.
Pleavv cut glass: Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and
Ohio.
Fruit and milk jars: New York, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Illinois,
and Oklahoma.
Bottles, packers, and preservers: New York, New Jersey, Maryland,
Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri.
Lighting goods: New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, In-
diana, and Oklahoma.
Chemical ware: New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio.
The glass industry is located largely west of the Allegheny Moun-
tains and in districts where cheap natural gas can be obtained. The
glass factories in the East have the advantage of being near the large
eastern markets, but they use producer gas or oil for fuel, and the
high cost of the fuel is an offset to the market advantage.
In Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New . York, New Jersey, and
eastern Pennsylvania producer gas made by the glass factories is
used. Even in the Pittsburgh district the price of natural gas is how
so high that producer gas is used to some extent in glass making.
One glass company in that district that makes producer gas esti-
mates that it costs 12 cents per thousand cubic feet and its officers
say that in that vicinity where coal is cheap it is more economical
to make producer gas than to pay more than 12 cents for natural gas.
One factory in southern Indiana reported that by using 2 by 4
nut coal at $1.55 per ton of 2,000 pounds, it made producer gas at a
cost of 8 cents per thousand cubic feet.
In Indiana natural gas was cheap years ago, but on account of the
failure of the gas supply, several factories have moved to Oklahoma,
while some have gone out of business. Oklahoma glass factories
paid 3 or 4 cents, per thousand for natural gas in 1916 but have been
notified that the price will be 5 cents or higher in 1917.
187
188 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
In the location of new glass factories cheap fuel has been the con-
trolling factor. A West Virginia manufacturer of window glass who
was interviewed during this investigation said:
No doubt freight rates are lower in some localities than here and in many places
are higher. These things cut little figure and are entirely overbalanced by the main
consideration — fuel. This section has cheaper gas than any other manufacturing
center. The price is^oing up but is still much lower than elsewhere. Pennsylvania
used to have cheap gas, but their gas began to ' ' play out ' ' years ago and is now compara-
tively high. Many factories have moved from Pennsylvania to West Virginia aban-
doning their plants, in order to get cheaper fuel. There are a number of this sort in
this vicinity. This is one of them.
Much of the present gas troubles in this vicinity is due to the fact that the natural-
gas companies are pumping their gas right through this section to the Pittsburgh
district, where it commands a higher price. It is even pumped to Cleveland (for
domestic consumption chiefly), where it is sold for 30 cents to 85 cents and higher,
while here the present price is 4 cents. It can readily be seen that the fuel question is
very much more important than that of markets.
Contracts for gas were formerly made for as long as five years in
Pennsylvania and West Virginia, but the supply of gas having been
greatly reduced, contracts are now made for only a year and at
advanced prices, and some gas companies now refuse to make con-
tracts at any price.
In West Virginia and Pennsylvania some glass companies own gas
wells. Another manufacturer in West Virginia said:
It is generally understood that there is no preventing a very heavy increase soon
in the price of gas. Natural -gas companies say that the supply is diminishing at the
same time that the demand is increasing. Glass manufacturers feel that if they should
persist in holding gas companies to old prices, the gas would be pumped right past
then factories to the Pittsburgh district and to Cleveland, where it is badly needed,
and where manufacturers in different industries would willingly pay more to get
gas than is paid in West Virginia.
In normal times before the war in Europe, glass manufacturers
made contracts for raw materials usually every year or every two
years. Sometimes when prices were low manufacturers agreed to
make contracts extending three years. On a rising market, however,
manufacturers could not make contracts for longer than a year
without offering higher prices than current market quotations.
Beginning with 1915, few contracts for longer than a year could be
negotiated. The contracts provide that deliveries shall be made as
needed. Each factory tries to keep on hand enough raw materials to
last "60 days.
INCREASE IN OUTPUT OF BUILDING GLASS.
The manufacture of building glass in the United States more than
doubled during the period from 1899 to 1914, as shown by the fol-
lowing table:
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS.
189
Table 73. — Production of Window Glass, Obscured Glass, and Plate Glass
in Census Years.
[Data from the Bureau of the Census.]
Window glass:
Square feet 217, 0&4, 100
50-foot boxes 4, 341, 2S2
Vallie S10, 879,355
Average value per box S2.51
Obscured glass, including' cathedral and sky-
light:
Square feet 12, 526, 055
Value S732,338
Average value per square foot SO. 058
Plate glass, polished:
Sq uaro fee t 16, 883, 578
Value $5, 158, 598
Average value per square foot SO. 306
Plate glass, rough, made for sale:
Square feet 628, 684
Value S75, 887
Average value per square foot SO. 121
Wire glass, polished:
Square feet (a)
Value (a)
Komhi made to be sold as such), square feet, (a)
Value (a)
All other building glass, value S250, 056
Total building glass, value S17, 096, 234
242,015,750 346,080,550
4,852,315 6,921,611
$11,610,851 511,742,959
$2.39 SI. 70
21,870,634
$972,014 I
SO. 044
27,293,138 I
17,978,253
17,784
S3, 529
(o)
(»)
(a)
(a)
51,133,214
521,697,861
22,815,946
SI, 358, 574
SO. 060
47,370,254
S12,204,875
SO. 258
205, 690
$37; 431
SO. 182
(a)
(a)
ft
400.998.893
8,019,978
$17,495,956
S2.18
43,040,079
52,471,253
60,383,516
$14,773,787
SO. 245
131,492-
$25,859
SO. 197
1,707,848
5534, 322
13,980,996
$1,056,612
$520,280
S26,30S,43S S36,824,
a Not reported separately.
As shown by the foregoing table, there was an increase in the pro-
duction of window glass, of obscured glass, including cathedral, and
of polished plate glass in each census year from 1899 to 1914.
WINDOW GLASS.
During the 10 years from 1899 to 1909 the number of 50-foot boxes
of window glass produced increased from 4,341,282 to 6,921,611,
or 59.44 per cent, and the value increased from $10,879,355 to
$11,742,959, or only 7.94 per cent. The average value per box de-
creased from $2.51 to $1.70.
The decline in the price of window glass was not attributable 'to
the tariff, as the Dingley tariff act was in force from July 24, 1897,
to August 6, 1909, and the value of imports of cylinder, crown, and
common window glass, unpolished, decreased from $1,196,461 during
the fiscal year 1899 to $692,803 during the fiscal year 1909.
As shown by the last table, the production of window glass in 1914
amounted to 8,019,978 boxes of 50 feet each, valued at $17,495,956,
or an average of $2.18 per box.
The decline in the average value per box of window glass from
$2.51 in 1899 to $1.70 in 1909 was due to intense competition between
domestic manufacturers, and this competition greatly increased after
the manufacture of window glass by machinery began on a com-
mercial basis in 1903.
190 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
EFFECT OF SELLING AGENCIES ON PRICES.
The price of window glass increased after the formation in 1909 of
the Imperial Window Glass Co. The company was a selling agency
or combination of manufacturers that largely influenced the produc-
tion and price of window glass. This organization, comprised about
50 plants, besides several that were not in operation; only about
6 plants remained independent. The American Window Glass Co.
was not in the combination. It manufactured a large proportion of
the output, and together with the Imperial Window Glass Co., con-
trolled the prices of window glass. When the combination was
formed prices were largely increased; production and profits also
greatly increased during the first half of 1910.
During these months the profits were so great that plants that
had been shut down for years began manufacturing, so that by the
fall of 1910 there were 14 independent factories in operation and 5
new ones were under construction. The competition of the inde-
pendents and the overproduction finally broke the market late in
the fall of 1910. In a suit brought by the Federal Government
against the officers and directors of the Imperial Glass Co., the de-
fendants, in November, 1910, pleaded nolo contendere and were
fined. The dissolution of the company followed.
From the late fall of 1910 until the summer of 1912 there were
competitive conditions in the window-glass trade. Another selling
agency called the Johnson Brokerage Co. was then formed and prices
went up. The president of this company, J. R. Johnston, had been
secretary of the Imperial Glass Co. In 1916 the Johnston Brokerage
Co. sold the product of about 25 hand plants, or about half the num-
ber of hand plants in the country, and also sold the product of about
5 machine plants. This company receives orders from jobbers and
consumers, distributes them to its patronizing plants, and charges
lij per cent commission. Window glass being sold at net in 60 days,
the Johnston Brokerage Co. advances money to those factories de-
siring cash, for which a charge of 1 per cent is made, or a total of
2\ per cent, including the selling commission.
NUMBER AND EQUIPMENT OF HAND AND MACHINE PLANTS.
For several years after 1903 all of the window-glass machines used
were those of the American Window Glass Co., but by 1908 two other
machines, the Healy and the Douchamp, were introduced, and since
then machines of different patents have been installed — the Frink,
the Pittsburgh, the Okmulgee, and the Douchamp-Henshaw. The
following table shows the number of the hand plants and of their
pots in 1916, and the number of machine plants and of their machines
in the same year.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS.
191
Table . r and Number of Window^ .i -.— Plants, Hand and M vhink,
i\ rui: Unitj - Pots, and Number oi Machines.
[Data from Glass Factory Directory.
States.
Sand plants.
Machine plants.
Plants.
Pots.
Plants.
Machines.
1
1
2
1
6
2
12
1
20
3G
30
72
159
36
202
66
486
36
614
1
( a )
2
1
13
1
7
30
12
6 172
8
74
51
1,737
25
296
Machines of 1 plant in Indiana included with machines enumerated in Pennsylvania.
b Includes machines used in 1 plant in Indiana.
The number of plants using each type of machine and the number
of each type used m 1916 are shown in the following table:
Table 75. — Location and Number of Machine Plants and of Each Type of
Window-Glass Machines Used in the United States.
[Data from Glass Factory Directory, 1916.]
NUMBER OF PLANTS USING EACH TYPE OF MACHINE.
1 A z T :-
Dou-
champ.
Dou-
champ-
Henshaw.
Frink.
Healy.
Ockmul-
gee.
Pitts-
burgh.
Total.
1
Ohio
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
5
1
3
13
1
1
1
2
7
Total 6 2
1
3
9
1
3
25
XCMBER OF EACH TYPE OF MACHINES USED.
w
Ohio
6
24
30
12
12
Pennsylvania
6116
6
12
38
8
24
172
8
6
8
36
74
18
110
12
8
70
12
60
296
a Machines of 1 plant in Indiana included with machines enumerated in Pennsylvania.
b Includes machines used in 1 plant in Indiana.
As appears by the last two preceding tables, there are 296 window-
glass machines in the United States. The machines cost about
$15,000 each. The following, statement regarding window-glass
machines in Europe was made in 1916 by Mr. A. P. Whittemore,
president of the Thatcher & Whittemore Glass Co., of Dunbar, W. Va.,
192 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
which previous to the war had a factory at Roux, Belgium, in which
window glass purchased from other factories was flattened and cut:
There were 23 window-glass factories in Belgium with 38 tanks. All were never
operating at the same time, so far as I know. There were two window-glass machines
in Belgium — the Rowart-Francq, which never got beyond the experimental stage and
was never put on commercial ba?is, and the Fourcault machine, which made very-
heavy glass for skylight purposes, but, so far as I know, never made and sold ordinary
single and double strength window glass commercially. I have since heard that
before the war they were making glass commercially, but do not know this except
from hearsay.
A number of window-glass machines are operated by Pilkington Bros., St. Helens,
England. About eight machines are operated by a factory in Aniche, France, and
machines are used also by one factory in Bohemia, one in Russia, and one in Japan.
All of these plants operate the American Window Glass Co.'s machines.
PRODUCTION AFFECTED BY MACHINERY.
The introduction of machines largely increased the output in the
United States. In 1904, when there was only one machine factory
in the United States, the production was equal to the consumption,
less imports. The general imports of cylinder, crown, and common
window glass, unpolished, during the fiscal year 1904 amounted to
$1,356,218, or 7.75 per cent of the production of window glass during
the calendar year 1914, as reported by the census, $17,495,956.
The American Window Glass Co., whose first machime factory was
started in 1903, during the following years established other factories
and installed many machines.
The result was that the window-glass trade was depressed by over-
production. Some hand factories went out of business, some were
operated as cooperative plants, and the wages or piece prices paid
in all of the hand plants that continued were greatly reduced, in order
that these plants might compete with the machine plants, which
employed no skilled labor except for flattening and cutting. The
National Window Glass Workers, the national organization that
includes blowers, gatherers, flatteners, and cutters in hand factories,
was a strong union, but for a number of years it could not prevent the
reduction in wages or piece prices that was forced upon the hand facto-
ries by the competition of the machine plants.
FACTORIES OPERATED ON PART-TIME BASIS.
The union began to shorten the time over which it made agree-
ments with hand manufacturers, in some years to only seven months.
By 1914, when many machines had been installed, the production
would have been enormously greater than the domestic consumption if
the hand factories had not been operated on short time. The wage
agreements of the National Window Glass Workers with the manufac-
turers of hand-blown window glass during recent years have been for
the following periods: September 1, 1909, to May 1, 1910; October 15
1910, to August 31, 1911; September 9, 1911, to May 31, 1912
October 15, 1912. to May 29, 1913 ; October 27, 1913, to May 29, 1914
October 31, 1914, to May 29, 1915; November 1, 1915, to May 27, 1916
October 25, 1916, to May 29, 1917.
Even the machine window-glass factories have run on short time
in every year. They averaged about eight months a year.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 193
Figures from the American Window Glass Co. arc not available,
but the production in boxes by the independent machine factories
and the number of weeks that they operated during 1914-15 and
1915-16 are shown in the following statement quoted from a paper
read by William G. Kischenbower, president of the Window Glass
Cutters' and Flatteners' Association of America, before the annual
meeting of the National Association of Window Glass Manufacturers,
held at Atlantic City, N. J., in July, 1916:
The amount of single and double strength glass produced by the independent
machine manufacturers of window glass for the year of October 28, 1914, to October 29,
1915, was: Single, 1,482,410; double, 323,516; total, 1,805,926 boxes. If the double-
strength glass is reduced to a single-strength basis, the total is 2,000,035 boxes.
Seventeen tanks were in operation during this period. Average of the 17 tanks:
Single, 87,201; double, 19,030; total, 106,231. If the average production of the 17
tanKs is reduced to a single-strength basis, the total is 117,649 boxes. Average number
of weeks in operation during tins period, 32.
At this same ratio, reducing double to single, had the independent machine manu-
facturers operated continuously for one year, production would have been 3.250.052
boxes of glass. By operating only 32 weeks production was curtailed to the extent of
1,250,017 boxes, or about 38$ per cent during that period.
The present wage scale that the independent machine manufacturers of window glass
are operating under does not expire until October 29, 1916, but I have prepared a
statement of production from the beginning of the scale, October 29, 1915, to July 1,
1916: Single, 1,288,336; double, 323,453; total, 1,611,789. When the double-strength
glass is reduced to single-strength basis, the total is 1,805,860 boxes.
During this period of eight months there were 19 tanks in operation. Average
production of the tanks during this period: Single, 67,807; double, 17,024; total,
84,831 boxes. On a single-strength basis, the average production of the 19 tanks was
95,045 boxes. Average number of weeks in operation during this period was 25.
At this same ratio, had the 19 tanks operated continuously for the period of 8 months,
they would have produced 2,528,190 boxes. By operating only 25 weeks, they have
created a curtailment of 722,330 boxes, or about 28 J per cent during that period.
Referring to the general conditions of the window-glass business, all persons engaged
in the business must admit that the past two years have been a period of unusual
prosperity in this business, which is greatly due to existing conditions in Europe.
The exportation of v indow glass is a new feature for the manufacturers of the United
States, which has played a very important part in our present prosperity, and steps
should be taken to further this exportation so that the factories of the United States
may be kept in continuous operation in the future.
EFFECT OF MACHINES ON GLASS BLOWEKS' EARNINGS.
A resume of the conditions during recent years is given in the fol-
lowing statement made in October, 1914, by Mr. Joseph M. Neenan,
president of the National Window Glass Workers of America, whose
members are employed in the hand factories:
For the blast of 1915-16, 5,575,000 fifty-foot boxes were produced by the machine
method. This is the first time we have been able to secure anything like 1 accurate
information concerning the amount of machine glass produced. The hand produc-
tion for the same period was 3,725,462 fifty-foot boxes, of which 2,088,828 were of single
strength, 1,719,666 of double strength, and 16,968 of triple strength. Our proportion
of the entire production was about 40 per cent.
As a resull of the introduction of machines into the industry, a vast amount of uncer-
tainty was felt by both the manufacturers and workmen employed in the production of
handmade glass." It was feared that, if the machines were a commercial success, it
would not be possible to produce handmade glass on a profitable basis. As a result
of this uncertainty, the demoralization which followed affected the entire industry,
machine as well as hand. Hand manufacturers feared to carry stocks and placed their
product on the market for almost any price they could obtain. The workers ac-
cepted a sliding scale arrangement, by which their wages were based upon the price
received by the manufacturers, the result of which was that, before the period of uncer-
tainty and demoralization ended, the average of wages of blowers of single-strength
102511°— 17 13
194
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
glass was reduced from about 90 cents per box during the year'1903 to 30 cents per box
during the year of 1912-13.
At one time 2,400 pots were operated by the hand method. By the word "pots"
I mean that there were that many places for blowers. I feel quite certain that all of
the places were not manned; the probabilities are that the greatest number of blowers
ever employed at one time was between 1.800 and 1,900. Last blast we had 1,800
pots in operation, but our membership roll shows that but 1,610 blowers were employed.
Our total membership is 4,241; 1,610 blowers, 1,735 gatherers, 359 flatteners, and 537
cutters.
The working season for window-glass workers has always depended upon market
conditions. Previous to the advent of machines, it was customary to place wage
scales in effect for 10, 8, and even 7 month periods. Following the introduction 'of
machines, wage scales were placed in effect for 12-month periods at different times,
but this does not mean that factories were operated continuously. At one time
or another during the year it becomes necessary to make repairs, and in addition
to this, during the period mentioned, a number of companies were forced out of exist-
ence, so that I feel quite certain that during the years the 12-month wage scales were
effective glass was not produced in such quantities as it has been during the past four
or five years.
The annual statistical report of the National Window Glass Work-
ers, published in The National for August, 1915, shows that during
the blast of 1914-15 the union had '3,779 members and that they
worked an average of 23J weeks. The report published in The Na-
tional for August, 1916, shows that during the blast of 1915-16 the
union had 4,301 members and that they worked an average of 28
weeks. Of the 4,301 members, 60 were spare men and members
beyond the age of 55 who were carried on the rolls as permanent
members.
PRICE LIST AND DISCOUNTS.
Window glass is sold on the basis of a price list, which is fixed from
time to time and is always subject to very large trade discounts.
The price list adopted October 15, 1912, and still in force in 1916 is
as follows:
Table 76. — Window-Glass Price List, Oct. 15, 1912.
[All sizes of 100 united inches and under are packed in 50-foot boxes; over 100 united inches in 100-foot
boxes.]
United
inches.
Single strength.
Double strength.
6by£
'11 by
,12 by
10 by
is by
.20 by
15 by
26 by
piby
2Sby
|:;i)by
.":.-. b-
L U by
:;nby
30 by
34 by
36 by
40 by
40 by
40 by
40 by
to 10 by 15 inches...
Jgjto 14 by 20 inches.
26 to 16 by 24 inches .
2^}to 20 by 30 inches.
36 to 24 by 30 inches.
28 to 24 by 36 inches.
341
32 Ho 30 by 40 inches.
30)
|||to 30 by 50 inches.
52 to 30 by 54 inches.
56 to 34 by 56 inches .
58 to 34 by 60 inches.
60 to 40 by 60 inches.
62 to 40 bv 64 inches.
66 to 40 by 70 inches .
72 to 40 by 74 inches.
76 to 40 by SO inches.
$24. 00
25.00
27.00
28.00
29.00
30.00
36.50
39.00
$20.00
21.00
22.50
23.75
24.50
26.00
33.25
35.50
$19.00
20.00
21.00
22.00
22.50
23.25
28.75
31.25
$32. 00
35.00
39.00
42.00
43.00
44.00
47.00
51.00
52.00
55.00
56.00
66.00
142. 00
158. 00
17S. 00
21D.U0
$28. 00
31.00
34.00
37.00
42.00
46.00
47.00
50.00
51.00
60.00
130. 00
146. 00
162. 00
190. 00
$26. 50
29.00
31.00
34.50
41.50
42.50
46.00
47.00
56.00
120. 00
136. 00
152. 00
180. 00
Note.— An additional 10 per cent will be charged for all glass more than 40 inches wide. All sizes over
52 inches in length and not making more than SI united inches will 1 >e charged in the 84 united inches bracket.
All glass 54 inches wide or wider and not making more than 116 united inches will be charged in the 120
united inches bracket Sizes above 12U united inches, $20 per box extra for every 5 inches.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS.
195
price list is the same as the preceding price list, dated January
1, 1901, except that in the list of that date prices were given for the
90, 94, and 100 inch brackets of single-strength glass and the prices of
the 105, 110, 115, and 120 inch brackets were given on the basis of
50-foot instead of 100-foot boxes.
The trade discounts that have been announced beginning with
March, 1912, are as follows:
March, 1912. — Single strength: Sizes up to and including third bracket, 90 and
22$ per cent; larger brackets, 90 and 20 per cent. Double strength: 90 and 17£
per cent.
January, 1914. — Single strength: First three brackets, 90 and 30 per cent; larger
brackets, 90 and 1\ per cent. Double strength: 90 and 20 per cent.
November. 1915. — Single strength: First three brackets, A quality, 90 and 20 per
cent; first three brackets, B quality, 90 and 30 per cent; larger brackets, 90 and 7$
per cent, Double strength: A quality, 90 and 10 per cent; B quality, 90 and 20
per cent.
January, 1916. — Single strength: First three brackets, A quality, 90 and 10 per
cent; first three brackets, B quality, 90 and 20 per cent; larger brackets, 89 and 5
per cent. Double strength: A quality, 90 per cent; B quality, 90 and 10 per cent.
March, 1916. — Single strength: First three brackets, A quality, 89 per cent; first
three brackets, B quality, 90 and 10 per cent; larger brackets, 88 per cent. Double
strength: A quality, 89 per cent; B quality, 90 per cent.
The net price computed with these discounts on the basis of the
price list of October 15, 1912, were as appear in the following table:
Table 77. — Window Glass Price List: Net Prices per Box, 1912 to 1916.
United
inches.
Date of discount.
Single
strength.
Double
strength.
6 by 8 to 10 by 15 inches.
W} to 14 by 20 i
10 by 26 to 16 by 24 inches.
20by2o} to20b y 30inches -
15 by 36 to 24 by 30 inches.
March, 1912
January, 1914 . . .
November, 1915.
January, 1916...
March,' 1916
March, 1912
January, 1914. ..
November, 1915.
January, 1916 . . .
March. 1916
rMarch, 1912
January, 1914...
November, 1915.
January, 1916...
March, 1916
March, 1912
January, 1914. ..
November, 1915.
January, 1916. . .
March, 1916
March, 1912
January, 1914 . . .
November, 1915.
January, 1916...
March, 1916
26 by 28 to 24 by 36 inches.
[March, 1912
January, 1914...
November, 1915.
January, 1916...
March,' 1916
28 by 341
28 by 32^ to 30 bv 40 inches
30 by 30j
I March, 1912
January, 1914. ..
November, 1915.
January, 1916...
March, 1916
$1.60
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.20
1.68
1.47
1.68
2. 31
1.74
1.58
L80
2.03
2,48
1.84
2.20
2.20
2.48
2.85
1.90
2.27
2.27
2.56
2.94
2.02
2.41
2.41
2.72
3.12
2.23
2.66
2.66
3.00
3.45
SI. 52
1.33
1.33
1.52
1.71
1.60
1.40
1.40
1.63
I. 1.7
1.47
l.C.S
1.71
2.04
2.04
2.30
2.64
1.74
2.08
2.08
2.35
2.70
1.80
2.15
2.15
2.43
2.79
1.96
2.34
2.34
2.64
3.03
?2.31
2.24
2.52
2.80
3.08
2.56
2.48
2.79
3.10
3.41
2.81
2.72
3.06
3.40
3.74
3.05
2.96
3.33
3.70
4.07
3.14
3.04
3.42
3.80
4.18
3.22
3.12
3.51
3.90
4.29
3.47
3.36
3.78
4.20
4.62
S2.19
2.12
2.12
2.39
2.65
2.39
2.32
2.32
2.61
2.90
2.56
2.48
2.48
2.79
3.10
2.85
2.76
2.76
3.11
3.45
2.89
2.80
2.80
3.15
3.50
2.93
2.84
2.84
3. 20
3.55
3.14
3.04
3.04
3.42
3.80
196
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 77. — Window Glass Price List: Net Prices per Box, 1912 to 1916-
Concluded.
United
inches.
Bracket.
Date of discount.
Single
strength.
Double
strength..
A.
B.
A.
B.
SO
•Tm u J Qfil to 30 by 50 inches. . .
[March, 1912
January, 1914
| November, 1915...
January, 1916
[March, 1916
[March, 1912
January, 1914
< November, 1915 . . .
January, 1916
[March, 1916
[March, 1912
$2. 58
3.08
3.08
3.47
3.99
2.75
3.28
3.28
3.71
4.26
S2.23
2.66
2.66
3.00
3.45
2.42
2.89
3! 27
3.75
$3. 80
3.68
4.14
4.60
5.06
3.88
3.76
4.23
4.70
5.17
4.13
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
4.21
4.08
4.59
5.10
5.61
4.95
4.80
5.40
6.00
6.60
10.73
10.40
11.70
13.00
14.30
12.05
11.68
13.14
14.60
16.06
13.37
12. 96
14.58
16.20
17.82
15. 68
15.20
17.10
19.00
20.90
$3. 42
3. 32
84
30 by 52 to 30 by 54 inches. . . .
3.74
4.15
3.51
3.40
30 by 56 to 34 by 56 inches
3.83
4.25
3.80
3.68
90
3.68
34 by 58 to 34 bv 60 inches
4.14
lMarch/1916
4.60
[March, 1912
3.88
3.76
94
{November, 1915..
3.76
36 by 60 to 40 by 60 inches
4.23
[March,' 1916
4.70
[March, 1912
4.62
4.48
100
4.48
5.04
[March,' 1916
5.60
[March, 1912
9.90
9.60
9.60
10.80
[March,'l916
12.00
[March, 1912
11.22
10. 8S
110
10.88
12.24
[March, 1916
13.60
[March, 1912.. .
12.54
12.16
12.16
13.68
[March,' 1916
15.20
[March, 1912
14.85
14.40
120
14.40
16.20
[March," 1916
18.00
As appears by this table, the net prices of single and double 'strength
of the first three brackets were in most instances lower during the
period from January, 1914, to November, 1915, or to January, 1916,
than they were either before or after. The net prices of the larger
brackets in single strength were lowest during the period from March,
1912, to January, 1914, but this was not the case with double-strength
glass.
Special discounts apply to window glass of AA quality, which is
produced in only limited quantities and by some factories not at all.
There is no fixed price list for C quality, which is produced usually
in only first bracket sizes. This grade is sold at net prices per box,
the range during 1914-, 1915, and 1916 being from $0.85 to $1.20 per
50-foot box.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 197
By an agreemenl or understanding among the manufacturers, they
charge 15 centa each for boxes for glass of the first three brackets
and 25 cents for boxes for Larger sizes. All of them state that they
lose money od the boxes, and when asked why they do not charge
more, say that formerly they did not charge anything for boxes, thai
it was hard to get manufacturers generally to agree to make this
charge, and that when the agreement was reached a few years ago,
competition among manufacturers caused some to continue to sell
glass without making su ch a charge. It is, therefore, considered
impractical to make a higher charge for boxes at present.
DEFINITION OF GRADES.
The following definitions of first, second, and third quality glass
are quoted from Glass and Glazing, issued in 1916 by the National
Glass Distributors' Association:
AA or first quality. — A A quality should be clear glass, free from any perceptible
amount of air bubbles or blisters, burnt specks or burns, cords, and strings. It should
have a good gloss and an even surface and be well flattened. By air bubbles it is
understood that tiny blisters, or imperfections not perceptible on the cutters' table
but detectable when placing the sheet directly toward the light, would not be objec-
tionable. This should be a careful selection in both single'and double and should
represent the very best that can be produced in window glass by the present methods.
A or second quality.- — A quality glass is the normal selection of glass when no special
selection is desired or specified and it admits of such defects as small strings or lines,
small blisters when not too close to one another or located in the center of the sheet;
well flattened, the surface even, and devoid of noticeable scratches, cropper marks,
burns, aud other prominent defects.
B or third quality. — B glass covers a wider range than either AA quality or A quality.
It permits many of the defects inherent to the process of making, such as waves,
strings, lines, blisters, scratches, burns, and other similar or equivalent defects.
This quality embraces everything below A quality not stony or full of blisters or other
large defects objectionable for any common purpose, such as heavy scratches, heavy
blisters, cords, and sulphur stains.
The following paragraphs are quoted from the same publication:
In examining samples of small sizes for inspection of quality, it should be remem-
bered that the large light of glass will show the natural waves and defects, while the
small piece may appear nearly perfect. It is not altogether a matter of expert judg-
ment to determine the various grades, and certain rules may be accepted governing
window-glass specifications.
Sizes. — Window glass in double strength, or heavier, is made as large as 30 by
90 inches, 38 by 86 inches, and 48 by 80 inches, such extreme sizes containing 25
square feet, but it is inadvisable to use such glass in these measurements on account
of the liability of breakage and the distorted vision due to waves, etc. The same
may be said of the extreme sizes of single strength, which can be made up to 24 by
60 inches, 30 by 54 inches, and 36 by 50 inches, sizes containing 10 to 12£ square feet.
Thickness and weight. — Single-strength glass measures approximately 12 lights to
the inch, but a small variation either way is permissible. Single-strength weighs
approximately 16 ounces to the square foot. Double strength measures approxi-
mately nine lights to the inch. The thickness should be fairly uniform and the
weight approximately 24 ounces to the square foot.
packages. Window glass in regular sizes is packed approximately 50
square feet to the box up to the 100 united inch bracket (adding width and length),
and 100 square feet to the box in sizes over 100 united inches.
The thickness of glass heavier than double strength is as follows:
26-ounce, one-eighth of an inch; 29-ounce, 135 thousandths of an
inch; 34-ounce, 159 thousandths of an inch; 39-ounce, throe-six-
teenths of an inch.
198
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The net weight of a box containing approximately 50 square feet
of glass is about 55 pounds in single thickness and 80 pounds in
double thickness.
HAND PRODUCTION CLASSIFIED BY GRADES, SIZE, AND STRENGTH.
The proportion of A glass on the basis of total production is
usually larger in the hand factories than in the machine factories.
The National for August, 1916, published for the National Window
Glass Workers of America, shows that in all of the hand window-
glass factories in the United States, during the blasts of 1914-15
and 1915-16, the percentage cut into different brackets, A and B
grades, single and double strength, on the basis of the total pro-
duction of A and B grades, was as follows:
Table 78. — Percentage of Window Glass Produced by Hand, Blasts of 1914-15
and 1915-16, Cut into Different Brackets. A and B Grades.
[Data from The National, published by the United Window Glass Workers, August, 1915 and 1916.]
Bracket.
1914-15
1915-16
A.
B.
Total.
A.
B.
Total.
SINGLE STRENGTH.
Per ct.
3.15
5.16
4.66
7.24
3.04
2.68
1.31
.10
Per ct.
9.84
10.86
11.05
18.72
7. 61
5.70
.95
Per ct.
12.99
16.02
15.71
25. 96
10.97
10.29
7.01
1.05
Per ct.
2.55
4.82
4.57
6.35
2! 74
1.18
.11
Per ct.
8.73
11.13
10.09
19.55
9.02
9.13
6.39
.75
Per ct.
11.28
15.95
14 by 21 to 16 by 24 inches
14.66
16 bv25 to 20 by 30 inches
25.90
11.91
11.87
25 by 36 to 30 bv 41 inches
7.57
.86
Total
27.34
72.66
100. 00
25.21
74.79
100. 00
DOUBLE STRENGTH.
5.69
17.37
10.52
7.63
2.11
1.27
.21
8.84
19.85
13.04
9.57
2.44
1.20
.26
14.53
37.22
23. 56
17.20
4.55
2.47
.47
6.47
17.62
10.43
7.77
2.26
1.19
.17
7.80
20.50
13.40
8.96
2.29
.9S
.16
14.27
16 by 25 to 24 by 36 inches
38.12
23.83
16.73
35 by 52 to 39 by 60 inches
4.55
2.17
.33
Total
44.80
55.20
100. 00
45.91
54.09
100. 00
The proportion of the different grades and the proportion of
double and single strength glass varies greatly in the different fac-
tories, as shown by the reports of 19 hand factories for the blast of
1914-15, summarized in the following table:
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS.
199
Table 79. — Proportion of A Quality of the Thrke Smaller Brackets, Single
and Double Strength, Produced by 19 Factories, 1914-15.
(Data from The Glassworker, Aug. 5, 1916.]
Factory.
A grade.
Cut in first throe
brackets.
Single
strength.
Double
strength.
Single,
strength.
Double
strength.
I
Per cent.
47.0
10.0
Percent.
51.0
40.0
29.0
40.0
42.0
47.0
45.0
60.0
12.0
49.0
62.5
50.5
45.0
40.0
42.0
s!o
26.0
15.0
Per cent.
55.3
49.6
48.9
32.9
45. 3
35.5
35.9
47.8
50.5
47.3
53.1
51.7
46.0
40.1
47.4
48.6
63.9
27.8
57.3
Per cent.
2
37.9
4
1S.0
17.0
29.0
22.0
39.0
11.0
23.5
43.0
55.8
5
6
42.3
7
49.0
8
38.7
9
44.7
10
11
60.5
12
24.0
13
25.0
19.0
14.0
24.0
4.0
8.0
9.5
47.3
14
51.9
15
51.9
10
49.9
17
18
51.7
19
21.0
39.0
47.0
50.0
Mr. Neenan's statement, previously quoted, indicates that the
production of window glass by hand has decreased, as the number
of union blowers was 1,610 during the blast of 1915-16, while for-
merly it was probably from 1,800 to 1,900.
PROPORTION OF PRODUCTION BY HAND AND MACHINE.
The statistics of the Census of Manufactures do not show the
proportion of window glass made by hand and by machine, and the
statistics of the union do not show the proportion previous to the
blast of 1915-16, when, as stated by Mr. Neenan, the production
of 50-foot boxes by hand was 3,708,000 and by machine 5,575,000,
the hand production being about 40 per cent. The largest producer
is the American Window Glass Co., which in 1916 operated 116 of
the 296 machines in the United States. The machines of this com-
pany have been installed much longer than the machines of any
other companyand have long since passed the experimental stage.
Mr. W. L. Monro, general manager of this company, in declining
to furnish data regarding its business for this report, stated that it
could produce window glass cheaper than any other establishment
in the United States and would continue to do so until window glass
should be made by machines in sheets (instead of cylindrical as at
present), the patents for which are controlled by the Owens Bottle
Machine Co. The American Window Glass Co., in October, 1916,
declared a dividend of 12£ per cent on its preferred stock, making a
total of 54£ por cent paid on the stock within a year; or $3,815,000
on the issue of $7,000,000.
200 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
COOPERATION AMONG MANUFACTURERS.
The announcement of discounts from the fixed price list is made
almost invariably by the American Window Glass Co., and is imme-
diately followed by the Johnston Brokerage Co., which sells the
product of about half the hand glass factories and of some other
machine manufacturers.
A West Virginia manufacturer, in an interview with a special
agent of the Bureau, answered as follows the inquiry as to what
cooperation there was among manufacturers of window glass :
About the only steps taken in this direction is that of selling through one man
(Johnston). This tends to make stable prices. Curtailment of production is forced
on manufacturers by an agreement with the union which fixes the time limits between
which dates the plants may operate. Manufacturers have now agreed that this is
beneficial to business, for if they were to operate the whole year there would be an
overproduction, which would send prices so low that many establishments would be
ruined.
Considering the hazard to all concerned, the present lack of intercourse and friendly
consideration of the problems involved is worse than a menace to this business. If
there was ever a business which demanded the closest cooperation in all matters con-
nected with it, it is this one. There never has been such cooperation. The problem
of overproduction is constantly growing worse. It is further complicated by having
new factories spring up every time a short period of prosperity comes to the industry.
In this immediate locality seven new factories have been built and several old ones
enlarged in the past four years. The number already operating is more than sufficient
to supply the demand for glass; and they can do this by operating from 26 to 40
weeks — usually about 30 weeks. These new factories are usually the first to go under,
but they do damage to the whole industry and make the business still more unstable.
INCREASED DEMAND FOR FIRST GRADE AND FOR SMALL SIZES.
In the window-glass industry two trade tendencies have been very
noticeable during the last few years. One is the demand for A glass.
Most of the glass that is sold is of B grade, but there has been a growing
demand for A quality. Buyers are now much more strict as to
grading than they were formerly, and A glass is at a premium, that
is, it has advanced in price more proportionately than have other
grades. So strict is the grading now that some factories no longer
sell A glass as of that grade. Though some of their product is of
A grade, they prefer to sell it all as B grade, to avoid complaints
and claims from their customers for allowances. It is generally,
conceded that more A glass is made by the hand factories than by
the machine factories, but hand manufacturers usually admit that
the quality of machine-made glass is constantly being unproved.
The other very noticeable tendency in the window-glass industry
is that for several years, especially since 1914, there has been an
increased demand for the three smaller brackets. Glass of these
smaller sizes constitute half or more of the output in ordinary fac-
tories, or from 50 to 65 per cent. Most manufacturers claim that
they lose money on the first three bracket sizes, because of both
domestic and foreign competition. They have not, therefore, wit-
nessed with equanimity the growing popularity of small sizes.
The building of so many bungalow houses is given as the principal
reason for the increasing demand for small glass.
The fixed price list of window glass, subject to very large discounts,
shows marked differences in prices. The list prices for single B glass
of the three smallest brackets is $19, $20, and $21, respectively;
for the next three brackets, $22, $22.50, and $23.25; for the next
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 201
three, 125.25, $28.75, and $31.25. This price list was last revised
on October 15, 1012. It is the belief of many manufacturers that
there is a much greater difference between the net selling prices of
the larger and -mailer brackets than the costs warrant and thai the
list price of the three smaller brackets should be advanced. About
three-fourths of the imports of window glass before the war in Europe
began were of the three smaller sizes, and many manufacturers give
this as a reason why such brackets were sold at a loss.
It is remarkable, however, that manufacturers have not increased
the prices of the smaller sizes in proportion to the advance in the
prices of the larger sizes from 1914 to 1916, especially as during that
period there has been practically no foreign competition.
MANUFACTURING TO FILL ORDERS AND FOR STOCK.
In normal years, window-glass manufacturers make glass both to
fill orders and for stock, usually about two-thirds for orders and
one-third for stock. The goods made for stock are to fill immediate
orders and to take care of the trade between fires. With hand
factories the "fire" or manufacturing season extends for seven
months, from, the first of November to the last of May, and during
these months they must make enough for stock to supply customers
during the five idle months. Some machine window-glass plants are
shut down only three or four weeks, but do not operate with the full
force during several months of the year. Some orders for window
glass are for immediate delivery, but most of them are for delivery
in from one to three months. During the latter part of 1915 and in
1916, when the demand was extraordinarily active, stocks did not
accumulate, and the factories were run at capacity to fill orders.
CONDITIONS OUTLINED BY MANUFACTURERS.
Following are excerpts from speeches made at the annual meeting
of the National Association of Window Glass Manufacturers held
in 1915.
Mr. H. R. Hilton, president of the Allegheny Window Glass Co.,
Port Allegheny, Pa., said:
Increased capacity of hand and machine factories has reduced the operating period
to seven and possibly six months each year. The jobber now being able to buy glass
at any time to meet all his requirements the year round, no longer finds it necessary
to carry more than a small assortment of sizes to meet his current needs. This forces
the manufacturer to carry large stocks during the shut-down period, to meet the
requirements of the market when glass is called for.
Under present conditions in the hand process window-glass industry, the demand
for glass is greater during the shut-down period, June to November, than during the
customary operating period, November to June. No manufacturer is so wise that
he can foresee what sizes will be in demand the following summer, hence he rarely
accumulates a stock that meets the market requirements.
This imposes large financial burdens on the manufacturer in carrying over another
year that part of his stock not in demand in addition to losing summer trade by not
having the sizes called for.
The wage scales of the past have permitted the setting out of a certain percentage
of sheets to enable the manufacturer to fill out short sizes on summer orders, but this
percentage is entirely too small for present-day conditions, and besides carries with
it a tax of 15 cents per 50-foot box by compelling the manufacturer to pay full price
for cutting when the sheets are set out and full price again when the sheets are cut
into marketable sizes. This double price for cutting sheets and the restrictions
as to setting them out impose a hardship and expense on the manufacturer that is
both unjust and unfair.
202 THE GLASS INDTJSTBY.
As a partial solution of this problem, I would suggest that each cutter be given
the production of four pots or places to cut; that he cut weekly the production of two
and a half pots or less according to demand; that the balance be carried directly from
the lehr to the sheet storage room to be held for summer cutting without payment
for the sheets set out from any of his places, he to have the privilege of cutting this
sheet glass during the summer months, as called for, at the scale price.
This would give each cutter from seven and one-half to nine months' work, would
give each factory the labor required for this work, and would enable the manu-
facturer to dispose of his production to the very best advantage by placing him in a
position to compete with his machine competitor.
Sheets can be set out to occupy less floor space than the same glass would require
packed in 50-foot boxes and piled 25 boxes high.
Mr. O. C. Teague, secretary of the Utica Glass Co., Utica, Ohio
(also president of the National Window Glass Manufacturers' Asso-
ciation) :
The window-glass industry during the past year has operated 50 per cent capacity —
meaning that if all available furnaces had operated at maximum capacity for six
months, all demands, both domestic and foreign, would have been fully supplied
and some stock to spare.
Most producers have recognized the fundamental law of supply and demand and
demonstrated a willingness to exact his share and be satisfied. Unfortunately,
however, there are still a few manufacturers who propose to operate full capacity
for a full year, furnace conditions permitting. This last-named factor is the dan-
gerous element in our largely overbuilt industry. Unless we can convince these free
lances of their mistaken policy our future business life is indeed short. * * *
Evidently the day has passed when the jobber engages in speculative buying of
window glass and the result is that manufacturers must carry the bulk of the stock.
This necessitates increased resources and good banking connections, or both.
Mr. G. A. Schlosstein, president of the Dunkirk Window Glass Co.,
South Charleston, W. Va. :
Some industries have overproduction in their individual lines of 10 per cent, others
as high as 25 per cent, but the sheet-glass business of this country has now reached
the alarming figure of 50 per cent overproduction, or, in other words, there are exactly
two boxes of glass made where only one is wanted.
While the hand manufacturer during the blast of 1914 and 1915 has operated only
six months, many machine-equipped factories have operated from 6 to 11 months,
and are still in operation to-day or have just suspended operations. * * *
Since we can no longer form holding companies, or distributing companies, that
will absolutely maintain and establish prices, the time is here when everyone,
with favoritism to none, should see the importance of intelligently contributing his
influence to the maintenance of a profitable market. * * *
During the years 1913 and 1914 there were manufactured by the combined machine
plantsof the Uni ted StatesS, 969, 519 fifty-foot boxesof window glass, and 3. 064, 304 were
manufactured by the hand method. The production by machines during the year
ending July, 1915, was largely increased, and it begins to look as though the machine
interest will in the future dictate the policies, whether we will overproduce, or
whether we shall intelligently make as much glass as the country requires and then
close the plants. Strange as it may seem to one unfamiliar with the industry, there
has been an uncontrollable desire on the part of many manufacturers to keep their
plants in operation, thinking that it was more important to operate than to sell their
goods at a profit and to pay dividends to their stockholders. * * *
I can remember as far back as 1887 when the Chambers & McKee Co. builttheir
first large tank at Jeannette. In a few years others followed, but for a long period of
years the pot factories, meaning those who melted their glass in clay pots instead of
clay tanks, occupied the same identical position that the hand operators have done
in the past few years. Gradually the scene changed as it is changing to-day, and when
the dawn of 1906 came, with its business depression, the pot furnace had been driven
out, just as the hand operator is being driven out. Those days it was stated that the
antiquated pot-furnace factory had to go, that it had no right to exist any longer.
When it disappeared, modern tanks took its place, with doubled and tripled capacity.
What made it worse, that much new capital was decoyed into the business and
it was more difficult to get along with the new competitors, who knew absolutely
nothing about the business. The evolution of cleaning up the pot furnaces and
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 203
brinein? tank'furnaces into general use caused most of the present overproduction
of the industry. * * *
But when we look forward to the next five years, what can be done to make the
business profitable? Hardly has the cylinder drawing machine been made a com-
mercial success, but that we are confronted with a sheet drawing machine which
threatens the cylinder process of to-day.
Even when the sheet drawing machine becomes a success, no more money will
be made in the business unless the glass is intelligently distributed after it is man-
ufactured. Some of the livest economists have stated that "it was not a question
of production in this country, but a question of distribution." Glass must be sold
by an experienced salesman; it should be shipped from the factory most favorably
located from the point of manufacture to the point of consumption; it should travel
the shortest route so as to minimize the freight equalization to the manufacturer.
Manufacturer? should produce their proportion of the glass that the country demands
and have the glass marketed at a profit which is fair and commensurate with the risk;
that the business can not escape. While we bad lean years, and while we have had
profitable years, have we ever made as much money out of the business as we should
have done? Think for a moment that in our great country we are blessed with
natural gas for fuel. Think of the foreign manufacturers, who even during the times
of peace were waging a constant battle to produce a superior quality of window glass
with the use of manufactured gas. and in addition some wood. The day may come
when our gas is gone; then we shall think back to the good old days when it was
in abundance. It has given out in Indiana, it has given out in Kansas, and it is
rapidly diminishing in Ohio and Pennsylvania. The few years that are left for
us to use the precious fuel should be counted and the supply carefully guarded and
treasured. * * *
Mr. J. W. Allison, president of the Alliance Window Glass Co.,
Dubois, Pa.:
Mr. Johnston has a right to sell our glass, and there is no law to interfere with him
or with me as salesman, and Mr. Johnston has a right to say at what price he will
sell that product — he can do that without conflicting with the law, but we manu-
facturers can not come here and agree on production or prices, but can only have it
understood that each fellow is going to make his proportion and no more. Then, of
course, it is up to each man individually and, as one of the gentlemen here has said,
the law of supply and demand will take care of the business.
Mr. Frank Bastin, secretary of the Blackford Window Glass Co.,
Vinccnnes, Ind.:
If we persist in making more glass than the country can absorb it will be a drug
on the market, and it means low prices and impossible conditions for everyone. I
think common sense, which is the basis of all laws, should teach us that this should
be remedied in some legitimate and legal way. It should not be contrary for us,
acting as individuals, to say there is enough glass, when we have statistics before us
showing that we have made as much glass as the country required.
Mr. C. E. Hazelton, general manager of the Consolidated Window
Glass Co., Bradford, Pa.:
There is no doubt but what the condition of our trade is overbuilt, which makes
it a hard proposition to maintain a strictly standard market where we can all make
a living, but by cooperation and square dealing 1 hope we can all continue to live
and prosper for years to come. There is one thing that comes to my mind that
appeals to me as being worth while, and that is the question of changing our packages
to universal 100-foot packages, such as are used by foreign countries. Just at the
present time it is confusing when we manufacturers receive orders for 50 and 100
foot packages, but that can be remedied by establishing the same package that is
used in France and Belgium, and I think it would be a good thing for this business.
Mr. C. W. Brown, first vice president of the Pittsburgh Plate Glass
Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.: .
We all know that the American Window Glass Co. for 10 or 11 years kept on investing
more and more money and ran more and more into debt, without making returns to
its stockholders. This is a matter of common record. And now in the past two or
three years the American Window Glass Co. has perfected its machines and is now
able to make the best machine glass in the world. * * *
204 THE GLASS INDUSTKY.
During the past year building permits were materially curtailed and the consump-
tion of window glass was greatly limited. There has been a largely excessive pro-
duction of certain sizes and certain qualities, which have been sold at various prices,
until it is impossible to know what the market price really is. I hope to live to see
the day when all sales of window glass are reported the same as sales of coffee, sugar,
and grain, which will give those in the window-glass business an opportunity to know
what the market price really is. * * *
The hand manufacturers have met this condition in a way that I think is very
creditable; they have provided for six or seven months' blast. The American Window
Glass Co., as you all know, have also recognized the situation, and instead of indulging
in a ruinous competition they have been broad enough and sensible enough to mate-
rially curtail their production.
Mr. Joseph Neenan, president of the National Association of Win-
dow Glass Workers :
Our wages have increased more than 100 per cent from the lowest point to the point
where, during the last six weeks of the blast ending May 29, single-strength blowers
were averaging 66 cents per box. Contrast this condition with the one that prevailed
three years ago last November, and we are forced to the conclusion that both manu-
facturers and workers have profited through the efforts that have been made to obtain
a living wage rate and bring about a stable condition in the markets. At the time to
which I am referring, single-strength blowers were aAreraging about 30 cents per box;
the average selling price of single-strength glass was about SI. 27 per box; a condition
which meant that both workers and manufacturers were devoting their interests and
giving their time and energy to a business which gave them no returns.
In an address delivered before the convention of the National
Association of Window Glass Manufacturers held in 1916, Mr. W. L.
Monro, general manager of the American Window Glass Co., the larg-
est producer of window glass in the world, estimated the production
in American window-glass factories from September 1, 1915, to Sep-
tember 1, 1916, as 10,600,000 boxes, and said: "Had the manufac-
turers ever realized the enormous demand for glass, there is no ques-
tion that they would have demanded more money for their goods
and secured it with the greatest ease." He further said:
The past year has been the most notable one in the history of the window-glass
business in the United States, not only from a manufacturing but also from a jobbing
standpoint. Its claim to note rests on many facts: (1) More glass was manufactured
in this country during the past year since September 1, 1915, than in any previous
year in the history of the business; (2) more glass has been sold during the same period
than ever before in a similar period; (3) window-glass prices steadily increased; (4)
the demand absorbed not only all the glass produced daring the past year, but also
the greater part of the large accumulations on hand on September 1, 1915; (5) the
export business was the largest we have ever done.
If the year has not also been the most profitable year the manufacturers and jobbers
have ever known, the fault must not be laid to the business, but to the manner in which
those who did not realize their greatest profit have conducted their business. The
money was there to be made.
The following, also quoted from Mr. Monro's address, shows that
there was comparatively little advance in the price for the first three
brackets of B glass, the grade commonly used for window glass as
compared with A grade and with larger sizes, during the period from
1914 to 1916, though there were scarcely any imports of window glass
during the latter part of this period, and exports were larger than ever:
We hear a great deal of talk about the present prices of window glass being high.
I know of but few things that we buy, whether it is what we use or what we eat or
what we wear, that have not advanced in price since the beginning of the war far
more than window glass. I will only cite two of them — steel from 100 to 130 per cent;
soda ash, 100 per cent. The wages for common labor have increased from 16£ cents
per hour to 24 and 25 cents an hour; natural gas from 14 cents to 16 cents in the Pitts-
burgh district. Building costs have increased 40 per cent.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 205
The following represents the increase in prices of window glass from May. 1914, to
March 10. L916. Schedule of prices: S. S. first three brackets, A quality, 32.5 per cent;
S. S. firsl three brackets, J', quality. 8.4 per cent; S. S. above sizes, 40 per cent: an
average increase of aboul 27 per cent. A quality, double strength, has increased 36
per cent, and J '> quality, double strength, 24 per cent, or an average increase of 30 per
cent. If you will compare the percentages of these increases with the percentages
of incroa.se in other lines, yon will see that window-glass manufacturers have failed
cure their proportionate Bhare of the prosperity that has prevailed, and have
also failed to secure an increase in the price of window p;lass proportionate to the
increase in the cost of producing it. It is a sad commentary when we realize that B
quality glass in the first three brackets is only selling at 8.4 per cent more than in
May. L914, and it is our understanding that some manufacturers are even shading
current discounts on that.
THE SHEET-GLASS MACHINE.
All window-glass manufacturers are dreading the time when glass
shall be made in flat sheets by the Owens Bottle Machine Co. under
the Colburn patents, which it controls. They fear that by the new
process window glass can be made much cheaper than by any other
process that has been used in the United States ; that with the cheaper
production there will be an intense competition in the window-glass
market, and that the weaker establishments will be forced out of
business. The Owens Bottle Machine Co. began in 1916 the erection
of an extensive plant at Charleston, W. Va., for the manufacture of
window glass in flat sheets instead of cylinders. American manu-
facturers are apprehensive also about a machine for making flat
window glass which was patented in Belgium before the war began.
Another machine was made in Saxony before the war began by
which window glass is blown and not, as in the case of American
machines, drawn from the pot or furnace. In the United States,
however, very little is known about these new European machines.
PLATE GLASS.
INCREASE IN PRODUCTION.
Table 8, page 28, shows that the production of plate glass in the
United States has increased much more rapidly than the production
of window glass. According to this table, based on data from the
Census of Manufactures, 217,064,100 square feet of window glass
was manufactured in the United States in 1899, and 400,99S,893
in 1914, an increase of 84.74 per cent'; while 16,883,578 square feet
of polished plate glass was manufactured in 1899, and 60,383,516 in
1914, an increase of 357.65 per cent. According to the same data,
the average value of polished plate glass decreased from SO. 306 per
square foot in 1899 to $0,245 in 1914.
The number of square feet of plate glass, cast, polished, finished
or unfinished, and unsilvered, imported for consumption during the
fiscal year 1899 was 925,212 square feet, or 5.48 per cent of the do-
mestic production- in 1899, and the imports during the fiscal year
1914 were 2,819,611 square feet, or 4.67 per cent of the domestic
production in 1914. While the number of square feet manufactured
in the United States increased 357.65 per cent during the 15 years,
the number of square feet imported increased 204.75 per cent.
206
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
A brief signed by 10 American manufacturers of plate glass, and
submitted to the Committee on Ways and Means in January, 1913,
stated : x
The production in the United States is about 60,000,000 square feet, about 47 per
cent of which is produced by the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co., and the remainder by 11
separate companies. None of the American product is exported, excepting a negli-
gible quantity to contiguous territory to supply pressing requirements.
The capital invested in the industry in this country is about $49,000,000, the smallest
concern in the industry having a capital investment of about $1,000,000. The average
number of men directly employed in the industry in this country is about 11,000.
Those indirectly employed will equal more than twice this number.
NUMBER AND EQUIPMENT OF PLANTS.
The number of plate-giass factories is small as compared with the
number of window-glass factories. A plate-glass factory requires a
very large investment for furnaces, annealing ovens, grinding and
polishing machines, and other equipment. The number of factories
in the United States manufacturing polished plate glass is 15, in-
cluding 2 that were closed in 1916 but late in that year were pre-
paring to reopen. Six of these plants, with 52 furnaces and 880
.pots, were operated by the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. Of these six
plants, four were in Pennsylvania, one in Indiana, and one in Mis-
souri. The number of furnaces and pots of the 15 plants is shown
in the following table:
Table 80. — Location and Number op Factories Making Polished Plate Glass
and the Number op Their Furnaces and Pots.
[Data furnished by the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.]
States.
Estab- i
lish- Furnaces,
ments. |
Pots.
1
1
1
ol
1
68
4
10
4
14
17
53
80
120
80
208
304
1,080
Total
cl3
102
1,872
a In addition, 1 plant with 5 furnaces and 100 pots not operated in 1916 was preparing to reopen.
6 In addition, 1 plant with 6 furnaces and 144 pots not operated in 1916 was preparing to reopen.
e In addition, 2 plants with 11 furnaces and 244 pots not operated in 1916 were preparing to reopen.
TREND OF PRICES AND SIZES.
The statement of the manufacturers to the Committee on Ways
and Means in 1913 says:
The prices to consumers of plate glass in the United States have on the whole been
in distinct contrast to the upward tendency in the price of most commodities during
the last 10 years, while the manufacturers have been compelled to pay more for the
materials entering into its production and have been compelled to increase wages
in keeping with the general upward tendency of wages, all of which for a time increased
the cost of production. Nevertheless, by the introduction of labor-saving devices
and new inventions, the tendency in the cost of production for the last four years
has been downward, and the cost to the consumer has also had a downward tendencv.
> Tariff Schedules: Hearings before the Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives, 1913,
schedule B, p. 838.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS.
207
The manufacl i rt that the cosl of manufacturing plate
per square foot, whether the glass is of a large or
small size. Nevertheless, the selling prices are graded according to
size-, being lowest on the smallest size and highest on the i
3J shown by the following table embodied i mufacturers'
statement:
Table 81. — Retail Prices of Plate Glass per Square Foot, 1875 to 1912.
[From statement of manufacturers in Tarifl" Hearings, 1913.]
Range.
1875
18S0
1885
1890
1895
1900
1905
1908
1912
SO. 71
.84
1.12
1.49
1.56
1.69
SO. 51
.61
.80
1.06
1.11
1.21
$0.46
.55
.72
.96
1.01
1.09
SO. 40
.48
.64
.85
.89
.97
SO. 30
.36
.48
.63
.66
.72
SO. 31
.38
.60
.81
.85
.90
SO. 1875
.225
.36
.416
SO. 1875
.225
.36
SO. 22
.241
.342
.39 I .365
.436 | .408 .38
.462 .432
The following paragraphs arc quoted from the manufacturers'
statement:
It should be borne in mind that a square foot of plate glass costs the same amount
whether manufactured in large or small plates, because it must of necessity be cast
first in large plates exclusively. Glass can not economically be melted in small
quantities. It is necessary to manufacture in large sizes, in the course of -which
manufacturing process the unavoidable breaking and cutting down for imperfections
produces some smaller sizes under 5 square feet. Normally this production of small
sizes, to wit, under 5 square feet, is about 10 per cent.
In answer to the statement made by the representative of the importers four years
ago, that the cost of small glass was not the same as the cost of large glass, and to the
effect that the small glass was a by-product, we wish to distinctly say that neither
one of these statements is in accordance with the facts. Assuming now for the sake
of argument that the 10 per cent of glass under 5 square feet above referred to is a
by-product, it must be borne in mind that the consumption of the country for glass
of this character has now grown to be nearly 50 per cent of the entire production,
which compels the manufacturer to cut 35 to 40 per cent of additional glass which
would normally be large sizes down to the market requirements under 5 square feet,
and which can certainly not be considered a by-product from any standpoint.
The query may naturally arise as to why the manufacturer should supply this
additional glass if he does it at a loss. The answer is that by increasing his output
by this large additional amount of business he is enabled to operate his plants nearly
to their capacity, and thus reduce his general production cost. If the American
manufacturer were to cease to supply this business, the cost of production would be
advanced at least 3 cents per foot.
We do not claim that all glass under 5 square feet is sold at a loss, because for the
finer qualities we get what appears to be a fair price; but in order to secure the small
pieces of fine quality, it is necessary to cut out of the large plates the patches of fine
quality, with the result that this cutting reduces the balau ce of the plate to odds and ends
and strips. The average price secured for all the glass sold under 5 square feet has
always netted a loss to the manufacturer.
The increased demand for plate glass of the smaller sizes during
recent years is due to the increased use of plate glass in place of
window glass, and to the very much more extensive use of plate
glass for shelving, showcases, furniture tops, automobile wind shields,
etc. The following is quoted from Glass and Glassware, issued in
1916 by the National Distributors' Association:
Notwithstanding the tremendous investment required , the comprehensive machinery
and materials used in manufacturing, the cost has been scientifically reduced so that
plate glass is no longer considered a luxury and is every day increasing in popularity
for general glazing of high-class buildings, store fronts, show cases, for table and desk
208
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
covering, dresser tops, cliift'oniers, buffets, taborets, shelves, etc. The use of plate
glass adds an elegance and finish whenever it is seen.
The same publication states that polished plate glass is manu-
factured in thickness ranging from one-eighth of an inch to 1| inches
and that the standard product runs from one-fourth to five-sixteenths
inch thick. It further says:
One-eighth inch to -j^-inch glass is used largely for residence windows and by car
builders and for boat sash, automobile wind shields, and for other special purposes
where perfect surfaces, high polish, and absolutely clear vision is wanted, with
minimum weight.
Glass thicker than the standard product is used for counter tops, deal plates, port
and deck lights on ships, aquariums, etc.
The increase of the retail price in 1912 over the price in 1908 in
the first two sizes shown in Table 81, that is, for sizes of 5 feet and
under, reflected the increase in the rate of duty on the smaller
brackets under the tariff act which went into effect on August 6, 1909.
Under the tariff acts of 1897 and 1909, the rates of duty per square
foot on plate glass, cast, polished, finished or unfinished, and
unsilvered, were as follows:
Not exceeding 384 square inches (2.67 square feet): 1897, 8 cents; 1909, 10 cents.
Above 384 and not exceeding 720 square inches (2.67 to 5 square feet) : 1897, 10 cents;
1909, 124 cents.
Above 720 and not exceeding 1,440 square inches (5 to 10 square feet): 1897, 22$
cents; 1909, 22 J cents.
Above 1,440 square inches (10 square feet): 1897, 35 cents; 1909, 22£ cents.
The following table, showing the retail price of plate glass to con-
sumers during each year 1908 to 1915, inclusive, was furnished by the
Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co., which manufactures plate glass and sells
it to consumers:
Table 82. — Retail Prices of Plate Glass per Square Foot, 1906 to 1915.
[Data from Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co., November, 1916.]
Range.
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915.
1 to 3 square feet
SO. 1875
.$0. 1875
,10. 1875
$0. 1875
$0.26
$0.22
SO. 22
SO. 22
SO. 19
SO. 17
3 to 5 square feet
.225
.225
.225
.225
.29
.26
.247
.26
.23
.20
5 to 10 square feet...
.36
.36
.38
.38
.43
.39
.342
.36
.31
.29
10 to 25 square feet . .
.41
.40
.39
.39
.46
.42
.355
.38
.34
.32
25 to 50 square feet . .
.42
.41
.408
.40
.47
.43
.38
.40
.35
.34
50 to 100 square feet .
.45
.44
.432
.43
.50
.46
.392
.41
.36
.35
As shown by this table, the retail prices in 1915 were between 4
and 5 cents per square foot lower in each bracket than they were in
1912.
In furnisliing the data for 1906 to 1915, inclusive, supplemental to
the data shown in Table 81, Mr. W. L. Clause, chairman of the board
of directors of the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co., wrote November 21,
1916:
The figures shown are intended to represent a fair average for the respective years.
In some instances there was quite a wide range of prices prevailing at different portions
of the year. In the years 1910 and 1911 the prices were somewhat higher than those
prevailing in prior or subsequent years. These higher prices resulted from unusual
conditions in the trade. For instance, in 1910 our own company lost by fire its largest
works, thus taking out of the market an appreciable percentage of domestic supply.
This, together with a strong and firm market, brought about the advanced price con-
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS.
209
ditions as shown and which extended through a portion of 1911, thus affecting the
retail prices during rhat year.
You will note, also, thai no figures are shown for the year 1910, for the reason that
we can not supply figures of this character before the end of the year. They will,
however, be materially higher, due to the general and extraordinary business condi-
tions prevailing.
The percentage of the so-called small-bracket glass (that is, under 10 square feet)
produced and sold has ranged during a period of many years from 20 to 25 per cent of
the total production, varying from year to year on account of peculiar conditions
experienced in the various factories in the United States. On the other hand, the
sales of small-bracket glass range from 60 to 70 per cent of the total production. In
the year 1915, which was a fair, average year, our company's sales of small glass
amounted to 04.49 per cent under 10 square feet; 1916 bids fair, from present indica-
tions, to exceed the percentage shown in 1915. It is obvious from the foregoing figures
that of the total production 40 to 45 per cent manufactured as large glass is, of necessity,
cut down and sold in the small brackets.
During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, the value of the imports
of plate glass, cast, polished, finished, or unfinished, and unsilvered,
or the same containing a wire netting within itself, was $265,909,
and during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915, the amount was
$38,757.
In spite of the almost entire cessation of such imports on account
of the war, the prices of plate glass were lower during the months
from February to July, 1915, than ever before in the history of the
trade. Afterwards prices increased, and after August 25, 1915, they
increased greatly, as shown by the following table:
Table 83. — Prices per Square Foot op Glazing Sizes op Plate Glass.
|A11 prices are f. o. b. factory, freight equalized from nearest factory to point of destination on all quantities.]
Bracket.
St. Louis
Plate Glass
Co., Valley
Park, Mo.,
Aug. 25,
1915.
Edward
Ford Plate
Glass Co.,
Rossford,
Ohio, Mav
23, 1916."
Bracket.
St. Louis
PlateGlass
Co., Valley
Park, Mo.,
Aug. 25,
1915.
Edward
Ford Plate
Glass Co.,
Rossford,
Ohio, May
23, 1916.
SO. 12
.14
.18
.19
.21
.23
SO. 30
.31
.33
.34
.38
.44
$0.24
.25
'.27
.28
.30
$0.49
.50
.52
.54
.57
.58
Plate glass and wire glass are made both to fill orders and for
stock. Orders are usually placed three months in advance, of de-
livery. Opalescent glass is made chiefly for stock because orders
usually call for immediate shipment; formerly there were more
advance orders.
BOTTLES.
The production of bottles and jars is not only larger but is more
widely distributed than the production of other varieties of glass or
glassware. Table 8, page 28, shows that, according to the Census
of Manufactures, the value of the production of bottles and jars was
$21,676,791 in 1899, $33,631,063 in 1904, $36,018,333 in 1909, and
$51,958,728 in 1914. During the 15 years the increase was 139.7
per cent. In examining these figures it should be remembered that
automatic machines for making bottles and jars were introduced in
102511°— 17 14
210 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
1903. The number of such machines used in 1904 was inconsider-
able, and although quite a number of machines were installed during
the next five years, the increase of production from 1904 to 1909 was
much smaller than from 1899 to 1904.
The imports of bottles have had but little effect on domestic
production. The value of the imports of empty bottles and vials
and demijohns and carboys entered for consumption was $211,729
during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, and $217,995 during the
following fiscal year, the new tariff having gone into effect on October
4, 1913. The value of filled bottles, vials, jars, demijohns, and car-
boys imported for consumption during the fiscal year 1914 amounted
to $966,610.
PRODUCTION AFFECTED BY MACHINERY.
The disturbing factor in the manufacture of bottles during the
years since 1903 has been the automatic bottle-blowing machine.
The Owens machine is called automatic, because it requires no skilled
labor to operate it. The only attendant is a mechanic, who oils the
machine and sees that it runs properly, and whose wages are not
equal to those of blowers or hand machine operators. A boy takes
off the ware when no automatic conveyor is used. The first auto-
matic had six arms, each arm having a pair of molds, and six bottles
were made with one complete revolution of the arms, at the rate of
12 or 14 bottles a minute. Later, machines were equipped with
10 arms, and more recently with 15 arms. The 15-arm machines
can turn out 60 bottles a minute. In making the smaller sizes of
bottles, the mold on each arm is cut for three small molds, so that
180 small vials are produced a minute by a 15-arm machine.
Shortly after the introduction of the Owens automatic machine
other bottle machines were introduced, the first one being an English
machine. These machines were small and cost considerably less
than the Owens machines, but their output was much less, and
manufacturers that used them could not compete with manufac-
turers usmg automatic machines in filling large orders. The ma-
chines other than the Owens are called hand machines; they are called,
also, three-man machines, because three skilled men are required to
operate each. They have been largely superseded by two-man
machines, and more recently one-man machines requiring only one
skilled operator for each have been introduced. The one-man
machines are called semiautomatic. In some plants three skilled
men are employed on two machines. Notwithstanding the improve-
ments in the hand machines so that they can be operated by only
one man, the manufacturers usmg them still find great difficulty in
competing with manufacturers that use Owens machines, except
on comparatively small orders. The keenness of this competition was
assigned as a reason why a large number of establishments have
quit business.
The Glass Bottle Blowers' Association is composed of the skilled
workers that blow bottles in hand molds, or who operate hand ma-
chines, including the semiautomatic. It is organized in only a few
of the plants using Owens machines, in which no skilled labor is re-
quired, or in plants using the flowing process, in which less skilled
labor is required than in plants using the hand machines.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 211
Dennis A. Hayes, national president, in his report to the annual
convention of the association, held in 1915, said:
Shortly after the introduction and installation of the automatic machine, there
appeared on the market what is known as the United or English machine for making
narrow-mouth ware. A list was adopted by our executive board during the season
of 1908 and 1909 covering rounds and ovals, there being no other kinds of ware made
on it up to that time.
In many establishments that use the hand machines bottles are
also still blown entirely by hand to fill small orders. President
Hayes's report to the convention is 1915 said:
In nearly every bottle factory on the American continent there are one or more
machines, and those factories not having them will either have to install them or be
forced out of business. So it is but natural to assume that manufacturers in order to
protect their investment will endeavor to equip their factories with bottle machines.
Machines to make narrow-mouth ware are being perfected and simplified to such an
extent that it is possible for the man operating them to make first-class wages. To
date, however, I know of no machine except the automatic that is capable of produc-
ing small ware successfully, especially that of the prescription variety. By "success-
fully" I mean in commercial quantities. * * *
The number of machines making wide-mouth bottles and jars is given as 193,
employing approximately 700 men; 98 of these machines are operating semi-
automatically, employing three men to two machines, at an average wage of $5.65
per day. This is an increase of 446 machines over the previous season. There are
reported 116 of the United and O'Neill machines operating on beer, soda, grape
jmce, catsup, and ammonia bottles, employing 669 operators at an average daily
wage of $4.75. There are 86 machines reported employing two men and 63 employing
one man, making miscellaneous narrow-mouth ware at an approximate wage of $6
per day.
Another invention, in addition to the Owens automatic machine,
which had a great effect on the bottle industry was the flowing
process. It dispenses with the skilled man that gathers the glass,
and is operated with less labor cost than are the machines which
require a hand gatherer. The flowing device was patented by Homer
Brooke in 1903, and by 1910 it was used in several large establish-
ments. The principal patents on the Owens machine and on the
flowing device will not expire until about 1920.
It is not known what proportion of the bottles produced is manu-
factured by Owens machines or by the flowing process, but it is
probable that the production by both automatic machines and the
flowing device largely exceeds the production both by hand machines
and entirely by hand. Nearly all of the successful establishments
that manufacture with hand machines or entirely by hand are unusu-
ally favorably located with reference to cheapness of fuel or acces-
sibility to markets, and nearly all of them manufacture to fill much
smaller orders than are accepted by establishments using Owens
machines or the flowing process. The manufacturers employing
automatic machines of flowing processes, because of the compara-
tively low price of their product require large orders to insure con-
tinuous uninterrupted production.
NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT.
The following table shows, as far as reported, the number of estab-
lishments manufacturing bottles and jars in the United States that
were operated in 1916, and details about their equipment, not includ-
ing establishments using Owens machines.
212
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 84. — Location and Number op Plants Making Bottles, Jars, etc., in
1916, and Number op Their Tanks, Rings, and Pots, not Including Plants
Using Automatic Machines.
[Data from Glass Factory Directory, 1916.]
State.
Plants.
Continuous
tanks.
Day tanks.
Fur-
naces.
Pots.
Tanks.
Kings.
Tanks.
Rings.
2
a63
el4
1
4
1
62
14
dll
dll
"5
«33
1
1
3
de6
1
7
4
29
1
5
1
5
32
15
24
4
56
1
3
4
7
3
32
35
281
8
26
6
64
311
112
210
31
441
6
16
28
61
28
1
14
5
59
8
75
11
1
6
Ohio
7
71
Total
113
201
1,696
9
89
24
238
a Tanks and rings of 1 plant in Oklahoma included with Illinois.
b Tanks and rings of 1 Illinois plant included with Missouri.
e Tanks and rings of 1 plant in Oklahoma included with Indiana.
<* Tanks and rings of 1 plant in New York and 1 in West Virginia, included with Ohio.
e Tanks of 1 plant in West Virginia included with Pennsylvania.
NUMBER OF AUTOMATIC MACHINES.
The report of President Hayes in 1915 shows that the number of
automatic machines in the United States and Canada was then 182,
an increase over 1914 of 10 machines, and. that of these 169 were
operated in the United States and 13 in Canada. His report in
1916 shows that the number was then 193, an increase over 1915
of 11, and that of these 180 were operated in the United States
and 13 in Canada.
The number of Owens machines used in the United States in
November, 1916, were as follows:
Table 85. — Owens Bottle Machines Installed in the United States.
[Reported by the Owens Bottle Machine Co., November, 1916.]
Company and product.
6-arm
machines.
10-arm
machines.
15-arm
machines.
Total.
Owens Bottle Machine Co. No. 1, Toledo, Ohio.
1
1
1
12
6
1
2
7
10
2
Owens Bottle Machine Co. No. 2, West Toledo, Ohio:
1
Owens Bottle Machine Co. No. 3, Fairmont, W. Va.:
12
Owens Bottle Machine Co. No. 4, Clarksburg, W. Va.:
6
Whitney Glass Works, Glassboro. N. J.:
6
19
17
17
7
American Bottle ( o., Newark, Ohio:
4
25
American Bottle Co., Streator, 111. (2 plants):
24
Illinois Glass to.. Alton, 111.:
Prescription and liquor bottles
27
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 213
Table 85. — Owens Bottle Machines Installed in the United States. — Con.
Company and product.
6-arm 10-nrm 15-arm Total
machines, machines, machines. 1011 "-
Illinois Glass Co., Gas City. 111.:
Miscellaneous proscription bottles, fruit jar
3
11
2
10
2
3
6
8
2
9
Ball Bro^., Muncie, fad :
t ers, and preservers
Ball Bros.. Wichita Fall
2 16
2
Hazel-Atlas Glass Co., Washington, Pa.:
1
1
11
Hazel-Atlas Glass Co., < Va.:
3
Hazel-Atlas Glass Co.. Grafton, W. Va.:
3
Chas. Boldt Co., Cincinnati, Ohio:
5
3
4
4
4
11
Chas. Boldt i o., Huntington, W. Va.:
: ii
Thatcher Manufacturing Co., Elmira, N. Y.:
6
Thatcher Manufacturing Co., Kane, Pa.:
4
Thatcher Manufacturing Co., Streator, Hi.:
4
H. J. Heinz ( o., Sharpsburg, Pa.:
3
1
3
Maryland Glass Corporation, Baltimore, Md.:
1
1
2
Macbeth-Evans Glass Co., Bethaven, Pa.:
1
D. ('. Jenkins Glass Co., Kokomo, Ind.:
al
Total
87
97
6 ! 191
a Special machine.
This table shows that the Owens Bottle Machine Co. itself operates
four plants, one each in Clarksburg, W. Va., and Fairmont, W. Va.,
and two small plants in Toledo, Ohio. This company also owns the
controlling interest in the plant of the Whitney Glass Works at
Glassboro, N. J., and in 1916 it took over the three very large plants
of the American Bottle Co. at Streator, 111., and Newark, Ohio.
These eight plants now operated by the Owens Bottle Machine Co.
use 77 of the 191 automatics that are used in the United States.
The other 114 automatics in the United States are operated by 9
establishments with 16 plants. Late in 1916 the Owens Bottle
Machine Co. took over the three plants of the Graham Glass Co.,
located at Evansville, Ind., Loogootee, Ind., and Okmulgee, Okla.
The 13 automatics in Canada are operated by one company with
four plants. In 1916 there were 40 Owens machines in use in Europe,
and at the close of the same year automatics were being installed in
factories in Japan, the patent rights having been purchased from
the Owens Bottle Machine Co. Prior to 1916 the Owens Bottle
Machine Co. had issued capital stock to the amount of $7,000,000.
After taking over the two plants of the American Bottle Co. in 1916,
the stock issue was increased to $50,000,000 and the stock was listed
on the New York Stock Exchange.
Undoubtedly more manufacturers would use Owens machines
than now employ them but for the fact that they can not procure
these machines either by buying them or renting them on a royalty
basis. The Owens Bottle Machine Co. charges royalty on machines
that it supplies to manufacturers, and it has issued licenses for their
214 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
use to only a few establishments, and each establishment that uses
its machines is restricted to using them for only the particular line
of bottles covered by its license.
Several flowing devices are used, but the one most largely used
is covered by the Homer Brooke patents, which are controlled by
the Hazel-Atlas Glass Co. President Denis A. Hayes, in his report
to the annual convention of the Glass Bottle Blowers' Association
held in 1916, said:
Since we first reported on thia phase of the bottle-making industry rapid strides
have been made in its development, and with the close or the past season there were
10 or 12 firms making bottles and jars by the flowing method. In these days of keen
competition, manufacturers are taking advantage of every opportunity to reduce the
cost of production, so no one was surprised to learn that the flowing process was in use
commercially with varying degrees of success. While fully realizing the importance
of this invention to the manufacturer, we should use every honorable means toward
securing for our members the right to operate it.
Bottles are made in such infinite number of shapes and sizes that
most of them are made only on orders. Some manufacturers never
manufacture for stock, while others try to keep on hand a stock of
the more standard styles to fill immediate orders and to fill orders
received during the summer shutdown. In normal times large
buyers generally place contracts for their yearly requirements with
options on increases. Single-car orders are generally placed a few
weeks ahead of delivery dates, while small orders are often for imme-
diate delivery. During 1916, when prices of raw materials and of
the finished product were advancing rapidly, manufacturers discour-
aged long contracts. Packers and preservers are made almost
exclusively to fill orders.
THE PROBLEM OF STANDARD CAPACITY.
The principal reason that bottles are made in such a great variety
of shapes and sizes is that many manufacturers of proprietary prepa-
rations have sought to make their products better known by putting
the goods up in bottles of unique snapes that would be readily asso-
ciated with the product. During recent years, however, there has
been a tendency toward the standardization of shapes and sizes,
and this tendency has been increased by the greater production of
bottles by machinery. The expense of making molds is a con-
siderable proportion of the total expense of manufacture when the
orders are small, and when automatic machines are used from 6 to
15 sets of molds must be made for bottles of each size and shape.
The manufacturer, therefore, can quote lower prices for bottles of
standard varieties than for bottles of special designs.
Bottle manufacturers have had trouble in meeting the require-
ments of different State bureaus of standards and of official sealers
in some cities in regard to the capacity of bottles. It is practically
impossible to manufacture bottles each of which will have exactly
the same capacity, and it is more difficult to make them uniform in
this respect by hand than by any kind of machine. Some States
and cities allow a smaller variation in capacity than others.
The Bureau of Standards of the United States Department of
Commerce, under authority of Federal laws, fixes the standards of
weight and measure, but it does not specify what variations in the
capacity of containers shall be allowed by the various States or
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 215
cities. Barry Jenkins, executive officer of the Glass Bottle Blowers'
Association, said in his report to the annual convention of the asso-
ciation held in 1915:
I am pleased to say that in dealing with the oOicials in Washington we are invariably
accorded the most patient and courteous treatment. The Bureau of Standards, the
department having charge of all the weights and measures, iB doing a wonderful work
in this particular line, l-'our times a year it holds a convention to which are invited
all the sealers in the United States and the insular possessions, and this invitation
includes also anyone who may be interested in this line of work, and all who attend
may take part in the discussions and offer whatever suggestions they may deem to be
of interest or benefit to the purchasing public. As many as 96 men have attended
these conventions, and all seem to be actuated by the same motive — to give to the
consumer full value for his money.
The Glass Bottle Blowers' Association has gone on record in favor of
a'Federal law that will provide for uniform variations in the capacity
of containers in all States. A bill with such provisions, H. R. 16876,
was introduced in the Sixty-third Congress by Representative William
A. Ashbrook, of Ohio. A report of the committee on political protest
and injunction, adopted by the convention of the Glass Bottle Blow-
ers' Association held in 1915 contains the following paragraph:
That a glass container capacity law be enacted which will be uniform in all States,
with such tolerances that a manufacturer employing hand operators can compete
with a manufacturer using machines and thereby allow the workmen an opportunity
to earn an honest livelihood.
President Denis A. Hayes, in his report to the 1916 convention,
said:
Most of the States and large cities have laws that allow fair tolerances on containers;
then, too, officials are not expecting the impossible in the way of perfect and accurate
meastire, and our association has done much to make them fully realize the inability
of the men of our craft to make an absolutely correct bottle in contents.
LOCALIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY.
The following article in regard to the development of the bottle
industry was contributed by Mr. Herbert B. Garwood, president of
the Wuliamstown Glass Co., Williamstown, N. J.
The glass-bottle manufacturing industry was naturally started on the Atlantic
seaboard, because that was the first portion of the country to be settled. In the
early days it was confined to the southern part of New Jersey, because sand was
found there suitable for glass making, extensive tracts of timber furnished not only
fuel and boxing material, but the wood ashes when bleached made the potash which
was needed for flux. The Delaware River oyster beds furnished the oyster shells
from which lime was made, the salt marshes adjoining the coast and river furnished
the salt hay used in packing the bottles in the boxes, and the clay beds supplied
the materials for the common brick and furnace stone used in building the furnaces.
The higher grades of refractory stone were made from German clay which was shipped
into Philadelphia and New York, and the proximity of those cities not only made it
easy for the skilled glass blower from the Old World to find his way to a new place
of employment in his old occupation, but supplied the markets which took care of
the output of the little plant.
As the iron business changed to steel and found its way to the Pittsburgh region,
on account of cheaper fuel and raw material, so glass followed; and the introduction
-"of soda ash or carbonate of soda in place of potash, and of coal instead of wood, of
limestone instead of oyster-shell lime, made Pittsburgh equally well adapted for the
industry, except for the higher freight rates to eastern markets, a disadvantage offset
by the cheaper price of materials. Next the Indiana gas belt, with its cheap fuel,
and the mountain region of northwestern Pennsylvania, with cheap oil and natural
gas, attracted many manufacturers, and to-day the newer gas fields in West Virginia
with their natural gas at 5 to 6 cents per thousand feet has drawn many manufacturers
216 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
of bottles to that State. During this period the bottle manufacturing industry gained
a foothold in many isolated sections and in some instances have held them. To-day
the principal centers of the industry are, in their order from east to west, southern
New Jersey, Baltimore, Md., Pittsburgh district, northwestern Pennsylvania or
mountain district, West Virginia district, middle Ohio district, Indiana gas-field
district, and the St. Louis district.
The grade of goods manufactured in each district is about the same, because,
except in isolated cases, the glass-bottle business has not as yet been highly specialized,
a large percentage of the manufacturers continuing the practice of making all lines of
bottles. In milk jars, beer bottles, and some high-grade toilet ware the industry
has been specialized to a greater or less extent, and in fruit jars it has been entirely
specialized and centralized at Washington, Pa., and Muncie, Ind., and is now being
introduced in Texas and Oklahoma.
Manufacturing at this time (January, 1916) appears to be increasing in no particular
locality. Within the last few years the greatest increase has been in the West Virginia
district, due to the cheap fuel.
The advantages regarding markets are naturally with the southern Jersey district,
whose manufacturers are able to make overnight deliveries in New York, which is
the largest glass-consuming city in the United States, in Philadelphia, another large
purchaser, and 48-hour deliveries in Boston, Baltimore, and Washington, although
to the two latter points the Baltimore city factories enjoy the advantage.
The Pittsburgh and mountain district factories naturally enjoy the trade of the cities
in the Pennsylvania coal region and the manufacturing towns in central New York,
as well as Buffalo and Rochester. The Ohio factories appear to ship to all parts of
the country, and in a short time that State will be used only by the manufacturers
of beer bottles and some few sundry lines. The Indiana and St. Louis factories seek
the cities of the middle West and the South, they enjoying better freight rates to
the interior of the South than any other factories. These factories also ship west,
but two plants on the Pacific coast and several in Oklahoma in scattered locations
are now disputing for that trade.
The New Jersey factories formerly controlled the southern coast line below Norfolk,
but a revision of freight rates from West Virginia factories on a combination rail and
water route by Norfolk has placed them on an equality with the New Jersey factories
and allowed them to compete for the trade of that section.
No section at this time appears to enjoy any advantage regarding labor. The skilled
workmen are practically all members of the Glass Bottle Blowers' Association, which
fixes a wage scale every summer for the ensuing year that is uniform throughout the
country, and the supply of skilled labor exceeds the demand, owing to automatic
machines displacing many glass blowers, therefore an adequate supply of handwork-
men or semiautomatic machine operators can always be secured in any section of
the country. In unskilled labor one advantage in one section is balanced by another
advantage in another section. Thus in New Jersey boys work for lower wages than
in the middle West, but in the spring they leave to work on the farms, and the manu-
facturer is thereby crippled. In the West the higher wages continue throughout
the year, but the boys do not leave in the spring to such an extent as they do in
New Jersey. The recent activity in powder works and munition plants have drawn
many boys from the glass factories to those industries in the eastern section of the
country.
PRESSED AND BLOWN WARE.
Pressed and blown ware includes tableware, cut glass, bar goods,
lighting goods, and miscellaneous ware. Table 8, page 28, shows
that according to the Census of Manufactures the value of the pro-
duction of pressed and blown glass was $17,076,125 in 1899,
$21,956,158 in 1904, $27,398,445 in 1909, and $30,279,290 in 1914.
During the 15 years the increase was 77.32 per cent.
NUMBER, LOCATION, AND EQUIPMENT OF PLANTS.
The following table shows, as far as reported, the number of estab-
lishments manufacturing pressed and blown glassware in the United
States that were operated in 1916, and gives details of their equip-
ment :
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS.
217
Table 86. — Location and Number op Active Plants Manufacturing Blown
and Pressed Tableware, Lighting Goods, ani> Lamp Chimneys, and Detail
of Equipment.
[Data from Glass Factory Directory, 1916.]
Continuous
tanks.
Day tanks.
Fur-
Pots.
Tanks. Kings.
Tanks.
Rings.
Indiana:
3
37
1 i
2 24
1
2 30
1
Maryland:
1
1
1
1
2
3
8
o4
64
1
2
9
aU
10
1
1
9
5
2
4
1
3
2
13
7
9
8
11
1
14
Massachusetts:
;
33
1
New York:
Tableware and lighting goods
2 1 13
I
3
2
7
75
Ohio:
Tableware
7 J 66
3 35
2 ! 17
3 18
2 22
128
124
Lighting goods
Oklahoma:
3
7
153
12
Pennsylvania:
5
2
17
1
8
2
12
22
21
26
272
4 44
2
451
303
1
5
2
11
10
5
2
16
West Virginia:
8
1
3
2
65
6
146
7
4
3
1
126
2
12 2
62
11
Aggregate:
31
29
26
6
21 j 168 1 7
13 116 ! 11
11 1 47 ! 25
3 17 1 4
15
10
46
57
593
943
22 ' 54
3 j 2
653
Total
92
48 348 i 47
2,200
o Equipment of 1 plant in Indiana and 1 plant in Ohio included with Pennsylvania.
b Equipment of 2 plants in Indiana and 1 plant in Ohio included with Pennsylvania.
The establishments entered in this table as making tableware made
tableware, cut glass, bar goods, and chemical ware; the establish-
ments entered as making tableware and lighting goods made both
products; some of the establishments entered as making lighting
goods made lamp chimneys also; the establishments entered as
making lamp chimneys made them only.
Tableware is made mostly to fill orders, but when orders are not
received the factory makes staple articles for stock. Orders may
be for delivery in 30 days, but most of them are for immediate de-
livery. Lighting goods are made both for orders and stock. Some
orders are placed two or three months in advance of shipment, but
manj' are for immediate delivery.
CUT TABLEWARE.
There arc two kinds of cut glass, light or engraved, and heavy or
deep cut. Articles such as stem ware, vases, bowls, nappies, plates,
bonbons, colognes, etc., arc thin cut or engraved, in designs ranging
218 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
from the common unpolished wheel engraving, which can be pur-
chased in the 5 and 10 cent stores, to elaborate designs, known as
"rock crystal." The cutting or engraving on these articles is gen-
erally on blown blanks. Heavy or deep-cut glass consists of two
frades, one cut on blown blanks, the other cut on pressed or molded
lanks, which are made either plain or with a large part of the pattern
pressed in them.
Glassware cut on blown blanks usually consist of such items as
stem ware, decanters, vases, pitchers, oil cruets, colognes, and other
articles in such shapes as to render them impractical for pressing or
molding. Pressed or molded blanks can be used only for open pieces,
such as bowls, nappies, plates, etc., which can be readily pressed by
the use of a plunger, as in the ordinary common pressed glassware.
SUPERIORITY OF AMERICAN CUT GLASS.
While considerable thin cut or engraved glass was imported before
the war in Europe began, very little heavy cut glass was imported.
The discriminating American public seems to be satisfied that the heavy
cut glass manufactured in the United States is superior to similar
ware made in Europe. This opinion has generally prevailed for
many years. The popularity of American cut glass was established
by a splendid display made by a glass company at the World's
Columbian Exposition held at Chicago in 1893. This company made
an elaborate exhibit, which showed the actual process of cutting.
Since that time the quality of American goods, aided by attractive
advertising, has firmly convinced the public that nothing finer is
made in the line of heavy cut glass than is made in this country.
American cut-glass manufacturers have prided themselves on the
quality of their product. It has surpassed that of any other country
for crystal brilliancy and sharpness of cutting. Potash and oxide
of lead have been used extensively, the potash to flux the other
materials, and both potash and lead to give to the glass a prismatic
effect with high refractory qualities. The product was so artistically
beautiful that the reputation of American cut glass became world-
wide. Before the war began in 1914 it was sold in all parts of
Europe. Since the war began the quality has necessarily suffered,
because it has been impossible to replenish depleted supplies of
potash, but this defect will be remedied when potash can again be
imported.
Some people accustomed to traveling abroad are inclined to believe
that cut glass from Europe is superior in quality to the best American
product. An American manufacturer of cut glass who has a sales-
room in New York City informed an agent of the Bureau that two
years previously a wealthy woman called at tho factory and showed
him a glass article which had been broken. She stated that she had
purchased the set at one of tho fine slums in Vienna and inquired
whether this company had not imported a similar set from which
the broken article could be duplicated. The manufacturer examined
it closely, and informed her that his salesroom in New York had a
similar article in stock and that it would be shipped to her. The
cut-glass products of this factory had been exported in considerable
quantities to Austria-Hungary, and the broken article that was
duplicated had really been macle in tho American factory.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 219
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS.
The duty on ornamented glass, which includes cut glas9, was 60
per cent ad valorem under the tariff acts of 1897 and 1909, and is
45 per cent under the present tariff Law. Deep-cut glass made in
Europe has been almost entirely excluded from the United States
under these tariffs. The duty, together with the fact that the Amer-
ican people have been educated to prefer the American deep-cut
glass, may explain why the imports have been decreasing and are
now very small. Many more original designs for cut glass are made
in America than in Europe, and many oi these designs are taken
abroad and imitated.
The sole American agent of one of the most famous tableware
factories in the world kept, for several years, a separate account of
his imports of heavy cut glass. This agent imported such cut glass
to the amount of $99,273 in the year ending June 30, 1S93, and these
imports declined to $ 14,473 in the year ending June 30, 1901. After
the latter date he did not keep a separate account of such imports,
but he stated to an agent of this Bureau that they had declined to
not over $2,000 during the 12 months last preceding the beginning
of the war in Europe, and that they consisted mostly of special
articles.
The fact that before the war began in Europe there were consid-
erable exports of American cut glass to European countries is not
easily explained, except on the ground that the American product
is recognized in those countries as of superior quality or on the ground
of cheaper production in the United States.
Wages of glass cutters are much higher in America than in Europe,
and it is remarkable that deep-cut glassware made in artistic designs
by highly skilled hand labor should be produced for export at a cost
which would make it possible for ware from the United States to
compete with the product of factories in European countries. The
countries to which American cut glass is exported include countries
that produce deep-cut glass and that have high duties on their imports.
METHODS OF MANUFACTURE.
Cutting designs on glass forms is done by holding the forms against
revolving wheels. In the first process, called roughing, the cuts are
made with a steel wheel, on which sand and water are poured; in the
second process a stone wheel is used for smoothing the cut, and in
the third a felt wheel is used for polishing. The wheel used for
smoothing is made of a Scotch stone called Craighleith, which is
either white or black, but the black stone is preferred because it is
softer.
Several reasons are assigned for the cheaper production of cut glass
in the United States than in Europe: (1) American glass cutters,
being paid piece prices in most cases, work faster than European
cutters; (2) in Europe roughing, smoothing, and polishing; are often
done by the same workman, but in the United States the work is
divided among three men, and each becomes an expert in one pro-
cess; (3) in America labor-saving devices and methods are em-
ployed that are not used in Europe.
220 THE GLASS INDUSTKY.
Where figured or pressed blanks are used, roughing is eliminated
entirely, as are also the time and expense of marking the pattern on
the glass, which is required when plain blanks are cut. Blanks
figured by pressing are made by two large factories in the United
States, under a patent which they control. Other factories making
cut glass use plain blanks which are pressed by iron molds or are
blown offhand.
American manufacturers produce cut glass in designs that can be
easily cut on large stones; that is, designs with only few curved lines.
Where the designs are intricate and the lines curved, they are cut by
small stones, called small-tool work, and the time required is much
greater than where large stones are used.
For the process of smoothing, carborundum wheels and carborun-
drum powder or grains are largely used in America, instead of stone
wheels and sand, which are commonly used in Europe.
In America the ware, after being smoothed, is dipped in acid for
polishing, instead of being polished by a felt wheel and putty powder,
as is customary in Europe. The use of acid in polishing has a great
advantage, not alone in the saving of labor, but in adding much
more brilliancy to the glass. The explanation of this is that in
polishing by hand with the felt wheel and putty powder the sharp
cuts are more or less dulled by friction, whereas in using the acid
these cuts retain their sharpness, and, as a result, the glass has more
refractory power, thus adding greatly to its brilliancy.
Deep-cut glass is much more extensively used in America than in
other countries. Each design that is produced in Europe is made
up in small quantities, and more exclusive designs are made there
than in America. Much larger quantities of each design are made
in America, and, although cutting is done by hand, the cutter that
cuts the same design many times learns to do it rapidly.
An importer gave to an agent of the Bureau some examples of
the difference in the cost of producing deep-cut glass in America
and Europe. This foreign factory makes both heavy and light cut
glass and exports much of the light cut ware to the United States.
The agent said in an interview:
One reason why deep-cut glass is made cheaply in America is that it is produced
in large quantities. There is no such demand for heavy cut glass as there is here,
because thin cut glass is more popular in Europe. Another reason is that, while
Amarican cutters are paid higher wages than cutters in Europe, they work much
fa3ter.
About seven years ago I bought from a glass manufacturer in Brooklyn a 9-inch
deep-cut glass bowl for $2.50, wholesale price, and took it to the factory in Alsace.
A wood mold was made for the form and the form was pressed and cut in the same
design as the bowl made in Brooklyn. The cost of this reproduction was 15 francs
($2.90) without the cost of the mold.
I import some blanks for deep cutting. I sold the Brooklyn manufacturer an
imported blank for a 3-pint jug, which cost here $1.25, duty included. He cut it
and sold it back to me for $5, and I took it to the factory in Alsace. A similar blank
there was cut in the same design and the cost was 40 francs ($7.72).
Five years ago I saw a window full of American deep-cut glass in Strassburg, the
capital of Alsace-Lorraine. After that I qiut trying to compete in New York with
American cut glass.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 221
IMITATION ( IT GLASSWARE.
Among the manufacturers of high-grade cut glass there is much
complaint about imitations, with which many people are deceived.
Following is an extract from an article by J. Howard Fry, published
in the Glassworker for June .3, 1916:
Many imitations of real cut glass, on account of the substituting of inferior blanks,
ar.' being forced on the market at this turn-. At the best lime glass, even if properly
cut, is inferior, and it is only an imitation of what real cut glass represents. Unfor-
tunately, owing to the European war making it impossible for lead-blank manufac-
turer- to maintain the former high standard of quality, a field is opened for imitations,
which otherwise would not exist. The widespread popularity of rich cut gla.ss leads
to the production of a great deal of cheap ware and imitations of real cut glass.
And unfortunately, again, the idea seems to prevail among some glass manufac-
turers that cut glass is not a work of art, that it is not a science, and is not worthy of
their besl efforts. Thsy are offering to the unsuspecting public a cheap imitation of
cut glass which is not only on a lime blank, but often deception is practiced in fooling
the public by not cutting all the design. Certain parts, such as flowers in the frosted
or bght skin cut, are placed in the blank, while the leaves or miter and heavy parts
imitate cutting, but it is simply pressed glass, sometimes of a very good finish, suffi-
cient to deceive the unsuspecting public, who buy this as good cut glass only to learn
later that fraud had been practiced.
It is absurd to predict just where this practice will lead to, but it is not difficult to
see that if it is continued the higher ideals for which cut glass stands will be lost and
the industry as an art will be ruined. The public should be educated to detect the
fraud, and imtil this takes place the market will undoubtedly be flooded with all
varieties of cheap imitations.
INCANDESCENT LAMP BULBS.
A great impetus was given to the development of the manufacture
of lighting glassware by the wonderful and successful experiments
conducted by Thomas A. Edson, in perfecting his first commercial
incandescent lamp, which appeared in 1879. In 1880 the regular
manufacture. of incandescent lamps was begun in Menlo Park, >s. J.,
and during that year 25,000 lamps were made. By 1885 electric
lighting became very general, and the manufacture of lighting goods
became an important branch of the glass industry. The aggregate
production of electric lamps for domestic use totaled about 125,-
000,000 during the year 1915 and a considerably larger number in
1916.
The incandescent lamp is the one of all electrical appliances most
universally used, and is available for the lighting of homes, industrial
plants, stores, streets, parks, billboards, automobiles, trolley cars,
and railway cars.
TYPES OF LAMPS.
Incandescent lamps are divided into four classes, according to the
kind of filament — carbon, Gem, tantalum, and Mazda.
The number of materials which can be used for filaments is very
small, for these reasons: First, the filament must be capable of
withstanding a very high temperature, and it must also have a high
vapor tension point; in other words, it must not evaporate rapidly
much below its boiling point; second, it must be a conductor of
electricity, and should have a relatively high resistance.
Filaments were made at first from parchmentized thread and
thin slips of cardboard and paper, and later from bamboo. For
many years the bamboo filament, cut into strips by small knives
222 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
and planes, was exclusively used. The cutting required great care
and expense before the filaments were reduced to the required
sizes. The bamboo strips were then carbonized.
After bamboo filaments were used squirted filaments were made
from carbonized cellulose in one form or another.
Another advance was embodied in lamps still of the carbon type
in which the filaments were strengthened by such substances as
would justify calling them "metallized." The mere word was a
revelation as to the direction in which invention was tending, and
very quickly real metallic filaments were available. The metal
tantalum was quite rare and useful in many ways, but did not com-
pete successfully with the old carbon lamp.
In 1907 the tungsten lamp appeared, fairly startling the world
with its wonderful efficiency, and nearly revolutionizing the incan-
descent lamp industry. The most recent development in high effi-
ciency illuminants are the Mazda lamps, a trade-mark used by some
of the largest manufacturers of incandescent lamps in the United
States.
MANUFACTURE OF BULBS.
Glass bulbs for incandescent lamps are made in only five plants
in the United States — the General Electric Co., the Libbey Glass
Works, the Corning Glass Works, the Rochester Tumbler Works,
and the Lippincott Glass Co. It is estimated that of the total num-
ber of glass bulbs for incandescent lamps produced in this country,
two-thirds to three-fourths are blown by hand and the remainder
by machine.
Incandescent lamps are made from bulbs by a number of estab-
lishments, of which the General Electric, Westinghouse, and Franklin
companies are the largest producers. 1
While the cost of necessities for living increased from 1892 to 1915
the cost of electric lighting shows a marked decrease, and this re-
duction was caused by the higher efficiency of the lamps manufac-
tured. The price per candlepower of a 60-watt lamp of the most
improved type manufactured by the General Electric Co., decreased
from something over 3.6 cents per candlepower in 1907 to 0.6 cent
in 1916.
CHEMICAL GLASSWARE.
The development in the manufacture of chemical glassware in the
United States since the war in Europe began is analogous to the devel-
opment in the manufacture of dyestuffs during the same period.
Chemical glassware includes flasks, beakers, tubing, reagent bot-
tles, desiccators, cylinders, spirit lamps, retorts, jars of various kinds,
graduates, percolators, etc., which are usually designated as "hollow
glassware " and which are made in a glass factory operating a furnace;
and stopcocks, burettes, pipettes, test tubes, potash bulbs, drying
tubes, thermometers, hydrometers, and a great variety of additional
items, which are made from tubing before the blast lamp and which
are usually classified under the heading " lamp-blown and volumetric
ware" as their manufacture does not immediately involve the opera-
tion of a furnace.
' See Hearings before the Committee on Ways and Means, 1913, Schedule B, p. 763.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 223
GERMANY FORMEB SOURCE OF SUPPLY.
Before the war began flasks and beakers were made in the United
States, but by only one company and in very inconsiderable quanti-
ties. This company has been making such articles of excellent quality
since 1900 or before, but the quality of its product was not widely
recognized.
To meet the requirements of chemists in analytical work, glassware
must be able to wit list and severe tests, of which the most important
arc the cooling shock test, the test for solubility, and the mechanical
shock test. Many chemists have received German training and havo
been educated to believe that no chemical glassware could equal that
made in Germany and Bohemia and particularly that made in Jena.
Comparatively few chemists in America acknowledged that any
glassware made in the United States was equal to Jena ware hence
the company in this country that has made such ware of excellent
quality since 1900 found comparatively little sale for it before the
war began.
Practically no importations of chemical glassware from Germany
have entered the United States since the summer of 1915. At that
time a famine in chemical glassware appeared imminent. Colleges
and universities that use large amounts did not know where they
could obtain a supply for the scholastic year 1915-16. The annual
supply of these institutions amomited in value from several hundred
dollars each to over $10,000 in some instances.
The numbers of collegiate institutions and schools that reported to
the United States Bureau of Education in 1914 were as follows: Col-
leges and universities, 567; public high schools, 11,515; private high
schools and academies, 2,199; public normal schools, 235; private
normal schools. 46; manual and industrial training schools, 229. Of
the 11,515 public high schools, 10,183 reported that they owned scien-
tific apparatus amounting in value to $16,447,825; and of the 2,199
private schools and academies, 1,211 reported that they owned scien-
tific apparatus amounting in value to $6,992,365.
IMPORTS FREE OF DUTY FOR SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, ETC.
Glassware used for educational or scientific purposes has been
admitted free of duty under various tariffs, from 1816 to 1846, from
1857 to 1864, and since 1870. The section of the tariff act of 1913
which provides for free admission of glass is as follows :
573. Philosophical and scientific apparatus, utensils, instruments, and prepara-
tions, including bottles and boxes containing the same, specially imported in good
faith for the use and by order of any society or institution incorporated or established
solely for religious, philosophical, educational, scientific;, or literary purposes, or for
the encouragement of the fine arts, or for the use and by order of any college, academy,
school, or seminary of learning in the United States, or any State or public library,
and not. for sale, and articles solely for experimental purposes, when imported by any
society or institution of the character herein described, subject to such regulations as
the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe.
The importations admitted free under this act amounted to $704,496
during the fiscal year 1914 and $370,620 during the fiscal year 1915.
All of these importations, however, were not of chemical glassware,
but of scientific apparatus, which included articles made of metal as
well as of glass.
224 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The imported chemical glassware on which duty was paid is not
separately shown by tariff statistics, but a large part of it was used
by industrial plants, and the duty on such articles when blown was
60 per cent ad valorem under the tariff law of 1909 and is 45 per cent
under the tariff law of 1913. Very little if any such ware is pressed.
Various estimates are made as to the amount of chemical glass-
ware imported into the United States. One of the largest importers
of such ware estimated that the imports before the war amounted to
$500,000 a year, about half free and half dutiable. The examiner
for chemical glass in the appraisers' warehouse, New York City,
estimated that such imports amounted to about $300,000, of which
50 per cent went to educational institutions free. Most of the im-
ports come from Thuringia in Germany, but some are from Austria.
England and France, the warehouse examiner said, made chemical
glassware for their own use, but also imported from Germany and
Austria.
The quantity of chemical glassware used in the United States has
greatly increased from year to year, because of the rapid expansion
of educational institutions and because many industrial plants have
established or enlarged their chemical laboratories.
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN INDUSTRY.
The great demand for chemical ware caused a number of enter-
prising glass manufacturers to begin its manufacture in the summer
of 1915. The development in this line was remarkable, and a year
later 8 or 10 American companies were producing such ware. Most
of the shapes of hollow glassware for laboratory use that were for-
merly imported are now made in the United States, and the domestic
production has fairly caught up with the demand. This can not be
said, however, of lamp-blown and volumetric ware, of which there
is still a great shortage, and the prices of many articles in this class
have increased from 20 to 100 per cent.
In commenting on a copy of this section of this report submitted to
Mr. George B. Hollister, general manager of the Corning Glass Works,
he wrote December 1, 1916:
In connection with the statement that prices on glassware have increased from 20
to 100 per cent, emphasis should be laid on the fact that the price of the highest-priced
American ware is that of the duty-paid Jena before the war. The price of this Ameri-
can ware has not been raised, while Jena has announced two increases in price since
the beginning of the war.
Mr. Evan E. Kimble, president of the Kimble-Durand Glass Co.,
to whom a copy of the article was submitted, wrote October 30, 1916:
Prices increased over the former German prices solely because it is impossible for
American manufacturers to make glass apparatus for scientific purposes at a reasonable
profit at anywhere near the old prices in a great many lines. The prices have gone
up on account of labor only, and not because of the desire of the American manufac-
turer to take advantage of the market. Many articles are being made at the present
time that compare to the duty-paid prices existing before the war and these prices
have been maintained regardless of the demand, which would have allowed glass
manufacturers to have increased it.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 225
HIGH QUALITY OF AMERICAN PRODUCT.
It is remarkable that the product in this new branch of the glass
industry should bo so soon recognized by scientific authorities as of
the highest quality. A number of professors of chemistry in univer-
sities who were interviewed during this investigation declared that the
beakers and flasks made now in America are better than what had
been imported, better even than Jena ware. Dr. Owen L. Shinn,
professor of applied chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, said
that chemical glassware made for 15 years in a factory in New Jersey
had been equal to ware imported before the war began, though this
fact had not been generally recognized, and this factory had produced
only a limited variety of apparatus. He further saia:
The old chemists were German trained and they instilled in the students the thought
that anything not Germau made was inferior. They were hard to convince that
American chemical glassware was of good quality; their attitude was that only Jena
ware was good. The nonsoluble ware made by several American glass manufacturers
is equal to if not better than Jena ware.
Jt La not qow possible to obtain everything in chemical glassware that was formerly
imported, but it is the heavier articles that can not be obtained. Beakers, flasks, and
the like are now obtainable equal in quantity and quality to any imported ware, but
most of the heavier things, such as desiccators, are not yet made here. The reason
for this is that the small market for some of these articles has not made it advisable
for American manufacturers to make the molds. Manufacturers have been busy meet-
ing the demands for articles more generally used, and therefore have not yet. begun
to make these, of which comparatively few are needed.
Not only professors, but even some of the importers who were inter-
viewed, asserted that the best quality of chemical glassware of Ameri-
can make was better than Jena ware. They asserted that such vessels
as beakers and flasks, when submitted to various tests, were distinctly
superior to Jena ware in resistance to heat shock, stability toward dis-
tilled water, and in resistance to mechanical test.
Importers as well as chemists asserted also that microscopes and
lenses had long been made of as good quality in America as in Europe.
PRESENT CONDITIONS IN *THE INDUSTRY.
An address on "The Manufacture of Chemical Apparatus in the
United States" was delivered before the American Chemical Society
at its meeting held at Urbana, 111., April 18-21, 19f6, by Mr. Arthur
H. Thomas, an importer, exporter, and dealer in laboratory apparatus
of both foreign and domestic manufacture. The address was pub-
lished in full in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
for May, 1916. Extracts from it follow:
I propose to remind you briefly of the facts regarding our sources of supply of a few
representative classifications of chemical apparatus as they existed before the Euro-
pean war; to compare with these the conditions as they now exist, and then to consider
the possibilities of retaining and extending the manufacture of this same merchandise
in the United States.
In this tabulation the term "hollow glassware" is used to designate the product of
the glass factory with a furnace — the "Hohlglashiitte" of Germany — and the term
"lamp-blown and volumetric ware" to designate the product of the glass-blowing
shop — the "Glassblaserei" of Germany — where the finished product is shaped before
the lamp from glass tubing, which tubing is, of course, always made in the glass fac-
tory or "hutte." In the United States these two industries are mostly conducted
separately, while in Europe they are frequently combined in the same establishment.
102511°— 17 15
226 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
CLASSIFICATION A — HOLLOW GLASSWARE.
Articles. — Flasks, beakers, and other factory-made : shapes, including blanks for
some volumetric ware. Tariff, 45 per cent ad valorem.
Sources be/ore the war. — With the exception of one large factory in the United States
which made, in addition to extensive products in other lines, a few flasks and beakers
of excellent quality and reasonable price, this ware was purchased exclusively in
Europe. The American production was not, in any commercial sense, a factor in the
situation.
The present situation. — Five factories in the United States are now regularly making
flasks and beakers in large quantities. The glass used by one of these is superior in
several important physical characteristics to that used for similar vessels by the
European factory whose flasks and beakers have been heretofore considered the best
in the world. The four other makers are using a resistance glass much alike in physical
characteristics which, while not quite equal to either the American or European pro-
duct above referred to, is unquestionably superior to the glass generally used through-
out Germany and Austria. There are two other American factories making flasks and
beakers, about which I have no definite information from actual tests. The ware
turned out in one of them is of excellent appearance and that of the other I have not
seen. Neither factory is reported as producing large quantities as yet.
With the present conditions of shortage in almost all of the raw material involved,
in the labor situation, and in the exhausted condition of stock in many of the large-
college and university storerooms, a considerable shortage for some time seems inev-
itable unless additional capacity is operated. Under normal conditions the total
convenient production of these seven American factories would more than meet our
usual consumption.
CLASSIFICATION B LAMP-BLOWN AND VOLUMETRIC WARE.
Articles.- — All shapes made of tubing before the blast lamp, including the graduation
of blanks made in the factory in addition to those made before the lamp. Tariff, 45
per cent ad valorem.
Sources before the war. — With the exception of a few items not of significance to our
discussion, such as hydrometers and thermometers for clinical and industrial use,
homeopathic vials and test tubes, milk bottles, and syringes, all staple stock was
purchased hi Europe. Repair work and the manufacture of a great variety of special
items, not in sufficient demand to warrant arrangement for importation in large
quantities, was conducted in a few glass-blowing shops operated by some of the larger
dealers, in separate small shops hi a few of the larger cities, and in the south Jersey
district as an important side line in connection with three large glass factories.
The present situation. — Two of the south Jersey factories referred to have prac-
tically given up the making of any regular stock in this classification because of the
shortage of labor and the great demand for their own specialties. The other south
Jersey factory has greatly increased its capacity for the more staple and easily made
shapes and is making a commendable but as yet totally inadequate attempt to meet
present requirements. This factory, with the few shops just described, constitutes
the entire capacity in the United States to make lamp-blown and volumetric chemical
apparatus. There are a few additional shops competent to make certain chemical
ware but not so engaged because of obligations in more profitable directions.
The combined output of all these establishments in the great variety of items in
this classification is far from sufficient to fill the daily orders for immediate shipment.
Commitments at the present time for large educational quantities, as usually under-
taken at this time of the year, seem not to be justifiable with definite obligation as
to either price or time of delivery.
CLASSIFICATION F — OPTICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.
Articles.— Spectroscopes and spectrometers, polarimeters, and saccharimeters,
refractometers, colorimeters, and microscopes. Tariff, 35 per cent ad valorem,
except on microscopes, 25 per cent.
Sources before the war. — The instruments in this classification as used in chemical
laboratories were all purchased in Europe with the exception of microscopes, the
manufacture of which has, as you all know, been extensively and successfully con-
ducted in America for many years.
i While ordinary bottles are, of course, a factory-made product, my remarks are not intended to apply
to them.
INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. 227
Thf 7 w.— There is no new manufacturing in America to be recorded
in this line as a result of the war. The explanation i j again the enormous •
being pul upon the several factories equipped tor such work for deliveries of prism
binoculars, range Gn lers, telescopes as used in gunnery, periscope optics, etc. Two
Br es have.extended their lines to include certain refractometers
charimeters not heretofore made in England, but their deliveries arc much delayed
I s of the control of these works bv the British Government for war requirements.
The same situation explains both the inability of certain very excellent. French
makers of optical instruments to extend their lines, or even, with one exception, to
make any deliveries of their regular goods.
The domestic manufacture of chemical glassware, which previous
bo the war in Europe was confined to only one American factory,
has since the summer of 1915 increased very largely, though the
product is still insufficient to supply tho demand. The increase in
the output would have been greater if a larger number of skilled
workers could have been obtained. Most of them are Germans,
but" Americans are being trained for this special work. As the
expense of manufacture was exceptionally high during the first
year in which this kind of glassware was manufactured in more
than very limited quantities, no attempt was made in this investi-
gation to ascertain the cost of any chemical glassware units, but
all the domestic manufacturers that make such ware make other
kinds of glassware, and reports were secured from these manufac-
turers covering their last business year.
PROPOSED RESTRICTION OF FREE IMPORTATION.
Manufacturers who were interviewed during this investigation in
regard to the tariff duty on chemical glassware considered it much
more important that there should be some duty on the apparatus
for educational or scientific use, now admitted free, than that the
rate of duty on the remainder of such imports should be raised
above 45 per cent ad valorem, the present rate. Some college pro-
fessors who were interviewed approved the suggestion that the
apparatus imported for educational or scientific use should pay a
duty, in order firmly to establish the industry in this country, though
they did not, however, advocate a duty on imports for such pur-
poses as high as 45 per cent ad valorem.
The American Chemical Society has started a campaign in favor
of educational institutions paying duty on chemical glassware and
has appointed a committee on the subject, consisting of Prof. Alex-
ander Smith, of Columbia University, Prof. William McPherson, of
Ohio State University, and Mr. Arthur H. Thomas, of Philadelphia.
Following is a part of the address by Mr. Thomas, extracts from
which have already been quoted:
Let us now consider the possibilities of the future, mentioning first hollow
ware, particularly flasks and beakers. It seems probable that a fair share of our
consumption of flasks and beakers will be made in the United States after the con-
clusion of the war without any increase in duty or any curtailment of the dutv-free
privilege. With some restriction of duty-free entry they would, I think, all be
made here. This statement is based upon the following facts:
1. The intrinsic excellence of our product. This is certainly the basic economic
factor in determining where any merchandise is to be made under normal conditions
of competition.
2. The highest priced American flasks and beakers are now sold at exactly the
duty-paid prices prevailing before the war for the best European brand. Further-
more, all other American flasks and beakers are now not only sold at less than these
228 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
prices, but at prices no higher, generally speaking, than those hitherto prevailing
on European goods of inferior quality.
3. There is a sufficient industrial' and other duty-paid demand to justify the con-
tinuation of a part, at least, of our present war-time production, even though the
large educational business is again placed abroad for duty-free importation. This
duty-paid demand is increasingly restricted to flasks and beakers of the highest
quality. Those of you engaged in industrial work will agree that in the works labora-
tory the first consideration is not what the flask or beaker costs but rather that it must
not break in use.
4. Flasks and beakers are made in large and well-organized glass factories, of which
we have in the United States several quite competent to undertake such work, and
the American glass blower accustomed to the manufacture of incandescent lamp
bulbs, thermos bottles, ordinary bottles, and the many shapes of household and
other ware, can usually make them with a few weeks' practice.
5. And this is important: There is some possibility as to the application of auto-
matic glass-blowing machines (which have reached a truly remarkable development
in the United States as applied to the blowing of bottles and incandescent lamp
bulbs) to the manufacture of flasks and beakers, if a sufficiently large demand develops.
If this should come to pass I think the term "duty-free" would no longer be used in
connection with flasks and beakers.
Reasoning in a manner akin to the above seems to justify a similar conclusion, with
some qualifications in each instance, for the classifications "Porcelain ware," "Filter
paper," and "Optical measuring instruments." "Hardware and sheet-metal ware"
and "Analytical and assay balances and weights" have already shown their ability
to take care of themselves.
This disposal of these groups leaves for further consideration the very important
classification B, "Lamp-blown and volumetric ware." It is the shortage in this
group which is now causing the greatest inconvenience, and it is about the making
of such goods that we have much to learn if any significant fraction of our annual con-
sumption is to be regularly manufactured in the United States. As compared with
flasks and beakers we here face quite a different array of facts.
1. Our product thus far is, as a general statement, distinctly inferior in workman-
ship, appearance, and (too frequently but not always) in accuracy of graduation.
2. These goods must be sold, on the basis of costs prevailing before the war, at much
higher prices than the duty-paid prices on equivalent items of foreign make. Since
the war this difference in cost has been still further increased, in many instances to
the extent of 100 per cent.
3. The duty-paid demand does not constitute nearly as large a fraction of the total
consumption as is the case with flasks and beakers.
4. This ware is mostly made in comparatively small and often poorly organized
establishments. This is frequently true, even though the shop is operated by a firm
which may be fairly designated as "large and well organized" in other directions.
The supply of skilled glass blowers compatent to handle the great variety of such
chemical ware is exceedingly limited. I doubt if there are 250 such workmen in the
United States at the present time. These man have mostly come to us from Thuringian
factories as skilled and accomplished artisans who were well paid at home. They
naturally demand and get still more here. A good all-round worker now gets from
$45 to $30 par week. They do not always lend themselves to the proper subdivisions
of labor for economical production. They are quite united in their common interests
and naturally not greatly interested in the training and development of apprentices.
They frequently are compelled to give up work on general chemical ware because of
the high wage they can earn on piecework specialties.
One large concern in south Jersey is here deserving of special mention because of
its output in this line, which, while as yet confined largely to the simpler and more
staple items, is made almost exclusively by young men and women native in the
locality under the direction of a few more experienced workers. I recently visited
this plant and was favorably impressed with the very encouraging progress these
operatives had made in a comparatively few months.
5. And this again is important: There seems to be little possibility as to the appli-
cation of automatic machines to this line, with the exception of those already developed
and in efficient use for homeopathic vials and syringes.
Mr. J. Howard Fry, vice president of the H. C. Fry Glass Co.,
having reviewed a copy of this section, wrote November 7, 1916:
To a certain extent, we agree with Mr. Arthur II . Thomas in his statement that
tariff duty on all chemical glassware is much more important than an increase of the
present tariff; that there should be some duty on glass for educational or scientific use
[NDU6TRIAL CONDITIONS. 229
mm admitted free, rather than thai the rate of duty should In- raised above 15 per
cent ad valorem. In other words, more than likely, the conditions in Europe after
the war will be such that, provided the now duty free i- abolish «!, the duty on
: cenl ad valorem on chemical glassware, will he sullicient protection
in all >w us to continue manufacturing: a good quality of chemical ulassware in com-
petition with foreign count
It is true thai the very high tirade chemical ware does find and will continue to find
a limited sale in this country, at a price, but the great volume of chemical glassware,
such as used by the colleges, industrial plants, and ordinary laboratories, does not
need to b ■ the highest grade of chemical glassware, and that business will eventually
go to the cheapest market of suitable quality. As the duty-free provision permitted
all the universities to get their beakers and flasks without any duty, it cut out the
voluni • business for the American manufacturer, and there was little or no opportunity
then for :an manufacturer to succeed. The demand for the very high-
grade stuff is naturally limited, and would possibly only keep one busy, where the
popular demand would keep several factories busy. Personally, I can not under-
stand why chemical glassware should be imported free of duty for educational pur-
poses, because those educational institutions should help support the American
industry and labor, as undoubtedly the American has to support such institutions.
I 'ntly, by taking that business away from the American manufacturer and
giving it to Europe, it is false economy on the part of the educational institutions, and
our Government should not encourage it.
In 1914 the council of the British Institute of Chemistry appointed
a glass-research committee to conduct investigations with the view of
arriving at suitable formulas for laboratory glassware, miners' lamp
glasses, combustion tubing, resistant glass for pharmaceutical
products, glass for X-ray bulbs, etc. The main part of the report of
the committee was published in Nature (London), April 15, 1915,
and republished in the Scientific American Supplement, July 24, 1915.
PHOTOGRAPHIC GLASS.
A new small industry in the United States is the manufacture of
photographic glass, which is thinner than window glass. Photo-
graphic glass averages 15 panes to the inch, while single-strength
window glass averages 11£ or 12 to the inch and double-strength 8
or 9 to the inch. Photographic glass is packed 100 square feet to
the box, window glass 50 feet per box for domestic trade and usually
100 feet for export.
Dry photographic plates, made by coating photographic glass
with a sensitive emulsion, have long been made in the United States,
particularly in Rochester and St. Louis. Photographic glass, however,
was not made commercially in the United States until 1911.
Only the first two qualities of the thin glass, both of which aro
better than A quality window glass, are used for photographic
platos. The third grade, which is called photographic reject, is
used for picture frames, for clock faces, and such purposes.
COMPARATIVELY HIGH COST OF PRODUCTION.
For several reasons photographic glass is much more expensive to
make than is common unpolished window glass. The thin glass is
very fragile and the percentage of breakage is much larger than in
the case of window glass. In making thin glass there are more
burns in flattening. Single and double strength glass docs not
get hot so quickly on the stone in the oven, and does not have to be
taken out so quickly as thin glass, so that it is not so liable to burn.
230 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Moreover, when wrinkles on thin glass are rubbed clown the sheet
often becomes so soft that pimples appear on the surface.
With photographic glass much more cutting and much more
careful sorting are necessary than with window glass. The window-
glass cutter sorts the glass as he cuts it and piles it on edge according
to size and quality. Photographic glass is sorted by the cutter who
cuts it into strips. Another cutter cuts panes from' the strips. The
panes are then examined, sorted, and perhaps three-fourths of them
are cut to smaller sizes to remove defects.
The labor cost on photographic glass is much higher than on win-
dow glass. The difference in total cost is indicated by the differ-
ence in price. In 1916, when a box of 8 by 10 single-strength A
glass sold for about $2.25, a box of photographic glass of the same size,
100 square feet to the box, sold for $11, or on the basis of $5.50 for
50 feet.
AMOUNT CONSUMED TARIFF RATES.
The consumption of photographic glass in the United States, first
and second quality only, is about 200,000 boxes of 100 feet, which, at
1916 prices, amounted to $2,200,000. The imports of photographic
glass are considerable, but the amount can not be stated, as there
is no tariff distinction between such glass and window glass and no
separate statistics of imports are kept.
The duty on cylinder, crown, and common window glass, unpol-
ished, which includes photographic glass, is levied on a pound basis
and not at an ad valorem rate. Consequently, the amount of duty
on a 100-foot box of window glass is the same, as the duty on a 100-
foot box of photographic glass, although the value of the latter is
about twice the value of the former, largely because the labor cost
of the latter is very much larger.
Most plates for photographic purposes are in small sizes which do
not exceed 150 square inches, or panes 10 by 15 inches, and prac-
tically all is in the first three brackets, not exceeding 384 square
inches. The duty on cylinder glass, whether used for windows or
for photographic dry plates, is seven-eighths of a cent a pound on
sizes not exceeding 150 square inches, and 1 cent a pound on sizes
over 150 and not exceeding 384 square inches.
The manufacturers of photographic glass believe that in the tariff
classifications some distinction should be made between photo-
graphic glass and window glass, and that the former should have a
higher duty. This distinction would be made if there were a classi-
fication of glass weighing under 95 pounds per 100 feet, which would
include photographic glass, and a classification of glass weighing
95 pounds or more per 100 feet, which would include window glass
of single as well as double strength. The manufacturers claim that
the rate of duty on the thin or photographic glass should be higher
than that on window glass, and that the rate on dry plates should be
correspondingly increased.
There are large dry-plate factories in the United States, and much
of the photographic glass that they imported before the war began in
Europe was made into dry plates and exported. These concerns,
when they exported dry plates, received a drawback of 99 per cent
of the duty paid when the glass was imported. With brokerage
charges, the drawback amounted to about 94 per cent net.
CHAPTER VII.
SELLING EXPENSE AND CONDITIONS.
SELLING EXPENSE.
Table 87, which follows, shows, by groups, the percentage of selling
expense and of operating and final profit based on net sales :
Table 87. — Percentage op Selling Expense and of Profit, Based on Net
Sales, by Groups.
Establishments making-
Group.
Selling expense.
Operating profit
computed—
Without
deprecia-
tion an I
interest.
With
deprecia-
tion an i
interest.
Final
profit,
deprecia-
tion and
interest
consid-
ered.
Win low glass by hand
Win low glass by machine
Plate glass
Wire ant opalescent glass
Bottles by hand
Bottles by machine
Bottles by hani and machine.
Jars *.
Tableware, blown
Ta' leware, blown and pressed.
Lighting goo is
Lamp chimneys
M i --cellaneous articles
I
II
III
rv
v
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
1.45
1.97
.13
2.77
1.11
2.81
3.46
2.78
6.72
4.60
4.71
4.14
2.89
!05
.13
1.48
2.02
.26
3.70
1.39
3.36 !
6.99 |
6 68
6.63 :
4.53 i
3.41
9.34
9.22
11.93
10.29
5.08
15.07
5.71
9.16
12.69
4 96
14.05
5.27
12.84
Average .
.(17
4.01
5.60
2.76
.82
5.68
2.65
11.30
2.68
6.13
9.33
.11
10.19
2.89
a Operating loss.
The table shows that the cost of salesmen, which includes their
salaries, commissions, and traveling and other expenses, is exception-
ally low, the average for the 13 groups being but 3.07 per cent of the
net sales. The lowest group percentage is that for plate glass, 0.13
per cent; the highest is for blown tableware, 6.72 per cent.
This exceptionally low cost may be explained by the fact that many
establishments employ no salesmen whatever, and also because the
greater part of the goods, in a majority of the groups, is sold in large
quantities to jobbers, large consumers, and distributers. In many
establishments the goods are sold by an official of the company or as
the result of a successful bid.
Groups IX to XII, inclusive, show the highest percentages for cost
of salesmen. All these groups probably have smaller and more diver-
sified sales than do the other groups, where only one product, as win-
dow glass, plate glass, bottles, or jars, is sold. To sell small quantities
of varied goods to numerous accounts requires a comparatively larger
selling force. Many lamp chimneys and much pressed tableware are
exported, and this also tends to increase the selling cost, not because
cost of the salesmen is increased but because of brokers' fees, etc.
231
232 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Other selling expense includes the maintenance of selling offices and
showrooms in various glass centers and miscellaneous selling expense.
The table shows the lowest cost, 0.03 per cent, for the hand-made
window-glass group and the highest cost, 2.08 per cent, for the blown
and pressed tableware group.
Much pressed tableware is exported. This requires showrooms in
various centers and other selling expenses not incurred in domestic
selling, and to this fact may be attributed the reason for the blown
and pressed tableware group showing the highest percentage for "other
selling expense," 2.08 per cent.
The average total selling expense for the 13 groups is 4.01 per cent.
The plate-glass group shows, the lowest cost, 0.26 per cent, and the
blown tableware group the highest, 6.99 percent. The glass industry
in general, as compared with other industries, has a small selling ex-
pense, and the profit in the industry is not greatly influenced by the
selling expense, as is the case in many other industries. This is shown
by a comparison of the total selling expense with the profit. As the
final profit consists of the operating profit plus miscellaneous income
outside the manufacturing business less miscellaneous expense out-
side the business, it will be best to' compare the total selling expense
with the operating profit that is computed with depreciation and in-
terest on current loans.
The highest percentage of operating profit, 10.79 per cent, is shown
by the machine-bottle group; the blown and pressed tableware group
shows the smallest percentage, a loss of 0.15 per cent. That the sell-
ing expense .does not greatly influence the profit is illustrated by the
following: Blown tableware, with the highest percentage for total sell-
ing expense, 6.99 per cent, shows an operating profit of 9.29 per cent;
lighting goods, with a total selling expense of 6.63 per cent, shows an
operating profit of 9.59 per cent; blown and pressed tableware, with
a total selling expense of 6.68 per cent (which is less than the per-
centage for blown tableware, 6.99 per cent, and only 0.05 per cent
more than that for lighting goods, 6.63 per cent), shows an operating
loss of 0.15 per cent.
The foregoing table shows that machine-made bottles earned the
highest final profit, 11.3 per cent, and blown and pressed tableware
the lowest, 0.11 per cent.
Table 88, which follows, shows, by groups, the percentage of pack-
ing-material cost, bad debts, and of operating and final profit, based
on net sales:
SELLING EXPENSE AND CONDITIONS.
233
Table 8<S. — Percentage O] Packi\<;-M ati.ihai. ( 'ust. Hah 1>i:i;in. and Profit.
Based on Net S\ Gboups.
i bments making-
Window glass by hand
Window glass by machine
Hate glass
Wire and opalescent gla
Bottles by hand
by machine
Bottles b"v hand and machine..
Jars
Tableware, blown
Tableware, blown and pressed.
Lighting goois
Lamp ciumneys
Miscellaneous articles
A vera go.
Group.
I
II
111
l\
V
VI
VI]
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
Packing Bad
debts.
0.01
.11
.01
.68
.47
.55
.73
1.00
.49
.26
.32
.31
.40
ing profit
:ted —
Without
deprecia-
tion and
interest.
9.31
9.22
11.93
10. 29
5. OS
15.07
5.71
9.10
12.(9
i. 93
14.05
5.27
12. S4 .
With
deprecia-
tion and
Final
profit,
deprecia-
tion, and
interest
con-
sidered.
10. 32
5.33
1.99
.Hi
4.99
2.28
10.79
1.98
5.01
9.29
a. 15
9.59
2.91
8.90
5.57
5. CO
2. 7ti
2!05
11.30
2.68
6.13
9.33
.11
10.19
2.S9
8. 93
6.10
3 Operating loss.
The foregoing table shows that the cost for packing material is,
comparatively, a very large expense of the business. This is due to
the nature of the product, which, being fragile, requires not only
careful packing, but numerous materials to insure a minimum of
breakage while in transit. Lamp chimneys show the highest per-
centage, 16.18 per cent, and plato glass the lowest," 2.67 per cent.
The high percentage for lamp chimneys is due to the numerous wrap-
pings required, especially when they are for export trade. Excepting
the hand and machine bottle, the blown-tableware, and the miscella-
neous groups, the remaining 10 groups show much greater cost for
packing material than for total selling expense — in the case of plate
glass, more than ten times as much.
Bad debts, as shown by the table, is a very insignificant item of
expense. The plate-glass group shows the lowest expense, 0.01 per
cent, and jars the highest, 1 per cent.
SELLING METHODS.
DISTRIBUTION OF GOODS.
Most glass manufacturers prefer to sell their ware to jobbers,
to consuming manufacturers in other industries who use glass prod-
ucts, and to large wholesale distributers.
A large amount of merchandise is sold to jobbers who usually have
an exclusive territory. In the case of bottles and jars, a large quan-
tity is sold direct to the manufacturers or bottlers of wines, beers,
ketchups, grape juice, etc., to large drug concerns, operating a chain
of stores, and to small druggists. Onty a small amount of glassware
is sold to the retailer direct, the nature of the product limiting such
sales to cut glass, tabloware, some lighting goods, and a few specialties.
Only a very limited quantity is sold to mail-order houses, as these
houses, owing to their method of distribution, can handle only a few
products, such as cut glass, lamp shades, and tableware. Some
234 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
goods for export trade are sold direct to the consumer, usually
through a resident agent or a commission broker.
A number of window-glass manufacturers (about 25 hand and 5
machine) sell their entire product through a sole selling agent or
broker. This agent sends out his salesmen and on receiving orders,
distributes them among the various plants according to the quantities
and grades produced, the nearness of a factory to the point where
the glass is to be delivered, etc. At least one other branch of the
glass industry is contemplating a somewhat similar selling arrange-
ment. Due to the method of distributing its goods, there are com-
paratively few salesmen employed in the glass industry. The com-
pensation of salesmen, when they are employed, is in the form of a
commission or a salary and traveling expenses. Where the salesman
works on a commission basis, it is customary for the manufacturer
to allow a drawing account, that is, to allow the salesman to draw a
regular amount every week for his current expenses, which is period-
ically deducted from the actual commission earned.
The sale of a large quantity of goods to jobbers and wholesale
distributers is due to necessity rather than to choice. The capital
turnover in the glass industry is exceptionally small, which is due
to the fact that most of the capital is invested in land, buildings,
plant, and equipment. Labor, which has to be paid for at least
every two weeks, constitutes the chief item of expense in every
branch of the industry except — where the processes of manufacture
are entirely mechanical. Practically all the capital being tied up in
plant and equipment, it is necessary for an establishment in order
to have the cash to meet its heavy pay roll and other current expenses,
to sell to jobbers and wholesale distributers, who usually buy on very
short terms, and who, if necessary, will pay cash. Another important
reason for wishing to sell to them is that they purchase in large
quantities, which not only insures a large periodic cash income, but
also tends to make production and prices more stable and reduces
the overhead expense.
VIEWS OF A BOTTLE MANUFACTURER.
In 1916 a bottle manufacturer in New Jersey sent a circular letter
to other manufacturers in which he referred to the greatly increased
cost of raw materials. He said that manufacturers who had bought
materials before the advance in prices should realize the difference
between the cost when the materials were purchased and the cost
after the advance and should not give this difference to the custom-
ers and thus demoralize the market price for bottles. He asserted
that manufacturers were too much inclined to give away profits to
which they were entitled by reason of purchases made on favorable
terms. Tne circular letter was in part as follows :
In the glass-battle business almost all of us feel that every advantage that we can
secure mu3t be immediately transferred to the customer; so to-day is witnessed a
spectacle of a group of manufacturers in one of the oldest trades in the world falling
over themselves to give their customers not only profits which belong to them by right
cf the business but part of their costs.
If John Jones can sell at 85 and 10 per cent, we can go 85-10-5 per cent; he hasn't
anything on us; and for the last five years away we went believing every word our
salesman told us about the other fellow's prices and going him one better, and costs
went into the discard. We could not invent or perfect a labor-saving device without
taking the fastest train to our customer so we could give away our saving, and if we
SELLING EXPENSE AND CONDITIONS. 235
worked the glass bl iwera for a LO p sr c a in labor -ome of us were fools
enough to think that this meanl our entire costs were reduced 10 per cent and we
inline liately reduc -d our Belling prices 10 per cent.
Here we are in one <>f the largest business booms this country has seen for years;
here we are facing the highest c >sts for raw materials we have seen for over 20 years,
and we haven't the nerve to put up our prices to cover the advances. True, we have
■v are a drop in the bucket. The export trade has filled
a hole which existed for - Back and the increased domestic business has
Stopped the last leak. Every bottle manufacturer in the L'nited States can sell his
full output for the balance of this blasl a' any price in reason he asks, and because
some few of them won't ask, th" feel that we must meet their prices. It
makes me wonder if we know prosperity when we see it.
We are deaf, dumb, and blind. We have neglected publicity to educate the buy-
ers to higher prices; we have neglected politics to keep out "foreign-made bottles;
we have neglected good fellowship to make our compatitor sae and feel that our
horns are no longer than his, and instead we have hunched ourselves over a roll-top
desk and schemed and planned how to steal some pat order away from our neighbor,
and he, in his office, has been p! ime game. We grudge the money to go
to a meeting, and if we do get there we have to get away early so that we can get
home that night, with the consequence that about the time we "get down to the
brass tacks*' half of us are on the train. It takes us about five hours to get warmed
up and get our nerve steady and be ready to put on the screws, and then we are afraid
to do it because some fellow left, and we are afraid he won't go along and will take
some order away from us.
IMPERIAL WINDOW GLASS CO. CASE.
To eliminate very keen competition and the cutting of prices, 50
or more window-glass concerns formed the Imperial Window Glass
Co. in April, 1909, and started business in January, 1910. The Im-
perial company manufactured no glass, but was apparently a selling
agency for the output of the 50 or more factories. Each plant manu-
factured its own glass, but was not permitted to sell any of its prod-
uct except to the Imperial company and at what had been current
prices prior to the organization of this company.
From April, 1909, when the Imperial company was formed, to
October, 1910, prices advanced 70 per cent, and it is understood the
profits of the company in 10 months of business were considerably
over a million dollars. Evidence showed that the Imperial company
leased 15 factories at very high rentals for the sole purpose of keeping
them closed and removing their production from the market. It is
understood that when the company commenced business it had
acquired 97 per cent of the pots making hand-blown window glass.
In April, 1910, indictments were procured at Pittsburgh, Pa.,
against all the officers and directors of the Imperial Window Glass Co.
A demurrer to the indictment being overruled, the defendants on
November 12, 1910, appeared in court (United States District Court,
Western District of Pennsylvania) and pleaded nolo contendere.
The 15 directors and officers of the Imperial company, each of
whom was also a president or prominent officer in one of the com-
panies which had agreed to sell its output to the Imperial company,
were fined sums aggregating $10,000.
236 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
EUROPEAN PLATE-GLASS TRUST. 1
Prior to 1904 the European plate-glass industry was in a precarious
condition. Very keen competition had lowered the price of plate
glass, while at the same time there was an increase in the cost of raw
materials. To improve their condition, the manufacturers organ-
ized, on August 17, 1904, a trade association known as the Inter-
national Convention of Plate Glass Manufacturers. The original
agreement has been renewed twice and the present agreement expires
August 17, 1924.
The association in December, 1912, was composed of 17 companies
whose factories were located in France, Belgium, Netherlands, Ger-
many, Austria-Hungary, and Italy — practically all the European
plate-glass manufacturers, excepting Pilkington Bros., operating a
large factory at St. Helens, England, and the Societe des Glaces de
Courcelles, an independent company of Belgium.
The object of the association is to curb overproduction and by
equalizing production and consumption to regulate prices. The
association limits the output of each factory .by compelling it to close
down a certain number of days during each quarterly period. This
does not force the factory to shut down entirely. It can continue
producing rough plate, but the grinding and polishing machinery
must not be employed during the shut-down period. Efforts also
have been made to get Pilkington Bros, to curtail their production.
Each member of the convention has selling agents in every market,
and, though there is some competition as to the quality of the product,
nearness to market, etc., each is required to sell at the prices fixed
by the convention. Any deviation from prices or from the selling
rules is punished by a heavy fine. The convention also regulates
selling conditions, such as sizes, breakage allowances, etc. The two
large nonmember companies usually observe the prices fixed by the
convention.
After the organization of the convention in 1904, the plate-glass
industry was prosperous and the manufacturers were financially
successful throughout Europe. The selling price fixed by the con-
vention, soon after its organization, remained practically unchanged
until December, 1912, when the Union Commerciale Continentale
was incorporated at Brussels, with a capital said to be 2,000,000
francs ($386,000), supplied by the members of the convention.
This new corporation is the convention's sole universal selling
agent, and it destroyed even the slight competition which prevailed
under the convention's rule. This one corporation regulates the pro-
duction of every factory in the convention, purchases the complete
output at a price per square meter, which it determines, and sells
the entire product in every country in the world at prices and under
conditions that it fixes. The profits of the corporation are distributed
in the form of rebates to the various factories.
The new corporation absolutely controls every market in the world
except that of the United States, where approximately half the prod-
uct of the world is consumed. Depending for its profits on its trade
1 The data for this article wer3 secured from briefs submitted to the Committee on Ways and Means in
January, 1913, House Document No. 1447, Sixty-second Congress, third session, Schedule B, pars. 101
and 102.
/
SELLING EXPENSE AND CONDITIONS. 237
in other countries, where it can sell at its own prices, it can afford,
in order to keep its factories in full operation, to sell in the American
markel al cost or even less.
Kl'Kol'MAN \\ Alt ll-( IIVST Al. s Kl.l.l NG AGREEMENT.
The following report by Milo A. Jewett, consul at Kehl, Germany,
was published in Daily Consular and Trade Reports, July 2, 1914:
price-cutting war between the different European manufacturers
of watch crystals, an agreement has been reached for a uniform scale of prices, and
peace is declared. In 1905 the Watch-Glass Factories Association, with headquarters
3burg, was in control of all the important European manufacturers of watch
glasses and was able to fix the producers' selling prices for practically the whole world.
However, through the lapse of some agreements and the establishment of new and
independent manufacturers, competition in selling prices grew up until prices were so
reduced thai there was little or no profit in the industry. Until recently the combine
consisted of three factories in Lorraine (one of which also has a factory in France").
one in France, and a fifth unimportant factory in Lorraine that, while not an actual
member of the combine, sold its watch glasses to or through the combine. The
independent.- consisted of one factory in Lorraine, one in Alsace, two in Switzerland.
and one in Bohemia. The annual output of the combine factories was said to be
500,000 gross of watch glasses, and the independents could make about 300,000 gross
yearly.
The chief feature of the present agreement concerns the selling prices. It is said
that all the manufacturers referred to have agreed to sell at fixed and uniform prices.
There is also some understanding in regard to the distribution of territory to be covered
by different concerns and also in regard to the distribution of business, output, and
sales. While all the different factories are now "independent," the Vereinigte
Uhrglasfabriten, Vcgesenstrasse, Strassburg, Alsace, will continue to act as selling
agents for some of the more important manufacturers and will exercise general control
in regard to the matters that form the subject of the present agreement.
As a result of this new arrangement, prices of watch crystals have been advanced
from 60 to 90 per cent. While these higher prices will affect wholesale purchasers in
America, it is not likely that the consumer will be much affected. Watch crystals
were sold extremely low here, and prices will still be relatively low, although about
double what they have been. Ordinary watch crystals were selling as low as 4 francs
($0,772) a gross, which is about half a cent a piece.
This is an industry where hand labor must be employed to a considerable extent,
and the workmen employed in making the watch crystals and the girls that are em-
ployed in putting the labels on each glass and in packing them receive very low
wages. It is for this reason that watch crystals can not be made in the United States
in competition with European manufacturers.
SELLING FACTORS.
Effect of seasons. — The seasons have, to some extent, an effect on
the glass industry. Bad weather that retards building operations
affects window, plate, wire, and opalescent glass and, to a minor
degree, lighting goods; a cool summer affects manufacturers of beer,
soaa, and mineral water bottles, etc. ; a poor crop affects manufacturers
of ketchup and grape-juice bottles and jars.
Long future deliveries. — The fact that goods are manufactured for
long future delivery has little effect on the industry, because most of
such goods is manufactured by contract. However, it often leads to
overbuying, which results from a poor anticipation of future demand
and judgment of the market. When this happens it usually curtails
the manufacturer's production and lowers prices during the next
blast.
Size of orders. — -Though the great bulk of glass products is sold to
the jobbers and other large purchasers, and the orders are, therefore,
necessarily large, there is a tendency in all branches, and especially
238 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
in bottles, for the orders to become smaller and more frequent.
This is in accord with the general tendency in many other indus-
tries, and results from the purchaser's desire to rid himself of the
responsibility of judging the market and from putting too much
cash into large stocks. The automatic bottle-machine manufac-
turers insist on large orders, as do many of the manufacturers in
the other branches who will not ship less than a carload. The
comparatively small orders and the small rush orders go to the
hand plants. In general, however, there is a tendency on the part
of the jobber or other purchaser of glass products, even in standard
goods, to shift whenever possible the burden of carrying the stock
onto the manufacturer, and this necessarily results in smaller and
more frequent orders.
Discounts. — The following statement gives the discounts usually
allowed in the glass industry as reported by manufacturers :
Window glass 2 per cent 10 clays or net 60 days.
Plate glass 1 par cent 10 days or net 30 days.
Bottles 1 par cent 10 days or net 30 days.
Tableware 1 per cent 30 days l or net 60 days.
Lighting goods 1 per cent 15 days or net 30 day's.
Though these terms are generally uniform throughout the respec-
tive-branches of the industry, the scale is not strictly adhered to by
all manufacturers. It depends to a great extent upon the purchaser
and the character, reputation, and business methods of the manufac-
turer. There are occasions when extra discounts are demanded and
secured. A very large purchaser may be allowed an extra cash dis-
count or its equivalent in the form of a freight allowance. It is not
unusual for purchasers to deduct the usual discount, although pay-
ment is not made until long after the bill is due.
Joh lots. — Job lots are made up of imperfect ware, bad sizes, broken
stock, standard goods of which too much stock has been produced,
special goods left over by cancellations, discarded styles and designs,
and odds and ends. There are comparatively few job lots sold in this
industry; the ware that can not be sold is utilized to a great extent
for cullet. Discounts allowed on what job lots are sold vary, depend-
ing upon the ware, its condition, how urgent the manufacturer's need
for money is, and numerous other factors.
Advertising. — Though many glass establishments advertise in trade
journals, only a very limited number advertise nationally. The great
bulk of glass products by their very nature have no particular indi-
viduality whose advertising would be warranted or profitable; the
principal selling argument is generally the price. Only two or three
manufacturers place trade-marks on the ware they manufacture, and
these appear on pressed goods. It is impossible to blow a trade-mark
on ware made in paste molds or blown offhand.
Trade uncertainties. — There are some trade uncertainties connected
with certain branches of the industry. Building-trade strikes which,
can not be anticipated affect window, plate, wire, and opalescent glass.
Prohibition to some extent influences the bottle and bar-goods trades;
in addition, bottles are affected by varying laws in regard to size
and capacity and by the varying degrees of their enforcement by
States and cities. The making of goods lettered with the purchaser's
i Since Jan. 1, 1916.
SELLING EXPENSE AND CONDITIONS. 239
name or trade-mark is to some extenl a hazard. Seasonal effects,
which have been previously discussed, are trade uncertainties which
can not be forecasted or guarded against.
TRADE AB1 SES.
As a general rule the manufacturers interviewed complained but
little of trade abuses. This absence, to a great extent, of the trade
found in many other industries may be explained by the fact
that the glass industry sells mainly to the jobber, who usually is a
reputable business man. There are, however, abuses in the industry
and a description of some of them follows:
Allowances. — On a declining market, although the manufacturer is
usually protected by a contract, there is some demand for a reduction
in price not as an actual reduction in price necessarily but as an allow-
ance, which amounts to the same thing. There is also a tendency on
the part of some purchasers to overclaim the amount for shortage and
breakage. As is to be expected, there will be some breakage due to
the nature of the commodity. When no maximum breakage allow-
ance is stipulated in the contract or is understood, purchasers occa-
sionally make overclaims, thus reducing the price of the ware. Some
allowance claims for imperfect ware are due to a careless examination
of the ware by inspectors in the factory, which may or may not be due
to the policy of the plant. It is to be noted, however, that allowance
claims for imperfect ware are more numerous in bad seasons than in
good.
Cancellations. — There are comparatively few cancellations. They
usually come when there is a falling off in demand or a sharp break in
prices. Occasionally, if the ware has not yet been made or if it is
unlettered and of standard size and shape, so that it can be used to
fill other orders, manufacturers will accept cancellations. If special
molds have been made or the goods lettered, cancellations will not
ordinarily be accepted. However, if the house that cancels the order
is large and its business profitable, cancellations, even under the above-
mentioned conditions, are sometimes accepted.
TRADE ACCEPTANCES.
As has been pointed out, many glass factories lack ready cash. The
adoption of the trade acceptance would help to supply such assets.
However, no branch of the glass industr}^ has as yet made use of it.
Though it was urged at the 1916 annual meeting of the National Bot-
tle Manufacturers' Association that the adoption of the trade accept-
ance would eliminate some and minimize other trade abuses now prev-
alent in the industry, and though such a well-informed glass man as
Mr. George W. Yost, who is a banker as well as a glass manufacturer,
urged its adoption, the association took no action. Conservatism or
a desire to adhere to custom and the usual lack of cooperation among
manufacturers are the reasons ascribed for action being postponed.
Tno acceptance is similar to the sight draft, but is payable on a
certain date, depending on whether the terms are 10, 15, .30, or more
days, instead of being payable on sight. In order to conform to the
laws which make it possible for an acceptance to be rediscounted, a
brief notation or memorandum of the transaction covered by the
240 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
acceptance should be written on its face. The manufacturer mails
the invoice, bill of lading, and acceptance to the purchaser, who
accepts by signing his name across the face of the acceptance and
returns it to the manufacturer. The manufacturer's bank will then
advance the manufacturer money on it or it can be held for collection.
The acceptance when properly drawn may be rediscounted by a
Federal reserve bank. When the day for payment arrives the ac-
ceptance is forwarded to the bank of the purchaser, which charges it
to his account.
It was pointed out at the meeting of the National Bottle Manufac-
turers' Association that the use of the acceptance would result in the
following advantages: It would make capital more elastic, in that a
manufacturer could get a cash advance on his shipments, instead of
having his money in ledger accounts, and would enable him to better
meet his current cash expenditures; it would eliminate the possi-
bility of the purchaser taking unearned cash or trade discounts; it
would do away with the arbitrary return of goods and unjust deduc-
tions for breakage; it would compel the purchaser to pay his bills
when they were due, thus doing away with collection charges; it
would tend to make the purchaser buy just what he could pay for,
and would wipe out the bad feeling between seller and buyer that
results from collection letters, actions at law, etc.; its use would
necessitate no chango in present accounting methods and would
simplify accounting systems.
Tiie following is quoted from a letter received from Mr. George W.
Yost-
My remarks before the National Glass Bottle Manufacturers' Association at Atlantic
Oity were on account of a discussion with Mr. D. G. Wills, president of the Federal
reserve bank of Cleveland, Ohio, and my experience as a banker, both of which con-
vince me of the advantages which would accrue to all parties in interest if trade ac-
ceptances were used instead of the present method of open ledger accounts.
In the discussion with Mr. Wills, I argued that while it was important and proper
that the Federal reserve banks should bring the matter to the attention of the public,
it would be absolutely necessary to have the assistance of manufacturers, merchants,
and vendors of any line or lines where sales are made in large enough quantities to
justify the taking of an acceptance.
This end can best be accomplished by agreements by associations of manufacturers
and merchants that sales will only be made with the understanding that trade ac-
ceptance must be signed unless the buyer expects to and does pay cash for his pur-
chases.
It goes without saying that, except in isolated cases, it will be impossible for a
vendor in any particular line to insist upon this method of settlement, unless his
competitors in the same line pursue the same course; and on this account I consider
it very important that the Federal reserve banks and all other banking institutions
take advantage of every opportunity to bring the matter to the attention of associa-
tions of manufacturers and merchants, to the end that they may decide to use this
method instead of the present plan.
ECONOMIES POSSIBLE THROUGH COOPERATION.
Though selling expense, as shown by Table 87, is comparatively
small, there are many economies that could be effected. There is
among manufacturers no cooperation aside from getting together
once a year and, in conjunction with the union, fixing the wage scale
for the new blast. Cooperation, though urged time and time again,
has never been realized.
SELLING EXPENSE AND CONDITIONS. 241
Tiic following is quoted from an interview with one of the best-
informed bottle manufacturers in the United States:
No sp - ial antas raism exists as between various manufacturers; on the contrary a
more or less friendly spirit prevails. No well-defined or intelligenl effort has been
made between the manufacturers to correct trade abuses. Discussion between manu-
facturers relative to certain palicies, covering such matters as the form of contract,
exchange of credit information, methods of handling breakage claims, the establish-
ment of a uniform discount for cash, and uniform conditions covering the manufac-
ture of new or sp3cial mold equipment, would doubtless be beneficial to both buyer
and manufacturer.
Various manufacturers who were interviewed offered the following
suggestion- as desirable, if the cooperation necessary for their fulfill-
ment could be obtained:
1. The establishment of a uniform cost-finding system, which
would enable all manufacturers in the respective branches of the
industry to arrive at competitive prices computed on a comparable
base.
2. A centrally controlled selling agency for each branch of the in-
dustry that would sell the entire production of all plants in somewhat
the same manner as a large quantity of window glass is now dis-
tributed through the Johnston Brokerage Co.
3. A uniform, standardized contract for each branch of the in-
dustry that would, among other things, provide for a method of
packing and would include a specific percentage to be allowed in
every case for freight and breakage and above which no allowance
would be granted.
4. Tne standardization, where possible, of shapes and styles and
the requirement that the purchaser pay for new molds the making of
which is necessitated by the purchaser's desire to get a product which
differs from the standard.
5. Tne establishment of a central selling or show room (one firm at
present maintains offices in about 10 cities) which would reduce
materially the selling cost for each individual manufacturer.
6. Tne establishment of a credit bureau, which would not only
give credit information and advice but which would take up and
eliminate all abuses that may arise.
7. Tne abolishment by manufacturers of the practice of dumping
their surplus products in territories where they do not ordinarily
sell, thus causing manufacturers who sell in that territory to cut
prices and in turn to invade the usual market of the manufacturer
who has dumped his goods in their territory. The surplus stock,
instead of being dumped in this country, should be exported.
There has been but little attempt at cooperation between manu-
facturers. There is much that could be done. Sizes, shapes, and
selling terms could be standardized. There is, in some lines of
products, a tendency on the part of the purchaser to insist on his
personal lettering, the elimination of which would permit the manu-
facturer to carry larger stocks without running as much risk as this
now entails. A more scientific regulation of shipments and deliv-
eries, based on experience and judgment, would result in a saving in
freight charges, which is one of the chief items of expense, and would
insure more prompt and satisfactory deliveries.
102511°— 17 16
CHAPTER VIII.
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
GENERAL DATA RELATING TO THE INDUSTRY.
Among the large industries in this country glass manufacturing
stands out conspicuously for the largo proportion of the labor cost
as compared with the total cost or with the selling value of the
product. The range and average proportion of labor cost to the
total sales value of the product is as follows:
Table 89. — Range and Average Percentage op Labor Cost on the Basis e*
the Sales Value op the Product.
Establishments making-
Group.
Estab-
lish-
ments.
Range.
Average.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
37
12
6
26
18
27
13
8
20
18
6
13
Per cent.
52. 36 to 65. 98
36. 86 to 57. 84
27. 69 to 43. 30
18. 19 to 37. 64
38. 64 to 67. 39
18. 20 to 56. 60
30. 77 to 63. 32
22. 32 to 54. 72
43. 93 to 65. 93
35. 51 to 68. 75
24. 23 to 60. 09
47. 61 to 71. 69
32. 20 to 53. 39
Per cent.
56.80
47.74
33.76
24.03
53. 00
32.57
48.27
30.08
53.68
48.01
40.15
52.40
44.85
Total
213
18. 19 to 71. 69
41.98
This table shows that in only one group, wire and opalescent glass,
is the cost of labor less than 30 per cent of the sales value. In nine
of the groups it is over 40 per cent. The percentage is as high as
56.8 in one group, window glass made by hand. In one lamp-chimney
establishment it is 71.69 and in one machine bottle plant it is as low
as 18.2, but the average for this group is 32.57. The average for
all groups is 41.98.
The percentages for labor as set forth in the following table for
various industries, while not exactly comparable with the percentages
above because they are on a net sales basis or on a manufacturing
cost basis instead of sales value basis, nevertheless are accurate enough
for the purposes of rough comparison.
Roports of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce relating
to the cost of production in five branches of the clothing industry
during 1913 or 1914 show the percentages of direct and indiroct
labor cost, based on net sales, as follows:
242
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
243
Table
-Percentage of Direct and Indirect Labor Cost in Clothing Indus-
tries, Based on Net Sales.
Industries.
Year.
Labor
cost.
1913
1913
1913
1913
1914
Per cent.
21.54
25.77
23.14
30.69
31.23
Tho Bureau roport on tho pottery industry (1912) shows (p. 234)
that tho percentage of labor cost, based on tho total cost of manu-
facture in a list of representative establishments, ranged from 51.98.
(lowest) to 66.40 (highost).
The Tariff Board's report on cotton manufactures (1910) shows
(p. 394) the percentage each item of cost is of tho total cost of manu-
facture in tho various establishments reporting. From this report
is obtained the following information showing the percentage labor
cost is of the total cost of manufacture:
Table 91. — Range and Average Percentage of Labor Cost, on the Basis of
the Total Cost, in the Manufacture of Cotton Textiles.
Number of yarn.
Kind of cloth.
Mills re-
porting.
Productive
labor range.
General labor
range.
8
10
12
18
4
10
Per cent.
11.63 to 27.54
10. 56 to 29. 11
12. 55 to 30. 41
14. 50 to 36. 37
17. 18 to 36. 03
17. 44 to 32. 37
Per cent.
Over 12 and not over 20.
Plain, miscellaneous, duck, fancy
.53 to 1.72
. 37 to 1. 53
. 32 to 2. 14
. 55 to 1. 13
.66 to 1.81
These reports are comparatively recent and are among the most
exhaustive and accurate ever issued by the Government on similar
lines. The figures show that in none of these industries, except
pottery, does labor constitute nearly so much of the sales value or
total cost as in glass.
The Census of Manufactures presents a list of 334 industries and
shows for each, for the year 1914, the value of product, amount paid
wage earners, and other data. In this list of 334 the average labor
cost based on the value of product was 16.82 per cent; glass ranked
thirteenth in labor cost with a percentage of 39.53.
In tho following table is presented the list of 13 industries hav-
ing the highest percentage ol labor cost, based on value of product,
showing for each the value of product, expenditure for wages, and
percentage of labor cost.
244 THE GLASS INDUSTEY.
Table 92. — Value of Product, Expense for Wages, and Percentage of Labor
Cost in Industries Having Highest Labor Cost.
[Data from Census of Manufactures, 1914.]
1. Watch cases
2. Clothing, men's, buttonholes
3. Cars and general shop construction and repairs by electric rail
road companies
4. Firearms
5. Pens, steel
6. Grindstones
7. Cars and general shop construction and repairs by steam rait
road companies
8. Engraving, wood
9- Sewing machines and attachments
10. Brick, tile, pottery, and other clay products
11. Turpentine and rosin
12. Photo-engraving, not done in printing establishments
13. Glass
Expense foi
wages.
Value of
product.
Amount.
Per cent
of value
of
product.
$7,831,000
638,000
$1, 938, 000
326,000
52.71
51. 10
38,577,000
10,544,000
513, 000
684,000
18,645,000
5,067,000
243,000
323,000
48.33
48.06
47.37
47.23
514,041,000
719,000
21,392,000
173,858,000
20,990,000
15,359,000
123, 085, 000
234,505,000
310, 000
8,861,000
71, 806, 000
8,583,000
6,167,000
48,656,000
45.62
43.12
41.42
41.35
40.89
40.15
39.53
From these figures it will be seen that of the 12 industries out-
ranking glass in the percentage paid for labor, only 2 exceed it in the
value of product.
Of the 334 industries, all those whose products in 1914 exceeded
in value .$150,000,000 are shown in the following table:
Table 93. — Value of Product and Expense for Wages in Industries Having
Largest Production in 1914, and Percentage of Labor Cost.
[Data from Census of Manufactures, 1914.]
Slaughtering and meat packing
Foundry and machine shop products
ron and steel, steel works and rolling mills
Flour mill and grist mill products •.
Lumber and timber products
Cotton goods,, including lace
Cars and general shop construction and repairs by steam rail-
road companies
Automobiles
Boots and shoes
Printing and publishing, newspaper and periodicals
Brea: 1 and other bakery products :
Clothing, women's
Clothing, men's
Smelting and refining, copper
Liq uors, malt
Petroleum , refining
Woolen and worsted goods
Leather, tanned, curried and finished
E lectrical machinery , apparatus and supplies
Paper and wood puip
Iron and steel, blast furnaces
Lumber planing-mill products not including planing mills
connected with sawmills
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes
Printing and publishing, book and job
Sugar, refining
Furniture
Value of
product,
1914.
$1,651,965,000
986,450,000
918,665,000
877,680,000
715,9-2,000
689,776,000
514,041,000
503,230,000
501, 760, 000
495,906,000
491,893,000
473,888,000
458,211,000
444, 022, 000
442,149,000
396,361,000
379,484,000
367,202,000
335, 170, 000
332,147,000
317,654,000
316,840,000
314,884,000
307,331,000
289,399,000
265,706,000
Expense for wage.
$62,136,000
280,345,000
188,142,000
24,593,000
240, 172, 000
149,598,000
.-.05,000
9-14,000
0115,000
roi. ooo
867,060
5 7-1,000
828, ,000
1:9,000
2-' 4,000
3«I7, 000
;-i5:i,0(io
(111.000
806,000
246,000
7S1.000
63,843,000
68,306,000
78,414,000
7, 823, 000
71,816,000
Per cent
of value
of
product.
3.76
28. 42
20.48
2.80
33. 55
21.69
45.62
13. 30
21.06
17.86
15.63
19. 53
18.95
3.64
12.04
20i02
8.69
22.02
16.03
7.17
20.15
21.69
25.51
2.70
27.03
WAGES VXD LABOR CONDITIONS.
245
Table 93.- Value oi Prodi ct and Expense for Wages iv [ndustries Eavtng
ion p.' mil, ami Percentage dp Labor Cost Concluded.
Hosiery and knit goo is
>ods, including tlirowsters.
not elsewhere specified
Gas, illuminating ami heating
Fool prepar itions, not elsewhere specified
ike
Liquors, diitilled
i no) including operations of railroad com-
panies
Tobacco, chewing and smoking, and snuflf
Brick, ti.e, pottery, and other day products
; g and refining lead
Co if 'ct io.vry
Agrieu turai implements
i-onze, and copper products
Structural ironwork, not made in steel works or rolling mills..
C i' ni^als
- ,
Coffee and spice, roasting and grinding
Product,
1914.
Total 17,-160,149,000 2,812,716,000
$25S,913,000
243,379,000 I
223,611,000
212,127,000
206,779,000
194,776,000 i
175,281,000 i
171,579,000
:
164,087,000
162.199,000
159,378,000
158,054,000
153,196,000
150, 749, 000
47,108,000
10,119,000
10,866,000
3,994,000
41,394,000
71,896,000
21.472,000
25,084,000
10, 532, 000
Per cent
of v due
of
product.
18.55
■;. us
13.99
12.17
4. 95
4.00
1.93
21.25
5.45
41.35
12. 57
21.08
15. Hi
20.97
13. 96
6.87
2.99
16.11
In these 45 industries, each with a value of product exceeding
$150,003 : 000, the total value of product was $17,460,149,000; the
average value, $388,003,311; and the average expense for wages,
$62,504,803, or 16.11 per cant of the value of product. In the glass
industry the: value of product was $123,085,000, and the expense for
wages $48,656,000, or 39.53 per cent of the value of product.
In the 45 industries listed in the table there are 23 in which the
expense for wages was less than the $48,656,000 paid for wages in the
gla s industry. The total value of product of these 23 was
$5,931,940,000; the average value, $260,519,130; the total expense
for wages, $470,077,000, and the average expense for wages,
120, 138,130. In these 23 industries the expense for wages was 7.92
per cent of the value of product.
WAGES IN GLASS AND OTHER INDUSTRIES COMPARED.
The following table shows the average wages per hour and average
hours of labor per week in the highest-paid occupation in each of the
specified industries for the years 1890 and 1903, as reported by United.
States Commissioner of Labor.
246
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 94. — Average Hourly Wages and Average Hours of Labor op Employ-
ees in the Highest-Paid Important and Distinctive Occupation in Each op
the Specified Industries, 1890 and 1903.
[Data from Annual Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor, 1904.]
Highest-paid occupation.
Wages
>er hour.
Agricultural implements.
Blacksmithing and horseshoeing
Boots and shoes
Boots and shoes, rubber
Boxes, paper
Brick
Building trades
Butter and cheese
Candy
Carpets
Carriages and wagons
Cars, steam railroad
Clothing, factory product
Clothing, men's, custom work
Cooperage
Cotton goods
Dyeing, finishing, and printing textiles. . .
Electrical apparatus and supplies
Flour
Foundry and machine shop
Fruits and vegetables, canning and pre-
serving.
Furniture
Harness
Hats, fur
Hosiery and knit goods
Iron and steel, bar iron and steel
Iron and steel, Bessemer converting.
Iron and steel, blast furnace
Iron and steel, blooming mills
Iron and steel, muck bar
Iron and steel ; open-hearth steel
Iron and steel, rails
Leather
Liquor, distilled
Liquor, malt
1903
1890
1903
1S90
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1.890
1903
1S90
1903
1890
1903
1903
1890
1903
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1.890
1903
1890
1903
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1903
1890
1903
Molders. iron
....do
First hands
....do
II orseshoers, fitters
Horseshoers, forgemen.
Edge trimmers
Koodvear stitchers
Bootmakers
....do
Taper cutters
Scorers
Mulders, hand
Kiln burners
Bricklayers
do.
Cheese makers
....do
Candy makers
....do
Loom fixers
....do
Woodworkers
....do
Molders, brass
....do
Buttonhole makers, machine,
do.
Cutters
....do
Raisers
Trussers.
Spinners, mule.
do
Printers
Pattern makers.
....do
Millwrights
Millers
Pattern makers.
do.
Canners
Cookers
Carvers, hand
Upholsterers
Pipefitters
Chargers
Blowers, window
.....do
Cutters
Curlers. . .
do...
Knitters .
do...
Rollers. .
do...
Melters. .
Blowers.
Keepers.
do...
Rollers.
....do..
....do..
....do..
Melters.
do.
Rollers
do...
Shavers
do
Yeast makers .
do
Kettlemen
do
. 2944
.3276
.3053
. 3580
.2616
.2599
.2106
.2*57
.4316
.5472
.16*5
.1750
.2257
.2*77
. 25*3
. 2650
.2402
.2503
.2877
. 3199
.2797
. 3056
.5280
. 5593
.2422
.3478
.1696
.21*9
.4461
.4614
.3000
.3710
. 2588
.2774
.27&3
.3224
.1750
.1787
.2402
. 2955
. 2504
. 2529
.8202
1. 17*8
. 2598
.3053
.4220
.4082
.1753
.2017
. 1844
.1940
. 4555
.676S
.3775
.5409
.3811
.4594
.6067
.7259
.2607
.2190
. 6182
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
247
Table 94. — Average Hourly Wages and Average Hours of Labor of Employ-
ees in the Highest-Paid Important and Distinctive Occupation in Each op
the Specified Industries, 1890 and 1903 — Concluded.
Highest-paid occupation.
Wages
per hour.
Hours
per
week.
Lithographing
Lumber
Marble and stone work
Musical instruments, organs
Musical instrum ents, pianos
Oil, cottoDseed
Oil, linseed
Paints
Paper and wood pulp
Petroleum, refining
Planing mill
Pottery
Printing and publishing, book and job. .
Printing and publishing, newspapers
Rope and twine
Shipbuilding
Silk goods •.
Slaughtering and meat packing
Soap
Stoves
Street and sewers, contract work
Street and sewers, municipal work
Sugar refining
Tin plate
Tobacco, cigarettes
Tobacco, cigars
Tobacco, plug, fine cut and granulated
smoking.
Woolen and worsted goods
1890
i9m
1890
1903
1S90
1903
1890
1903
1S90
1903
19<W
1S90
1903
1890
1903
1903
1890
1903
1S90
1903
1890
1903
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
1S90
1903
1890
1903
1890
1903
Engravers
do
Sawvers, band.
....do
Carvers
do.
Voicers
....do
Tone regulators
Key makers
Pressers ,
do
Refiners
do
Grinders
do
Mac nine tenders
do
Coopers
do
Carpenters
do
Dippers
do
Proofreader
Linotype operators.
do
Rope makers
do
Spar makers
Calkers, wood
Weavers, ribbon
Loom fixers
Splitters, cattle
Side skinners, cattle.
Mixers
Boilers
Molders
do
Laborers
do
.....do
do
Boilers
.....do
Assorters
Tinmen
Cigarette-machine operators <
do.«
Packers
....do
Sorters
Wrappers
Loom fixers
....do
.4302
.4013
.4851
.4454
.5007
.4128
.4146
. 3359
. 3667
.P84
.1375
. 2500
. 2278
.1794
. 2067
.2193
.2634
. 2563
.2818
. 2318
.2802
. 44'5
.5297
.3254
. 4328
. 5625
.5277
.1770
. 1870
.3892
.3797
. 2765
.2970
. 4405
.4899
. 1859
.2444
.2671
.3843
. 1483
.1926
. 1809
.2027
.2 '84
. 2523
. 3333
.3992
. 1223
. 1572
. 29*9
.3718
. 1641
. 2403
.2081
.2452
48.00
48.00
61.88
GO. 90
51.54
47.85
60.00
54.00
57.60
54.00
79.71
84.00
60.00
60.00
59. 21
57.90
68.54
59. 93
59.20
54.00
58.26
55.17
43.80
45. 75
59. 94
50.92
48.00
47. 75
60.00
60.00
57.60
50.77
58.98
55. 78
50. 33
50.40
55.38
60.00
53.52
53.15
59.44
55.85
55. 63
50. 50
65. 12
67.93
56. 67
56. 83
5725
57.24
54.27
54.57
59.14
56.72
59.45
58.59
a Female; all others male.
This table shows that of the 66 industries and occupations appear-
ing in the table the highest wages per hour were paid in the glass
industry, to window glass blowers, who received, in 1903, $1.1738 per
hour. The next highest wage was paid to rollers in the bar iron and
steel industry, $0.8331 per hour — a difference of $0.3407, or over
40 per cent less than the rate paid window-glass blowers. In only
27 of the 66 occupations were the wages over 35 cents per hour and
in only 11 of the occupations were they over 50 cents.
248
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The following table shows the highest and lowest union wages per
hour and the corresponding hours of labor per week in distinctive
occupations in specified industries for cities in the north central divi-
sion of the United States:
Table 94. — Range op Union Wages in Distinctive Occupations in Each Speci-
fied Industry and Hours op Labor per Week in North Central Cities, a
May, 1915.
[Data from Bulletin 194 of Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1910.]
Lowest
wages.
Highest wages.
Industries and occupations.
Wages
per hour.
Hours
per week.
Wages
per hour.
Hours
per week.
Cents.
35.2
37! 5
. 35.3
37.5
65.0
40.0
50.0
68.8
33.3
60.0
50.0
62.5
59.4
51.3
50..0
65.0
31.5
45.0
28.5
40.0
33.3
35.0
»
36.7
41.7
50.0
33.3
25.0
50.0
56.0
50.0
55.0
37.5
37.5
37.5
37.5
54
48
48
56
48
44
48
54
48
54
44
44
44
48
44i
44
44
50
44
55
54
54
55
49
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
Cents.
56.3
52.1
41.7
51.0
67.4
75.0
65.
75.0
71.9
70.0
75.0
75.0
70.0
75.0
62.5
62.5
75.0
46. 5
62.5
44.4
68.8
40.0
50.0
47.9
50.0
53.8
52.1
35.4
62.0
67.0
55.0
62.5
57.5
61.3
56.3
60.0
54
Brewing and battling:
Brewers, first men in cellar, fermenting room, and at kettles.
48
48
48
48
Build ng trades:
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
Granite and stone:
44
44
Metal trades:
44
54
43
54
44
54
54
Printing and publishing, book and job:
48
48
48
48
48
Printing and publishing, newspaper:
45
45
48
48
48
45
48
48
a Includes Chicago, 111., Cincinnati, Ohio, Cleveland, Ohio, Detroit, Mich., Grand Rapids, Mich., Indi-
anapolis, Ind., Kansas City, Mo., Milwaukee, Wis., Minneapolis, Minn., Omaha, Nebr., Peoria, 111.,
St. Louis, Mo., St. Paul, Minn.
Of the 36 occupations shown in this table the highest union scale
of wages for "20, or 55.6 per cent, was 60 cents or over per hour, and
for 6 of these 20, or 16§ per cent of the total number, it was 75 cents
per hour. The average hours per week in 15 of the 36 occupations
was 44 hours and in 15 others 48 hours.
The following table, prepared from Table 100, shows for selected
occupations of the glass industry the highest wages per hour, average
wages per hour, and average hours per week:
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
249
Table 95.— Highest Wages per Hour. Average Wages per Hour, and Aver-
age Hours per Week in Selected Occupations in the Glass Industry,
Group and occupation.
Highest wages per hour.
hour.
Average
hours per
week.
Wind w glass:
$0. 9031
.8000
. 8200
.0851
. 5909
.0020
.5199
.9270
.5859
.4970
.4170
.7000
.5350
.5780
.0980
.7178
.'1711
.4949
.5919
.4230
.5401
.5399
.3850
.5090
.5189
.5708
43.6
43.5
55.8
$1.25 and under SI. 50
81.00 and under $1.25
inder $1.5 I
10.85 ind under *o.90
$1.00 and under Sl.25
SI .00 and under SI .25
S0.S5 and under S0.90
S0.95and under S1.00
$0.90 and under $0.95
SI. 00 and under SI. 25
$0.85 and under $0.90
SO. 75 and under S0.89
$0.80 and under $0.85
S0.75 and under $0.80
$0.00 and under $0.65
$0.00 and under $0.05
59.0
Bottles:
48.0
46. 3
45.2
53.0
Jars:
46.1
46.3
55.4
Tabic wa re:
Bl .wers
45.2
44.9
44.6
50.0
40.5
44.6
45.3
44.6
52.1
Light ng gjcds and lamp chimneys:
$0.90 and under 80.95
S0.75 and under S0.80
$0.05 and under $0.70
$0.70 and under $0.75
49.9
50.6
50.8
45.8
45 4
$0.50 and under $0.55
32.1
This table shows that in 9 of the occupations, including the 4
occupations in window glass and 3 of the 4 in bottles, the highest
Wage per hour was SI and over. In none of the occupations was the
highest wage less than 50 cents per hour. The highest average wage
per hour was SO. 9531 for blowers, window glass, and the lowest was
$0.3850 for gatherers, lighting goods and lamp chimneys. In 10 of
the 26 occupations the average wage was over 60 cents per hour.
The range of average hours per week, omitting mold makers, was
from 43.5 to 59.
This table also shows that in 19 of the 26 occupations appearing
in it the wages were higher than 75 cents per hour, the highest union
wages paid in any of the trades shown in Table 94 preceding. In
three of them the wages were 100 per cent higher and in two others
they were 66§ per cent higher.
250
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
EMPLOYEES BY SEX AND AGE.
The number of employees, male and female, over and under 16
years of age, in 208 factories during the busy season of their last
business year, not including the office force, appears in the following
table:
Table 96. — Number op Male and Female Employees in Factories (Not Office)
Over 16 and Under 16 Years of Age During the Busy Season.
Group.
Estab-
lish-
ments.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Establishments making—
Over
16.
Under
16.
Over
16.
Under
16.
Num-
ber.
Aver-
age.
.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
37
12
6
25
18
26
13
S
18
17
6
13
5,793
2,398
2,583
1,256
4,450
6,521
3,' 069
1,642
6,197
S,582
1,398
1,960
5,793
2,427
2,583
1,256
4,733
6,913
8,864
2, 214
7,646
10,408
1,626
2,543
156.6
29
202.3
430.5
139.6
85
64
290
54
79
407
221
76
62
194
328
295
242
440
981
1,579
152
521
4
-----
4
53
61
26
189.3
384.1
Bottles by hand and machine
340.9
259.2
276.8
Tableware, blown and pressed
424.8
612.2
271.0
195.6
Total
208
54,118
1,338
4,761
158
60,375
290.3
This table shows that of the 60,375 employees reported by the 208
establishments, 54,118, or 89.64 per cent, were males over 16 years
of age and 4,761, or 7.89 per cent, were females over 16 years of age.
The number of employees, male and female, under 16 years of age
was 1,498, or 2.48 per cent, of the total number. The total number
of females was 4,919, or 8.15 per cent of all the employees. (Census
statistics for the entire industry are given in Table 5, p. 26.)
The average number of employees per establishment in all the
groups was 290.3. Plate glass and tableware had more than the
other groups, the number being 430.5 and 424.8, respectively. Wire
and opalescent goods and handmade bottles had fewer than any of
the others, the figures being 139.6 and 189.3, respectively. Women
were employed much more extensively in tableware and lighting
goods than in the other groups. In four of the groups, window
glass by hand, window glass by machine, plate glass, and wire and
opalescent goods, no women were employed.
DAYS WORKED DURING YEAR.
The following table shows the highest, lowest, and average number
of days that the factories in each group were operated during their
last business year and the three previous years, so far as reported by
the establishments.
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
251
Table 97. — Number of Days Factories Were Operated During their Last
Business Year and Average During the Three Previous Years.
Group
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
Establishments making
lish-
ments
reported.
Window glass by hand:
Last business year
Average. 3 previous years..
Window glass by machine:
Last business year
Averace. 3 previous years..
Plate glass:
Last business yeat
Average. 3 previous years..
Wire and opalescent goods:
Last business year
Average, 3 previous years..
Bottles by hand:
Last business year
Vverage, 3 previous years..
by machine:
Last business year
Average. 3 previous years..
Bottles by hand and machine:
Last business year
Average. 3 previous years..
Jars:
Last business year
Average, 3 previous years..
Tableware, blown:
Last business year
Average, 3 previous years..
Tableware, blown and pressed:
Last business year
Average. 3 previous years. .
Lighting goods:
iness year
Average. 3 previous years..
Lamp chimneys:
Last business year
Average, 3 previous years..
Miscellaneous articles:
Last business year
Average. 3 previous years..
Number of days operated.
Highest.
345
345
Average.
245.8
243.6
275.5
2S3.3
269. 8
302. 1
259. 2
263.0
271.5
291.5
261.3
287.4
287.0
307.3
293.3
314.0
299.0
317.0
296.0
282.9
This table shows that in throo of tho groups, window glass by ma-
chine, lighting goods, and lamp chimneys, the factories woro oper-
ated slightly longer during the last business year than was tho aver-
ago for the three years preceding. In all the other groups the num-
ber of days operated during the last business year was considerably
loss than the average for the three } r ears preceding, except in mis-
cellaneous articles, where the difference was slight.
Factories making window glass by hand operated a less number of
days than any of the othor groups, the number for the last year
being 172.1 and for the three preceding years 192.3 Factories
making window glass by machine were next with 245.8 and 243.6
for the respective periods. In all othor groups the number of days
in operation was much higher than these figures. The group mak-
ing miscellaneous articleswas highest in the number of days operated,
the figures for the two periods being 304.1 and 311.9, respectively.
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES IN THE INDUSTRY.
The data in the following table, from the Bureau of the Census,
show the average number of wage earners in glass factories in the
United States, the number being given by States and by hours of
labor per week for the years 1909 and 1914/
252 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 98. — Average Number op Wage Earners in Establishments, with
Specified Number op Hours op Labor per Week, by States.
[Data from the Bureau of the Census.!
California
Illinois
Indiana
Maryland
Missouri
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Oklahoma
Pennsylvania..
Virginia
West Virginia. .
All other States
Total
1914
1909
1914
1909
1914
1909
1914
1903
1914
1909
1914
1909
1914
1909
1914
1914
1909
1914
1909
1914
1903
1914
1909
1,084
640
3,704
3,507
9,390
9,544
1,184
1,052
2,248
1,755
5,784
5, 651
3; 114
10, 997
10, 159
1,270
Average number in establishments where the prevailing hours of
labor per week were—
48 and
under.
2;,<o;
25,710
606
524
590
1,850
140
181
11
864
1,007
344
369
784
1,797
856
3,019
163
2,315
1,866
1,261
1,145
48 and
54.
856
100
1,203
957
3,361
2,109
937
482
448
102
3,t02
2,451
882
776
4,515
2,279
156
7, 187
4, -103
343
405
3,931
2, 252
230
224
25
540
663
80
2,290
1,978
107
389
35
918
420
700
2i0
2,916
1,726
258
2,7,!-!
1,645
100
59
532
1,424
116
166
11,394
8,707
54 and
60.
1,241
1,575
1,773
1,107
328
676
1,903
1,584
1,754
"~ihi
56
1,361
2,276
1,139
2,859
5, 10s
f.O ■'•ml
72.
Over
72.
2.062
3', 405
This table shows that the number of persons employed in tho
industry increased from 68,911 in 1909 to 74,502 in 1914. The two
States in which the greatest numbers were employed, Pennsylvania
and Ohio, practically stood still during this period. Of the two
States ranking next in point of numbers, Indiana and West Virginia,
the former had a small loss, while the latter had a large gain — about
44 per cent. California and Missouri also had good gains.
Of the 213 establishments for which cost data were obtained, 132
furnished pay rolls of 19,092 wage earners employed in their plants,
18,235 of whom were male and 857 female'. The details are shown
in the following table:
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
253
Table 99. Numbeb ov Employees, bi Sex, iv 132 Establishments Reporting
Wage Data.
Items.
Window
glass.
Plate
glass.
Bottles.
Jars.
Table-
ware.
lamp
cl imneys.
Miscel-
laneous.
Total.
Number of establish-
ments report insr—
Male employees
30
3
4
7
8
7
9
103
Male and female
15 10
29
Total
30
3
43
7
23 | 17 | 9 132
Number of employ-
ees-
Male
,»
1,049
6,716
135
1,895
3,063
398 324
174
18,235
857
Total
2,772
1,049
6,851
1,895
2,964 | 3,387 | 174 19,092
AVERAGE WORKING HOURS AND EARNINGS.
In other sections of this report establishments are grouped according
to the predominence of the article manufactured and the method
employed in manufacturing. In the treatment of wage data the
same divisions could not be made without going into much useless
detail; therefore, two, and in one case three, groups were consoli-
dated: "Window glass by hand" and "Window glass by machine,"
Groups I and II, were consolidated under "Window glass;" "Bottles
by hand," "Bottles by machine," and "Bottles by hand and
machine," Groups V, VI, and VII, under "Bottles;" "Tableware,
blown," and "Tableware, blown and pressed," Groups IX and X,
under "Tableware;" "Lighting goods" and "Lamp chimneys,"
Groups XI and XII, under "Lighting goods and lamp chimneys."
No labor data were obtained from plants making wire and opalescent
glass.
The above changes reduce the 13 groups shown in other sections of
this report to 7 in the section dealing with wages.
The following table, 100, shows the average full-time hours and
earnings per week, and average classified rates of wages per hour, by
occupations, States, and sex. The average rates of wages per hour
were computed by dividing the actual earnings of each employee
by the number of hours worked, as taken from the pay roll. The
a verage classified rate of earnings per hour was ascertained by dividing
the aggregate earnings per hour of all employees by the total number
of employees; the average full-time hours per week, by dividing the
aggregate number of hours that all employees worked by the number
of employees; and the average full-time earnings per week, by mul-
tiplying the average full-time hours per week by the average, rate of
earnings per hour.
254
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
8
69
1 SS
2J£
rtO.T
C*
14.87
14.03
18.40
16.04
113
24.99
25. 03
22.68
23.15
c»
cu ® H
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< .q
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ci
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WAGES AND LABOB CONDITIONS.
269
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270
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WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
273
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274
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WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
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THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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279
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THE GLASS INDUSTKV
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WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
285
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THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
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WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
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IS II
288 THE GLASS INDUSTBY.
Practically all skilled labor is on the piece-rate basis; all other on
the time basis.
The average rate of earnings of male employees ranged from under
10 cents per hour, in bottle and tableware plants, to SI. 50 and over
per hour in window-glass plants, and the average rate for female em-
ployees from under 10 cents per hour to between 40 and 45 cents per
hour.
The foregoing table gives wage data for 2,772 male workers in 30
establishments producing window glass, and shows that none of the
workers received an hourly wage of 75 cents and over except blowers,
flatteners, gatherers, and cutters, who averaged, respectively, 96.3,
82.2, 80.6, and 68.5 cents per hour. The average full-time weekly
hours varied from 43.5 for gatherers to 84 for firemen and watchmen.
Wage data for 1,049 male workers in three establishments making
plate glass show that none of the workers received an hourly wage
of 40 cents and over except pot makers, five of whom received be-
tween 40 and 45 cents. The average for all was 34.6 cents. The aver-
age full-time weekly hours varied from 60 to 72.
In 43 establishments making bottles wage data for 6,716 male
workers show that none of the workers received an hourly wage of
75 cents and over except stopper grinders, machine operators, blowers,
and gatherers, who averaged 92.7, 59.8, 60.2, and 52 cents, respec-
tively. The average full-time weekly hours varied from 45.2 for gath-
erers to 81.6 for teasers.
Among the 1,895 male workers in seven establishments making jars
none received an hourly wage of 45 cents and over except machine
operators, gatherers, and mold makers, who averaged 58.6, 49.7, and
41.7 cents, respectively. The average full-time weekly hours varied
from 46.1 for machine operators to 81.1 for watchmen.
Data for 2,566 male workers in 23 establishments making table-
ware show that none of the workers received an hourly wage of 65
cents and over except handlers, foot casters, blowers, pressers, fin-
ishers, and gatherers, who averaged 71.8, 67.1, 61, 57.8, 53.5, and
39.2 cents, respectively. The average full-time weekly hours varied
from 44.6 for blockers, pressers, foot casters, and foot gatherers to
84 for firemen.
In 17 establishments making lighting goods and lamp chimneys
wage data for 3,063 male workers show that none of the workers
received an hourly wage of 70 cents and over except blowers, pressers,
and blockers, who averaged 54.6, 54, and 50.9 cents, respectively.
The average full-time weekly hours varied from 45.4 for finishers to
75.1 for engineers.
In nine establishments making miscellaneous articles of glass wage
data for 1 74 male workers show that the hourly wage ranged from
15 and under 20 cents to 85 and under 90 cents. The average full-
time weekly hours varied from 48 to 84.
Wage data are included for 857 female workers employed in four
establishments making bottles, 15 making tableware, and 10 making
lighting goods and lamp chimneys. The hourly wages ranged from
under 10 cents in each of the groups to as high as 40 and under 45
cents for cutters in establishments making tableware. The average
full-time weekly hours varied from 49.6 for leer women to 60 for
selectors and packers, in bottle plants; 50 for washers to 59.3 for
WAGES AND LABOB CONDITIONS. 289
etchers, plate, in tableware plants; and 51.4 for decorators to 59 for
chain girls in lighting gooda and lamp chimney plants.
While data regarding the employmenl of female labor were ob-
tained from only establishments making* bottles tableware, lighting
good<. and lamp chimneys, Table 96, page 250, shows thai females
were employed also in establishments making window glass by ma-
chine and those making jars. Female labor in the glass industry is
employed chiefly in finishing and decorating occupations and' in
packing the ware.
CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS.
Boy labor.— In order to describe fully the occupations of "boy
labor." it would be necessary to enter into the details of the various
processes of glass making, but as these have already been treated in
Chapter [, no attempl will be made in this chapter to relate, except
in a general way, the connection of boy labor with the different occu-
pation-. It should be understood that labor referred to as boy labor
in the glass industry is not always performed by boys, but is the
work done by a helper irrespective of age, and in but few of the
occupations requires any degree of skill in its performance; in the
main, however, boys are employed. Boy labor in the following pages
may therefore be considered as unskilled labor, including a small
amount of semiskilled labor. Most of the boys are employed in the
"shops. - ' From this it will be understood that the work done by
boy labor is by no means uniform, but in many cases the difference
is slight and unimportant in so far as it concerns the general character
of the work.
Not much boy labor is employed in window-glass factories, and
that which is made use of is engaged in carrying cylinders of glass
out of the shop and in assisting the flattener. These are called roller
boys x and shove boys.
Next to lighting-goods and lamp-chimney manufacture, more boy
labor is employed in the manufacture of bottles than in any other
branch of the glass industry, and the workers, variously termed mold
boys, mold chargers, mold holders, machine boys, stickers-up,
cleaning-off boys, takers-off, takers-out, turners-out, tending boys,
transfer boys, and carrying-in boys, are engaged principally in at-
tending molds, by opening and closing them as required, cleaning
the blowpipes after using, carrying the ware from the blower to the
finisher, and from the finisher to the leer and elsewhere in the shop,
and in assisting the finisher.
More boy labor was employed in factories making lighting goods
and lamp chimneys than in any other branch of the glass industry.
In the 12 plants reporting, boy labor was referred to under 18 differ-
ent names, according to the nature of the operation performed. Al-
though the work doneextcndcd to all parts of the plant, and differed
considerably in some cases, the greater number of the workers were
engaged in handling ware between blower and finisher and finisher
and leer. These workers were variously termed punty boys, ball
boys, machine boys, mold holders, turning-out boys, carry-in boys,
carry-over boys, passing-along boys, cracking-off boys, stickers-up,
102511°— 17 19
290 THE GLASS INDUSTBY.
cleaners-off, finishers, transfer boys, shade boys, warming-in boys,
section boys, leer-room boys, and gussers.
Common labor. — Wage earners shown in the tables as "Labor, com-
mon," are men doing a variety of work which requires no particular
skill, previous knowledge, or training. Under this head are grouped
furnace cleaners, leer oilers, pot-wagon men, rope pullers, rough-
plate men, sand wheelers, blacksmith helpers, floor sweepers, table
cleaners, trampers, washers, tar men, carriers-away, clay trans-
formers, coal men, and yard men.
Other consolidations. — For the purpose of avoiding useless detail,
occupations of practically the same kind but bearing different names
were grouped under general heads in the wage table. The occupa-
tions so grouped are given in the following list, the first name in each
instance indicating the name of the occupation for the group:
Blowers, tube drawers.
Box makers, crate makers, box shapers.
Decorators, painters.
Drillers, holers.
Engineers, grinder engineers, polish engineers, sand hoist engineers.
Finishers, polisher finishers.
Gas makers, gas producers, producer men.
Gatherers, ball makers, bulb gatherers.
Grinders, chippers.
Hookmen, takers down.
Leermen, leer firemen, leer tenders, takers off leer.
Machine operators, blowers (machine).
Packers, packers and sorters, tubers.
Pot tenders, pot drainers.
Pressers, side-lever pressmen, lid pressers, stopper presser.
Tablemen, first men, second men.
Furnace chargers, shearers, fillers, fillers-in, fillers and toppers.
Teamsters, drivers.
Warehousemen, transfer glass men.
WINDOW GLASS.
ADVANTAGES OF LOCATION.
As regards the advantage or disadvantage of one locality over
another with respect to labor, manufacturers were of the opinion
that in normal times there was none. The union controls the number
of skilled men available, which number is sufficient in normal times.
This labor must be emploj^ed and is always available. It makes
little difference where the factory is located; labor will come where
it is needed. Of course, surroundings and other conditions have an
influence. Labor naturally prefers to live in good surroundings, and
factories located where this feature is prominent have an advantage.
On the other hand, if such advantages mean a burden in the living
cost, labor very frequently prefers to forego them if it is thereby
enabled to live more economically. Thus, a large town, though it
may be attractive for many reasons, may not be chosen as a place
in which to seek employment, on account of the living cost.
Some manufacturers said they preferred to operate in a neighbor-
hood in which there were other factories, because there was usually
a larger supply of floating labor available. Other manufacturers
said they preferred to be located at a distance from any other glass
plant, because labor has a tendency to change working places in an
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS. 291
attempt to better its condition; and if one plant has certain advan-
tages which another plant has not, then the best class of Labor will
naturally gravitate to the better plant.
WAGES AM) WAGE SCALES.
The skilled workers in hand window-glass factories earn more
during the time they are employed than the skilled labor in other
branches of glass manufacturing. In comparatively few occupations
in other industries is the amount earned per day or week so large,
but it should be borne in mind that in hand glass factories the period
of work during the year rarely exceeds seven months, and is often
less. During; this period, however, the men in the four skilled occu-
pations — blowing, cutting, flattening, and gathering, particularly in
the first three occupations — make exceptionally high wages.
Employees in these four occupations compose the membership of
the National Window Glass Workers, an organization which has been
very effective in advancing the interests of its members, and whose
!i has been sufficient to maintain a high scale of wages for the
hand operatives, in spite of the effect produced by the introduction
and use of machines, which now make 60 per cent of the production.
The hand blower and the gatherer are entirely eliminated in the
machine window-glass plant, and when wage reductions have been
made these two occupations have suffered more than the cutters and
flatteners, which occupations are common to both hand and machine
plants.
The following, from a bulletin of the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
entitled "Union Scale of Wages and Hours of Labor" (1915), bears
upon this matter:
The National Window Glass Workers have had wage-scale agreements with their
employers since 1879. Agreements exist with practically all the establishments
except* those blowing window glass by machine processes. Beginning with 1909,
competition with the machine made serious inroads upon the scale. In the first col-
umn of the table below (Sept. 1, 1908, to Feb. 27, 1909) is shown the rate for blowing
single-strength glass by "brackets," as that rate had existed for some years. By
"brackets" is meant glass cut to sizes within certain ranges. The blower aims to so
blow a cylinder that it will cut the largest possible sizes, since the larger the sizes the
higher the rate per 100 feet of glass. The cutters duty is to cut to the largest sizes
the defects in the sheets will permit. In 1908 the old bracket classification existed;
that is, the first bracket (single-strength glass), any size from 8 by 10 to 10 by 15 inches,
contained the smaller sheets and paid the lowest price, 36 cents per 100 feet. The
second bracket, 10 by 16 inches to 16 by 24 inches, paid 46 cents; and so on to the high-
est designated sizes in the last bracket, 24 by 37 inches to 26 by 40 inches, which paid
86 cents; all larger sizes left unspecified and paid $1 per box of 100 feet.
Up to this time, 1908, the commercial qualities A and B had not been written into
the workmen's scale. Sheets of double-strength glass not considered salable by the
cutter were set aside as "grinders," i. e., to be ground or "frosted" and sold when
semiopaque glass could be utilized.
The upheaval in the industry in 1909, caused principally, though perhaps not
entirely, by the uncertainty as to the effect of machine-made glass upon the market,
resulted in a complete recast of the scale. All the landmarks of the trade were lost.
The commercial qualities of market glass known as A and B were passed on the work-
men and read into his wage scale. The brackets were abolished for single-strength
glass and a flat rate paid per 100 feet of blown glass, regardless of sizes into which it
could be cut. The rate for single-strength A was 42 cents and for B 40 cents. In the
double-strength scale two brackets were permitted to remain, but these were made
to cover a much wider range of sizes than formerly, as will be noted from the table
presented. This scale was made effective February 27, 1909; that is to say, in the
middle of a " fire " or working year.
292 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
At the beginning of the next "fire" a new scale, effective September 1, 1909, par-
tially restored the brackets, at least revived the principle of bracket payment. In
this scale the two lowest brackets of the 1908 scale were combined to make the small
bracket, i. e., 6 by 8 to 16 by 24; the old third bracket was made to read 16 by 25 to
24 by 36, which was an entirely new classification; the old fourth and fifth brackets
with "all above " were combined into a new third bracket.
The next scale, effective October 15, 1910, revised the brackets, increased the rates
on specified bracket sizes, and restored the "all above" principle. It secured $1
per 100 feet for "all above" bracket sizes in the B quality, which was the price of
"all above" in the 190S and prior scales. This was practically as good a scale for the
workmen as obtained in 1908. It did not, however, continue during the working
year or "fire"; a new midyear agreement, being effective January 24, 1911, went
back to the bracket conditions and piece rates established by the scale effective
September 1, 1909, and that scale remained unchanged by subsequent agreements
up to October 27, 1913. This last-mentioned agreement entirely revised the brackets,
elaborated them beyond anything theretofore obtaining in the industry, and increased
the piece rates somewhat, but not enough to equal the rates in 1908. The scale of
October 27, 1913, was renewed in 1914 and is the present scale.
The period covered by the tables here presented represents the most disturbed
and turbulent era in the wage-scale history of the industry in the United States, 1908
marking the last year of the old steady rates, 1909 the beginning of the disturbance
of rates, and 1913 and since, the apparent settling down to a new basis.
"While this analysis has dealt more directly with the first table showing rates for
blowing single-strength glass, it has, it is believed, given a sufficiently clear explana-
tion to enable readers to follow the table of rates for double-strength blowing.
Single-strength glass means glass that measures about 13 lights to the inch in thick-
ness and weighs 100 pounds to the box of 100 square feet.
Double-strength measures 8 lights to the inch and weighs about 130 pounds per 100
square feet.
Single and double strengths were the only weights blown in the United States up
to a few years ago, when the extended use of lightweight plate glass made it imperative
for window-glass establishments to produce a thicker glass to hold the building trade.
Quite recently, therefore, triple-strength, or glass weighing 32 ounces to the square
foot, is being generally made; and occasionally much heavier than triple is blown,
the scale providing for glass weighing 39 ounces, 42 ounces, and even 52 ounces to
the square foot. A 29-ounce glass, just between doable and triple strength, has also
been provided for in the scale. This glass runs seven lights to the inch.
The table, referred to above, has been brought up to date and with
additions is as follows :
WAGES AXD LABOR CONDITIONS.
293
Table 101. — Piece Rates for Blowers per Box of 100 Square Feet for
Making Window Glass by Hand, Sept. I, L908, to May 29, 1917, by
Grades
1 '.rackets.
Sept. i
Feb.27
1909.
1909, to
1909.
1909, to
May l,
1910.
Oct. 15
1910, to
Jan. 23.
1911.
Jan. 24,
1911, to
Aup. 31,
U'll.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A. B.
A.
B.
SINGLE STRENGTH.
50.36
.46
.66
$0.42
.42
.42
M'. in
. in
. pi
10.44
.44
$0.36
.36
.44
$0. 36
10 by 16 in 16 by 21
.36
16 by 25 to 24 by 36
.54
.62
.62
.62
.46
.54
.54
.54
.54
.62
.62
.62
.46
24bv3l to -'! by 36 .
.78
.S6
1.00
.42
.42
.42
.40
.40
.40
.54
.54
.54
6 by S to u by 20
$0.45
.77
.96
1.20
Too'
1.15
1.40
1.75
SO. 38
!85
1.00
".'96'
1.00
1.25
1.50
24 by 31 to 30 by H).. .
DOUBLE STRF.XGTH.
6 by 8 to 16 In- 24
.60
1.00
1.20
1.50
1.70
2. f.0
3.00
3.50
.66
.66
.66
.60
.60
.60
.52
.42
.64
.52
.72
- .42
.64
2i by 37 to 30 by 41
.84
"1.75*
1.75
.78
"i.'6o"
1.60
1.60
.84
.84
1.75
1.75
1.75
.78
.66
1.61
1.61
1.61
.60
1.50
1.50
1.50
.78
40 by 60 to 40 by 65
1.60
3.00
3.50
.56
2.40
4.25
.58
2.50
3.00
.46
1.85
3.50
.58
1.60
1.60
16 by 24
39 by 61 to 40 by 65....
4. 50
.70
3. 22?,
.42"
3.00
.42
3.22
.45
3.00
.45
3.22
.46
3.00
.46
Sept. 29,
1911, to
Nov. 3,
1911.
Nov. 4,
1911, to
Mar. 15,
1912.
Mar. 15.
1912, to
Mav31,
1912.
Oct. 15,
1912, to
May 29,
1913, in-
clusive.
SINGLE STRENGTH.
6 by .8 to 10 by 15...
10 by Hi to 16 by 24.
16 by 25 to 24 by 36.
24 by 31 to 24 by 36.
24 by 37 to 26 by 40.
All above
DOUBLE STRENGTH.
6 by 8 to 16 bv 24...
16 by 25 to 24 'bv 30.
24 by 37 to 30 bv 41.
30 by 42 to 36 by 51.
36 by 52 to 39 by 60.
40 by 60 to 40 by 65.
40by66to40by70.
ioi,y 71 to 40 by 78.
All above
Grinders
SO. 14
.44
.54
.62
.62
.62
SO. 27
.27
.38
.52
.72
.79
.84
.84
1.75
1.75
1.75
3.22
.46
SO. 38
.38
}so. 47
.46
.62
.54
.71
.54
.71
. 54
.71
.42
.60
.64
.83
.70
.91
.78
.97
. 78
.97
1.60
2.01
1.60
2.01
1.60
2.01
3.00
3.70
.46
.53
.62
.62
.62
.48
.71
.81
.90
.90
1.84
1.84
1.84
3. 45
.53
294
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 101.— Piece Rates i>er Box of 100 Square Feet for Making Window
Glass by Hand, Sept. 1, 1908, to May 29, 1917, by Grades — Concluded.
SINGLE STUKN'GTH.
8 by 10 to 10 by 15..
11 bv 15 to 14 bv 20.
14 by 21 to 16 bv 24.
16 by 25 to 20 by 30.
21 bv 30 to 24 by 30.
24 by 31 to 24 by 36.
25 by 36 to 30 by 41.
All above
Oct. 27,
1913, to
May 29,
1914.
DOUBLE STRENGTH.
6by8to 16bv24
16 by 25 to 24 by 36....
24 by 37 to 30 by 41....
30 bv 42 to 36b Vol....
36 by 52 to 31 bv 60....
40 by 60 to 40 by 65....
40 by 66 tn 10 by 70....
40 by 71 to 40 by 78....
All above
Grinders
$0.46
.53
.60
.65
.70
.72
.65
.95
L14
1.38
2.30
2.30
2.30
4.24
SO. 43
.50
.56
.59
.62
.64
.70
.74
Oct. 31,
1914, to
Apr. 16,
1915.
Apr. 17,
1915, to
Mav 29,
1915.
SI )..-,o
.58
.65
.70
.72
.74
.81
1.07
1.16
1.45
2.44
2.44
2.44
4.58
.71
Nov. 1,
1915, to
Mar. 14,
1916.
Mar. 15,
1916, to
Mav 27,
1916.
Oct. 25,
1916, to
May 29,
1917.
so. it;
.53
.60
.65
.70
.72
.80
.84
1.03
1.14
1.38
2.30
2.:;o
2.30
1. 21
80.47 SO
.54
.61
.64
.67
.70
.76
.•81 1.
.64
.92
1.00
1.12
1.37
2.29
2.29
2.29
4.30
.91
1.32
1.43
1.58
3^20
3.20
3.20
5.91
SO. 62
.72
.80
.85
.88
.92
1.00
1.07
1.18
1.29
L76
2.94
2.94
2.94
5.51
.84
This table shows that important increases have been granted
regularly during the past few seasons. At the beginning of the season
of 1914-15, there was a 5 per cent increase over the scale of the year
before. The agreement relative to this increase is as follows:
On the prices specified (previous year's scale) there shall be paid an advance of 5
per cent. It is also understood and agreed that future advances on this scale shall be
computed on the basis of the above brackets after the 5 per cent advance has been
added. And be it further agreed that for every point of discount that glass sells
above 90-17 single strength and 90-21 double strength, wages shall ba advanced 1^
per cent as above specified.
An additional increase of 10 per cent, computed on the scale at the
beginning of the year, with the 5 per cent noted above included,, was
granted toward the end of the season, and was effective from April
17 to the end of the "fire," May 29.
At the .beginning of the season of 1915-16 the scale was the same
as that at the beginning of the preceding season without the 5 per cent
added, or the same as at the beginning of the 1913-14 season. In
March, 1916, a voluntary increase of 7\ per cent was given, which was
effective from March 15 to May 27, the end of the fire.
Very large increases were granted for the season of 1916-17. An
increase of 20 per cent over the prices prevailing at the end of the
season was given to single-strength workmen and 16^ per cent to
double-strength workmen, with an additional 10 per cent advance
differential to single-strength blowers exclusively.
The additional 10 per cent to single-strength blowers was urged in
the wage conference by the three noncon ten ding trades — gatherers,
flatteners, and cutters — voting unanimously. According to the view
of the representatives of these three trades the earnings of single-
strength blowers had been out of proportion to those of the other
trades, and as a consequence many blowers had returned to gathering
or had demanded that they be allowed to blow double-strength glass.
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS. 295
That the wages earned by skilled workers in hand window-glass
factories were very high 25 years ago is clearly shown by the following
average daily wages m 15 establishments, derived from the Annual
Report of the Commissioner of Labor, 1891 (pp. 567 to 586) : Blowers,
$6,526; cutters, S4.S02; flatteners, $6,286; gatherers, S3. 959 per day.
Such wages were exceptional for the period and are, perhaps, much
higher than the average of wages paid for skilled labor to-day
At the present time almost all hand window-glass plants work three
shifts of eight hours each for five days of the week in the shops. The
shifts alternate. On one Saturday, one shift will have no turn, on
the next Saturday a 4-hour turn; on the third Saturday an 8-hour
turn, the day beginning at midnight. So in three weeks all shifts
have worked a 40, 44, and 48 hour week. Hence the average week
is 44 hours, and the average Saturday is 4 hours, or one-half of the
usual day. A week, therefore, is 5h days.
These figures indicate the fact that wages in the skilled occupations
of hand window-glass manufacturing have been very high for a long
time and are increasing.
It is not to be assumed that wages in the occupations mentioned
have increased steadily from year to year. There have been periods
when reductions were made, but the tendency over a long period of
years has been toward higher wages.
About 1903 the machine for making window glass was introduced,
and there followed a number of critical years for both the manufac-
turer of handmade window glass and the labor employed. Mr. J. M.
Neenan, president of the National Window Glass Workers, states:
Before the period of uncertainty and demoralization ended the average of wages
was reduced from 90 cents per box in 1903 to 30 cents per box in 1912-13.
According to the manufacturers interviewed during this investiga-
tion, the wages paid in the skilled occupations — blowing, gathering,
flattening, and cutting— have steadily increased in recent years,
though for a period previous to this they had steadily declined, due
to overproduction and a general depression in the business. During
this period of declining wages labor also suffered from short seasons.
As stated before, the season in this industry is short, rarely exceed-
ing seven months for hand factories. In addition, during this period
there are often shutdowns from various causes which further reduces
the number of wage-earning days in the year for the glass worker.
The machine factories have a season of 10 or 11 months, but do not
operate with a full force during the whole season. So, although the
daily earnings in the occupations discussed may seem very high,
the earnings "for the year are not in proportion to the daily earnings.
LABOR-UNION REGULATIONS.
There are three labor organizations connected with window-glass
manufacturing. These are the National Window Glass Workers, the
Window Glass Cutters' and Flatteners' Association of America, and
the Window Glass Cutters' and Flatteners' Protective Association of
America.
The last two named embrace the cutters and flatteners working in
machine plants. The first of these two is identified with what is
known as the independent machines and the last with the American
296 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Window Glass Co. These two organizations are comparatively young,
as machines were not used for glass making until about 1903, and take
in only two of the four skilled trades. In the machine plant there
are no gatherers and the machine operators (unskilled men) take the
place of the blower. The "shops" are not organized hi machine
plants, though the matter has been considered by the National Win-
dow Glass Workers, thus far without result. The three organizations
are. noncon tending and work in harmony. The organizations con-
nected with machine plants are by no means so strong as the one
connected with the hand factories.
The National Window Glass Workers embraces the occupations of
blowing, gathering, cutting, and flattening — the four skilled occupa-
tions. It is the only labor organization connected with the hand
window-glass industry, and is one of the strongest of labor unions.
It meets at least once yearly with the National Association of Window
Glass Manufacturers to adopt a wage scale and to dispose of all other
matters that come up for settlement. It had a membership of 3,779
during the year 1914-15, and 4,301 during 1915-16; at one time the
membership was 6,500.
Wages based on Mowers' earnings. — The wages of the gatherer and
flattener are based on the earnings of the blower. The rule relating
to this is as follows:
Gatherers shall receive 80 per cent as much as blowers' wages for both single and
double sizes.
Flatteners shall receive 27 per cent as much as blowers' wages.
Hours of labor. — The following are the union- rules relating to hours
of labor in the shops :
Forty hours shall constitute a week's work for blowers and gatherers. The following
system may be adopted when locals so decide: In order to do away with the 4-o'clock
shift on Saturday morning, the midnight shift shall produce a full day's work, the
day shift starting at 8 o'clock and working until 12 noon. The 4-o'clock shift finishes
work for the week at midnight Friday night. All work ceases on Saturday at 12
o'clock noon. No member shall gather and blow before 1 o'clock a. m. Monday.
The actual practice is somewhat different. Each shift works two
turns of 4 hours each with only an interval of a few minutes between
the turns. Practically all factories work three shifts. The first shift
begins work at 12 o'clock midnight Sunday and works until 8 a. m.
Monday; the second shift begins at 8 a. m. and works until 4 p. m.;
the third shift begins at 4 p. m. and works until midnight Monday,
when the first shift comes on again. Work ceases at noon Saturday,
the second shift getting in one turn between 8 and 12 o'clock Satur-
day. During the week, therefore, the three shifts have worked 12, 11,
and 10 turns, respectively. In the following week the third shift
begins first and on the next week the second shift begins first. So
in three weeks each shift has worked a week of 12, 11, and 10 turns,
making an average of 11 turns of 4 hours or 44 hours per week.
The following is the only rule in effect relating to the hours of
labor of flatteners:
All flatteners working 12-hour turns shall stop at least 30 minutes for lunch.
The time at which a flattener must begin and stop work is not pre-
scribed. His hours are somewhat irregular. He has just so much
to do — the work of so many blowers — and it can be done at his con-
venience. Sometimes he can do it by working only a short day and
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS. 297
at other times he must work long hours to do it. Table 95 of this
report shows the average time worked by flatteners to be 55.8 hours
per week.
A cutter works more hours per week than any other employee in a
skilled occupation in window glass. His hours are not prescribed,
and they are often very irregular, depending on the amount of work
to be done. He frequently work- at night and sometimes on Sunday.
Table 95 shows the average hours of a cutter to be 59 per week.
Limit, (I production <>/ skilled workers. — The hand window-glass
factories operate not exceeding seven months a year, from about
November 1 to May 30, and during that time produce what may be
required to fill orders during the other live months. As it is impos-
sible for them to forecast the proportions of each size of glass that will
be ordered during the summer, it is customary during the manufac-
turing season to cut only part of their product in regular sizes and to
set aside sheets uncut to be cut as orders may be received during the
five months when the factory is not in blast. The rules of the union
provide that a cutter shall be paid full price for sheets set aside,
though they are uncut, also that when they are cut later they shall
be paid for at full price. On stock sheets, therefore, double price is
paid for cutting. The following is quoted from the union's wage
scale for the 1916-17 blast:
Section I.
Art. 9. Single strength may be made in the following sizes only; size specified is
size work is to cut; 2 inches in length and 2 inches in width is allowed for cutting:
36 by 56 may be made at the rate of ten per hour as special orders; 48 by 56 may be
made at the rate of eight per hour as special orders, with the understanding that when
orders on either of the above sizes are given glass is to be cut in sizes above the 16 by 24
bracket, provided the quality of the glass is suitable. The following sizes in single
strength may be made at the rate of nine per hour: 36 by 64, 38 by 60, 38 by 62, 40 by
56, 40 by 58, 40 by 60, 42 by 54, 42 by 56, 42 by 58, 44 by 52, 44 by 54, 44 by 5(5. The
company shall post in blowing room the size each shop single and double shall work
on, and preceptors shall see that all workmen work on sizes specified.
Sixty-five rollers shall constitute a day's work. In case of a roller breaking on the
crane or on the horse from capping off or cracking open, blowers and gatherers shall
be privileged to make up such breakage so that 65 rollers are produced for a day's
work.
Art. 10. Number of D. S. rollers allowed per hour. — All sizes up to and including
1,728 square inches, 9 per hour; All sizes up to and including 2,160 square inches, 8
per hour; All sizes up to and including 2,584 square inches, 7 per hour; all sizes
above 2,584 square inches, 6 per hour; up to and including 28 by 60, 9 per hour; 2&
by 72, 8 per hour; 30 by 56, 9 per hour; 30 by 72, 8 per hour; 30 by 86, 7 per hour;
32 by 54, 9 per hour; 32 by 66, 8 per hour; 32 by 80, 7 per hour; 32 by 60, 8 per hour;
34 by 76, 36 by 70, and 38 by 68, 7 per hour; 40 bv 54, 8 per hour; 40 by 64, 7 per hour;
42 by 50, 8 per hour; 42 by 60, 7 per hour; 44 by 48, 8 per hour; 46 by 56 and 48 by 52,
7 per hour.
Art. 13. The number of lights per box in all strengths shall be uniform.
Art. 14. The following list governs cutters when setting out single-strength sheets:
6 1/2 lights per 100 feet; in setting out double strength sheets, 50 by 60, or the equiva-
lent in square inches shall be set out at the rate of 5 lights per box.
Art. 15. Manufacturers may set out stock sheets in amounts not to exceed 2,400
feet per four weeks for any pot, place, or blower. Stock sheets to be set out at a ratio
of one box per blowing. This to apply to both single and double.
The single and double strength glass set out shall be booked to the blower at the price
the single-strength glass and double-strength glass, respectively, cut and packed
during the week it is set out, averages per box.
The cutter is to receive full price for all glass set out in stock sheets. Stock sheets
shall not be cut up or shipped during the blast.
298 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Section III.
Art. 14. Any blower or gatherer making more grinders than provided for by law,
or any cutter cutting or setting out more stock sheets or grinders than provided by
law, shall be fined not less than $5 for the first offense and $10 for each succeeding
-offense.
The production of flatteners is limited by the following rules:
Section IV.
Art. 1. Twelve pots shall be the limit for any one flattening oven.
Art. 2. Where 12 pots are flattened in any oven three flatteners shall be employed
on said oven.
Art. 4. No flattener shall flatten for more than four pots, unless in case of actual
emergency.
The production of cutters is limited by the following rules:
Section V.
Art. 1. No cutter shall be allowed to cut more than two and a half (2 J) pots of
single strength and three (3) pots of double strength.
Art. 3. No cutter shall work while the fire is out filling orders from glass set out in
the sheet for weekly wages, when such wages would be exceeded in amount if the glass
cut was paid for according to the regular price per box, as fixed in the articles of agree-
ment between this association and the manufacturers.
Art. 4. Cutters setting out single-strength stock sheets shall book six and one-half
(6Jf) lights per hundred-foot box to the blower.
Art. 12. Cutters shall not cut or book more than one blower's glass at any one time.
The manufacturers object to these restrictions, but have not been
able to get the union to change the rules. They object also to pay-
ing guaranties to skilled workers, a practice which is not forced
upon them by the union but by the rivalry among themselves.
During 1916, when the demand for glass was large, manufacturers
found it difficult to engage enough skilled workers, and some offered
inducements in the way of guaranties that men they employed
would be paid not less than a certain amount per day or per box,
regardless of the quantity produced. The effect was that manu-*
facturers that offered guaranties secured skilled workers from those
that did not make such offers.
Strikes. — The last general strike in the window-glass manufactur-
ing business occurred in 1907. This came following a period of over-
production, reckless selling, and chronic depression in the business.
A higher scale was demanded by the union men, but, after staying
out 10 months, they returned to work at the old scale. The general
condition of the business made it impossible for the union to force a
higher scale at that time. In 1908 a strike was threatened when the
union demanded a change from a sliding scale, based on the selling
price of glass, to a flat price. The demand was granted.
During the spring of 1916 the snappers in most of the hand window-
glass factories demanded higher wages and recognition as a union.
In most instances an increase was granted, and in a number of cases
before the demands of the men were formulated, but the manu-
facturers would not recognize them as a union, principally because
such action was thought to be contrary to what the other union men
of the shop desired.
Holidays. — The following is the agreement with reference to
holidays:
There shall be no glass blown, gathered, flattened, or cut, on the following holidays:
Thanksgiving, Christmas, and Labor Day.
WAGES ANH LABOR CONDITIONS. 299
Right to enter factory.- -Members of the union have the privilege of
entering the factory aa explained by the following rule:
Xo member of the National Window Glass Workers shall be denied the right to
enter any factory, flattening house, or cutting room where the national scale is in
force. This not to apply to men under the influence of strong drink, sleeping in
factories, or using abusive language.
Union dues. — Union dues are collected according to the following
provisions :
Manufacturers shall deduct from the earnings of all members of the National Win-
dow Glass Workers working for them 2 per cent of the amount earned, for dues to the
National Window Glass Workers, and shall, within 10 days after each and every
settlement, present a check, for the full amount to the chief preceptor, payable to
the Secretary of the National Window Glass Workers, together with the names,
amounts earned, and the amount paid by each member during said period, same to
be forwarded by the chief preceptor to the national secretary. No debt of any kind
that a member contracts shall prevent the deduction of this 2 per cent, and any manu-
facturer who overpays or fails to deduct and forward said monev for dues shall be
Hable to the National Window Glass Workers for the payment of same, whether the
member has anything due him or not. This also applies to entire earnings for boss
cutters. All bills to be presented weekly with the amount earned. Said bills to
have the amount of glass cut in each bracket and the amount of A and B .
BOTTLES.
EFFECT OF SHOP SYSTEM ON LABOR.
The "shop" system which is still in vogue was established in the
glass factories of the United States and Canada in 1870. l A "shop"
consists of three men who divide the operations of gathering, blow-
ing, and finishing.
Between 1870 and 1905 the production per blower increased 138
per cent for the medium line of ware, viz, 8-ounce bottles. This
increase was partly due to the substitution of the tank for the old-
style furnace, as the average product of the blower increased 25 per
cent after its introduction. As a result of this increase, and through
the influence of a powerful labor union, wages for skilled labor in
bottle manufacturing maintained a very high level through this
period as compared with the wages received in the skilled occupations
of other industries.
About 1896 a machine was introduced that was commercially
successful, and, though it was crude and was restricted to wide-
mouth bottles and jars, it marked the beginning of a revolution in
bottle manufacturing which had the most serious effect on labor.
In 1903 the Owens automatic machine was introduced, the first
type of which made only narrow-mouth bottles; later this was per-
fected to make any kind of bottle. The remarkable production
obtained from this machine without the use of skilled labor soon
demonstrated to all bottle manufacturers that if they were to com-
pete with it, it would be necessary to make a saving in that highest
element of cost — labor.
To this end manufacturers exerted their utmost ingenuity, and,
as a result, there is now a great variety of machines in use, and prac-
tically 80 per cent of the bottles produced is from machines.
1 Report of Bureau of Statistics of Labor and Industries of New Jersey, 1905, p. 200.
300
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The effect on labor can readily be imagined. With the growth
of the use of machines the number of skilled laborers constantly
diminished. The condition of the hand manufacturers was such
that wage reductions had to be requested. It is to the credit of the
employees that such reductions were submitted to, not entirely
because they could not be resisted, but because of an honest desire
to share mutually with the manufacturers the burden of a situation
in which all were placed.
PIECE PRICES, 1907 TO 1917.
The following tables give in detail the piece prices prevailing for
the seasons of 1907-8 to 1916-17, inclusive:
Table 102. — Glass Bottles (Hand Blown): Piece Rates per Gross Paid to
Blowers, 1907 to 1917.
Kind of bottle.
Prescription, round and
fluted, long and short.
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Prescription, oval, French
square, tall Blake, and
tall oblong.
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Flat, short Blake, and
short oblong.
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Capacity.
h dram to
" 1 ounce.
2 ounces.,
3 ounces..
4 ounces. .
6 ounces..
8 ounces..
16 ounces.
32 ounces.
1 ounce...
2 ounces..
3 ounces..
4 ounces. .
6 ounces..
8 ounces..
16 ounces.
32 ounces.
1 ounce. . .
2 ounces..
3 ounces..
4 ounces..
6 ounces..
8 ounces..
16 ounces.
32 ounces.
Weight.
1907-1912 1912-1914 1914-15 1915-16 1916-17
li ounces. SO. 54
2 ounces.
2-| ounces
3J ounces
Sounces.
6J ounces
11 ounces
ISounees. 1.52
li ounces. [ .56
2 ounces..
3 ounces..
4 ounces..
5| ounces.
7 ounces..
12 ounces.
20 ounces,
ljounces.
2| ounces.
3£ ounces.
6 ounces..
8 ounces..
14 ounces.
22ounces.
.58
.61
.4S
.51
.54
.58
.61
.64
.69
.71
.91
.96
1.22
1.26
.56
.58
.58
.61
.50
.53
.56
.59
.64
.66
.72
.75
.95
99
1.30
1.33
.58
.60
.62
.64
.54
.55
59
.61
.68
.70
.77
.78
1.04
1.06
1.42
1.44
.51
.55
.61
.70 .75
.781 .85
1.06 1.14
1.44 1.56
$0.51
.54
.56
.64
.70
.78
1.06
1.39
.51
1.09
1.46
.53
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
301
Table 103. -Glass Bottles and Jails Machine : Rates per 100 Pieces Paid to
Machine OrEitATous, l'.to: m l'.H7.
bottle.
1
1912
1913-
1915
and French square, ball oval,
one side Oat.
Round castor oil and lemon sirup.
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Oval castor oil
Do
Do
Do
Do
Panel and cod-liver oil
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Bulb-neck panel
Do
Do
Do
Nursing bottles (straight neck)...
powder
Do
Oatsup
ing, glue:
d polish
e polish
Round blacking
Do
Horse-radish, pickle, and chow:
Round horse-radish
Round pickle
Fluted pickle
■I chow
Obion? pickle
Flat pickle
Do '
1 »blong pickle
Octagon pickle
Square pickle
Hexagon pickle
Obliillg pickle
Mustard:
Round-pot mustard
Do
Fluted-pot mustard
Do
Octagon-pot mustard
J ounce.
Jounce 10.54
1 ounce
-' ounces
3 ounces
•1 ounces
v ounces
16 ounces. .. .
32 ounces
1 ounce
2 ounces
3 ounces
•i ounces
8 ounces
16 ounces
1 ounce
2 ounces
3 ounces
i ounces. . . .
8 ounces
16 ounces
32 ounces
1 ounce
2 ounces
3 ounces
4 ounces
8 ounces
16 ounces
6 ounces
5 ounces
12 ounces
J pound
1 pound
4 ounces
....do...
....do...
6 ounces.
8 ounces.
4 ounces..
8 ounces..
11 ounces.
....do....
C ounces...
....do....
8 ounces..
....do....
16 ounces.
8 ounces..
....do....
Pi ..mice .
4 ounces.
6 ounces.
....do...
5 ounce::.
....do...
r. ounces.
2[ ounces.
:; ounces..
■
i'.;. ounces.
li ounces.
-
21 ounces.
3 ounces..
4 ounces..
7, ounces.
12 ounces.
2 ounces..
".. .
4 ounces..
5 ounces..
16 ounce:.
26 ounces.
23 ounces.
3'. ounces.
5 ounces..
6 ounces..
10 ounces.
22 ounces.
5 ounces..
7 ounces..
10 ounces.
6 ounces..
8 ounces..
4 ounces..
5} ounces..
6 ounces...
51 ounces..
71 ounces. .
41 ounces.,
/"ounces. . .
9 ounces...
10 ounces..
8 ounces...
"Jounces..
9 ounces...
12 ounces..
15 ounces..
121 ounces.
12 ounces..
16 ounces..
41 ounces..
8 ounces...
6 ounces...
.70
.7'.
.92
1.14
1.62
.58
.62
.69
.77
.96
1.19
.59
.0.5
1.14
1.44
2.04
.61
.86
1.15
1.80
.76
.72
.85
.70
.15
.16*
.161
.18
.141
.161
.18"
.21
.20
.20
.211
.22
.221
.23
.24
.28
SO. 54
.60
. 65
.70
.76
.92
1.14
1.62
.58
.62
1.19
.59
.65
.73
.80
.91
1.15
1 . 63
.61
1.15
1.80
.70
.15
.161
. 16-1
.18
.141
.161
.18"
.21
.20
.20
.211
.22
.221
.23"
.24
.28
.15
.15
.15
.70
.76
.92
1.14
1.62
.58
.62
.91
1.15
1.63
.61
1.15
1.80
.61
.72
.86
.58
.68
.70
.15
.16}
.16}
.18
.141
. 16}
.20
.211
.22
.22}
$0.43 80.47
.48
.52
.56
.61
.74
.91
1.30
. 16
.50
.55
.62
.77
.95
.47
.52
.58
.64
.91
1.15
1.63
.15
.161
.161
.18
.14}
.161
.18
.21
.221
.23
.24
.28
.15
.15
.15
.18
.18
302
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 104.
-Glass Bottles and Jars (Machine): Rates per 100 Pieces Paid to
Machine Operators, 1908 to 1917.
Kind ni bottle.
Capacity.
Jars, fruit:
Improved Mason
Jam jar
Improved top, Mason
Do
Milk:
} pint
\ pint
1 pint
1 quart
Cherry and olive:
Round
Do
Do
Do
Jelly and tumblers: \- pint jelly glasses.
A'aseline, pomade, mucilage, and paste:
Round, wide-mout Y vaseline
Do
Do
Do
Jams, preserves:
Round, preserves
Round, jam
Round, preserves
Round, jam
Round, preserves
Prescription, bromo, and morphine:
Square, morphine
Round, bromo
" Do
Do
1 quart.
lull .
3J ounces.
8 ounces..
16 ounces.
32 ounces.
12 ounces.
16 ounces.
IS ounces.
27 ounces.
8 ounces..
1 ounce..
2 ounces.
4 ounces.
5 ounces.
....do....
7 ounces..
12 ounces.
16 ounces.
....do....
1 ounce...
■? ounce. . .
2k ounces.
5 ounces..
/ ounces..
11 ounces.
15 ounces.
26 ounces.
11 ounces.
13 ounces.
15 ounces.
22 ounces.
6 ounces...
2 ounces.
....do...
5 ounces.
7 ounces.
» ounces...
8| ounces..
10 ounces..
11 1 ounces.
14 ounces..
2 ounces. .
li ounces.
3| ounces.
6 ounces..
SO. 15
.15
.18
.24|
.17
.21
.25
Table 105. — Glass Bottles (Hand Blown): Piece Rates per Gross Paid to
Blowers, 1907 to 1917.
Kind of bottle.
Capacity.
Weight.
Pickle jars:
Baltimore style
Do
Do
Do
Olive list
Do
Do
Do
Demijohns and carbovs
Do
Do
Do
Do
Bulb-neck or export beer
Do
Lager beer, champagne shape.
Appollinaris and se'ect beer...
Mineral water and ginger ale. .
Do
Do
Whisky
Do
Do
Flasks
Do
Do
Milk jars
Do
Do
1 gallon..
2 gallons..
4 gallons..
8 gallons. .
16 gallons.
1 pint
1 quart. . .
16 ounces.
32 ounces.
8 ounces..
16 ounces.
32 ounces.
I pint . .
1 pint . .
2 pints .
6 ounces..
8 ounces. .
12 ounces.
16 ounces.
4 ounces..
8 ounces..
12 ounces.
16 ounces.
14 to 16 ounces
22 to 24 ounces
6 ounces..
12 ounces.
16 ounces.
8 ounces..
13 ounces.
24 ounces.
8 ounces..
12 ounces.
15 ounces.
12 ounces.
16 ounces.
21 ounces.
Si i. 86
LIS
1.42
.72
1.02
1.24
1.46
a. 26
a. 42
a. 78
b.08i
6.14|
1.32"
1.59
1. 18?,
1.41"
.99
1.23
!77
1.09
L24
1.38
1.72
1.18
1.42
• .72
1.02
1.24
1.46
1.27
1.10
1.69
1.37
.77
1.09
1.24
1.38
SO. 69
.78
.94
1.14
.58
.82
.99
1.17
a. 26
a. 42
a. 78
b.08%
b. 14i
.85
1.02
.88
1.35
.66
.76
.90
.91
1.01
1.24
1.38
1.72
b Per bottle.
WAGES AND LABOB CONDITIONS. 303
For the season of 1907-S a reduction was made in certain brackets.
In 1912 a very heavy reduction was made, affecting many of the
most important brackets of the list. The scale of 1912-13 prevailed
during the following season. For the season of 1914-15 a reduction
of 20 |>>T cenl from the scale of the year before was made for pre-
scription, miscellaneous oval and French square, round castor-oil and
lemon sirup, oval castor-oil, and panel and cod-liver oil bottles.
The scale of 1914-15 remained in effect, without change, during the
next season. For the season of 1916-17 the first advance in many
year-, was granted. The increase was for 10 per cent, and covers
all lines of ware in the hand-blown department that had been reduced
in 1912. except beer, soda, flasks, and a few miscellaneous bottles.
According to D. A. Hayes, president, and William Launer, secre-
tary, of the Glass Bottle Blowers' Association, the average wage of
11,000 skilled glass blowers in the United States was in 1913 about
S4.60 per day. 1
GLASS BOTTLE BLOWERS' ASSOCLITION.
According to President Denis A. Hayes, of the Glass Bottle Blowers,
Association of the United States and Canada, this organization,
which is the only union in this branch of the industry, had its start
in 1847. 2 Originally it included only labor in the skilled occupations,
blowing and finishing, but at the present time may include all workers
except mold makers, engineers, and firemen.
A nation;) 1 wage scale was adopted hi 1861. For 35 years, accord-
ing to Mr. Hayes, the union struggled to get the employers to meet
with them for the purpose of agreeing to a wage scale. Finally
they consented, and at first annual meetings took place, but later
semiannual meetings were held, which is the custom at the present
time. The first meeting is held in May, the second in August.
History of the organization. — The glass-bottle blowers were first
organized in separate and independent Eastern and Western Leagues
of Green Glass Bottle Blowers. In 1886 each became affiliated with
the Knights of Labor, as Assembly Nos. 149 and 143, respectively.
As early as 1886 there is record of annual conferences between the
eastern and western leagues of blowers and of loosely organized
associations of eastern and western bottle manufacturers.
As a result of these independent meetings, the two unions often
found themselves working at cross purposes. Frequently concessions
granted by one of the unions would be used to force concessions from
the other. In addition, owing to the fact that journeymen blowers
often went from one district to the other, it became increasingly
difficult to discipline the membership. On account of these things,
steps were taken looking to a consolidation of the two unions. This
was accomplished in 1890, when they united in one body under the
title of the National Trade Assembly. At the same time the sec-
tional conferences of preceding years was succeeded by national con-
ferences between representatives of the unions and of the manufac-
turers. In July, 1891, the assembly withdrew from the Knights of
Labor to become the Green Glass Blowers' Association of the United
1 II curings before Ways and Moans Committee on Underwood-Simmons Tariff Bill, p. 709.
2 Report to 191") convention, p. 13.
304 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
States and Canada. The present name is the Glass Bottle Blowers'
Association of the United States and Canada.
Relations with manufacturers. — During the first few years following
the amalgamation of the unions, the conflicting interests of the
eastern and western manufacturers operated to make difficult the
purpose of the conference. Gradually the manufacturers' associa-
tion developed into a more compact and more homogenous organi-
zation. At the present time it is unlikely that there could be found
a better example of successful collective bargaining than that which
is carried on between the Glass Bottle Blowers' Association and their
employers. On this point Mr. Leo Wolman writes as follows: 1
The agreement between the Glass Bottle Blowers' Association and the National
Glass Vial and Bottle Manufacturers' Association furnished an impressive and an
instructive exhibit of the feasibility of carrying on for a long term of years a peaceful
and mutually agreeable system of collective bargaining. While friction between
the parties to the agreement has at times been great, and while the agreement has
often been almost at the breaking point, yet so enlightened has been the policy; of
the representatives of both the union and the manufacturers' association, in granting
concessions and yielding upon disputed points, that the agreement has operated in
one form or another for almost a quarter of a century. Nor have external conditions
been particularly favorable to the continued life of the agreement. The technical
revolution of the industry, beginning in the middle nineties with the installation
of the so-called automatic machine, and intensified after 1900 by the invention and
the later extensive use of the Owens automatic machine for the manufacture of glass
bottles, has presented to the conferences of the manufacturers and their employees
problems that every year become more perplexing and difficult of solution. The
promulgation of working rules to govern those members of the union who were em-
ployed on the semiautomatic machines, the regulation of the wage scale so as to re-
tain a fair wage for the glass blower, and at the same time to permit the employer of
hand blowers to compete against the machine, and finally a readjustment of wage
scales designed to meet the competition of the automatic, are a few of the problems
which have received at the hand, of the annual conference, if not a perfect solution,
at least a workable settlement.
Conference agreements. — -Unlike those national agreements which
provide only the machinery for the settlement of disputes and which
leave to the local unions the formation of working rules, and in some
cases wage rates, the agreement of the Bottle Blowers' Association
(the union) with the manufacturers fixes in detail practically all the
conditions of employment of the glass-bottle workers. The local
unions can legislate only upon such matters as are concerned with
the internal government of the union. When, however, some unfor-
seen question arises during the year, an attempt is first made to settle
the matter in conference between the factory committee and the
employer, and, if they are unable to arrive at an agreement, the
question is referred to the president of the union.
All matters of whatever nature which are to come up for settlement
with the manufacturers' organization must be presented at the May
conference, unless they originate later than that date, in which case
they are presented at the final conference in August. Matters upon
which adjustment is desired are usually presented in the form of
resolutions from local unions or from individual manufacturers.
The members of the executive board, who are elected annually, act
as representatives of the union at the conference. The representa-
tives of the union are not bound by specific instructions and have
full power to settle questions without referring them back to the
organization. While their acts are necessarily subject to the review
i American Economic Review, September, 1916.
WAGES AND LAB OB CONDITIONS. 305
of their constituents, yel these acts have accorded so well with the
views of the members of the union thai many members of the execu-
tive board have been reelected over many years. The president of
the union, Denis A. Bayes, who died in 1917, held the position of
president and ex officio member of the board for 20 years.
The agreement does not provide for any formal system of voting,
but it is the custom of the representatives of the union and of the
manufacturers to vote as a unit. A mere majority of the members
present Is not enough. The measure must be agreeable to a majority
of the representatives of both the manufacturers and the union.
When the conferences have resulted in a deadlock, it has been the
custom to adjourn and for the establishments to resume operations
under the rules and juices of the preceding j^ear. In 1906, following
persistent demands for reductions in piece rates, which were refused,
the president of the manufacturers' association suggested that "the
matter be submitted for arbitration to the judge of the courts." The
ion was not acted upon, as both employers and employees
red to thresh out the matters in conference, and if without
result to work in a state of truce for one or more years under the
rates of previous j'ears.
In cases of such deadlocks, it is frequently the case that a situation
amounting to a lockout occurs, for, in the interval following the con-
ference and the resumption of work, the agreement is in effect sus-
pended. In 1905 and again in 1909, the conference adjourned with-
out having come to an agreement and without setting a date for a
future conference. In each instance the manufacturers did not open
their plants for some tune after adjourning. For this period the
union president authorized the men to accept employment if it was
offered at the scale in effect during the preceding period, and at the
same time authorized the branches to assure their employers that
they would be given the advantage of any settlement that might be
made later, oh and from the date upon which the men began work.
While such a condition amounts, in effect, to a deadlock, both
sides have refused to regard it as such; and, even though the con-
ferences have adjourned without coming to an agreement, and the
manufacturers, probably on account of the superior strength of the
union, have been obliged to employ the men at terms unsatisfactory
to themselves, yet they have had such confidence in the system of
collective bargaining that the following year has found them again
in conference with the union.
Si litem cut of disputes. — The annual agreements between the union
and the manufacturers are so inclusive and definite in terms, and
present in such detail practically all the conditions of employment,
that most of the disputes arising during the year can be settled by
merely consulting a particular rule of the agreement. For instance,
with respect to prices the agreement states that a bottle shall "be
rated at the same price and subject to the same rules in regard to
weight as those specified in the bracket which they resemble in size,
shape, weight, and finish." Under such instructions there can be
little room for disagreement.
On the other hand, disputes may arise in which no question as to
the interpretation of the rules is involved but where one or the other
of the parties has deliberately violated or disregarded the agreement.
102511°— 17 20
306 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The first step in the adjustment of disputes is to refer the matter
to a conference of the employer and a factory committee. When
no settlement can be reached, the question is referred either to the
president of the union or to one of the executive board whom the
president designates as his representative. The president's decisions
are final unless reversed at the next joint conference. Although the
president of the union has been acting as arbitrator since 1902, his
decisions have been but rarely reversed. Most of the matters
decided by him have been concerning prices. In those cases where
the joint conference has found the prices fixed by him to have been
too high the employer is reimbursed for the excess' wages paid,
and, conversely, when the prices have been fixed too low the
employer is required to make up the difference to the workmen.
The great centralization of power in the hands of the national
organization and the apparent opinion of the members of the union
that such centralization is wise have resulted in the universal support
by the "branches" of the mandates of their national officers and of
the decisions of the joint conference. Similarly, among the manu-
facturers, the attempts to violate the agreement by locking out
employees, or by running shops under rules contrary to those adopted
by the conferences, have been few and far between. In this case,
however, compulsion upon the manufacturers has not come from the
manufacturers' association. This organization has little control over
its members and can, therefore, do little toward forcing them to
live up to the decisions of the joint conference.
While the power to compel obedience resides neither in the hands
of the union or its president nor in the manufacturers' association t
two forces operate potently to keep manufacturers from violating
the agreement — the desire of manufacturers to avoid any action that
might result in a discontinuance of the annual conferences and the
strength of the union, which is able by threatening to withdraw their
working force to bring recalcitrant employers into line.
Strikes. — The bottle branch of the glass industry has been very
free from strikes. According to the late president of the union,
Mr. Denis A. Hayes, 1 there has not been a national strike in the
union since 1884. When it is considered what manifold hardships
to both labor and hand manufacturers attended the introduction
and use of the automatic machine, it is strange that conflicts did
not occur during this period at least. In order to meet the competi-
tion of machines working rules and wages had to be radically
changed. For a long period following their first use wages remained
stationary or were reduced, but even with such a condition no serious
labor trouble resulted.
HOURS OF LABOR.
Most of the hand bottle factories work on the two-shift system,
although about 20 factories now work three shifts. The three-shift
system is comparatively new in hand bottle factories. It is only
one of a number of changes which manufacturers, with the consent
of the union, have been required to make in order to meet the com-
Eetition of the automatic machines. It assists the manufacturer
ecause of the increased production resulting, and it benefits labor
1 Report to the 1915 convention, p. 14.
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS. 307
because it provides employment for the men thrown out of work
in increasingly large numbers as the use of the automatic machine
grows. The fchree-shifl system was made a part of the wage agree-
ment in 1909. Later the manufacturers agreed to a division of
work where there was not a sufficient number of men to make up a
third shift but more than could be employed in two shifts.
One of the early steps taken by the union with a view to shortening
the hours of labor in bottle factories was to induce manufacturers to
abolish the Sunday night shift. Some time after this had been
accomplished the 4 o'clock stop agreement was secured from the
manufacturers. Later the Saturday half holiday for five months of
the year was granted. The union has fought strenuously to obtain
the Saturday half holiday the year around, but has not succeeded
in this as yet. Mr, Denis A. Hayes, late president of the union,
commenting on the subject of the Saturday half holiday in his
annual report for 1916, said:
Most of the skilled trades cease work at noon Saturday during the entire year;
some do not work at all on Saturday, and many of the unskilled trade-unionists have
succeeded in enforcing the same thing. However, there is this phase of the question
that can not be overlooked, and that is that, while we may be successful in enforcing
a request for a Saturday half holiday the year around, we must not lose sight of the
fact that the automatic is in continuous operation from Monday morning "until the
following Sunday morning, and in some instances does not stop even on Sunday.
Could we, by persuasion, reason, or logic, induce the companies operating the auto-
matic machine to closedown their plants at noon on Saturdays, there would be little
opposition on the part of the hand manufacturers to do likewise.
The following are the rules relating to hours of labor as agreed
upon between the manufacturers and the union workers on the flint
prescription (covered pot) and the glass vial and bottle lists:
Eight and one-half hours per day (actual working time) shall constitute a day's
work, commencing at 7 o'clock in the morning, 15 minutes tempo at 3 p. m., and
stop work at 5 p. m., except on Saturday, when there shall be no afternoon tempo,
and work shall stop at 4 p. m.; the night shift to work eight and one-half hours also,
and there shall be no Saturday night work.
During the months of May, June, July, August, and September work shall cease
12 o'clock noon on Saturday.
There shall be a stop of L5 minutes for each and every open pot to set, and 30 minutes
for every monkey covered pot, and 1 hour for large covered pot.
The rules relating to the hours of labor for the workers on the
United, O'Neill, and the one and two man narrow-mouth machines
(machine and press department) are as follows:
We shall work six days per week on daywork turn and five nights per week on
night turn, making an average of five and one-half days per week, except during the
months of May, June, July, August, and September.
When working I luce shifts, work shall begin not earlier than 7 a. m Monday.
Actual working time to be seven and one-half hours per day, with one-half hour for
dinner. Work to cease not later than 4 p. m. Saturday. Second and third shifts
shall work seven and one-half hours also.
In the stopper-grinding department the rule is as follows:
Fifty-three hours shall constitute a week's work in the stoppering department.
Each day's work to start al 7 a. m.
The following holidays are observed by all departments under
the authority of the union: Labor Day and night, Thanksgiving
Day and night, December 24, night; Christmas Day and night,
Decoration or Memorial Day and night, July 3, night; and Fourth
of July, day and night, or the day set apart when any of the above
308 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
holidays falls upon Sunday. In Canada, Victoria Day is observed
instead of Decoration Day and Dominion Day instead of Fourth of
July.
SUMMER STOP.
Owing to the inroads made by machines, particularly the auto-
matic and semiautomatic, on the business of the hand bottle manu-
facturers, the union, after resisting for a long time, finally agreed to
a modification of the summer stop in order to increase the production
in hand bottle factories, so that the manufacturers might better
compete with the automatics. The summer stop was reduced to
two weeks in hand and four weeks in machine bottle shops, the
length of the summer stop as it now prevails. The argument used
by the hand manufacturers to secure a longer season, and one that
was effective with the union, was that the automatic and semiau-
tomatic machine plants were in constant operation the year round,
working three shifts in 24 hours, Saturday afternoons, and frequently
on Sunday. Working so continuously, they abtained a large prod-
uct, and therefore a cost so low that the hand manufacturers could
not compete unless they were allowed a longer season. In addition
it was pointed out that work was lost to the hand blower and busi-
ness to the hand manufacturers, which was secured by the machine
factories, in consequence of the summer stop.
APPRENTICES.
The apprentice question has been the cause of much contention
between the manufacturers and the union. Manufacturers natu-
rally have desired to have the ratio of apprentices to journeymen as
large as possible, in order to have an excess of labor available. The
union has resisted strongly any attempt to increase the number of
apprentices allowed to each journeymen, because the union has the
utmost difficulty in ordinary times to find places for its men. With
new journeymen coming on, as their apprenticeship is served, the
task becomes even more difficult. At times conditions have been so
acute that the manufacturers have agreed to the suspension of the
apprentice system during a season. Following a bad season in
1914-15, the union at its annual convention passed a resolution
that "no apprentice shall be taken for the blast of 1915-16." A
similar resolution was adopted at the convention of the following
year. A resolution was also introduced which recommended that
the ratio of apprentices to journeymen should be the same in all
departments. At the annual wage conference of manufacturers
and representatives of the union held to fix rates and settle other
matters for the year 1916-17 the apprentice question was settled
on the basis of 1 apprentice to every 15 journeymen.
Prior to September, 1913, apprentices received 50 per cent of a
journeyman's wages. At that time the agreement was changed so
that apprentices now receive 75 per cent of a journeyman's wages.
The following are the union regulations as they now exist with
reference to apprentices:
Firms who from any cause reduce the number of their journeymen must also reduce
the number of their apprentices in the proportion to the journeymen employed at
the time of reducing their working force, so that they at all times shall be within
WAGES AND LABOE CON NTS. 309
Example: If the proportion was 1 apprentice to 3
journeymen before reducing their working force, the reduction would be 1 apprentice
to :; journeymen.
When the condition of the trade warrants the issuing of permits to apprentices
who are unemployed, all such permits arc to be uniform, and do permit shall be
issued in an apprentice unless it meets with the approval of tin branch controlling
the apprentice is to be employed.
Firms having put in an apprentice and from am can."
trade he can uot be duplicated, bul should an apprentice die during the firsl year
of his apprenticeship he must be duplicated during that season.
An apprentice shall serve not more than foui of 40 working months,
the date of being pur in to blow. No loss of time to be charged against the
apprentice unless the time so lost can be reasonably attributed to said apprentice.
An apprentice who may .so to work or continue to work in any factory where asso-
ciation blowers are on a strike shall be fined $100 in addition to his regular initiation
Less otherwise ordered by the president and executive board.
No one shall be considered an apprentice unless he be put in a place to blow.
EXTENSION OF LABOR-ORGANIZATION CONTROL.
Xonunionisin does not exist very extensively in the bottle business.
The danger which threatened the union from this source as a result
of the new conditions following the introduction of the automatic
machine was quickly met by the organization taking steps to encour-
age the nonunion men to form local unions, which were later merged
into State organizations. The plan was proposed by the president
of the union in 1904. At that time there were 15 nonunion plants
in operation in Indiana and 6 out of blast. In the annual report of
the vice president of the union for 1914-15 it is stated that there
were then only three nonunion factories in operation and three out
of blast. The late president of the union, Mr. Denis A. Hayes, com-
menting on the situation in Indiana, which has been termed the
"hotbed of nonunionisnv' by the union officers, in his annual report
for the year 1915-16, said:
In spite of the low wages paid to men in nonunion factories, there has been a notice-
able falling off in the number of plants operated and the men employed. This, in
a large measure, is due to the efforts of our association in dealing with this problem.
Realizing that with such a formidable competitor as the automatic we should have
to make radical changes in our wages and working rules, and that a number of our
men would be displaced, our first thought was to safeguard their interests as best
we could and prevent any increase in the number of nonunion men and factories.
This was done systematically and thoroughly, and it is gratifying to say that our
plans have been successful. * * * We are fonning them into an auxiliary organi-
zation and are making them self-reliant. To-day their affairs are conducted through
committees the same as ours, and they hold meetings to discuss matters pertaining
to the trade.
TABLEWARE AND LIGHTING GOODS.
Manufacturers interviewed during this investigation were of the
opinion that locality had very little bearing on the class or quan-
tity of labor available, although it was thought that large towns arc
attractive to labor in general. It was also thought advantageous
for several factories to be located in the same vicinity, as in that
case more labor is available, and a manufacturer is less liable to
find himself short of help; or, if he becomes short handed, he has
less difficulty in filling the places.
310
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
NUMBER OF UNION WORKERS.
The American Flint Glass Workers' Union is composed of workers
that make blown and pressed ware, which includes tableware, bar
goods, lighting goods, laboratory ware, vases, and miscellaneous arti-
cles. It is the only union of workers in tableware and lighting-
goods factories. It was established in 1878 and is affiliated with the
American Federation of Labor.
Not all establishments are unionizred. In establishments where the
union is fully organized, it includes the skilled and some of the semi-
skilled employees. The membership of the union by departments
during the last 10 years is shown in the following table:
Table 106. — Membership of the American Flint Glass Workers' Union, by
Manufacturing Departments, 1907 to 1916.
[From report of the national secretary-treasurer, 1916.]
Departments.
Press
Cutting
Chimney
Punch and stem .
Bulb
Mold making
Paste mold
Caster place
Iron mold
Shade and globe .
Machine press
Insulator
Engraving
Stopper grinding.
White liners
Prescriptions
Lamp workers . . .
Total .
1 , 629
371
1.520
358
666
463
504
383
369
209
278
61
22
8
154
1,664
1,519
1,504
371
671
488
513
, 380
347
218
227
56
19
1,911
2,217
1,411
433
636
506
530
311
365
1,928
2. 25S
1.400
540
856
544
478
120 S.901 9,251
1.929
1..XB0
1,150
804
584
514
441
354
145
41
62
14
S, 743
2, 111
L292
951
784
658
514
486
344
134
43
32
2,531
1,711
1,126
1,079
730
672
513
526
378
138
115
87
56
19
11
1,692
2. 403
1,620
1.271
1.084
648
720
452
507
345
104
137
51
49
19
10
),420
1,381
1,150
1, 073
772
739
445
692
366
101
162
),430
The table shows that the growth in membership since 1911 has
been slight. The maximum membership was reached in 1913. The
largest actual gains from 1907 to 1916 were in the press, cutting,
and punch and stem departments; the largest actual losses were in
the chimney, shade and globe, and machine press departments. Of
the 17 departments, 7 were smaller in 1916 than 1907, namely,
chimney, paste mold, iron mold, shade and globe, machine press,
insulator, white liners.
NUMBER EMPLOYED AND UNEMPLOYED.
The American Flint Glass Workers' Union has not been able to
limit the number of apprentices so effectually as has the union of
window-glass workers. As a result, there is usually an overabun-
dance of skilled men, except during exceptionally good seasons. A
considerable proportion of the membership was unemployed for sev-
eral years prior to 1915. During the blast of 1914-15, a period when
the depression in the industry was at its worst, the number unem-
ployed was 1,075, or 11.41 per cent of the 9,420 members. During
the blast of 1915-16 only a few were idle. The number of mem-
bers in each department during the last two blasts, the number
employed at the trade, the number employed outside the trade, and
the number unemployed are shown in the following table:
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS.
311
Table 107.— Total Membership of the American Flint Glass Workers'
Union, Number Employed in and Outside the Trade, and Number Em-
ploy! i>. Blast of 1914-15.
(From report of the national secretary-treasurer, 1916.]
Departments.
Total member-
ship.
1014-ir. 1915-16
Employed at
roioyi
trad i
1911-ir. 1915-16
Employed out-
rnemployed.
1914-15 1915-16 1911-15 1915-16
Press
Cuttinc
Chimney
Punch and stem.
Bulb
Mold making
Paste mold
Caster place
Iron mold
Shade and globe .
Machine press
Insulator
Engraving
Stopper grinding.
White liners
Lamp workers . . .
Total .
2. i in
1,620
1,271
1 . 084
648
720
452
507
345
104
137
51
49
19
10
2. 269
1.3*1
1,150
1,073
772
739
445
366
101
128
68
59
25
1 . 929
l!(M9
964
532
674
394
459
1,981
1,062
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS.
In 1878-79 there was a general strike in this branch of the industry.
In 1883-84 there was one that lasted 10 months, and in 1887-88 one
that lasted from six months in some plants to two years in others.
In 1893 the union employees were locked out by the United States
Glass Co., the largest producer in the country, and other lockouts
occurred during 1893 and the following two years. There were seri-
ous disturbances again in 1903-4. During the last few years there
have been numerous strikes and lockouts.
In his report to the annual convention of the American Flint Glass
Workers' Union held in 1916, President T. W. Rowe said:
If you estimate our condition by the ability of our opponents, and be guided ac-
cordingly, we are far more liable to secure beneficial results and avoid injudicious
trouble. We should keep in mind the history of our association and remember our
past mistakes.
We must not forget the serious trouble in which we were involved and the causes
leading to those conflicts, and we must not become intoxicated with the idea that we
have sufficient ability to demand unreasonable things and secure them without re-
sistance. * * * We should try to accomplish our desires without repeating the sad
and sacrficing experiences of the awful past, and that can only be done by exercising
the highest degree of intelligence and equity.
On June 1, 1915, there were strikes in eight plants, and the number
on strike was 625, or 15 per cent of the 9,420 members of the union in
that year. During 1915-16 employment was found for all of the
strikers.
PIECE AND TIME WORK.
The strike of 1888 involved the question of piece and time work.
The strikers bitterly resisted the piece-price system, but finally
yielded, and it went into effect and has continued until the present
time. It is now almost universal for skilled occupations.
\
312 i THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Manufacturers who were interviewed during the investigation said
that the employees would now be as unwilling as they themselves to
go back to the old system. They said that the piece-work plan is
fairest to all concerned; that it is the only system economically
sound, for it permits a man to earn according to his ability; and that
it is more satisfactory to the men, because the efficient man receives
all he can earn. Tins is a great incentive to them, and makes for
better conditions.
It is of the highest importance to the manufacturer to get the maxi-
mum production, and this can be obtained only when the men are
paid piece rate and not time rate. The piece-rate system is of very
great value to the manufacturer, because it is the only scheme of
pay which permits him to know what his product costs. By it he
knows what the skilled labor, the highest element of cost of an article,
will be before he manufactures it. Hence he is able to think intelli-
fently about his selling prices. If the men were paid so much per
ay, it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to keep accurately
the necessary records of production by which the labor cost in an
article could be determined.
HOURS OF LABOR.
The custom in tableware and lighting-goods factories is to work
two shifts daily in the shops, although some small factories some-
times work only one, and the larger ones in times of slack demand
also do this. "Where there are two shifts, the day shift works 11 shifts
a week, Monday to Saturday noon, inclusive, and the night shift
works 10 shifts a week, Monday night to Friday night, inclusive.
The day shift alternates with the night shift every week.
While there is no agreement between the manufacturers and the
union with respect to the number of shifts, it is quite likely that any
attempt to operate three shifts in a union factory would be resisted
by the workers, although they desire an 8-hour day. When the ques-
tion of an 8-hour day was discussed in the annual conference between
the manufacturers and the representatives of the union, held in 1914,
several manufacturers expressed themselves in favor of granting the
8-hour day, provided they were allowed to have three shifts. The
latter proposal was not favored by the union representatives, and the
president of the union expressed the views of the union as follows:
The members of the union are not securing steady work at the present time, and if
we adopted the 8-hour day basis and the employer insisted on three shifts, we would
produce more glass workers, more glassware, and, instead of working steady, we would
have a large army of members irregularly employed, with all the dissatisfaction that
accompanies a condition of this kind.
Manufacturers claim that shortening the working time to 8 hours
a day without three shifts would result in decreased production, and
consequently higher costs.
In the 1914 conference the union representatives stated that in
other lines of manufacturing an 8-hour day was the rule. The manu-
facturers replied that in glass factories the glass workers on day shift
worked only 11 turns, five and a half days a week, and the glass
workers on night shift only 10 turns, or five nights a week, and if the
turns were reduced to 4 hours, the day shift would work only 44 hours
a week and the night shift only 40 hours, an average of 42. The
WAGES AND LABOB CONDITIO] 3. 313
manufacturers als i stated it was unfair to urge an 8-hour day when
the men often did no1 do four hours' work in a turn. They cited
here the i ten did bheir turn's work in as short a time as an
hour and fifteen minutes, and from that on up to four hours. After
much debate and discussion, the conference agreed on the following
proposition:
Four and one-quarter hours shall constitute a turn's work in ;ill glass-working de-
partments now world] imited system of production, excepting the m
department, this to become effective January I. L915. Fifty hours shall coi
week's work in the cutting department, this to becon ■ October 1, 1914, with
the understanding thai the 50 hours can be worked on 50 hours' pay.
Union glass workers on a limited system, that is where the number
of articles produced is limited by union rules, work from four and a
quarter to four and a half hours per turn in the different departments.
THE ''MOVE" SYSTEM.
The price list that is agreed upon yearly by the union and the
manufacturers contains the wages per turn or the piece prices of the
skilled workers, and also the number of articles which it is expected
that each of the workers in certain departments shall make during
a turn. The number is called a "move," and for an article that can
be made quickly is larger than that for an article which requires
more time in production.
Formerly there was a limited turn system on all ware, under which
the worker was nor allowed to make during a turn articles in excess
of the number prescribed by the move. He was, however, paid the
union scale rate per turn, whether or not he reached the move.
Urged by the manufacturers, the union has abolished the move in
some branches or departments.
At present some union men work on a limited piece-price basis,
some on an unlimited piece-price basis, others on a limited turn basis,
and others on an unlimited turn basis. Each department legislates
as to its own conditions, and, independent of other departments,
makes wage agreements with manufacturers.
Under the unlimited turn system, the worker that falls below the
move receives the scale rate for a turn, but if he exceeds the move,
he is paid for the excess at the move rate. If, for instance, the move
were 300 and the wages per turn S3, the worker would be paid 1
cent for each good piece made over 300, or $4 for 400.
Manufacturers generally object to the move system, and consider
that it is economically wrong to both the manufacturer and worker
to limit the production of the latter. They say that the rule operates
to prevent them from picking the desirable men and eliminating the
poor workers. They urge the necessity of unlimited production in
order that they may meet foreign competition.
Many members of the union are opposed to the move rule, but
they are the rapid workers and are in the minority. The effect of
the rule is to increase the cost of production. Without the rule, each
factory would seek to get as large a proportion of rapid workers as
possible, and in a factory that increased its proportion of such workers
the output per individual would be larger and the number of workers
employed would be smaller. The rule results in a larger number
being employed and in equal pay, though not equal output, for all
314 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
workers. Most of the workers to whom the move applies favor its
retention because it operates to provide places for more men, and
because, without this restriction, there would be, on a full-time basis,
overproduction and the manufacturing season would be shortened.
SUMMER STOP AND HOLIDAYS.
Wages in the skilled occupations in tableware and lighting goods
factories are not so high as in window glass, but the "season" is
much longer. Most departments operate throughout the 12 months,
with no shut-downs, except for two weeks in the summer and on
certain holidays.
New Year's Day, Fourth of July, Labor Day, Memorial Day, and
Christmas are observed as holidays by union workers. In addition,
most of the departments do not work New Year's eve or Christmas
eve and night.
One of the most important considerations relating to wages is that
of overproduction. In the manufacture of tableware and lighting
foods this condition is not usually so critical as in window-glass or
ottle factories, but it exerts an important influence on wages. The
union has sought to control this condition by limiting production
through the operation of the "move."
Manufacturers have always favored operating their plants as con-
tinuously as possible. This results in a maximum product and there-
fore lower costs. The union has opposed this, on the ground that,
if the plants operated continuously, there would be an overproduction
which would result in bad business conditions. This would mean
irregular employment for labor, with all its attending hardships.
At present the summer stop is for a period of from two weeks in most
departments to four weeks in a few.
APPRENTICES AND CHILD LABOR.
The number of apprentices that the union allows in some depart-
ments is as follows: Hand press department, 2 apprentices to each
10 pots, 1 to each 15 journeymen on continuous tanks; machine press
ware department, 1 apprentice to each 10 journeymen or majority
fraction thereof each year; punch tumbler and stem ware department,
1 apprentice "shop" on offhand pulled-out stem ware in each factory;
cutting department, 1 apprentice to each 4 journeymen or majority
fraction thereof; engraving department, 1 apprentice every two
years to each shop employing 2 or more journeymen. A shop
employing 9 or more journeymen is entitled to one apprentice every
16 months but never more than three.
Child labor may be said to exist no longer in the glass industry in
the United States. Most of the States have laws which forbid the
employment of children. Very light work is required in many
occupations in which boys were formerly employed but which are
now filled by adults. When the laws went into effect manufacturers
were compelled to substitute men in the places of boys and pay
correspondingly higher wages. Manufacturers complain of the lack
of uniformity in the various State laws relating to child labor. Few
of the States have exactly the same age limit for employment, and
when two adjoining States have different laws, the manufacturer
where the age limit is highest is at a disadvantage. One manufac-
WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS. 315
hirer who was interviewed said that the worst effect of the laws
prohibiting the employment of boys was not the resulting increase
in the labor cost but tne fact that employers could not train boys in
the trade.
WOMEN EMPLOYEES.
Of the women employed in the glass industry, nearly all are
employed in establishments manufacturing tableware and lighting
goods. They are not employed in any of the blowing, pressing, or
annealing occupations.
In tableware the occupations filled in part or entirely by women
are sorting, selecting, cracking off, grinding, glazing, washing, wiping,
etching plate, etching needle, decorating, cutting, smoothing, mold
cleaning, wrapping, and packing.
In lighting goods the occupations at which women work are inspect-
ing, gauging, glazing, finishing, washing, marking for cutters, deco-
rating, mold cleaning, wrapping, cartoning, packing, and as chain
girls.
None of these occupations requires much skill, but in most of them
dexterity is essential. None of them is exceptionally taxing to the
strength. It is asserted that some of the occupations in which
women are employed in the decorating department are harmful to
health because of the fumes of acid used in decorating.
CHAPTER IX.
FEEDS OF THE INDUSTRY.
LACK OF EFFICIENCY IN MANUFACTURE AND SELLING.
CHEMISTRY.
Glass being the result of chemical reactions, it would seem that a
knowledge of chemistry would be absolutely essential to the glass
manufacturer in order that he might be enabled to produce the
finest grade of desired glass at the smallest possible cost.
The average manufacturer's chemical knowledge of the materials
that enter into the manufacture of glass is very vague and indefinite.
Exceptionally few men in the United States have carried on any
scientific investigations or experiments, and it is to be regretted that
there is such a woeful lack of chemical knowledge. It appears as if
all the energy of the glass makers in recent years has gone into the
perfecting of machinery as the one means of lowering cost. The
batch could take care of itself. That the most perfect machine is
absolutely useless with bad glass or glass of excessive cost does not
appear to have been taken into consideration. The manufacturer's
lack of chemical knowledge would, however, be harmless if chemists
were employed. In the plants visited by the agents during this
investigation, not more than one chemist was found to about every
20 plants visited; they were usually employed by only the largest
companies. Mr. R. L. Frink, one of the few men in this country who
has carried on any research work, has the following to say:
I found that glass making to-day is carried on with no regard to definite proportions
or consistent methods of operation; that it is void of any true knowledge, and is
essentially an industry based and operated upon and subservient to personal opinions
and prejudice, poisoned by legendary ideas and jealousies, and made generally un-
wholesome by lack of progressiveness or any initiative on the part of those who might,
if they would, arise from this quagmire and put themselves on a basis of scientific
fact. 1 * * *
One frequently hears the remark that a chemist or scientist is of no use in a glass
factory. This, no doubt, in a measure is true, for it is seldom, if ever, that a chemist
or scientist will be able to find a manufacturer or owner who would for a moment think
of wasting time or money in the consideration or adoption of the suggestions of such
individuals, at least not until they are confronted with a situation that legend, sorcery,
prejudice, and guesswork can not account for or overcome. 2 * * *
As a matter of fact, there are a great many so-called first-class glassmakers, and men
who are responsible for large productions and the finest quality of ware, whose knowl-
edge of the constitution of glass begins and ends the moment when the material enters
the furnace , and as a matter of fact many of them still believe that glass is composed of
sand which has been reduced to a molten state by being placed in a mixture with such
ingredients as lime, soda, potash, feldspar, fluorspar, cryolite, antimony, zinc oxide,
borax, or whatever else their batch formula may call for, and that after it has been
subjected to fire all of the ingredients with the exception of sand go up the stack. It
is only the more progressive individuals who have studied this matter, who have
benefited by research, and who have any true conception of the actual composition of
1 Transactions, American Ceramic Society, 1909, Vol. XI, p. 304. - Ibid., p. 313.
316
- T THE INDUSTRY. 317
es thai thej they, in many insfc i
true knowledge as to the properti the glass by the materials they use, and
in tad there is bul little a :tual specific knowledge available.
It i- true thai in Europe, and in rec< ntry, there I
considerable progress in the making of certain glasses for -j ial. purposes
owe much to Guignand, Bontemps, Schott, Eovestadt, Harcouxt, and others, who
having contributed greatly to our knowledge of the composition and making of optical
lanufactured in closed pots, or under conditions whereby perfect control
could be had of the atmospheric, melting, and temperature conditions. But there
has been little or nothing done, in a practical way at least, to give us specific informa-
tion as to the erfe fe of the chemical constitti when the same is made in
tank furnaces, in open pots, or under varying tire conditions, or how they affect our
various processes 01 manufacture. 1
The lack of research and experimental work lias been generally
attributed to the expensiveness of carrying on such work, which
being impossible of satisfactory performance in a laboratory, re-
quires costly furnaces and equipment. Mr. Frink offers the follow-
ing solution:
What the glass industry needs and mi ome much more than
a school of conjecture is "a Wedgewood or a Schott, assisted by a society of research,
which shall have a backing and be subsidized by the Government or by every manu-
facturer in the business. 2
MACHINERY.
Though much time, money, and energy have been expended in
inventing, perfecting, and introducing machinery and mechanical
ss that do away with skilled hand labor and lower the cost of
production, glass manufacturers, as a rule, have been very lax in
investigating the merits of such labor-saving machines and devices,
with the result that every year finds many of the hand plants driven
from the business, while those who remain continue to suffer losses
resulting from competition with the machine-made product.
In addition to higher costs, hand plants continue to be confronted
by the serious boy problem. Low wages, limited opportunity for
advancement, and especially the high age-limit laws in effect in many
States, have curtailed the supply of young men and women who do
the unskilled work around a glasshouse.
The future success of the glass industry and of the individual who
desires to remain a glass manufacturer depends to a very great
extent upon the adoption and continued use of machinery and labor-
saving devices.
BUILDINGS.
Glasshouses are generally antiquated. They are usuallj*
structures put up in the formative period of the industry and have
outlived their usefulness. Very few plants are constructed on the
plan of a modern scientifically laid-out factory. As the business
expanded another building, and then another, was added without
any idea as to how it would affect the entire plant as a unit. An
agent of the Bureau has witnessed, in one of the largest bottle plants,
coal and material unloaded from a freight car, loaded on trucks and
carted a distance of about three-eighths of a mile to their respective
storehouses. Inside many factories the same slipshod, haphazard
i It. L. Frink: The Relation of Chemistry and Mechanical Manipulation to the Evolution of the Glass
Industry. Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering. Nov. 1, 1915.
2 Transactions, American Ceramic Society, 1909, Vol. XI, p. 316.
318 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
arrangement prevails, decreasing and delaying production and in-
creasing cost.
It is to be noted, however, that many of the larger plants, espe-
cially those erected in very recent years, are substantial buildings and
are arranged with the idea of facilitating and increasing production.
It seems that cost does not generally enter into the determination
of the selling price of glass f but the price appears to be set at what
the other fellow is selling or appears to be selling it for. Buyers have
played off salesman against salesman and machine manufacturer
against hand manufacturer with such great success that costs, even
when vaguely known, have been thrown to the winds. This selling
at the other fellow's price, or supposed price, is based on the erroneous
assumption that the price-setting manufacturer has a correct cost and
that the other manufacturer is equally efficient. The curbing of
mutual distrust and the adoption of a uniform cost system will cor-
rect the selling conditions above described.
OTHER DESIRABLE IMPROVEMENTS.
There is a great need for improvement in the factory buildings so
that the present excessive insurance rates may be materially reduced.
There is need for manufacturers to get into their factories and really
learn the glass business, instead of concentrating on the selling and
administrative ends of the business. The chemistry of glass must be
thoroughly learned, and research and experimental work entered into
and continued.
It is a matter of conjecture as to whether there are at the present
time any glassmen who can consistently predict the homogeneity,
chemical composition, physical properties, and color, of the finished
glass. It is essential that knowledge be obtained of the chemical
reactions, the constitution of the glass, its physical properties when
in a finished state, the cause and effect existing within the melting
mass, the furnace and fire conditions, and the requisite properties
of the glass to obtain the maximum efficiency in subsequent proc-
esses so as to produce a finished article of maximum quality at
minimum cost.
There is in addition very urgent need for much practical and
scientific research in order to eliminate poor and variable fuel condi-
tions, bad tank blocks, inferior bricks, improperly made pots and
molds, expensive breakage resulting from imperfect annealing, ware
with imperfect surfaces produced by the chemical effects of the
packing materials, and breakage due to the character of the packing
materials, all of which result in the unnecessary loss of thousands of
dollars annually.
Advantage should be taken of all labor-saving devices ; antiquated
machinery should be scrapped and hand methods, where possible,
discarded in favor of machinery. Plants should be properly laid
out and routing systems installed. Hand operations should be
standardized ; the workers should not be permitted to shift about for
themselves but should be drilled in the proper method of performing
their work. Old methods, retained because they resulted in a profit
NEEDS OF Tin: [NDUSTBY. 319
in by-gone days, musl be discontinued. Accounting methods must
be improved and modern system- installed. The installation of a
uniform cost-finding system for the various branches, bo that manu-
facturers can, exclusive of their degree of efficiency, intelligently
compete on equal term-, is of the most vital importance.
From conversation with numerous manufacturers, it is apparent
that mosl glass manufacturers are distrustful of every other manu-
facturer. This spirit should be suppressed. • Manufacturers -liould
exchange ideas and cooperate in every possible way. A real spirit
of friendliness and good will could not but work to the advantage of
every manufacturer in the trade.
METHODS OF COMPUTING COSTS.
The object of conducting business is to secure profits. Nothing
that relates to manufacturing is of more importance than ''costing. -7
Efficiency rules may be applied in an excellently equipped factory,
but, unless the proprietor has an adequate cost-finding system, lie
is liable to suffer financial loss. If he does not know with a close
degree of accuracy what the different articles he manufactures have
cost and at what prices he can afford to sell them, he is not in a
position to meet competition intelligently, and he invites business
disaster. Even if a manufacturer is satisfied with the yearly profit
which his annual profit and loss statement shows, he should know
on which particular products he is making the most profit and on
which he is making only a narrow margin of profit or losing money.
Intelligent cost accounting would enable him to distinguish between
the profits on different products, to discontinue the manufacture of
products sold at a loss, to limit the sales of products sold at a small
margin of profit, and to give more attention to the manufacture
and marketing of products on which the largest profits are realized.
RUINOUS PRICE CUTTING CAUSED BY CRUDE COST FINDING.
Trying to fix prices without knowledge of costs leads- to ruinous
competition. The manufacturer that sells goods at a loss, or at no
adequate profit, because he does not keep his books properly and does
not know whether he is making a profit, tends to force his competi-
tors into a like situation. Price cutting is nearly always done in
ignorance of costs, and comparatively little of it would be practiced
in any industry if adequate cost finding generally prevailed. This
investigation has shown that many manufacturers of glass or glass-
ware have either no method of cost finding or crude and inadequate
methods. Only very recently have a few glass manufacturers em-
ployed cost accountants to study their methods of production and
to prepare suitable systems of cost findings. Probably not over 1
in 20 has employed experts to establish cost-keeping systems.
The accounting methods in vogue in many glass establishments
are not modern. All the expenses for the year often appear in a
very few accounts, and all sorts of expenses that have no connection
are thrown together and included in the same account. It is im-
possible, without a lengthy analysis of such crude accounts, to secure
much of the information with which a manufacturer ought to be
familiar. The accounting is frequently such that it would be of
320 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
no aid in the keeping of a cost system if the installation of such a
system were contemplated.
As to cost finding, with the exception of a few excellent systems
fomid in some of the larger establishments, it may be stated that
an accurate knowledge of cost of production is, generally speaking,
unknown in the glass industry. Many establishments, including
some of the larger ones, admitted that they made no attempt at
arriving at accurate costs. Of the 213 establishments that furnished
schedules for, this investigation, only 20 reported that they kept a
record of recovered cullet which would indicate the cost to be added
for defective and imperfect ware.
A cost-fin dmg system would not only show actual cost but would
serve as a guide or indicator as to where the cost of labor, material,
or overhead could be lowered. The absence of such a system,
resulting as it does in not knowing the cost of the ware produced,
leads not only to inefficiency and waste but also to the unfair, too
keen, ruinous competition of which manufacturers complain so bit-
terly. The most crying need of the glass industry at the present
time is a simple, accurate, inexpensive, uniform cost-finding system
to be employed by every manufacturer. Only with the introduc-
tion of such a system can the industry be made stable and really
competitive.
Generally speaking, only the larger glass manufacturing companies
have made any effort to improve their costing methods. Cost
accounting is, however, especially important for manufacturers with
small or comparatively small capital, in order that they may meet
the severe^ competition of those who manufacture on an extensive
scale and whose manufacturing and accounting departments are well
organized. It is not infrequently the case that the market for several
lines of glassware has been demoralized by price cutting, started by
small manufacturers, a contest in which they could less afford to
indulge than could their big competitors.
Many glass manufacturers express the opinion that it is impossible
to devise an accurate method of rinding the costs of units in this
industry. This, however, is erroneous. It is more difficult to ascer 7
tain correctly the costs in manufacturing glass than in some other
industries, but some companies have adopted accurate methods.
Some manufacturers, while admitting that accurate cost-finding
systems can be devised, raise the objection that the operation of such
systems would be very expensive. This also is a mistake, as has
been proven in both large and small factories where scientific systems
have been installed.
ADVANTAGES OF MODERN COST KEEPING.
There is perhaps no industry in which a good cost-keeping system
is more needed than in glass manufacturing. Not only have American
glass manufacturers had to meet sharp foreign competition in several
lines, but there is probably no industry that has suffered more from
" cutthroat" competition among the domestic manufacturers. Fur-
thermore, the introduction of and improvements in machinery have
made radical changes in the methods of manufacturing glass and
glassware during recent years. Hand manufacturers have struggled
NEEDS OF THE INDUSTRY. 321
desperately against the competition of those using machine-, and
often the market was demoralized in consequence.
While papers showing the importance of correct cost keeping have
been read before meetings of glass manufacturers' associations, none
of these associations has approved any cost-finding system. If an
association would appoint a committee to work out some standard
scheme for computing unit costs for each branch of the industry and
would recommend an approved scheme, most of the members would
probably adopt it and much ruinous competition would be avoided.
An article on the importance of computing costs of units of pro-
duction in the glass industry from systematically kept records,
written by Mr. John T. Fuller, an efficiency engineer, is quoted in
part as follows :
Only a few rears ago the selling price of most articles in glassware showed a sufficient
margin of profit to enable the manufacturer to disregard costs. Under these conditions
the management could concentrate his energies on the sales end of the business, and
feel fairlv well satisfied with his profit and loss statement at the end of the year.
Several disturbing elements, however, have crept in during the past few years to
change these conditions, and the manufacturer who has not been able to analyze the
situation and provide a remedv has had to face a great reduction in profit. A careful
analysis has shown that the principal causes for this change are improved machinery
and equipment, increased labor costs, keen competition, and increased cost of raw
materials.
Such improvements as the automatic presses, flowing devices, automatic leers, etc.,
have greatly increased the production per dollar invested, and likewise reduced the
cost per article. In order to market this increased production, it was thought neces-
sarv to reduce the selling price. Competitors found it necessary to meet this condi-
tion by a still greater cut in prices. These cuts, for the most part, were based on
the competitor's selling price and not on the manufacturer's cost. The result has
been a demoralized market.
Working adversely to this condition, labor cost has been continually increasing.
Labor unions, increased cost of living, general prosperity, and shortage of labor are
responsible for higher wages. This" condition in itself, however, should not be
objectionable. It is a well-known psychological principle that a manufacturer can
obtain greater efficiencv and larger production per man by making it possible for a
man to increase his earnings as a result.
Statistics show that the amount of glassware put on the market has been continually
increasing. Despite the greater demand, this condition has created a stronger fight
for the business and likewise a closer selling price.
As labor enters largely into the cost of raw materials, the increased labor cost has
affected the price of the material. In addition to this, the demand has been greater,
therebv resulting in a very noticeable increase in the price of the material.
A careful analysis of these conditions brings out the fact that the whole situation is
based on the cost of the product. Improved equipment reduced the cost and enabled
the manufacturer to reduce the selling price and still retain about the same margin
of profit. A little later increased cost of labor, and still later increased cost of raw
material, was brought to bear, with the result that the margin of profit was greatly
reduced.
All managers who are using systematic methods in figuring their costs and profits
are of the opinion that the glass industry as a whole would be greatly benefited if all
firms had an accurate knowledge of their costs.
THE PER-POUND METHOD.
One of the common, methods of computing costs on different units
of bottles and blown and pressed ware is to divide all expenses
for the year, except for skilled labor, by the number of pounds of
finished glass produced during the year, to multiply the quotient
by the weight of a dozen or gross of each unit manufactured, and to
add to this product the amount paid per dozen or gross for skilled
102511°— 17 21
322 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
labor, which is paid on a piece-price basis. This method, called the
per pound method, is very inaccurate, because more fuel and labor
are required to make a certain weight of small articles than the same
weight of larger articles. As a light-weight article when finished
may cost more and be of greater value than one which is heavier, a
larger overhead should not be apportioned to the heavier one solely
on account of its weight. If, for instance, the metal or molten glass
is drawn from pots, it is obvious that a longer time will be required
to empty a pot from which glass for small ware was drawn than to
empty a pot from which glass for large ware was taken. In some
cases it would take twice as long and the fuel and labor would be
twice as much in one case as in the other. Moreover, the cost for
fuel and labor to produce an equal weight of glassware would be
twice as much in some cases as in others, whether the glass were
drawn from pots or from ring holes in continuous tanks.
THE SHOP-HOUR SYSTEM.
A more accurate method of computing the cost of units in the
manufacture of bottles and of blown and pressed ware is the shop-
hour system, which provides for apportioning expense to each
unit according to the time required for producing it in the blowing
or pressing room, as compared with the time required for the total
production in each of these rooms. Only the indirect labor, fuel,
and general expense are thus apportioned. Each unit is charged
for all specific costs, such as the shop labor or direct labor, which is
usually paid for at piece rates.
Both the per pound system and the shop-hour system are explained
in an article by Mr. Robert G. Armstrong, read before the Eastern
Glass Vial and Bottle Manufacturers' Association at its annual
meeting in 1913. Most of this article is here quoted:
The Cost System in a Bottle Factory.
general suggestions.
In the good old days, when demand was more than equal to the supply, bottle
manufacturers easily sold then output at their own prices. Profits were large and
everybody was happy — especially the manufacturers. Scientific management and
cost-system accounting were unknown because their necessity was not yet felt.
But the good old days are past. Now we have factories enough to produce five
bottles where four are needed. A species of ruinous, unintelligent, beat-the-other-
fellow's-price competition has set in and sent many a good company to financial ruin.
Those who have survived, realizing that something must be done, have spent
their energies on the physical features of then- factories, and wonders have been
performed in installing furnaces and leers scientifically constructed to produce the
most possible and best possible glass at the least possible outlay for fuel. Labor-
saving devices of all kinds have been installed. Division of labor has been scientific-
ally applied. In short, many of our factories are highly effective from a manufactur-
ing standpoint. But, unfortunately, many of them are yet without the one thing
absolutely essential to continuous success — an accurate but usable cost system.
What is the. use in scientifically equipping and operating your factory if you do not
know what your product costs you? In comparison, the newsboy or peanut vender
on the street is a business expert. They know then costs and sell at a profit or not at
all.
The history of too many bottle manufacturing companies has been written in two
chapters: Chapter I. Without knowing costs, met or undersold competition. Chap-
ter II. Failure. In manv cases the failure could have been avoided by a proper analy-
sis of all the elements of costs, and by applying the remedy found to be necessary.
NEEDS OF THE INDUSTBY. 323
is but little use, liowever, in installing a cost system unless you determine
to make any and all changes shown to be necessary. Ynu may find il necessary to
drop a foreman or some workmen whom you had counted upon because ynu discover
thai they arc nol now efficient. Ymi may di lur'dismay thai i1 is costing
ynu more to deliver wan' to your "best" customer than be is paying for it. You may
discover thai certain classes of ware are costing you more and others less than you
had estimated. It will require -nine backbone to correcl all these things, bul the cor-
rection of such faults, discovered tlirough the application of a cosl system, has turned
the tide oi f irtune for hundreds of manufacturers from failure to succ
Some have hesitated in install a cost system, believing thai ii isnol possible to devise
a system accuratelj determining the costs of each differenl style and size of bottle.
Thai is a mistake. A system producing accurate results can be applied to any line
of manufacture. It has Ween done in the bo1 tie business.
Some have hesitated because they lacked confidence in expert accountants. That,
too, is a mistake. Them are scores of men, any one of whom is an expert in such
malic;-, wlm will give you a system built to your business that will show the costs
and profits of cadi departmenl of a factory and of each individual gross of bottles
made. This sen ice will be conscientiously performed and is invaluable.
Some have hesitated because of the first cost. No one would hesitate to spend
$500 if assured it would bring in $1,000. In the ordinary bottle factory, without a
competent cosl system, ihe chances are ten to one that the results would be much
more favorable than this, and they would be perpetual.
Some have hesitated on account of the expense of operating the cost system. Let us
supp >se thai in a 24-ring factory it will require all the time of one additional clerk at
$18 a week -$900 a year. If the work is thoroughly done and the findings properly
taken advantage of the result should cause an average additional profit of at least
1 cenl a gross on the output, Such a factory should produce at least 300.000 gross of
bottles in 10 months, showing a resulting net profit of $2,100. But these figures are
very conservative in comparison with some actual results produced.
ADVANTAGES GAINED BY USE OF COST SYSTEM.
Briefly stated, some of the advantages of an accurate knowledge of costs, are these:
(1) The exact cost to deliver any 1 gross, or larger quantity of ware, may be abso-
lutely known.
(2) Unprofitable bottles and orders are determined and may be dropped or the
prices advanced to.the point of a fair profit, The profitable bottles will be determined
and sought more diligently.
(3) The exact result of any increase in the cost of labor or material will be auto-
matically shown.
(4) The cost to manufacture any bottle in any quantity may be predetermined
with dependable accuracy.
(5) Sales prices may be based on costs, and you will know just how low you can
safely no.
(i I . nintelligent competition may be eliminated.
(7) Each bottle is made to bear its own burden of high cost resulting from slow pro-
duction, day work, or heavy loss due to some peculiarity of the ware. It is clearly
unfair to impose part of the expense of making a difficult bottle upon others more
easily made.
THE PER HOUND SYSTEM.
The method best known for computing costs is the "per pound' - system. This
is a dangerous and illogical system. One illustration will serve to prove this.
Assume that shop No. 1 is working on 2-ounce round prescription bottles at 2-ounre
weight. Production 15 gross a dav: S10 pounds at *0.03f;5S,« S2<U>3; blowing 15 trross
at 58 cents, $26.10; 45 gross cost, $55.73; 1 gross cost, $1,238.
Assume that shop No. 2 is working on three-fourths-ounce colognes at 2-ounce weight,
Production 33 gross a day: 504 pounds at $0.03658, $21 .73: blowing 33 gross at 65 cents.
$21.45; 33 gross cost, §43.18; 1 gross cost, $1,308, or 7 cents more than the 2-ounce
round prescription bottles, and that represents exactly the difference in the blowing
list.
But we have four boys working in No. I shop at an average of SI. 12^ per day, or
$4.50. Divide by 45 gross, and we find the cost per gross for boy labor to be $0.10.
a In a letter to the bureau Mr. Armstrong explains that $0.03(558 was the figure used by a competitor in
determining the cost of a gross of bottles of this size, and "was supposed to include all the costs going into
the manufacture of bottles except certain specific costs, such as the blowing scale, sales commission, and
possibly freight."
324 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
In the case of the colognes, the 33 gross also cost $4.50 for boy labor, or $0.1363 a gross,
a difference of $0.0363 in the item of boy labor alone, not taken care of by the per
pound method.
There are several other items of expense in the cost of those bottles which are
affected in the same manner, thus increasing the inaccuracy. Further, experience
has shown that two shops working side by side on the same bottle will vary, consider-
ably in their output. Also that a given shop working on the same bottle will vary
for one reason or another— an old mold, a new boy, or other similar cause. All these
variations directly affect the costs per gross, but the per pound system does not provide
for such variation.
Go back to the boy wages, $4.50. It matters not what the weight per gross of the
bottles they are making may be, whether 2-ounce, 4-ounce, 8-ounce, or more, or
whether the production is 50 gross or 35 gross or 20 gross per day — their wages are the
same, $4.50. _ So that this expense bears no fixed relation to the weight of the bottles
or the quantity produced, but it has a fixed relation to the time consumed in making
the ware. Therefore the expense, $4.50, should be applied to each gross produced
during the day in the proportion of 1 gross to the total production. For example, if
10 gross are produced each gross costs 45 cents for shop boys. If 45 gross were produced
each gross costs 10 cents for shop boys.
Take gas: Assume that gas for an 8-ring furnace costs $32 a day, $4 a day for each
ring hole. It will cost practically $4 a day for each ring hole no matter what size ware
is being produced or how many gross are being turned out. If it is large ware, much
gas must be used to thoroughly melt and cook the glass. If small ware, much gas
must be used to keep the glass hot. So the size of ware produced makes but little
difference in the daily cost for each shop.
Suppose the shop is working two turns on a 2-ounce weight bottle and producing 85
gross a day, or $0,047 a gross for gas. Suppose again the shop is on a 2-ounce weight
bottle more difficult to make and the production for two turns is 65 gross, then the cost
for each gross for gas is $0.0615, an actual increase in cost of $0.0145 not discovered by
the pound system, because the two bottles being of the same weight are charged
with the same burden of expense.
The same illustration can be given of bottles of any weight and we are led to the
conclusion that the cost of gas bears no direct relation to the weight or the size of the
bottles being produced, but that it has a direct bearing on the time consumed and
should be applied pro rata on the number of gross produced dming any cost period.
We might consume an hour illustrating the inaccuracies resulting from applying
all the different sorts of expense items, according to the weight of the bottles, but it is
unnecessary, as precisely the same principle applies to all such expense items as
batch mixing, furnace tending, gas, shop boys, peanut roasting, leer expense, packing,
shipping, interest, repairs, and depreciation. In short nothing should be figured by
the pound except the single item of melted glass, the net cost per pound of which
should be ascertained, and" each gross of bottles charged according to its weight.
It would appear from the foregoing that some other method of determining costs
than the per pound system must be adopted to arrive at correct figures. One such
method is the shop-hour system.
THE SHOl'-HOUR SYSTEM.
The object of this system is to include every item of expense, manufacturing costs,
interest, depreciation, and maintenance, and to apply to each gross of bottles produced
the exact proportions of these costs that belong to it. If this is done, we must admit
that the resulting figures will be accurate and may safely be used as a basis for estab-
lishing selling prices.
The shop-hour system recognizes two principal classes of bottle costs, viz, specific
costs and nonspecific costs.
Specific costs. — The method of handling these is very simple. They consist of the
following items: Glass, blowing, mold depreciation, boxes, and packing paper.
At the close of business each month the total production in gross of each kind of
bottle made is ascertained. The production of each bottle is charged with the num-
ber of gross times the blowing rate.
An account is kept with each mold. Experience will soon determine what portion
of the original cost of a mold is depreciated by each 100 gross of bottles produced.
Based on this known rate of depreciation, the production of each bottle is charged
with the proper amount of mold depreciation.
The box-cost system determines the cost of each box produced. These per box
costs are multiplied by the number of boxes required to pack each kind of bottle, and
the resulting figures added to the total costs for each bottle produced.
NEEDS OF THE INDUSTRY. 325
Light a difference in the amounts of paper required per case to pack the
different sizes thai we assume all to cost the same p »t case. I (, i this basis the total
costs of each bottle produced are charged with the proper amounl for packing paper.
By a method to be explained later, the exact raw materials cosl of melted glass per
pound is determined. The total cost of each bottle produced is charged with the cost
pi glass used.
To ascertain the cost per gross of any bottle, add these live items to the total shop-hour
cost for that bottle and divide by the number of gross produced.
Shop-hour costs. — This is a little more complicated, but easily enough handled.
Some period of time must be adopted as the unit. The hour being short and answering
all the requirements, is being used.
Shop-hour costs are based on three principles, or theories, as follows: (o) A 1 manu-
facturing costs except the specific costs should be calculated on the basis of time;
(6) all costs, including manufacturing costs while operating, costs incurred by reason
of a shop or shops being idle from time to time, and costs accruing during shut-down
periods must be applied to the total number of productive hours; (c) each ring hole
or shop must be charged with exactly the same amount of costs in the ratio of its pro-
ductive hours, without regard to the size or quantity of ware it is producing.
The hoar. — At the close of each month the total number of gross of each bottle pro-
duced during the period, and the actual hours employed in making each, is ascer-
tained. The total number of hours by the same process is subdivided into hours on
handmade, or machine-made, or pressed stoppers, or in making amber, etc.
The process is this: Shop No. 1, handmade ware, works 9 hours (shop hours they
are called) on April 1. The record of their day's work is made to show this. A similar
record is made for every shop for each day of the month, and at the end of the month
it is merely a matter of addition to ascertain the aggregate number of shop hours em-
ployed on each class of ware by all the shops. Suppose the records indicate 2,500
shop hours on handmade ware for the month and a total shop-hour cost of $3,750; this
equals $1.50 to be charged to the production of each shop for every hour they have
worked during the period. The same process is followed for machine ware, or amber
ware, or blue ware, or any other subdivision desired.
This will serve to illustrate the shop-hour cost in practice: Assume the rate to be
$1.50 per hour. If a shop produces bottles at the rate of 3 gross per hour each gross
will have cost 50 cents, which represents the burden for all manufacturing costs except
the five items of specific costs mentioned in a previous chapter. If the production is
4 gross per hour the shop-hour cost of each is 37J cents; or, if 5 gross per hour, the cost
for each is 30 cents, etc.
Cost per pound of melted glass. — By means of forms specially prepared for the work,
the weight and cost of each material that goes into the glass is ascertained and tabu-
lated. These give the total weights of raw materials and their cost. The production
record which shows the number of gross of each bottle made also shows the total num-
ber of pounds of glass used. The difference between these two total weights repre-
sents the shrinkage in melting. The total pounds produced divided into the total
cost indicates the actual cost per pound of melted glass for raw materials, and this is
the only item of the costs that should be applied at so much per pound.
In addition to manufacturing costs there are merchandising costs, consisting of office
expense, sales expense and commissions, cash discounts, and officers' salaries. These
added together produce the total of general expense, which is added to the manufac-
turing cost on a percentage basis.
At the end of a month the records may show that 1,000 gross of 2-ounce round pre-
scription bottles have been produced. The cost to make, sell, deliver, and collect for
them is determined by adding together the various sums produced by multiplying
1,000 by the following items: The blowing rate, the mold depreciation, the box cost
per gross, packing paper, and glass, and the number of shop hours times the shop-hour
rate at $1.50. The sum being divided by 1,000, produces the manufacturing cost of
each gross, which we will say is $1.10. To this we add the merchandising expenses at,
say, 5 per cent, the freight at what it actually is — say 4^ cents a gross — and the sales-
man's commissions, all of which show a cost of $1 .27 the gross. If 5 per cent prot't is
satisfactory, the sale price must be $1,334 the gross.
Undor the met hod explained by Mr. Armstrong, the cost of the raw
materials only is charged to each unit on the pound basis. Specific
costs — for blowing, mold depreciation, boxes, and packing paper — are
charged according to the actual cost for each unit. All other costs,
including fuel, general labor, and general expense of till kinds, are
apportioned on the shop-hour basis. Some accountants are in favor
326 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
of including the fuel cost with the cost of raw materials to ascertain
the cost per pound of material used.
This system of apportioning costs that are not direct to the different
units may be applied to tableware and lighting goods as well as to
bottles.
The cost of leering depends on the size of the article, the length of
time necessary to anneal it properly, and the temperature required.
The labor cost of grinding, ornamenting, inspecting, wrapping, and
packing may be charged to each unit according to the time actually
spent on it. The selling expense may be apportioned on the total cost
of the unit, according to the ratio between the total selling expense
and the total cost of the factory product during a certain period.
OVERHEAD EXPENSE IN MAILING WINDOW GLASS.
Where both single and double strength window glass is made, the
cost of the metal, or molten glass, should be separately figured, as the
relative weights are about as 5 to 8. Window class is made in several
grades, called double A, A, B, and C, double A being the best grade,
and is cut into panes of different sizes called brackets. The cutters
cut the glass sheets to the best advantage, and get as much of the
better grades and larger brackets as possible.
In manufacturing window glass the skilled labor consists of gather-
ing, blowing, flattening, and cutting in the case of hand-blown glass,
and of flattening and cutting in the case of machine-made glass. The
piece prices paid per 100 square feet cut vary under union rules ac-
cording to thickness, being higher for double strength than for single
strength, and also according to grades and brackets, being higher for
the better grades and for the larger brackets. This skilled labor can,
therefore, be easily charged directly to the cost of 100 square feet of
each bracket of each grade, single or double strength.
The expense for metal being computed separately for single and
double strength glass and the expense for skilled labor being computed
separately for each bracket of each grade, single or double strength,
the other expense of manufacture, including the burden or overhead,
may be apportioned by dividing this expense by the total number of
100 feet produced, irrespective of thickness, quality, or size of bracket.
Other methods of distributing the burden might be adopted. For
instance, the cost of the unskilled labor on a unit might be allocated in
the proportion of the cost of the skilled labor, which is paid for at piece
prices, according to the various brackets and grades; or the prime-
cost method might be used, by which the burden is distributed on the
basis of the total cost of skilled labor and material of each unit. The
effect of either of these methods, the latter to a greater extent than the
former, would be to increase the burden on the larger brackets and
better grade, and decrease it on the small brackets and lower grade.
This is theoretically desirable, and the cost of the small brackets and
lower grades, as apportioned by either of these methods, would be less.
Consequently there would be less complaint from manufacturers that
they had to sell the small brackets and lower grades at a loss; but by
either of these methods of apportionment more burden would be dis-
tributed to the larger brackets than is done under the present practice.
Manufacturers could not sell their larger brackets without reducing
their margin of profit if they should apportion overhead by the prime-
NEEDS OF THE INDUSTRY. 327
<-(»t method; they would be unable lo compete with manufacturers
>portion the burden according to the prevailing practice. It is,
however, on the larger brackets that manufacturers at present make
their largest percentage of profit. It would probably be tound that it
would be very difficult practically for a manufacl urer to use the prime-
lethod unless most of his competitors also should adopt it.
PREDETERMINED COSTS.
An article by Mr. Herbert B. Garwood shows that whether a factory
is operated efficiently or inefficiently can not be decided without a
study of predetermined costs and comparing them with the actual
costs, as shown by the factory's records. Such a comparison will show
in what departments of the factory there is preventable waste. He
suggests that manufacturers, acting together, should publish the re-
sults of a study of their predetermined costs for the benefit of them-
selves as well as of their uninformed competitors. He says that this
accurate knowledge of the lowest costs that have been obtained would
result in the elimination of preventable waste and in a decrease of
price cutting. Such data, if aeeessible to all manufacturers, would,
m his opinion, cause them to fix selling prices with much greater uni-
formity than has been customary. His article, quoted below, was
read before the members of the Glass Bottle Manufacturers' Club at a
meeting held in New York City September 12, 1911:
Predetermined Costs of Manufacturing in the Hand-Blown Glass-Bottle
Business.
the modern theory of cost accounting.
The greater number of those interested in the hand-blown glass-bottle business
are agreed that the financial return on the capital invested is inadequate. As to
the cause of this inadequacy there is a wide divergence of opinion. The manufac-
turing department blames the selling department for low prices, the selling depart-
ment claims that it has to meet the prices of other manufacturers, and that the manu-
facturing department must be inefficient, otherwise they could produce at the prices
of these competitors and show a profit; and the general management blames first one
and then the other, as circumstances may be.
The true cause of inadequate returns is probably unintelligent competition plus
inefficiency in both manufacturing and selling departments, together with an excess
or deficiency of capital, due to lack of system in the general management. Admit-
ting this, is it not a matter of vital importance to manufacturers to know what their
costs should be? Not what they have been, not what thev are to-dav, but what they
theoretically should be, plus a certain percentage allowed for inefficiency and waste,
the data being obtained from a scientific analysis of the business.
Without this information, how can they tell whether they are operating under
efficient or inefficient conditions? Do they know whether they are asking a legiti-
mate profit or a legitimate profit plus a profit upon inefficiency, the latter being
manifestly wrong in principle and bound to result in disaster? Last, but not least
in importance, can they state for a certainty whether they are making or losing money,
and i f the amount made or lost is what it should have been under the conditions pre-
vailing during the period of operation?
The old and generally accepted method of cost accounting is to ascertain costs after
the work has been completed. The objections to it are that it delays information
until the information is of but little value and that it is absolutely incorrect, as it
mixes up with costs items that do not have the remotest connection with them.
As an illustration, take this incident: A shop was making 8-ounce Baltimore ovals.
About 2 o'clock in the afternoon the three blowers quit without notice and the three
boys were ordered to sweep off the tops of the leers. The time sheets had the total
wages of these boys charged to the 8-ounce Baltimore oval order, and it was so re-
corded in the office. Is such information worth the time expended upon it?
328 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The modem method of cost accounting is to ascertain costs before work is under-
taken. Then, when the job is completed and the actual figures are known, to charge
to the job the predetermined cost and to put the excess (that is, the difference between
the actual and the predetermined cost) under an account called preventable waste,
where the attention of all concerned is immediately called to it.
It will be seen at once that this substitutes for the haphazard reckoning of the old
method a scientific basis of determination. The predetermined costs are derived from
a careful ascertainment of theoretical costs with allowance for waste and inefficiency.
Predetermined costs are therefore never standardized. Any day something may
be discovered which will change the theoretical cost or alter the percentage of waste
and thus place the predetermined costs on a new level. This predetermination of
results based on scientific certainties modified by experience is of more value than
retrospective costs based on a servile record of the haphazard.
In the first place, it has its value for superintendents, salesmen, and foremen. It
has been customary to hire men for these positions and put them to work with a hand-
ful of general instructions and then blame them for whatever went wrong. Perhaps
they were told the owners of the business expected it to make a certain amount per
year and that the greatest possible production was wanted at the lowest possible
cost, and this production was to be sold at the highest price possible. Data as to
the results, step by step or unit by unit, was seldom given them; they were hired
and turned loose to work out their own salvation. In many cases their employers
knew less than they did and could not have given charts had they been asked for.
The modern method gives the men in command a chart to steer by. The greatest
possible volume of business a plant is capable of turning out in a given period of
time is first determined; a selling force to dispose of this output is then organized;
the material and labor necessary to its production is scientifically reckoned; an ap-
portionment of the overhead burden to the different stages of manufacture is made;
the required margin of profit is decided upon and standard selling prices established.
All of this information is mapped out for the guidance of the men.
As the work progresses actual costs are compared with predetermined costs. In-
efficiencies are immediately located and removed. Predetermined costs then fall to
new levels and again actual costs are compared, further elimination of waste is made;
the cycle continues indefinitely. The men know whether they are doing their work
in a satisfactory manner, not only to their employer but to themselves. The salesmen
determine their worth not from gross sales, but from net profits forecasted from pre-
determined costs. Every employer has accurate means of judging the worth of every
man in his employ. He is not dependent upon personal feeling or prejudice; he knows
what are the actual results accomplished by each man.
In addition to the help the men derive from this knowledge of what their work
should be, predetermined costs have a use and are even a necessity in forecasting the
results of business policies. Some years ago rather a high scale of prices was put into
effect by a combination consisting of the greater number of bottle manufacturers of
this country. Almost all plants operated upon a fairly efficient basis commenced to
make what would to-day be regarded as an abnormal profit.
Thereupon a number of new plants were started to take advantage of the situation.
Had predetermined costs shown that these prices were going to produce excessive
profits and the certain attraction of excessive profits to new capital been predicted,
a lower scale might possibly have been adopted, and the hand-blown glass industries
might have been saved some of the excess production which is to-day responsible for
much of the disorganizaion in the business. At the time no such thoughts occurred,
prices were fixed on the basis of what the market would stand, and in a few years
chaos reigned.
The greatest value of predetermined costs, however, lies in their comparison with
actual costs and in the knowledge thus attained of where inefficiencies and prevent-
able waste, accidents, unavoidable expenses have been found and how much they
have affected profits.
Suppose under the old method cost records contained an item called "Tending
factory No. 1 " and during different periods of a year the following charges were made:
(1) $309, (2) $315, (3) $322, (4) $385, (5) $260, (6) $340. At the end of the fourth period
the superintendent would probably have been asked to explain the high cost of $385.
He would have dissected his time book or cards and in three of four days reported that
owing to a shortage of boys he had been compelled to use packers for tending boys
and to hire a number of extra boys for the night shift at higher wages. There would
have been more or less grumbling and the matter would have passed. At the end of
the next period he would possibly have been complimented upon the good showing,
and later it might have been discovered that a page of the time book had been mislaid.
Now, assuming this occurred in a plant making nothing but beer bottles and the
NEEDS 01 j hi: industry. 329
production was exacl ade during 11
period would have c made during the fifth. W< uld the salesman
have been es pecti d to ..■• out and pel a higher price for those made at a hi) I
and would customers have been notified of a reduction in price during the following
period?
Tins question is of course ridiculous, but as it is manifestly impossible to pet a
higher price for the beer bottles made during the period of high "cost the owners of the
must li se the extra mi ; paid out for tending. Knowing they must lose it,
why wait I >r the end of the fiscal nize it'.' Why not immediately charge
it to preventable loss in the books, so that when the end of the year comes not onJ) the
• it their sources may be determined?
Take tl tation under the oev method. Superintendents, foremen, and
accountants are called in and wages lixed for tending. The number of boys to a shop
lined. Allowance is made for extra boys for emergenen •.-. W a. >• increases
during the year are forecasted, and the burden spread among the various units or shops.
ume that the predetermined cost of tending is $2.90 per shop per shift and
that for a certain period 100 shops are operated. The predetermined cost of tending
for this period is therefore $290. At the end of the period let us imagine that the
actual pay roll shows for tending $325. Turning to tending account in the ledger,
which i- ruled and headed for three columns instead of one, we post as follows: Stand-
ard cosl • citable waste, $35; actual cost, $325. When the end of the year
ad the books are closed the amount of money lost and the place it disappeared
are both known, for by the use of this system you are always losing money regardless
of what profits you may make. This seeming paradox is explained by the fact that
standard costs are always changing to new levels, so that actual costs never catch them,
preventable waste .being always present.
Let us continue to assume nothing but beer bottles are being made and the produc-
tion is still 20 gross per shop per shift. The standard cost does not vary; therefore the
standard selling price remains the same. High actual cost lost some money in a certain
period, but instead of trying to saddle it on one order or group of orders* it is spread
over the year and recognized as a penalty for inefficiency instead of a charge which
should have been made against a customer.
As Harrington Emerson expresses it: "A waiter bringing in an expensive dinner to
a guest in a hotel stumbles and crashes dinner and dishes to ruin. Shall the guest,
being put to the annoyance of waiting another half hour, be charged not only
double price lor his dinner but also for the broken dishes, or is the expense of the
accident to be charged to inefficiency, a general charge or overhead burden on all
dining-room operations, taken care of in the standardized cost of each dish, without
reference to specific accident?"
Standard prices must always be based on standard costs. Suppose in a plant making
nothing but beer bottles the actual cost for one period was $3.32 per gross while
during the next period it was $3.41 per gross. In which period would you determine
your selling price? But suppose predetermined cost was $3.24, then when the figures
came in at $3.32 and $3.41 you would have data to talk about to the factory man-
agement; and bear in mind these figures would come to you as the aggregate of hun-
dreds of separate operations, so you could immediately put your finger on the item or
items responsible for the excess and take steps to prevent its reoccurrence.
If, as many manufacturers believe, present financial returns are inadequate, either
costs are too high, selling prices too low, or both are at fault. Without a scientific pre-
determination of costs, how can it be decided where the fault lies? Is it safe either
to lower or raise selling prices? One, of course, opens the way to bankruptcy, the
other to better-informed competitors taking away business. Information as to actual
costs are for the private benefit of each manufacturer. It would be folly to ask or
expect them to be divulged in a public meeting or published in any manner. Pre-
determined costs are a matter of general interest and information to all and can be
discussed and worked over without jeopardizing the position of any manufacturer
taking part.
If this could be generally realized, there would seem to be nothing to prevent manu-
facturers taking up the study of predetermined costs together and publishing the
results, thus educating their uninformed competitors as well as themselves to the
necessity of Belling prices based on cost secured through elimination of inefficiency, plus
a reasonable margin of profit. When this is done, it will be found that a closer uni-
formity in selling prices will follow than has ever been secured through any combina-
tion heretofore in effect.
Other industries have followed this system pf educating their competitors and
themselves to a true knowledge of costs to their great benefit. One example is the
printing trade. Such a scheme is now being worked out through the Foundrymen's
330 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Association. Another is in the field of electricity. The number of failures among
small electric light plants has been vitally reduced since the inception by the Na-
tional Electric Light Association of a study of costs. The window glass manufac-
turers are now engaged in forming an association based on educational lines to study
the question of costs. There is no reason to doubt that such a study would be of tre-
mendous advantage when applied to the glass-bottle manufacturing business. Is it
not, in fact, almost a matter of vital necessity and should it not be made before any
action is taken even for the suggestion of selling prices?
DETERMINATION OF OUTPUT.
No study of predetermined costs should be undertaken without first making a care-
ful examination of the business and analyzing every step in the operations of the plant.
Manufacturing^ costs are the aggregate of the costs of hundreds of separate opera-
tions, and until each one of these is carefully studied and assayed and the results
tabulated it is manifestly impossible to attempt to forecast this aggregate. There-
fore an analysis of the glass-bottle business is necessary before attempting to take up
the question of costs. As each step in the process is shown, the cost of that step
can be determined.
This analysis discloses the fact that glass is needed to make bottles; that glass is a
mutual solution of a number of chemical substances, usually silicates, their solu-
tion being accomplished through the fusion of their mixture by heat applied in a
furnace. A furnace is a receptacle not only for making glass but from which it is
withdrawn in small units to be fabricated.
The starting point of the business is, then, the furnace. It is next learned that
no more glass can be melted in the furnace than is withdrawn by the workmen during
the process of manufacture. But the cost of this glass does not bear a direct ratio
to the tonnage produced, for heat must be kept on the furnace continuously, regard-
less of variation in amount of output. There are also certain indirect materials, indi-
rect labor, and general expenses which continue at practically a fixed amount in
spite of a wide range in tonnage output.
There is, therefore, in every plant a certain tonnage which should be manufac-
tured in order to secure the greatest possible economy in the cost of glass making.
Knowledge of the amount of tonnage possible is the first step in the study of prede-
termined costs, for without this the quantity of raw material needed can not be ascer-
tained nor the number of workmen required to manufacture bottles estimated.
Therefore we must forecast the output of a given furnace or furnaces before proceed-
ing further.
To ascertain the maximum output of a furnace, the inside dimensions of the melt-
ing pot, the area of the ports, and the cubical contents of the generators should be
known. The reason for including ports and regenerators is that if these are of insuffi-
cient size the furnace with which they are connected will not have the same melt-
ing power as a furnace with properly designed ports and generators.
In 1868 Mr. G. W. Siemens, in an address before the Chemical Society of England,
formulated his principles regarding the design of checkers, and, though many years
with their improvements have passed, the furnaces with the greatest melting power
in this country to day are those which closely follow the principles then laid down.
As a matter of interest the pith of his article is here reproduced:
"The amount of brickwork required to absorb the waste heat of a given furnace is
a matter of simple calculation. The products of the complete combustion of 1 pound
of coal have a capacity for heat equal to that of nearly 17 pounds of fire brick, and in
reversing every hour 17 pounds of regenerator brickwork at each end of the furnace
per pound of coal burned in the gas producer would be theoretically sufficient to absorb
the waste heat if the whole mass of the generator was uniformly heated at each
reversal to the full temperature of the flame and then completely cooled by the gases
coming in.
"In practice, however, by far the larger part of regenerator checker work is required
to effect the gradual cooling of the products of combustion and only a small portion
near the top, perhaps a fourth of the whole mass, is heated uniformly to the full tem-
perature of the flame, the beat of the lower portion decreasing gradually downward
nearly to the bottom. Three or four times as much brickwork is thus required in the
regenerators as is equal in capacity for heat to the products of combustion. The best
size and arrangement of the bricks is determined by the consideration of the extent
of opening required between them to give a free passage to the air and gas, and by
the rule deduced from my experiments on the action of regenerators in 1851 and
1852 a surface of 6 square feet is necessary in the regenerator to take up the heat of
the products of combustion of 1 pound of coal in an hour."
NEEDS OF THE INDUSTRY. 331
A furnace built according to tin- a able to deliver 40 per cent of its capac-
ity ever '_" hours or! and under the plan of 11 shifts ]
220 per | acity per - aot mean that 10 |
of capacity is the maximum output of the furnace. Such a statement would
true, for a fui ■ arefully handled, can <!.'li\ er 50 per cen! of capacity
d period, but it does il a1 the sacrifice of the lasting power
of the si i big chances on the quality of glass.
A basis of to p ( >r rem capacity allows a margin for temporary overloads through
: the weight of bottles being made, and is a reserve in rase of trouble with
dirty fires undoubtedly as high a figure as may safely he
given for a season's operation and is concurred in by two glass-furnace engineers
connected with coutt ems and by several managers. It is only fair to say,
r, that almosl ias a diffen n1 method of reaching this result, but if
in the end all arrive at approximately the same conclusion it may safely he assumed
irrenl practice is well represented.
The method generally used in determining the capacity of a furnace is to figure
the cubical contents of the melting pol and count 150 pounds of glass to the cubic
foot. The method of arriving at 150 pounds as the weight of a cubic foot of glass is
as follows:
A cubic fool led water weighs 62.42 pounds. The specific gravity of a
Bubstance being tin- ratio of weight between a given volume of that substance and a
like volume of distilled water, it is only necessary to ascertain the specific gravity of
glass and multiply if by '52.42 pounds. In textbooks the specific -gravity of bottle
glass is generally given at 2.60 to 2.90. Actual results with ordinary flint bottle glass
show figures much lower. An average from a plant employing a chemist who made
ea about 2.415. Multiplying this by 62.42 pounds we have 150|
pounds. For all practical purposes 150 pounds per cubic foot will suffice.
Having secured the capacity of a furnace in tons, and figuring on an output of 20
per cent of capacity per shift, or 220 per cent per week, it is a simple calculation to
tie ihe yearly output. It is next necessary to make an estimate of the waste
between ring hole and packing box and to deduct this in order to determine the
amount of packed product on which the basis of cost is established. In theory this
is incorrect. The proper method would be to determine the cost of glass based on
the output and compute the waste on each job. charge the job with the total amount
sed, and credit it with the value of the waste returned to furnace. As this
would introduce an endless amount of detail and complication the prior- method is
here used.
The question of waste between ring hole and packing box is of great importance
and is not receiving the attention it deserves in these days of large continuous tanks.
In the old pot-furnace days it was watched more strictly, as upon the care bestowed
on it depended the daj s output. A chapter could easily be filled in describing
methods used to eliminate it. Filling in at noon all the cu'llet made in the morning
so as to stretch out the afternoon T s work and throwing spoiled bottles in the back of
the riot are two illustrations.
With modern continuous furnaces, records of waste as low as 9\ per cent and as
high as 32 per cent are reported. If glass is not used for heating molds 10 per cent
would seem very inefficient; 'mi, for the purposes of this explanation 15 per cent will
be used. Therefore the packed output per week will be 220 per cent less 15 per cent
of 220. or 187 per cent of the capacity of the furnace.
To illustrate: A furnace 20 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 3 feet deep contains 600
cubic feet; 150 puunds of glass to the cubic foot makes the contents 90,000 pounds,
or 45 tons: 187 per cent output of packed glass per week is 84.15 tons, or slightly less
than 8 tons per shift. The number of working shifts in a fire or blast are next com-
puted and the annual output determined.
At this point the probable production of bottles in gross is forecasted. As pach
manufacturer is familiar with the number of ring holes and the size ware it. ha3 been
customary to make therefrom, it naturally follows that by figuring the amount of
glass packed daily by the different shops adjustments can be made in sizes to keep
this aggregate quantity i:i agrei ment with the average daily output.
332
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
To illustrate, let us take 8 tons as the predetermined output per shift:
Pounds.
2 shops, 4-ounce weight, pat-Icing 30 gross of bottles 2, 160
2 shops, 7-ounce weight, packing 25 gross of bottles 3, ioO
1 shop, 12-ounce weight, packing 20 gross of bottles 2, 160
1 shop, 16-ounce weight, packing 18 gross of bottles 2, 592
1 shop, 24-ounce weight, packing 14 gross of bottles 3, 024
I shop, 44-ounce weight, packing 8 gross of bottles 3, 168
Total 16. 254
or slightly over 8 tons per shift. These daily quantities multiplied by the number of
shifts in a blast give expected output and are a base for the establishment of a selling
organization. By furnishing this organization with a chart of required quantities,
the orders received daily may be lisied under their proper sizes so that the selling
organization has a thorough knowledge of the amount of business required at any
time during the year. If on account of the state of the market certain sizes run ahead
of predetermined quantities or behind them, manufacturing conditions can be adjusted
to suit and revised data furnished the selling organization, from which they can
work in the future.
The next step is to determine the quantities of raw materials needed to produce a
given quantity of molten glass and cost of the same, with due allowance for the losses
taking place during the operation of melting.
GENERAL ACCOUNTING CONDITIONS.
The general accounting systems of establishments in the glass
industry are, as a rule, much better than their cost keeping systems,
though this investigation disclosed that in some glass factories very
imperfect methods of bookkeeping are employed. The following table
indicates the methods of cost finding, the other accounting conditions,
and the frequency with which inventories were taken in the glass
factories^that were visited by agents of the Bureau. The classifica-
tion regarding general accounting conditions were made by the agents
and were based on their own observations.
Table 108. — Accounting Conditions in Establishments op Various Branches
op the Glass Industry.
All
I establish-
ments.
Total establishments .
Establishments having—
Good accounting records !
Fair accounting records
Poor accounting records |
Detailed unit costs I
Estimated costs
No unit costs
Establishments taking inven-
tories of—
Raw materials—
Annually
Semiannually
Quarterly
Monthly".
Perpetual inventories. . .
Finished product—
Annually
Semiannually
Quarterly
Monthly
Perpetual inventories. . .
Window
glass,
hand.
Window
glass,
machine.
90
25
25
3
7
1
22
4
79
24
30
4
III.
IV.
Wire and
Plate I opales-
glass. cent
! goods.
Bottles,
hand.
Bottles,
machine.
NKEDS OF THE INDUSTRY.
333
Table 108.— Accounting Conditions in Establishments of Various Branches
of the Glass Industry — Concluded.
Class ification.
VII.
Bottles,
hand and
machine.
VIII.
Jars.
IX.
Table-
ware,
blown.
X.
Table-
ware,
blown
and
pressed.
XI.
Lighting
goods.
XII.
Lamp
chim-
neys.
XIII.
Miscella-
neous.
27
13
8
20
18
C
13
Establishments having—
Oood accounting records
Fair accounting records
.
A
3
5
8
3
8
5
1
2
9
2
5
2
5
1
8
1
1
1
3
3
7
2
1
1
3
3
1
3
3
8
1
2
Estimated unit costs
5
1
3
3
1
3
Establishments taking inven-
tories of—
Raw materials —
Annually
Semiannually
2
3
3
2
1
2
3
1
2
G
1
3
2
5
1
1
1
1
Finished product—
Annually
Semiannually
8
5
2
6
1
3
3
7
2
3
1
5
1
1
1
In the above table all establishments maintaining accounts showing
a good separation of important items were classified under the head
of "Good accounting records"; some of these employed improved
modern methods. Those classified under "Fair accounting records"
showed too great a consolidation of important items; those under
"Poor accounting records" showed very little segregation in accounts
and in some cases also very crude methods.
Of the 213 establishments visited, 149 furnished data regarding
their general accounting records, 105 showed good accounting rec-
ords, 24 fair, and 20 poor accounting records. Many of the manu-
facturers have inaugurated systems for ascertaining unit costs, some
of which are accurate while others are merely estimates.
In the table above all establishments classified under "Detailed
unit costs" have either an accurate unit cost system or their unit
records are of such detail that but little estimating is done. Under
"Estimated unit costs" those establishments are shown whose unit
costs are either wholly or in greater part estimated. Of the 213
establishments visited, 21 reported detailed unit costs; 66 estimated,
and 32 no unit costs.
Inventories of raw materials were taken annually by 90 establish-
ments, semiannually by 25, quarterly by 7, monthly by 22, and per-
petual inventories were kept by 5 establishments. Inventories of
finished products were taken annually by 79 establishments, semi-
annually by 30, quarterly by 6, monthly by 19, and perpetual inven-
tories were kept by 9 establishments.
A large proportion of establishments in the glass industry neither
had reserves for depreciation nor charged off anything on account of
depreciation. When depreciation is not considered the manufacturer
is often under the false impression that his profits are larger than they
really are. This subject is discussed in Chapter III, page 86.
CHAPTER X.
IMPORTS AND THE TARIFF.
PRODUCTION, IMPORTS, AND EXPORTS COMPARED.
Table 109 shows the value of the production of glass and glassware
in the United States during each year, beginning with 1879, for which
data were collected by the Bureau of the Census. It also shows the
general imports, imports for consumption, and domestic exports
during each fiscal year from 1879 to 1916, inclusive.
Table 109. — Value op Production in the United States, General Imports and
Imports for Consumption, and Domestic Exports op Glass and Glassware,
and Excess op Imports over Exports.
1879.
ISSO .
1XS1 .
$21,154,571
1890.
1891.
1892.
1*9".
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903 .
1904.
1905.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913.
1914.
1915 .
1910 .
General imports.
Free. Dutiable. Total.
79,607,998
>, 00;., 203
$4,542
5, 146
19,
16,
12,
10, 741
58.
99,623
71,049
61,844
71,881
85, 794
92,628
94, 242
107,572
123,731
1.33,332
166,594
198,922
21-9,660
225.-160
INN, 614
207,9:.;
232,202
3(i'.l,866
462,884
407,976
298.362
mi ; 2::;,
520.;. ,9
630.673
495, 179
26 5.389
$3,222,479
5,221,511
5,878,025
6,634,371
7, 762, 543
7,552,498
6, 256, 194
6,338,097
7,319,895
7, 854, 725
7,713,921
7,352,513
8,364,312
8, 758, 964!
8,021,741
5,216,816
6,541,679
7,435,
5,509,626
3,675,045
4,183,828
4, 912, 482
4, 849, 163
6,013,963
7, 038, 267
6.367,585'
5, 771, 382,
7,308,323
7, 378, 140.
6,209,845
4,806,383'
6, 145, 788
6,604,498
5, S27, 391
6, 032, (.99
7, 574, 130
4, 097, 18!)
1,983,612
$3, 222, 479
5,221,511
5,878,025
6,634,371
7,762,543
7, 557, 040
6,261,340
6, 358, 085
7,336,771
7, 867, 263
7,724,662
7,411,343
8, 463, 935
8,830,013
8,083,585
5,288,697
6,627,473
7, 528, 420
5,603,868
3,782,617
4,307,559
5,045,814
5,015,757
6. 212,885
7,267,927
6,593,045
5,960,026
7,516,280
7,610,342
6,579,711
5,269.267
4, 592, 359
2,249,001
Imports for consumption.
5,133.285
5,862,270
6,753,537
7,597,897
7, 553, 185
6,340,721
6,341,058
7.
6:
20:
16,915! 7,301,340
12, —
10.
7,721,453
7,750,577
7,351,571
8,525,""
8, 881, 902
7,944,082
5,035,673
5,939,914
6,241,477
5,557,133
3,711,"
4. 160. 259
4.
4,865,478
6. 052. 260
6, 969, 959
6,404,201
5.776,661
7,344,643
7,367,742
6,175,786
4,837,747
6,210,134'
206,
870| 4, 134, 250,
266' 2,037,042
$3,281,543
5, 133, 295
5, 862, 273
6, 753, 548
7,598,276
7,560,516
6,347,417
6,361,200
7, 318, 255
7,734,025
7,761,338
7,412,983
8,627,107
8, 952, 993
8,006,969
5,107,685
6,032,064
6, 344,
5,671,332
3,826,465
4,284 —
5,038,865
5, 008, 193
6,255,"'
7, 199,
6,629,130
5,965,256
7, 552, 771
7, 600, 142
6,545,636
5,299,987
6,626,977
6.938,066
6, 208, 310
•'. '36.662
8, 219, 112
4,656,120
Domestic
exports.
Excess of
imports
for con-
sumption
over
exports.
8768,644
749, 866
756. 022
864. 23
998, 857
839, 756
783,915
773, 878
883,504
881, 62S
894, 200
882,677
868, 374
942,302
973, 827
922,072
946,381
062, 225
208. 187
211, 0S4
,503,651
936,119
,126,309
,960,106
,150
,978,481
. 252. 799
433,"-
604,717
,5(15,417
, 173, 193
,805,401
2 56.391
494. 153
193.6 12
729. 623
558.717
321,338
$2,512,899
4,383,429
5, 106, 251
5,889,313
6,599,419
6,720,760
5,563,502
5,587,322
6,434,751
6,852,397
6, 867, 138
6.530,306
7,758,733
8,010,691
7,033,142
4,185,613
5,085,683
5, 282, 773
4,463,145
2,61o,381
2,780,388
3, 102, 746
2,881,884
4, 295, 732
5,048,920
4,650,649
3,712,457
5, 118, 867
4. 995, 425
4, 040, 219
3,126,794
3,821,576
3,691,675
2, 714, 157
2, 243, 020
4, 489, 489
b 902, 597
610, 018, 030
a Production is for calendar years (data from the Bureau of the Census): imports and exports are for
fiscal years ending June 30.
b Excess of exports over imports.
334
IMPORTS AND THE TARIFF.
335
The foregoing table shows that the imports were larger during the
fiscal year 1914 than during any fiscal year from ISO:', to 1913,
inclusive. During the fiscal year L913, the last full year under the
Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act, the imports for consumption amounted to
$6,436,662; during the following fiscal year, the Underwood-Simmons
Act becoming effective on October 4. L913, they increased to
$8,219,112. Since then there has been a great decline m imports on
account of the war in Europe.
IMPORTS COMPARED WITH RATES OF DUTY.
Table 1 10 shows for the same years that appear in Table 109 the
percentage that the imports and the excess of imports for con-
sumption over domestic exports, were of the production, and the
average rate of duty on imports of all kinds of glass and glassware
computed on the ad valorem basis.
Table I L0. — Percentage of Imports for Consumption and of Excess of Imports
over Exports of Domestic Glass and Glassware, on the Basis of Produc-
pion, \\i> Computed An Valorem Rate of Duty.
age of
produc-
tion.
Excess of
imports
Computed ad valo-
rem rate of duty.
Years."
Imports,
Excess of
imports
over ex-
Computed ad valo-
rem rate of duty.
ports,
age of
produc-
tion.
Ondmi °n f ree
able ""ddutt
"■ft*- im^ts.
P a?e e of" P° rts '
tl0n - produc-
tion.
On duti-
able
imports.
On free
and duti-
able
imports.
■
15.51
Per rem. Percent.
57. 63 57. 63
IS'. IS
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
57.49
60.07
57. 60
Per cent.
1880
54. 77
54. 77
56. 23
1899
1900
7.58
4.92
1881
56. 07
1882
1883
55.05 55.05
55. 63
1902
58. 59
61. 74
61.18
57. 33
56. G8
188»
1903
59.77
1885
58. 57
58.27
61.77
62. 10
58. 40
57. i 1
54.90
62.53
58.51
58. 09
61.63
62.05
58. 32
56. 87
54.26
59. 55
63.29
68. 53
51. 80
45.32
46. 37
1904 1 8. 33
1905
5. St
1886
55.52
1887
52.25
53. 22
53. 21
54.05
53. 83
.-.:». 12
52. 20
51. 54
1888
1907
1889
18. 91
Hi. 73
1908. ..
1890
1909 5.75
1910
3.40
1891
50.45
1892
1911. .
52. 74
1893
60. 10
69.51
52. 61
46.07
47.31
1912
48. 82
1894
1913. ..
17.41
1895
1914 6. 68
3. 65
36. 70
32. 91
30.96
33.78
1896 . . .
1897
1916
27.38
" Production is for calendar year fdata from the Bureau of the Census): imports and exports are for
ending Juue30.
The imports during the fiscal year 1889 amounted to 18.91 per cent
of the production during the calendar year 1889. This was more
than twice as large as the proportion in 1899 or 1904, more than three
times as large as the proportion in 1909, and nearly three times as
large as the proportion in 1914.
In 1872 Congress enacted a measure that reduced the tariff duties
on principal commodities 10 per cent. The dates when the tariff
acts since then took effect are as follows: Mills Act, March 3, 1883;
McKinley Act, October 6, 1890; Wilson Act, August 28, 1894;
Dingley Act, July 24, 1897; Payne-Aldrich Act, August 6, 1909;
Underwood-Simmons Act, October 4, 1913.
336
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
As appears in Table 110, the rates of duty averaged highest on
dutiable glass and glassware in the fiscal year 1894. In 8 of the 38
years it was over 60 per cent. The average during the fiscal year
1913, the last full year of the Payne-Aldrich Act, was lower than it
had been since 1896 and 1897, the last two fiscal years under the
Wilson Act.
GENERAL IMPORTS.
Table 111 shows the value of general imports of all kinds of glass
and glassware during each month from January, 1908, to December,
1916.
Table 111.
-Value op General Imports of Glass and Glassware, by Months »
from January, 1909, to June, 1916, Inclusive.
amount of general imports.
Months.
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
$427, 150
375,297
472, 037
491,541
527. 297
550, 656
480, 963
505, 525
565,461
522, 605
484.645
510,672
$520, 155
458.257
662, 963
609,623
606, 1S5
626,710
635,646
736,538
644,345
606. 582
608,991
507,045
$502,576
493, 4S2
583,398
460,450
536,904
505,934
490,919
570,497
568,543
591.826
553.805
571,664
$500,297
383. 158
489,851
504,666
501,549
483, S50
546, 643
590^ 705
630.816
560; 264
512, 488
§517,405
463,947
498, 674
578,201
520,081
519, 732
598,584
594,160
676,401
715. 703
678. 704
811,148
$682,632
561,420
768.349
685', 185
708,435
711.112
751,896
508, 157
318,392
308,083
4.30, 733
429,626
$469,452
298. S?4
413, 791
226, 575
225,717
211. IP
171,254
143, 920
138,516
242.063
18L017
182,774
$180,322
193, 772
-179,854
February
198, 163
July
245,256
198.998
September
269, 566
151,257
November
December
257, 909
205, 726
Total
5,913,849
7,283,040
6,429.996
6,302,024
7,172,740
6,864,020
2,905,016
2,518,169
AMOUNT OF INCREASE ( + ) OR DECREASE (-).
January
February...
March
April
May
June
July
August
September..
October
November..
December. . .
Total.
$37,266 | +
210 +
65,330 1 +
91,873
165, 287
146,114
91,736
117,704
100,039
126,083
103,783
111,714
+ 1,082, 7S7 + 1,360. I-..!
S'. 1.3, (105
82, 960
190, 926
118,082
78, SS8
76,054
154,683
231,013
78,884
83,977
124,346
56,373
-$17,579
- 35,225
- 79,565
-149,173
- 69,281
-120,776
-144,727
-166,041
- 75,802
- 14,756
- 55,186
- $2,279
-110,324
- 93,547
+ 44,216
- 35,355
- 22,084
+ 77,808
+ 27,840
+ 22.162
+ 38,990
+ 6, 459
- 59,176
+ $17,108
+ 80,789
+ 8,823
+ 73,535
+ 18,532
+ 35,882
+ 51,941
- 4,177
+ 8'5,696
+ 84,887
+ 118,440
+ 298,660
127,372 +870,116
+S165.227
+ 97,473
+269,675
+ 106,984
+ 188,354
+ 191,380
+ 153,312
- 86,003
-358, 009
-407,620
-247,971
-3,81,522
720
$213, ISO
262, 596
354,558
458,610
482, 718
499, 999
580,642
364.237
179, S76
66, 020
249,716
246, 852
.004
-$289,130
-105,052
-223,937
- 4S,136
- 27,554
+ 47,794
+ 74,002
+ 55,078
+ 131,050
- 90.806
+ 76,892
+ 22,952
PER CENT OF INCREASE (+) OR DECREASE (-).
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Average
- 8.02
- .06
+ 16.06
+ 22.99
+45. 66
+36. 12
+ 23.57
+30. 35
+ 21.65
+31.80
+ 27.25
+ 28.00
+ 21.77
+ 22.11
+40. 45
+24. 02
+ 14.96
+ 13.81
+32.16
+45, 70
+ 13.95
+ 16.07
+ 25.66
+ 11.04
+ 22.41 I +23.15
- 3.3S
- 7.69
-12.00
-24.47
-11.43
-19.27
-22.77
-22.54
-11.76
- 2.43
- 0.
+22.
-16.
+ 9.
- 6.
- 4.
+ 15.
+ 3.42
+ 21.09
+ 1.80
+ 14.57
+ 3.69
+ 7.42
+ 9.50
- .70
+ 14.51
+ 13.46
+21.14
+ 58.28
1.3.81
+31.93
+ 21.01
+ 54.08
+ 18.50
+36.22
+36. 82
+ 25.61
-14.47
-52.93
-56.95
-36. 54
-47.03
-31.23
-46.77
-46. 14
-66. 93
-68. 14
-70.31
-77.22
-71.68
-56. 50
-21.43
-57.97
-57.46
-61.59
-35. 16
-56.53
-21.25
-12 21
+ 22.64
+43. 21
+38. 27
+94.61
-37. 51
+42.48
+ 12.56
57. (
-13.32
IMPORTS AND THF. TARIFF.
337
The foregoing table shows that, comparing each month in 1909 and
later ycar> with the corresponding month in the preceding year, there
creases during L909 after the firsl two months and during every
month in 1910. During 1911 there were decreases except in Feb-
ruary and December. During 1912 there were increases in six
month- and decreases in six months. In 1913 there were increases
except in August. The increases continued from September, 1913, to
July. 1914, inclusive. In every month beginning with August, 1914,
the month the war began in Europe, there was a decrease until June.
1916.
VA1XFE <>F IMPORTS BY CLASS OF PRODUCTS.
Table 112 shows the value of the general imports of different kinds
of glass and glassware during each month for four calendar years,
1912 to 1916.
Table 112. — Value of General Imports of Glass and Glassware, j.y ('lasses
and Months, 1912 to 1916.
■I months
• 1912,
January
February
March '
April
1914
January
February
March
April
May.
June
July
August
September
October...
November
December
61, 536-
226, 169
10, 73 1
200,364
65,S17
23$, 530
68, 161
200,527
50,767
203, 625
50,564
'JUS, (If,!)
50,217
242, 786
24,650
127,919
26,032
70, 832
21. 3S)
85,111
56,562
163,573
47,327
08'>,032
561,420
768,349
685, 185
708,435
711,112
751.J
~ M57
318,392
3)8,083
43;), 733
420,626
338
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 112. — Value of General Imports of Glass and Glassware, by Classes
and Months, 1912 to 1916— Concluded.
Years and months.
Cylinder
crown,
and
un-
polished.
polished,
un-
silvered.
Bottles,
etc., used
as con-
tainers.
Bottles, Lenses
decanters, and
and
other
optical
instru-
ments
(includ-
orna- ing spsc-
mented. tacles).
cut or
Plates,
or disks,
rough cut
or un-
wrought,
for
optical
purposes.
All
other.
1915.
January
February
March
April
M^y
June
July
August
September
October
November
December.
1916.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August ,
September
October
November
December
Summary of calendar
years:
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
Summary, fiscal
years ending June
30:
1913.-.
1914
1915
1916
32, 714
26,971
27,014
32,570
19,334
17, 798
13,296
16,238
27,746
13, 490
15,069
17,316
16,857
11,670
15,607
12, 504
19,958
61,310
21, 567
13,449
14,045
102,093
44,366
1,070,485
1, 316, 902
282, 798
350,742
977, 211
1,356,218
722, 483
197,549
$2, 124
2,115
1,476
538
1,545
160
528
4
922
104
2,350
51)11
43,330
69, 709
62, 524
45,833
65,348
50, 587
53,665
49,604
41*998
62,469
60, 104
53,047
62,927
81,087
76,275
123, 161
86,625
76,845
62, 173
59*645
65, 789
S48.429
40,294
64,862
26, 740
23,531
23, 490
16, 492
18,203
15, 192
34,556
26, 612
23, 145
23,571
22,351
23,900
25, 134
22, 146
31,481
20, 512
28,798
24, 144
18,684
30, 168
24,355
822,216
14,002
15,504
12, 803
12,333
14, 744
14,922
15^083
17,475
16,860
10, 252
9,185
26, 199
10,959
8, 642
14,242
16, 178
12,316
18,479
9,075
11,103
7,509
15, 862
45,540
74,913
14,441
34,285
24,870
28, 648
19, 782
17,093
20, 764
24,229
15,725
30, 518
21,395
20,324
22,091
25,016
19,115
16, 735
121, 152
28' 121
23, 597
5232,569
120,859
160,356
82,515
76,507
63,327
42,519
32,205
25,285
89, 854
57, 743
52,035
54,421
43,255
48, 843
27.117
50,901
42, 191
45, 274
34,224
39, 573
35,077
27,815
30, 358
8469,452
298.824
413, 791
226,575
225.717
211,113
171,254
143,920
138,516
242,063
181,017
182,774
180,322
193, 772
179,854
178,439
198, 163
258,907
245, 256
198,998
269,566
151,257
257,909
205,726
2611,568
511,058
489, 359
7,305
10, 160
321,605
727, 889
98, 171
3,553
880,304
947,807
1,064,371
657,299
865,437
S 13, 307
,148,460
sii5,403
766,592
946,602
1,178,028
768, 773
361,546
295,244
1,032,948
1,151.875
545,222
282, 783
649,956
770,811
494,987
172, 963
159,749
695, 135
721,560
312,971
166, 766
IM, 1)1)5
545,422
575, 747
387,331
357, 788
504,594
617,703
495, 179
265,389
2,152,641
2, 149, 129
2, 153, 8S1
1,035,774
479,049
2,162,403
2,468,128
1,611,840
566,369
6,302,600
7, 172, 740
6,864,020
2,905,016
2,518,169
a6,537,293
«8, 191, 833'
4,592,359
2,249,001
a These figures are the totats of preliminary monthly returns and for this reason differ slightly from
the revised annual totals in Table 113.
IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES.
Table 113 shows the general imports of the different classes of
glass and glassware from the principal countries exporting them during
the fiscal years ending June 30, 1911 to 1916, inclusive.
IMPORTS AND THE TARIFF.
339
Table 113. — Value ok General Imports op Glass a.m. Glassware into the
United States During Fiscal Years Ending J one 3U, 1911 to 1916, by Classes
AND COUNTBIE8.
Classes and countries.
Cylinder, crown, and common
window glass, unpolished:
Belgium
knee j
Germany
United Kingdom
All other countries
I..i il.
cast, polished, and
unsil'. i
Belgium
France
Germany
Netherlands
United Kingdom
All ot her countries
ri.lal.
Bottles, etc., used as con-
tainers, empty or filled:
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
France
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Spain
Sweden
I in id Kingdom
Canada
All in her countries
Total.
Bottles, decanters, and other
glass ware, cut or ornamented:
Ausiria-Hungary
Belgium
France
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Sweden
United Kingdom
Canada
Japan
All other countries
Total .
Lenses and all optical instru-
ments (including spectacles) :
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
France
Germany
United Kingdom
All other countries
Total.
$688,848
1,943
95,037
102,011
1,119
1686,455
3,731
102,593
150,772
572
?742,102 $1,050,432
5,391 3,979
118,219 , l'-
llO, 342 | 180,789
1,097 ! 0,728
$340,535
2,153
54,407
311,300
9.5(1,
977,211
730,518
37,250
100, 104
61,155
5,720
121
274,831
13,5-14
46,810
2,589
0,t89
350
202,341
32,904
24,203
450
940,924
126,115
10,877
272,205
240,358
27,780
33,54S
11,140
8,441
108,371
52,782
13,883
"11,
130,497
371
293,333
235, 100
28,644
20,133
15,238
4,820
97,319
61,282
20,785
143, Oso
439
277,439
204,883
33,5t5
11,476
10,820
2,091
87,485
60, 5! 3
5,550
8)3.
423,010
130,408
1"0,II27
380,074
28, 119
30,940
15,333
84,002
6,633
8,727
2,319
1,313,457
231,721
172,356
143,287
319,431
13,573
21,395 1
12,087 ;
80,701
1,844 !
1,721
3,426 ;
299,978
141,436
115,232
332,809
17,008
9,108
942
107,416
1,712
2,719
4,418
1,001,542 ; 1,032,948
7,508
4,804
318,491 I
182,144
63,347
(•)
Plates or disks, rough-cut or
unwroughl, for optical pur-
poses:
Belgium 762
France 02, 154
Germany 172, 871
United Kingdom | 41,535
All other countries 71
Total 277,393
10,592
I, 161
392,513
173,813
103,""2
4,004
579,650 | 695,135
10,812
68,815 i
244,703 !
58,005
899
18,894
92,977
249,471
141,898
1,354
383,234 j 504,594
1,350,218 722,483
004,489
10,401
22,953
9,417
12,444
2,185
727,
122,372
32^598.
200,010
40,938
22,745
12,277
3,401
230,110
78,839
41,775
397,028
159,041
118,848
321,3(0
19,2S3
10,246
330
111,108
2,390
7,509
4,000
71,443
2,187
8,294
3,472
7,359
5,416
98, 171
52,580
1,178
220,887
114,343
40,714
10,407
9,401
2,758
240,358
60,504
39,303
810,493
139,097
30, 886
84,597
170,370
13,113
7,540
86,364
2,019
8,318
2,911
1,151,875
20,794
14, 807
103,801
237,590
40, 126
4,436
5-15,222
721,500
08.354
9S;S32
290, 151
159,851
512
617,703
4,099
1(5,948
104,473
15,414
302,971
214,032
184,031
2,324
$20,987
5,081
10,(55
134,348
19,878
197,549
373
89
1,114
1,977
10,922
101
208,475
44,548
30,734
23,147
10,124
2,295
194,114
22,357
59,775
766,
23,074
2,498
70,350
35, 1S5
28,710
2,397
103,298
848
12,229
128,895
10,478
7,801
166,766
00,934
18,982
174,920
10,547
205,389
Included in "All other glass and glassware" in 1911.
340
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 113.— Value of General Imports op Glass and Glassware into the
United States During Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 1911 to 1916, by Classes
and Countries — Concluded.
i lasses and countries.
All other glass and glassware
Austria-Hungary
Belgium..
France
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
Canada
Japan
All other countries
Total
Summary, by continents:
Europe
North America
South America
Asia
Oceania
Africa
Total
>445,320
150,733
530,928
1,133,482
4,443
6,283
7,776
6,705
208,758
5,9C0
,6,540
$654,375
35,150
260,032
903,762
7,086
9,924
12, 154
5,905
153, C03
5,612
5,284
2,683
2,510,621 2,055,570
$690,437
$531,461
£345,525
31, 679
130,241
11,057
213,565
258, 267
130,042
1,051,950
1,258,529
S39, 213
6,759
8,244
10,974
11,139
20,661
21,003
23,856
26,007
22,982
4,600
5,074
5,253
234, 136
227,075
195,331
2.659
4,640
7,142
5,589
6,637
10, 548
1,889
4,262
12, 170
2,178,258 2,481,098
6, 812, 133
69,223
156
21,028
,140,002
'170
14,456
181 j.
6,41i5,542
75,440
70
11,950
122
24
8,074,171
100,335
76
29,908
92
221
6,228,626 6,553,148 8,204,803
4,463,144
93,780
112
34,707
541
75
4,592,
$51, 191
1,058
96, 188
182,412
17,771
5,040
30,360
1,175
146, 360
6, 157
22,019
6,638
566,369
2,142,833
44,014
33
61,514
395
212
2,249,001
Table 114 shows the quantities of general imports of cylinder,
crown, and common window glass, and of plate glass, cast, polished,
and unsilvered, during the fiscal years ending June 30, 1911 to 1916.
Table 114.— Quantity of General Imports of Cylinder, Crown, and Common
Window Glass, Unpolished, and of Plate Glass, Cast, Polished, and Unsil-
vered, During Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 1911 to 1916, by Countries.
Classes and countries.
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
Cylinder, crown, and common
window glass, unpolished:
Belgium
France
Germany
United kingdom
Pounds.
26,574.343
18, 404
791,563
3, 831, 690
Pounds.
20,547,158
38, 688
777, 586
3, 437, 722
7,532
Pounds.
19, 786, 225
75,059
882, 864
1,968,938
21,797
Pounds.
27,574,477
35,372
977, 726
3,586,408
140, 776
Pounds.
12,074,320
13, 794
341,534
4,378,232
90,586.
Pounds.
404,005
18, 154
56, 768
1,100,915
196, 281
Total
31,249,928
24,808,686
22,734,883
32,314,759
L6, 898, 466
1,776,123
Plate glass, cast, polished, un-
silvered:
Belgium
France
Germany
Square feet.
3,270,356
144, 879
420, 523
287,088
32, 285
223
Squarefeet.
1, 160, 790
28, 275
184,140
12,750
36, 089
238
Squarefeet.
1,121,907
76, 271
75, 644
2,000
3,174
Square feet.
2,943,974
31,010
86,846
44,210
81, 566
8,341
Squarefeet.
309, 542
4,722
22, 823
15, 003
27,317
18, 202
Squarefeet.
'l54
2,222
United Kingdom
4,550
Total
4, 155, 354
1,422,282
1,279,002
3, 195, 947
397,609
8,624
INCREASES IN IMPORTS.
Table 115, derived from Table 113, shows, for each different class
of glass and glassware, the amount and percentage of increase of
general imports during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, over
the fiscal year 1913. The fiscal year 1913 was the last full year
under the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act, and the Underwood-Simmons
Act went into effect October 4, 1914, about 10 months before the
war in Europe began.
IMPORTS AN! i THE TARIFF.
341
1a -t and Per Cent of Increase in \'.\ Imports
ro Glassware in L914 over Imports in L913, Fiscal Yeare .
Cylinder, crown, and common viudow glass, unpolished
■ d, and unsilvcred
ioys, and jars (molded;, empty or oiled
Bottles, . e. cut or ornamented
Lenses and all optica' instruments (including spectacles I
ut or un wrought, (or optica] purposes
All oth< • -ware
Amount of 1>er n c f eDt
increase.
.
1379,007
106, 284
126.33
305,063
t6 i;
118,927
11.51
-
3.80
113, 109
22. 42
13.90
1.651,655 1
25.20
Lown in the foregoing table, the imports of plate glass, cast,
polished, and unsilvered more than doubled during the fiscal year
1914; the increase in window* glass and in bottles, etc., was over
one-third, and the total imports of glass and glassware of all kinds
increased about one-fourth.
Table 116, derived from Table 113, shows the percentage of the
general imports of different kinds of glass and glassware from the
principal countries exporting the same to the United States during
the fiscal years ending June 30, 1913 and 1914.
"Table I in — Percentages op General Imports of Glass and Glassware Into
the Dotted States from Principal Exporting Countries During Fiscal
Years Ft nb 30, 1913 and 1914.
uid countries.
1913.
1914.
Classes and countries.
1913.
1914.
Cylinder, crown, and common
window glass, unpolished:
Belgium
Per cent.
75.95
11.29
12.10
.66
Per era.
77. 4.3
13.77
7.99
.79
Lenses and all optical instru-
ments (including spec-
tacles):
Per cent.
56.47
25.00
14.96
3.57
Per cent.
55. 96
Germany
All other countries .\
5.55
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Plate gl i -. cast, polished,
anrt mi .
Belgium
D v
81.57
7. 55
10.25
.63
91.29
3.16
2.25
3.30
Plates or disks, rough-cut or
unwrought, for optical pur-
poses:
49. 13
28.12
18.43
3.75
.27
All other countries
tinted Kingdom
F ranee
25. ss
16.00
100.00
100.00
All oilier countries
.08
Bottles, etc., used as contain-
mpty or filled:
32.90
24.29
10.37
L6.97
7.89
3. 98
3. 60
28.44
22.64
20. .50
10. 66
6.86
3.56
7.28
100.00
All other glass and glassware:
48.29
27.11
9.80
10.75
1.45
1.10
Ml other countries
United Kingdom
Belgium
Sweden
9.15
5.25
1.05
.83
100.00
1110. 11.1
Ml other countries
Total
Summary, by continents:
K U rope
1.16
Bottles, decanters, and other
■.are, cut or orna-
29. 04
32. 22
13.69
11.16
10.40
3. 19
34.47
27.90
13.86
10.32
9.65
3.80
1110. 1X1
100.00
Hungary
! 1 V
Belgium
98. 66
1.15
.IN
.01
98.40
Asia
All other continents
Total
.37
.01
1110.00
100.00
Total
100.00
100.00
342
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
WINDOW GLASS IMPORTED.
As shown by Table 113, the imports of window glass before the
war began were mostly from Belgium. As shown by a previous
table, Table 8, page 28, the production of window glass in 1914, as
reported by the Bureau of the Census, amounted to $17,495,956.
Computed on this amount, the general imports of cylinder, crown,
and common glass in the fiscal year 1913 ($977,211) were 5.59 per
cent, and in the fiscal year 1914 ($1,356,218) were 7.75 per cent.
As shown by Table 123, page 356, the imports of window glass of
the first three brackets were over 80 per cent of the total window
glass imported during every fiscal year from 1906 to 1914, inclusive,
except 1911. The first three brackets include sizes up to and not
exceeding 384 square inches, or 16 by 24 inches.
Under previous tariff acts for 20 years or more, the rates of duty on
the smaller sizes of window glass have been lower than on the larger
sizes. Table 117 shows the actual rates of duty on different sizes
under the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act and the Underwood-Simmons
Act, and the rates computed on an ad valorem basis for the fiscal
year 1913 and for the period from October 4, 1913, when the latter
act went into effect, until June 30, 1914, the end of the fiscal year:
Table 117. — Rates op Duty on Imports of Cylinder, Crown, and Common
Window Glass, Unpolished, Under Tariff Acts of 1909 and 1913, and Con-
futed Ad Valorem Rate Under Each Act.
.
Rate of duty
per pound.
Computed ad va-
lorem rate.
Classification.
Act of
1909.
Act of
1913.
Fiscal
year
ending
June 30,
1913.
Oct. 4,
1913, to
June 30,
1914.
Not exceeding 150 square inches:
Cents.
11
;?
i
2J
3i
3i
41
Cents.
1
I
1
Per cent.
92.10
34.00
107.51
54.23
107.94
58.66
50.30
52.08
64.27
119.36
Per cent.
} 20. 77
Above 150 and not exceeding 384 square inches:
} 31.51
| 32. 71
Above 384 and not exceeding 720 square inches:
■>
47.74
28.33
41.10
26.73
No manufacturer that was interviewed during this investigation
complained of the rates of duty on glass larger than the first three
brackets, and some admitted that without material injury to the
industry in the United States the duties on the larger brackets
might be somewhat reduced. Without exception, however, all the
manufacturers interviewed claimed that the rates of duty on the
first three brackets (384 square inches and under) were too low, and
most of them said that foreign competition forced them to sell these
brackets below cost.
IMPORTS AND THE TARIFF.
343
The imports of window glass are mostly to places on or near the
Atlantic seaboard, the Gulf coast, and the Pacific coast. Compara-
tively little goes fco interior points. Before the war in Europe began
window glass was imported to Pacitic coast points and shipped as
far east as Salt Lake City, because it was cheaper to ship from Europe
an >und Cape Horn than to pay freight rates from Pittsburgh and other
plate-glass manufacturing centers. The general imports of cylinder,
crown, and common window glass by customs districts during the
fiscal year 1914 were as follows:
Table 118. — Quantity and Value of General Imports of Cylinder, Cbown,
and Common- Window Glass During the Fiscal Year Ending Ji me 30, 1914.
by Customs Districts.
Customs districts.
Customs districts.
Pounds. Value,
Rochester
New York
St. Louis
Massachusetts
San i rancisco
Phi adelphia
Chicago
Ohio
Southern California.
Washington
Oregon
Minnesota
Buffalo
Maryland
New Orleans
Michigan
Georgia
7,665,821
7,699,542
4,737,250
2,721,424
2, 626, 435
1,949,487
1,029,790
914,820
881,319
426,932
418,472
182,390
69, 590
180, 234
125,748
126,0.50
85, 996
$403, 244
344,113
228,014
93,802
64, 284
56,483
44,648
27,765
22,523
12,708
11,166
7,876
5,702
4,731
4,310
3,807
Wisconsin
Omaha
Indiana
Pittsburgh
Tennessee
Colorado
Hawaii
Maine and New Hampshire
Galveston
Porto Rico
Rhode Island
Florida
Vermont
Duluth and Superior
Total
4
.218
The imports to Rochester and to St. Louis were largely of thin
glass used for photographic dry plates, those to Rochester being via
New York City and those to St. Louis largely via New Orleans.
While over 80 per cent of the imports of window glass are of the
three smaller brackets, only 50 to 60 per cent of the domestic con-
sumption is of single-strength glass of the first three brackets. The
following is quoted from a brief by J. R. Johnston, president of the
Johnston Glass Co., and in 1916 president of the Johnston Brokerage
Co., which sells a large part of the product of the hand window-glass
factories. This brief was submitted to the Committee on Ways and
Means of the House of Representatives in 1913:
In this country about two- thirds of the glass used is single strength, and from 50 to
60 per cent of this single strength is in the first three brackets, which means sizes 16
by 24 and smaller. These sizes especially need an increased tariff, for the reason that
in Belgium the percentage of first three bracket sizes consumed is only about 20 per
cent, which leaves that country with a surplus of small glass that they are only too
anxious to distribute in the United States and other markets.
The following is quoted from the statement of H. R. Hilton, on
behalf of the National Window Glass Manufacturers' Association,
made to the same committee.
Of the 5,000,000 boxes of single-strength glass made annually in the United States,
consumers call for 50 per cent in the small sizres up to 16 by 24. The poorest glass is
usually cut into the first bracket (25 united inches), or all sizes up to 10 by 15, and
represent one-fifth of the total production. These sizes always come in excess of the
demand both in Belgium and the United States, and the country is always over-
stocked with them. In consequence, it is only in rare instances that a manufacturer
344 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
can sell this product at cost price, notwithstanding the fact that on these small sizes
of third single the skilled workman receives not more than $2 to $2.25 per day.
The Pacific coast consumes about 10 per cent of the glass used in the United States,
and yet United States factories can not compete with Belgium in Pacific coast market
in these small sizes at the present tariff.
Owing to severe competition among domestic manufacturers, the
prices in some years have- been considerably lower in the United
States' than the total of the Belgian price with the freight and duty.
F. J. Goertner, sales manager of Semon Bache & Co., importers,
presented figures to the Committee on Ways and Means, in 1913, to
show that at times the prices of domestic glass, especially of the larger
sizes, were very much less than the cost of Belgian glass delivered at
New York, and occasionally was less than the price in Belgium, and
occasionally less even than the amount of the duty.
Mr. Goertner pointed out that the wages of skilled workers in the
window-glass industry had been reduced while the Dingley and the
Payne-Aldrich Tariff Acts were in force, and concluded that "the
tariff had absolutely nothing to do with the prosperity of the Ameri-
can window-glass worker. ,; 1 The very severe competition among
manufacturers was caused largely by the introduction of machinery
for making window glass and the efforts of hand manufacturers to
meet lower prices fixed by machine manufacturers. The competition
between the hand manufacturers and the machine manufacturers led
to reductions of wages in the hand factories. Some hand factories
were driven out of business, and without reduction of wages others
probably would have been forced to quit.
As explained in the chapter on "Industrial conditions," page 187,
prices were stabilized by the formation, in 1909, of the Imperial Glass
Co., a selling agency of hand manufacturers, which, when dissolved
in 1910, after a Government prosecution for violation of the antitrust
act, was succeeded, in 1912, by the Johnston Brokerage Co. This
latter company sells a large proportion of the product of the hand
factories at prices fixed by the American Window Glass Co., which
manufactures by machinery and is the largest producer in the United
States.
PLATE GLASS IMPORTED.
As shown by Table 8, page 28, the production of polished plate
glass in 1914, as reported by the Bureau of the Census, amounted to
$14,773,787. Computed on this amount, the general imports of plate
glass, cast, polished, and unsilvered, in the fiscal year 1913 ($321,605)
were 2.18 per cent, and in the fiscal year 1914 ($727,889) were 4.93
per cent.
Table 1 19 shows the actual rates of duty on different sizes of plate
glass under the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act and the Underwood-
Simmons Act, and the rates computed on an ad valorem basis for the
fiscal year 1913 and for the period from October 4, 1913, when the
latter act went into effect, until June 30, 1914, the end of the fiscal
year.
before the Committee on Ways and Means, 1913, Schedule B, p. 818.
IMPORTS AND THE TARIFF.
345
Table 119. — Rates op Duty ox Imports of Plate Glass, Cast, Polished,
Finished ou Unfinished, and Unsilvered, or the Same Containing a
Wire Netting Within Itself, Under Tariff Acts of ]909 and 1913, and
Computed Ad Valorem Rate Under Each Act
Hate of duty per
ire foot.
Computed ad va-
lorem rate.
classification.
Act of
1909.
Act of
1913.
L913. 1U '
Cents.
10
12*
22'.
6
8
12
Pit can. Percent.
23. 8S
"7. -IS 38.34
83.73 47.55
Total
61.14 40.18
Manufacturers of plate glass claim that it costs them the same,
whether in large or small sizes, 1 yet they sell the smaller sizes for much
less than the larger sizes. They claim that the smaller sizes are inad-
equately protected. Under all tariff acts the rate of duty has been
'less on the small sizes than on the larger sizes.
The imports of the different sizes of plate glass, cast, polished, fin-
ished or unfinished, and unsilvered, are shown in Table 124, page 357.
The percentage of imports of each specified size during the fiscal years
1913 and 1914, respectively, was as follows: Not exceeding 384 square
inches, 3.7 per cent in 1913, 6.54 per cent in 1914; above 384 and not
exceeding 720 square inches, 71.05 per cent in 1913, 63.64 per cent
in 1914; above 720 square inches, 25.25 per cent in 1913, 29.82 per
cent in 1914.
The plate glass imported consists mainly of the finer and more
expensive grades. In the imports during the fiscal year 1914 the
average value per square foot of plate glass, cast, polished, finished
or unfinished, and unsilvered, imported for consumption averaged
$0,224. (See Table 124, p. 357.)
Most imported plate glass is used for mirrors, and the greater part of
it is of first quality, the second quality being cut to small sizes for hand
mirrors. For a time a good deal of second-quality plate glass was
imported for automobile wind shields, but American manufacturers
now make most of the glass used for this purpose in the United States.
As in the case of window glass, the imports of plate glass are mostly
to places on or near the Atlantic, Pacific, or Gulf coast. 2 The general
imports of plate glass, cast, polished, finished or unfinished, and un-
silvered, by customs districts during the fiscal year 1914 are given
in the following table.
1 Hearings before the Committee on Ways and Means. Ilouseol Representatives, ltd;!, Schedule B, p. 840.
2 See table of ocean and railroad rates from Belgian factories to principal cities in (he United States, and
railroad rates from plate-glass manufacturing centers In the I oited States to the same cities, presented to
the Committee on YVavs ami \lran>. 1 louse of Representatives. 1913, by Simon, Bache .v. Co.. New York;
Hearings. Schedule B. p. 861.
346
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 120. — Quantity and Value or General Imports of Plate Glass, Cast,
Polished, and Unsilvered, During the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1914,
by Customs Districts.
Customs districts.
Square feet.
Value.
Customs districts.
Square feet.
Value.
1,187,873
878, 198
277, 174
169,736
130,749
129, 178
84,774
88, 110
48, 904
49,496
34,282
24,016
21,395
22,169
20,042
$285,902
182, 179
61,691
36.434
35, 140
28,517
24, 758
18,810
12,461
10,210
6,972
4,966
4,846
4,537
4,179
20,231
7,657
255
1,025
403
78
136
18
16
11
15
6
$3,960
1,647
226
200
Ohio
94
Chicago ,
41
35
33
3
Duluth and Superior
1
3,195,947
727 889
'
OTHER BUILDING GLASS.
The imports of plate glass other than that which is cast, polished,
and unsilvered is comparatively small. The values of such imports
during the fiscal years 1909, 1913, and 1914 appear in Table 128
page 369.
A statement relative to the imports of rough plate glass, made by
F. J. Goertner, sales manager of Semon Bache & Co., importers,
New York, to the Committee on Ways and Means, House of Repre-
sentatives, in 1913, * said:
As a matter of fact, this glass is probably made cheaper in the United States than
anywhere else in the world. The manufacturers have been for years exporting
considerable quantities to Canada, where they are able to compete successfully not
only with European manufacturers in general, but even with the English manufac-
turers, who enjoy a preferential tariff in Canada.
Most of the wire glass used in the United States is of domestic
manufacture. Most of the opalescent and cathedral glass used in
the United States is of domestic manufacture, but the finer kinds are
imported. Many more colors are used in producing glass of these
kinds in Europe than in this country, but the domestic product is
sold much cheaper.
Practically all the antique glass used in the United States is im-
ported from Germany and England. Little if any of this glass is
made in this country because of the lack of chemical knowledge and
of expert workmen.
BOTTLES AND JARS.
As shown by Table 8, page 28, the production of glass bottles and
jars in 1914, reported by the Bureau of the Census, amounted to
$51,958,728. As shown by Table 113, page 339, the value of the gen-
eral imports of bottles, etc., used as containers, during the fiscal year
1914 was $1,148,460, or 2.21 per cent of the amount of production
reported by the Bureau of the Census. These imports included all
bottles ordinarily used as containers for purposes of transportation,
except filled bottles that were imported from July 1, 1913, to October
3, 1914. The bottles filled with wines, brandies, mineral waters, and
other liquids are sold and used again for containing beverages.
Hearings, Schedule B, p. 849.
IMPORTS AND THE TARIFF.
34 7
Bottles containing whiskies, brandies, punches, beer, and mineral
water- are imported mainly from the United Kingdom, Fiance.
Germany, Austria-Hungaiy, and Italy.
Some "bottles intended to be used as containers for beverages, drugs,
and colognes are imported empty and rilled in America, so that
consumers will think that the contents as well as the bottles have
been imported. Thus, vodka bottles come from Russia, punch
bottles from Sweden, and pellet bottles from England.
PRESSED AND BLOWN WARE.
Table 121 shows the value of pressed and blown glassware im-
ported for consumption during the fiscal years ending June 30,
1913 and 1914, and the percentage of increase during the latter year.
Table 121. — Value of Blown and Pressed Glassware Imported for Consump-
tion, and Ad Valorem Rates of Duty, Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 1913
and 1914.
Blown ware
Blown or pressed ware,
decorated
Miscellaneous, including
pressed ware not deco-
rated
Electric lamps:
Arc
Incandescent—
( arbon filament
Metal filament
Allother
Total.
Fiscal year. 1913.
60 11,072,249
00 1,029,730
414, 764
27,561
45 78,070
45 384,247
July 1 to Oct. 4,
1913.
Per ct.
60
Oct. 4, 1913 to
June 30, 1914,
I Per ct.
§290,792! 45
1.510
73,409
353, S50
16,883
479! 254
Total
value,
fiscal
year
1914.
1 Per cent.
§1,216,329 I 13.44
427,393 ; .30
24, 685 a 10. 44
78,409 .04
552,663 30.47
88.687
As shown by Table 8, page 28, the production of pressed and blown
glassware in 1914, as reported by the Bureau of the Census, amounted
to $30,279,290. Computed on this amount the imports for consump-
tion in the fiscal year 1913 ($3,006,621) were 9.93 per cent, and in
the fiscal year 1914 ($3,387,858) were 11.19 per cent.
The increase in the imports during the fiscal year 1914 over those
for the preceding fiscal year amounted to 12.68 per cent. It is
remarkable that, though the duty on arc lamps was decreased from
45 to 20 per cent, the imports decreased 10.44 per cent. There was
a decrease also in the imports of blown and pressed ware, decorated,
and increases in the other items.
The imports of both blown and pressed ware, plain or decorated,
includes not only tablew r are but lighting goods. The imports of
blown ware, plain, includes laboratory ware. Both blown and pressed
ware includes specialties and novelties.
Under the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act the duty on plain pressed
ware was 45 per cent and on blown ware 60 per cent; under the
Underwood-Simmons Act the duty on the former is 30 per cent and
on the latter 45 per cent. It is remarkable that with the lower
348 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
duties on pressed ware much less of it was imported than of blown
ware. Of pressed tableware very little is imported and considerable
quantities were exported before the war in Europe began. No manu-
facturer that was interviewed during this investigation complained
of the imports of pressed ware, but all who manufactured blown ware
complained of foreign competition. Under these conditions it is
very remarkable that the eight establishments that manufactured
blown ware exclusively and that reported during this investigation
had an average operating profit (charges for depreciation and interest
considered) of 9.29 per cent, based on net sales, while the group of 20
establishments that manufactured both blown and pressed ware had
as a whole an operating loss (charges for depreciation and interest
considered) of 0.15 per cent on net sales. It is difficult to account
for this difference. It may be explained, however, that while the
fine grade of pressed ware made in America is superior to any foreign
product, large quantities of domestic pressed ware of very cheap
grades are put on the market. Large quantities of this cheap ware
are sold to the 10-cent stores, and manufacturers sell to them at cost
or even below cost in order to keep their factories operating during
seasons when trade from other sources is dull. Department stores
compete with the 10-cent stores in this line of goods and they, too,
buy in large quantities at or below manufacturing cost. So far,
therefore, as pressed ware is concerned it appears that the manu-
facturers in this country suffer from competition among themselves
rather than from foreign competition.
Imported pressed ware consists largely of door knobs. Most of
the cheap blown tableware and bar goods used in the United States
is of domestic manufacture, but there are considerable importations
of fine grades of blown ware and decorated blown ware. The foreign
competition in this line was perhaps greater before the war than in
any other kind of glass or glassware except cylinder glass used for
window lights and dry plates. Most imported blown ware is stem
ware. Practically no tumblers are imported except from Austria-
Hungary. Most of the imported tumblers are ornamented, usually
by etching, cutting, or coloring; few by sand-blast or enamel. Many
plain goblets come from France.
From Austria-Hungary comes cheaply decorated and blown ware,
and some that is highly decorated and colored — oil and vinegar
cruets, sugars and creams, salts and peppers, and similar articles.
Cologne bottles and similar articles come mainly from Austria-
Hungary and Germany.
Glassware of different colors is not made extensively in the United
States, because of the trouble manufacturers have in mixing batches
in proportions that will properly assimilate. Very few American
manufacturers employ glass chemists.
It is remarkable that, although there is more hand labor on cut
glass than on any other glass product, and although the wages of
workers are much higher in the United States than in foreign coun-
tries, the imports of rut glass are comparatively small, and before
the war considerable quantities were exported. American cut glass
is recognized at home and abroad as distinctly superior to the foreign
product. This subject is discussed in another section of this report
(p. 218). Imports of cut glass consist largely of novelties, with some
tableware, usually exclusive designs.
IMPOSTS AND THE TARIFF. 349
Most Qg fixtures come from Austria-Hungary, <>il lighting
fixtures fro y, and electric lighting apparatus, arc lights,
etc., from both countries.
Tin' American manufacturer bias an advantage in thai lie can fill
order- and deliver goods much more quickly in the United States
than can his foreign competitor. The tendency is toward smaller
order-, and fch< American merchant who imports must buy in large
quantities to keep on hand at all times a complete line of goods.
Another advantage that the American manufacturer has is that he
can quickly supply ware necessary to replace that which is broken
in shipment or in store handling. The breakage in blown ware is,
owing to its fragile nature, a considerable item. Importers have
many broken sets which cam not be sold at the full price until dupli-
cates are brought from Europe, and this takes weeks or months.
The following is quoted from a statement made in 1916 to the
Bureau by Mr. M. G. Bryce, president of the United States Glass Co.,
of Pittsburgh, the largest manufacturers of blown and pressed ware
in this country:
Prior to the war it was absolutely impossible for a glass manufacturer to compete
with a foreign manufacturer on blown ware for table use, and the only goods that could
be sold by American manufacturers were those of original design and certain staples
which it-paid a dealer to get quickly instead of waiting for importations. * * *
There is very little, if any, pressed glass imported into this country, consequently
the glass men are not very much interested in a tariff on that end of the business, and
as far as I can learn no manufacturer is anxious for any tariff except one that would
make the cost in America and Europe equal; that is to say, the European goods laid
down, plus the tariff, should not be any cheaper than what are made in America.
In regard to our foreign business, prior to the war it was simply impossible to do
any great volume of business in any foreign country. Anything that was made by
the foreigner could be exported by him to the different sections at a very much less
cost than an American manufacturer could export it. All of our foreign business
consists of goods either of special design or a kind that is not made by foreigners.
The following is quoted from a statement made by Mr. Ernest
Nickel, secretary-treasurer of the same company:
The total cost of the material here and abroad would average about the same, some
costing more and some less, but the difference in labor costs is so great that protection
to take care of the differential should be provided. Undoubtedly our employees, as
a whole, live better and have more comforts than their foreign brethren and conse-
quently require larger earnings, but this does not alter the fact that our costs are just
so much higher, and, therefore, must be considered. * * *
In the pressed ware we have not, up to the present time, had the serious competition
that we have in the blown lines, as the foreign manufacturer has not taken up that
line so energetically. However, as to blown ware, the differential in the wages earned
is so great that the American manufacturer is unable to overcome the difference, with
the result that the foreign manufacturer is able to produce and lay down his goods in
New York at a less price than the American manufacturer can produce them, and this
is certainly a condition which should not exist. The manufacture of glass of our
character is an art and the man must be a skilled workman.
It looks to us that the way to find out what protection should be thrown around any
industry is the creation of an impartial tariff commission that will thoroughly investi-
gate every phase of a business, and then if they find an industry which is entitled to
protection, so that it may live and flourish in this country and be a benefit to its citi-
zens at large, tariff to the necessary requirement should be provided and should at
least equalize the difference in wages. This method would not eliminate foreign
competition but would simply serve to place the American manufacturer on an equal
basis in the cost of wages with the European manufacturer. It would still be up to
the American manufacturer to strive to make every effort to produce the best quality
of ware and not permit himself to fall behind foreign manufacturers in new ideas or
improved methods. * * *
350 THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
The American manufacturer will undoubtedly appreciate anything that is done
which may help to place our blown-ware branch of the business on such basis that at
least a reasonable return on the capital invested can be earned.
The following is quoted from a statement made later in 1916 by Mr.
Nickel:
Replying to your recent inquiry as to why there is so little competition from abroad
in the pressed-ware branch of our business, which carries a duty of only 30 per cent,
against the blown ware, which carries a duty of 45 per cent, would say that this is
probably due largely to the fact that in producing pressed ware there is a very heavy
investment in molds necessary, whereas in blown ware this is not required; and,
inasmuch as labor is so much lower abroad than it is in this country, blown ware could
be produced in Europe so much more cheaply that manufacturers there have had
no incentive to go as heavily into the production of the cheaper pressed lines.
From your going over our affairs you will probably recall that our investment in
molds is one of our largest expense items. There is another reason, possibly, and that
is that sometimes a manufacturer makes a heavy investment in molds and gets out a
line which he may think is a splendid one, and yet later on it may not find favor with
the trade. You can see in this event that a manufacturer could easily make quite an
outlay of money and not receive anything like an adequate return. Of course, there is
some pressed ware made in Europe, but it has never been developed as in this country.
Labor conditions, undoubtedly, have a great bearing on this whole matter.
With reference to the blown ware, for instance, the European manufacturer has been
enabled to lay his product down in a port like New York City for a less price than the
American maufacturer could produce a similar article. All this shows the neces-
sity for a reasonable protection to such an extent that the differential in wages between
Europe and this country is taken care of.
We have enjoyed a splendid business in all lines and, while a great deal of this is due
to prosperity which is existing in the country to-day, there is no question that the
artificial protection by which we are surrounded, owing to the European war, has
enabled the blown-ware manufacturer for the first time in many years to get a fair
price for his product.
It would certainly be a fine thing if the Government would go into this matter thor-
oughly and appoint a competent, nonpxrtisan tariff commission, which would inquire
and investigate thoroughly the various industries, and then recommend a protective
duty, simply to the extent that the American manufacturer would be placed on an
equal basis with the European manufacturer — i. e., however, only to the extent of the
differential in wages. Personally I do not think that any industry should be pro-
tected to any such extent where it eliminates fair competition, whether it be at home
or from abroad.
Mr. George M. Stiegler, secretary of Oscar O. Freidlander, a New-
York importer, in a statement made to an agent of the Bureau in
1916, said:
The lighting goods imported are fine in quality. Lamp shades are produced cheaper
abroad. The domestic factories can not meet the competition on 10-inch round-top
domes or on green shades white on the inside. Electric shades of foreign make are
better but dearer, and the American public buys the cheaper article. Inverted
bowls of foreign make are finer, but they are made in America for a much cheaper price.
Glass prisms for chandeliers or candelabra are not produced at all in the United States.
Mr. Rudolph Kirschberger, secretary of Kirschberger & Cole, New
York, importers, in a statement made to an agent of the Bureau in
1916, said:
Imported lamp chimneys, even with the reduction in duty from 60 to 45 per cent,
can not compete with the product of the Macbeth-Evans Glass Co. of Pittsburgh, in
western territory, on account of freight rates, but imported chimneys are sold in the
East, and much is sold to the Standard Oil Co. We import cases of 24 dozen chimneys,
to save ocean freights, which would be greater were the package smaller. People out
West want batches of 6 to 12 dozen that can be handled easily, so do not buy imported
chimneys.
IMPORTS AND THE TARIFF. 351
Mr. William R. Noe, of William Noe Sons, New York, importers,
in a statement made to an agent of the Bureau in 1916, said:
Before the Europ 'an war, American manufacturers complained about the importa-
tion of Rochester chimneys, LO-inch cones, and air-hole chimneys for gas. On air hole
chimney X". L98 the Macbeth-Evans <'■>. began cutting by reducing the price from
60 to v> cents a dozen. Then the importers dropped to 50 cents a dozen. Then about
Mav or June. 1914, the Macbeth-Evans Co. took an order at 45 cents.
There are that nation- of price in various lines. In December, 1915, all factories
sold lantern globes at 1 I izen, in July, 1916, sold them at 30 cents and up per
d »zen. The Macbeth-Evans < rlass Co., of Pittsburgh, and Gill & Co., of Philadelphia,
fix the price.-. These lantern -lobes have never been imported.
SiJvered-glass reflectors sold in December, 1915, atSOaud lOoff. Now, in July, 1916,
the discount is only 69 and 10. None of these reflectors are imported, so the price is
absolutely fixed here. American manufacturers of cheap crystal lamp shades have
put the impsrters out of business in this line.
Another New York importer, Mr. H. D. McFadden, said in 1916:
The imp irts of illuminating glassware are in high-price goods. The common and
medium grades are made as cheaply in the United States as in Europe. The trouble
with many American manufacturers is that they want to do business on a big scale
and make all kinds of glassware, fine as well as cheap. This causes heavy competition
but affects the quality.
STATISTICS OF IMPORTS FOR CONSUMPTION.
Tables which follow show the imports for consumption of glass
and glassware during the fiscal years ending June 30, 1896 to 1916,
inclusive. These tables show the quantity, total value, value per
unit of quantity, duty paid, rate of duty, and actual and computed
ad valorem duty on the principal classes of glass imports, as follows :
Table 122, cylinder, crown, and common window glass. Unpolished;
Table 124, plate glass, cast, polished, finished or imfinished, and
unsilvered; Table 125, bottles and vials, not ornamented, and demi-
johns and carboys, all empty; Table 126, bottles, decanters, and all
articles of glass of every description, ornamented or decorated in any
manner. Following the first of these tables is Table 123, which
shows the proportion that imports of glass of the first three brackets
was of the total imports of cylinder, crown, and common window
glass, unpolished.
These tables are followed by other tables which show the imports
of all other glass and glassware for consumption, during the fiscal
years ending June 30, 1909 (Dingley tariff), 1913 (Payne-Aldrich
tariff), and 1914 (Underwood-Simmons tariff after October 3, 1913).
The value of imports and the average computed ad valorem rate of
duty in each year are shown for the following classes of glass and
glassware: Table 127, cylinder, crown, and common window glass
other than that not specified in Table 122; Table 128, plate glass other
than that specified in Table 124; Table 129, bottles, vials, demijohns,
carboys, and jars, filled;. Table 130, miscellaneous manufactures of
glass not shown in the foregoing tables.
352
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 122. — Imports of Cylinder, Crown, and Common Window Glass, Unpol-
ished, Entered for Consumption, Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 1896 to
1915.
Fiscal year and classification.
1896— Wilson Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
Above 10 by 15 and hot exceeding 16 by 24 inches
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches
Above 24 bv 30 and not exceeding 24 by 36 inches
All above 24 by 36 inches
Total .
1897— Wilson Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
Above 10 by 15 and not exceeding ] 6 by 24 inches
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches
Above 24 bv 30 and not exceeding 24 by 36 inches
All above 24 bv 36 inches
Total .
1898— Wilson Act to July 24, 1897; Dingley
Act After-ward.
Not exceeding
Above 10 by 15
Above 16 by 24
Above 24 by 30
Above 24 bv 36
Above 24 bv3C'
Above30bv40
Above 40 bv 6C
Duty
per
pound.
Cents.
1
1}
If
2
2J
Pounds. I Value.
13,154,689
15,373,922
12,318,075
3,870,802
9,463,366
3332,353
233,441
213,926
72, 864
210,205
54,189,854 [ 1,062,
14,337,50S
15,291,3SS
12.895,823
4, 140, 380
9,774,275
3S0,426
237,670
23 1.752
81,848
227, 465
56,439,464 jl, 159, 161
10 by 15 inches
and not exceeding 16 by 24 inches
and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches 1
and not exceeding 24 by 36 inches : j
inches
and not exceeding 30 by 40 inches
and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches j
inches (
1.035,996
11,248,185
1,239,593
9,634,752
949, 724
7, 670, 415
301,788
2, 300, 256
688, S59
2,035:927
1,284,246
90, 653
Total 39, 130, 09 1
-Dingley Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
Above 10 by 15 and not exceeding 16 by 24 inches
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 bv 30 inches
Above 24 by 30 and not exceeding 21 bv 36 inches
Above 24 by 36 and not exceeding 30 by 40 inches
Above 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
Above 40 by 60 inches '.
Total.
300— Dingley Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
Above 10 by 15 and not exceeding 16 by 24 inches
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches
Above 24 by 30 and not exceeding 21 by 36 inches
Above 24 by 36 and not exceeding 30 by 40 inches
Above 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
Above 40 by 60 inches
Total.
1901— Dingley Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
Above 10 by 15 and hot exceeding 16 by 24 inches
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches
Above 24 by 30 and not exceeding 24 by 36 inches
Above 24 by 36 and not exceeding 30 by 40 inches
Above 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
Above 40 by 60 inches
Total.
15,203,738
13,565,227
9,569,483
2,583,378
2,642,829
1,835,799
120,223
45,520,677
19,173,525
15,611,691
8,963,818
2,446,385
2, 722, 855
2,019,901
135, 797
51,073,972
13,256,312
9, 525, 835
3, 682, 572
756,811
646, 427
356, S10
11,852
28,230,019
25, 092
364.292
19, 020
173,105
18,606
154, S24
6,588
51,709
17, 850
58,548
34,315
2,940
927,009
505, 736
273,505
217,600
66,328
69, 687
57,419
078,532
370,910
246, 561
75,445
82, 774
65, 558
4,852
462,869
204,430
124,00s
28, 837
24,218
17, 190
484
922 . 90
3131,547
192, 174
215,566
77,596
201,097
value
per
pound
311.025
.015
.017
.019
.022
817,
143,376
191, 142
225,677
82, 808
207,703
.027
.016
.018
.020
850,706
10,360
.024
154,663
.032
15.495
.015
180, 652
.017
16,620
.019
1.S2.172
.020
6,036
.021
66, 132
.022
14,638
.025
90, 640
.021
49. 765
.026
3, 966
.032
209,052
254,348
227. 275
74, 272
89, 196
71, 137
5,260
930, 540
263,636
292,719
212,891
70, 334
91,896
78,271
5,941
,015,
132,271
178.610
87,461
21, 758
21, 817
13, 826
519 j
506,265 | .032
IMPORTS AND THE TARIFF.
353
Table 122. — Imports of Cylinder, Crown, and Common Window Glass, Unpol-
ished, Entered for Consumption, Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 1896 to
1915 — Continued.
Fiscal vear and classification.
Duty
per
pjund.
Aver-
age
value
per
pjund.
C m-
puted
ad val-
orem
rate.
1902— Dingle y Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
Above 10 by 15 and notexcee ling 16 by 24 inches
Ab ve 26 by 24 and not exceeding 2i by 30 inches
Above 24 by 30 and not exceeding 24 by 36 inches
Above 24 by 36 and notexcee ling 30 by 40 inches
Above 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
Above 40 by 60 inches
Total.
1903— Dingley Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
Above 10 by 15 and aot exceeding 16 by 24 inches
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches
Above 24 by 30 and not e acceding 24 by 36 inches
Above 24 by 36 and not exceeding 30 by 40 inches
Above 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
Above 40 by 60 inches
Total.
1904— Dingley Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
Above 10 by 15 and not exceeding 16 by 24 inches
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches
Above 24 by 30 and not exceeding 24 by 36 inches
Above 24 by 36 and not exceeding 30 by 40 inches
Above 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
Above 40 by 60 inches
Total.
1905— Dingley Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
Above 10' by 15 and not exceeding 16 by 24 inches
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches
Above 24 by 30 and not exceeding 24 by 36 inches
Above24 by 30 and not exceeding 30 by 40 inches
A bove 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
Above 40 by 60 inches
Total.
1906— Dingley Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
Above 10 by 15 and not exceeding 16 by 24 inches
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches
Above 24 by 30 and not exceeding 24 by 36 inches
Above 24 by 36 and not exceeding 30 by 40 inches
A bove 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
Above 40 by 60 inches
Total.
1907— Dingley Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
Above 10 by 15 and not exceeding 16 by 24 inches
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 21 by 30 inches
Above 24 by 30 and not exceeding 21 by 36 inches
Above 24 by 36 and notcxeceding 30 by 10 inches
Above 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
Above 40 by 60 inches
Total
102511°— 17-
Cents.
1?
i
!3, 812, 439
.6.877,500
6, 652, 079
1,479,443
1,501,647
661,043
27,246
924,439
4*7,5*4
236, 535
57,903
59, 102
30,393
1,633
?327, 425
316,454
157,987
42, 534
50,681
25, 615
1,192
$0,039
.029
r,r ct.
35.42
64.91
66.80
73.46
85.75
84.28
73.00
51,011,746
,797,5vj
921, sss
23,596,970
22, 880, 738
8, 405, 5S4
2, 773, 012
2,420,762
1, 153, 259
55, 725
719,937
552, 361
235, 612
79, 891
72,427
38, 746
3,908
61,286,050
'"■•,
20,3S2,746
IS, 947, 772
7,131,937
2,047,593
1,921,493
1,335,829
95, 818
615,740
411,126
1*9,024
55, 086
51, 850
40,086
3,306
51, 863, 182
1,366,218
8,359,985
5,914,057
2, 162, 412
658,425
663, 201
174,264
685
307,230
163,117
74,056
21,715
19,313
8,228
132
17,933,029
,791
20,194,866
8, 107, 164
3, 802, 652
914,342
814,545
239, 563
298
7S9, 642
253, 010
136,319
35, 555
32,430
12,510
13
J.34, 073,430
16, 142, 735
9, 728, 174
3,476,572
938, 078
682, 17S
216, 735
1,288
5IU,2N2
251,. 804
111,100
34,273
26,347
11,098
'31,185,760
324,458
429,014
199,633
79, 724
81, 701
2, 438
.029
.030
.034
.070
2SII.203
355. 271
169', 3S4
58, 86S
64,850
51.763
4,192
114,950
110, ,8*8
51,357
18,930
22, 383
6,753
30
325,291
277,6*0
152,009
90,313
26,287
37, 491
9.283
13
221,963
1*2. 103
82, 569
26, 970
23,021
8,398
56
.030
.022
.027
.027
.027
.030
.035
45.08
77.67
84.73
99.79
112.80
115.34
62.36
68.22
45.52
85.41
89. 61
106. 87
125. 07
129.13
126. SO
72.07
37.41
67.98
69.35
87.17
115.90
82.07
22.70
.033 | 54.
35.17
60.08
66.25
73.93
84.77
74.20
100. 00
46.30
41.08
71.59
74.32
78.69
87.39
71.79
60.00
55.73
-2:5
354
THE GLASS INDUSTRY.
Table 122. — Imports of Cylinder, Crown, and Common Window Glass, Unpol-
ished, Entered for Consumption, Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 1896 to*
1915 — Continued.
Aver-
Com-
Duty
age
value
puted
Fiscal year and classification.
per
Pounds.
Value.
Duties.
ad val-
pound.
per
pound.
orem
rate.
1908— Dinglet Act.
Cents.
Perct.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
If
14,390,395
$252,689
$197,868
$0,032
43.70 1
Above 10 by 15 and not exceeding 16 by 24 inches
a
6,609,243
178,168
123,923
.027
69.54
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches
2,391,752
77,384
56,804
.032
73. 40
Above 24 by 30 and not exceeding 24 by 36 inches
s
412,663
14, 622
11, 864
.031
81.13
A bove 24 by 36 and not exceeding 30 by 40 inches
332,503
13,238
11,222
.040
84.77
Above 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
3|
135, 423
7,154
5,248
.053
73.36-
Above 40 by 60 inches
4|
240
18
11
.075
58. 33
Total
24,272,219
543,273
406,940
.022
74.91
1909— Dinglet Act.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
11
14,400,477
447,510
198,007
.031
44.2&
Above 10 by 15 and not exceeding 16 by 14 inches
3
5, 163, 189
141,411
96,810
.027
68.46
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches
2,230,723
66, 141
52,980
.030
80.10^
Above 24 by 30 and not exceeding 24 by 36 inches
11
436,985
14,300
12,563
.033
89.25
Above 24 by 36 and not exceeding 30 by 40 inches
404, 105
17, 179
13,639
.043
79.39
Above 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
31
115,597
6 036
4,479
.052
74.21
Above 40 by 60 inches.
4|
3,574
226
156
.063
69. 19'
Total
22,754,650
692, 803
378,634
.031
54.65
====
1910— Dinglet Act to Aug. 6, 1909; Patne-
Aldrich Act Afterward.
Not exceeding 10 by 15 inches
a If
87,030
1,447
1,197
.017
82.70i
Not exceeding 150 square inches:
Valued at not more than H cents per pound
6 11
1,826,869
24,814
22,836
.014
92.05
Valued at more than 14 cents per pound....
6 If
13,372,893
390,630
183,877
.029
47.07
Above 10 by 15 and not exceeding 16 by 24 inches
al|
304,727
6,248
5,714
.021
91.45
Above 150 and not exceeding 384 square inches:
Valued at not more than If cents per pound.
b If
1,021,550
16, 764
17,877
.016
106.64
Valued at more than If cents per pound
& If
5, 786, 722
156, 795
108,501
.027
69.20
Above 16 by 24 and not exceeding 24 by 30 inches
a 2f
62, 156
1,627
1,476
.026
90.73-
Above 384 and not exceeding 720 square inches:
Valued at not more than 2£ cents per pound.
»2J
182, 289
3,441
4,101
.019
119. 19'
Valued at more than 2 § cents per pound
6 2J
2,114,764
70, 131
50,226
.033
71.61
Above 24 by 30 and not exceeding 24 by 36 inches
o2|
39,086
996
1,124
.025'
112.82-
Above 720 and not exceeding 864 square inches .
b 2f
336, 564
13,011
9,255
.039
71. 15
Above 24 by 36 and notexceeding 30 by 40 inches
o3f
15,114
703
510
.047
72.56
Above 864 and notexceeding 1,200 square inches.
6 3i
o3|
341,824
15,434
11, 109
.045
71.98
Above 30 by 40 and not exceeding 40 by 60 inches
14,889
785
577
.053
73.50
Above 1,200 and not exceeding 2,400 square
inches
b 3f
a .4|
b 4£
179, 600
8,586
20
309
6,735
7
178
.48
78.48
Above 40 by 60 inches
150
4,200
.133
.074
32. 80
Above 2,400 square inches
57.77
Total
25,690,427
711,741
425,300
.028
59.75
1911— Payne-Aldrich act.
Not exceeding 150 square inches:
Valued at not more than U cents per pound.
H
1,941,648
26,523
24,271
.014
91.51
Valued at more than \\ cents per pound
If
13,420,505
395,840
184,532
.029
46.62
Above 150 and not exceeding 384 square inches:
Valued at not more than If cents per pound.
If
1,716,655
27,350
30,041
.016
109.84
Valued at more than If cents per pound
11
6,848,821
185,999
128,415
.027
69.04
Above 384 and not exceeding 720 square inches:
Valued at not more than 2 \ cents per pound.
21
903, 103
17,426
20,320
.019
116.60-
Valued at more than 2§ cents per pound
2|
3, 226, 000
111,198
76,618
.034
68.90
Above 720 and not exceeding 864 square inches. .
2J
759,530
24,900
20,887
.033
83.89-
Above 864 and not exceeding 1 ,200 square inches.
31
598, 738
23,229
19,459
.039
83.77
Above 1,200 and not exceeding 2,400 square
inches
31
280,690
12, 795
10,526
.046
82.26
4?
2,622
121
111
.046
92. 10
Total
29,698,312
825, 381
515, 180
.028
62.42
a July 1, to Aug. 5, 1909, under act of 1897.
b Aug. 6,
to June 30, 1910, under act of :
IMPOETS AND THE TARIFF.
355
Table 122. — Imports of Cylinder, Crown, and Common Window Glass, Unpol-
ished, Entered for Consumption, Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 1896 to
1915— Continued.
Aver-
Com-
Duty
age
value
puted
Fiscal year and classification.
per Pounds.
Value.
Duties.
ad val-
pound.
per
orem
pound.
rate.
1912— Payne-Aldrich Act.
Cents.
Per ct.
Not exceeding 150 square inches:
Valued at not more than 11 cents per pound.
1} 497,794
$6,746
$6,223
$0,014
92.24
Valued at more than 1* cents per pound
13
15,032,003
542,179
206,690
.036
38.12
Above 150 and not exceeding 384 square inches:
Valued at not more than 1J cents per pound.
If
156, /81
2,851
2,743
.018
96.23
Valued at more than 1J cents per pound...
i|
4,664,755
147,904
87,464
.032
59.14
Above 384 and not exceeding 720 square inches:
Valued at not more than 2i cents per pound.
2}
29,062
555
654
.019
117.82
Valued at more than 2J cents per pound
2§
2,068,S63
75, 739
49, 136
.037
64.87
Above 720 and not exceeding 864 square inches. .
2*
375,865
17,959
10,336
.048
57 55
Above 864 and not exceeding 1,200 square inches.
3i
368,924
20,614
11,990
.056
58.16
Above 1,200 and not exceeding 2,400 square
inches
33
230,791
13,214
8,655
.057
65.50
Above 2,400 square inches
4i
1,314
107
56
.081
52.20
Total
23,426,152
827,868
383,947
.035
46.38
1913 — Payne-Aldrich Act.
Not exceeding 150 square inches:
Valued at not more than 11 cents per pound.
U
386, 83S
5,250
4,836
.014
92.10
Valued at more than 1A cents per pound
if
13,512,880
546,452
185,802
.040
34.00
Above 150 and not exceeding 384 square inches:
Valued at not more than 1J cents per pound.
if
19,474
317
341
.016
107.51
Valued at more than l 1 , cents per pound
ll
4,211,521
145,626
78,966
.035
54.23
Above 384 and not exceeding 720 square inches:
Valued at not more than 2J cents per pound.
2i
3,214
61
72
.021
107.94
Valued at more than 2* cents per pound
21
1,608,549
65,131
38,203
.040
58.66
Above 720 and not exceeding S64 square inches. .
2f
289,684
15,837
7,966
.055
50.30
Above 854 and not exceeding 1 200 square inches.
Above 1,200 and not exceeding 2,400 square
3i
285, 141
17, 794
9,267
.062
52.08
inches
3i
4*
141,319
351
8,245
13
5,300
15
.058
.036
64.27
Above 2,400 square inches
119.36
Total
20,458,971
804,732
330, 768
.039
41.10
1914— Payne-Aldrich Act to Oct. 4, 1913;
Underwood-Simmons Act Afterwards.
Not exceeding 150 square inches:
Valuea at not more than 1J cents per pound.
a U
60.514
815
756
.013
92.81
Valued at more than 1J c 
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